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reflects a "trait" level difference in individual error processing; especially concerning anxiety, rather than a "state" level difference. For example; most people who experience depression do not feel depressed all of the time. Instead, they have periods of depressive "states" which may be minor and unique to an extreme situation such as death of a loved one, loss of employment, or major injury. However a person who has a depressive "trait" will have experienced more than one minor depressive "state" and usually at least one major depressive state, any of which may not be unique to an obviously extreme situation. In fact, there is some evidence, albeit weak, that people with depression show small ERNs. Scientists are exploring the use of the ERN and other ERP signals in identifying people at risk for psychiatric disorders in hopes of implementing early interventions. People with addictive behaviors such as smoking, alcoholism, and substance abuse have also shown differential ERN responses compared to individuals without the same addictive behavior.
98:
be assigned a key stroke response on a keyboard, such as "S" = right shift key and "H" = left shift key. Presentation of each letter string is brief, generally less than 100 ms, and central on the screen. Participants have approximately 2000 ms to respond before the next presentation. The most simple Go/NoGo tasks involve assigning a property of discernment to responding "Go" or not responding "NoGo." For example, again congruous letter strings such as "SSSSS" or "HHHHH" and incongruous letter strings such as "HHSHH" or "SSHSS" may be presented on a computer screen. The participant could be instructed to respond by pressing the space bar, only for congruous strings, and to not respond when presented with incongruous letter strings. More complicated Go/NoGo tasks are usually created when the ERN is the component of interest however, because in order to observe the robust negativity errors must be made. The classic
86:
and the number of trials needed to obtain reliable scores can vary widely, which is particularly relevant for studies of individual differences. Early experiments identifying the component used a variety of techniques, including word and tone identification, and categorical discrimination (e.g. are the following an animal?). However, the majority of experimental paradigms that elicit ERN deflections have been a variant on the
Eriksen "Flanker", and "Go/NoGo". In addition to responses with the hands, the ERN can also be measured in paradigms where the task is performed with the feet or with vocal responses as in the
145:
specific to errors. In contrast to the above cognitive theories, new models suggest that the ERN may reflect the motivational significance of a task or perhaps the emotional reaction to making an error. This later view is consistent with findings linking errors and the ERN to autonomic arousal and defensive motivated states, and with findings suggesting that the ERN is dissociable from cognitive factors, but not affective ones. Unfortunately, it is still unclear how to interpret differences in sizes of ERN, as both smaller and larger ERN have been interpreted as "better".
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reflect the pre-movement positivity (PMP) described by Deecke et al. (1969). The PMP is thought to reflect a "go signal" by which pre-SMA and SMA permit a motor response to be carried out. PMP is smaller before error motor responses than it is before correct motor responses, suggesting that it may be an important signal for discriminating erroneous from correct actions. Additionally, PMP is smaller in people who make more mistakes during the
Flankers task and may have clinical utility in accident prone populations, such as youths with ADHD.
202:. The Pe amplitude reflects the perception of the error, meaning with more awareness of the error, the amplitude of the Pe is larger. Falkenstein and colleagues (2000) have shown that the Pe is elicited on uncorrected trials and false alarm trials, suggesting it is not directly related to error correction. It thus seems to be related to error monitoring, albeit with different neural and cognitive roots from the error-related processing reflected in the Ne.
35:(EEG) and time-locked to an external event (e.g., presentation of a visual stimulus) or a response (e.g. an error of commission). A robust ERN component is observed after errors are committed during various choice tasks, even when the participant is not explicitly aware of making the error; however, in the case of unconscious errors the ERN is reduced. An ERN is also observed when non-human primates commit errors.
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verbalize the color each word is written in. Incongruent and congruent presentations of the words can be manipulated to different rates, such as 25/75, 50/50, 30/70 etc. Studies of ERN across flanker, Stroop, and Go/NoGo tasks support convergent validity of ERN, but convergent validity of ERN difference scores is not supported, suggesting there might task-specific differences in ERN difference scores.
68:), and typically peaks from 80 to 150 milliseconds (ms) after the erroneous response begins (or 40-80 ms after the onset of electromyographic activity). The ERN is the largest at frontal and central electrode sites. A typical method for determining the average ERN amplitude for an individual involves calculating the peak-to-peak difference in
213:. Whether this is true remains controversial. Some studies do indicate these conditions are associated with different Pe responses, whereas other studies have not replicated those findings. The Pe has also been used to evaluate error processing in patients with severe brain traumatic injury. In a study using a variation of the
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Any paradigm in which mistakes are made during motor responses can be used to measure the ERN. Natural keyboarding is one such example where typing errors are shown to elicit ERN. The most important feature of any ERN paradigm is obtaining a sufficient number of errors in the participant's responses,
55:
ERN was developed by two independent research teams; Michael
Falkenstein, J. Hohnsbein, J. Hoormann, & L. Blanke (1990) at the Institute for Work Physiology and Neurophysiology in Dortmund, Germany (who called it the "Ne"), and W.J. "Bill" Gehring, M.G.H. Coles, D.E. Meyer & E. Donchin (1990)
111:
The amplitude of the ERN is sensitive to the intent and motivation of participants. When a participant is instructed to strive for accuracy in responses, observed amplitudes are typically larger than when participants are instructed to strive for speed. Monetary incentives typically result in larger
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involves discerning the central "target" letter from a string of distracting "flanker" letters which surround it. For example, congruous letter strings such as "SSSSS" or "HHHHH" and incongruous letter strings such as "HHSHH" or "SSHSS" may be presented on a computer screen. Each target letter would
188:
The ERN is often followed by a positivity, known as the error-related positivity or Pe. The Pe is a positive deflection with a centro-parietal distribution. When elicited, the Pe can occur 200-500ms after making an incorrect response, following the error negativity (Ne, ERN), but is not evident on
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There is some debate within the field about what the ERN reflects (see especially Burle, et al.) Some researchers maintain that the ERN is generated during the detection of or response to errors. Others argue that the ERN is generated by a comparison process or a conflict monitoring system, and not
220:
Some researchers argue that error-related negativity or error-related positivity is in fact, reward-related positivity. Reward-related positivity is also referred to as reward positivity, or RewP. It has been suggested that ERP data is depicting neural positivity to rewards (aka reward positivity)
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Debates about psychiatric disorders often become "chicken and egg" conundrums; a relationship complicated by an incomplete understanding of the functional significance of ERN. The ERN has been proposed as a potential arbitrator of this argument. A body of empirical research has shown that the ERN
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paradigm involves a color-word task. Color words such as "red, yellow, orange, green" are presented centrally on a computer screen either in a color congruent with the word, ("red" in the color red) or in a color incongruent with the word ("red" in the color yellow). Participants may be asked to
72:
between the average of the most negative peaks 1-150 ms after response onset, and the average amplitude of positive peaks 100-0 ms before response onset. For optimal resolution of the signal, reference electrodes are typically placed behind both ears using either hardware or arithmetically linked
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The ERN is often preceded by a small positive voltage deflection with a latency in the interval of -200 to -50 milliseconds in the response-locked ERP in channels over the scalp vertex, which is sometimes referred to as the "positive peak preceding the Ne" or "PNe", but more generally thought to
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Developmental studies have shown that the ERN emerges throughout childhood and adolescence becoming more negative in amplitude and with a more defined peak. The ERN appears to be modulated by the environment during childhood, with children who experience early adversity showing evidence of less
153:
A stimulus locked event-related potential is also observed following the presentation of negative feedback stimuli in a cognitive task indicating the outcome of a response, often referred to as the feedback ERN (fERN). This has led some researchers to extend the error-detection account of the
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have exhibited ERN deflections with increased amplitude, prolonged latency, and a more posterior topography compared to clinically normal participants. ERN latency has been manipulated through rapid feedback, wherein participants who received rapid feedback regarding the incorrect response
154:
response ERN (rERN) to a generic error detection system. This position has been elaborated into a reinforcement learning account of the ERN, arguing that both the rERN and the fERN are products of prediction error signals carried by the dopamine system arriving in the
193:
wave associated with conscious sensations. Additionally, Vocat et al. (2008) established the Ne and Pe not only have different topographical distributions, but have different generators. Source localization indicates that the Ne has a dipole in the
1851:
Holroyd, C. B., Nieuwenhuis, S., Mars, R. B., & Coles, M. G. H. (2004). Anterior cingulate cortex, selection for action, and error processing. In M. I. Posner (Ed.), Cognitive neuroscience of attention. (pp. 219-231). New York, NY, US: Guilford
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amplitudes as well. Latency of the ERN peak amplitude can also vary between subjects, and does so reliably in special populations such as those diagnosed with ADHD, who show shorter latencies. Participants with clinically diagnosed
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indicating that events have gone worse than expected. In this framework it is common to measure both the rERN and the fERN as the difference in voltage between correct and incorrect responses and feedback, respectively.
221:
rather than neural negativity to loss (aka error-related negativity). Thus, this shift in how we conceptualize neural responses to gains/losses allows us to further understand the underlying neural processes.
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217:, patients with severe traumatic brain injury associated with deficits in error processing were found to show a significantly smaller Pe on error trials when compared against the healthy controls.
141:(DLPFC) may also be involved in the generation of the ERN to some degree, and it has been found that persons with higher levels of "absent-mindedness" have their ERN sourced more from that region.
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Herrmann MJ, Saathoff C, Schreppel TJ, Ehlis AC, Scheuerpflug P, Pauli P, Fallgatter AJ (September 2009). "The effect of ADHD symptoms on performance monitoring in a non-clinical population".
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117:
subsequently showed shorter ERN peak latencies. Additionally, a heightened ERN amplitude during social situations has been linked to anxiety symptoms in both childhood and adulthood.
2135:
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Although it is difficult to localize the origin of an ERP signal, extensive empirical research indicates that the ERN is most likely generated in the
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56:
at the
University of Michigan, USA. The ERN was observed in response to errors committed by study participants during simple choice response tasks.
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If the Pe reflects conscious error processing, then it might be expected to be different for people with deficits in conflict monitoring, such as
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all error trials. In particular, the Pe is dependent on awareness or ability to detect errors. Pe is basically the same as the
64:
The ERN is a sharp negative going signal which begins about the same time an incorrect motor response begins, (response locked
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477:"Event-related potentials elicited by errors during the stop-signal task. I. Macaque monkeys"
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Journal of
Experimental Psychology. Human Perception and Performance
587:"Error detection mechanisms of the brain: Background and prospects"
584:
2178:
Larson, Michael J.; Clayson, Peter E.; Clawson, Ann (2014-09-01).
1758:
Journal of Child
Psychology and Psychiatry, and Allied Disciplines
1510:
Journal of the
American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry
1503:
1425:
842:
74:
69:
1752:
Troller-Renfree S, Nelson CA, Zeanah CH, Fox NA (October 2016).
1602:
Barker TV, Troller-Renfree S, Pine DS, Fox NA (December 2015).
1552:
348:
3305:
3177:
2924:
1861:
1751:
1053:. Vol. Supplement 44. New York: Oxford. pp. 261–272.
2500:
1601:
1205:
1063:
3016:
1555:"Social influences of error monitoring in adolescent girls"
1468:
1248:
900:
703:(Ph.D. thesis). University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign.
306:
281:
271:
206:
134:
52:
44:
2000:
3220:
3059:
2840:
1650:
1355:
474:
301:
296:
210:
133:(ACC) area of the brain. This conclusion is supported by
3133:
2448:
1939:
1398:
1117:
1048:
677:
2738:
2099:
2277:
1800:
943:
2973:
2134:
2046:
1708:
716:
619:
2785:
2360:
2224:
2177:
148:
2689:
1904:
1608:
Cognitive, Affective, & Behavioral Neuroscience
1085:
Electroencephalography and Clinical Neurophysiology
838:
836:
834:
523:
344:
342:
2549:
2325:
1286:
3424:
3060:Burwell S, Makeig S, Iacono W, Malone S (2019).
2321:
2319:
1328:
1152:
1051:Perspectives of Event-Related Potential Research
831:
786:
712:
710:
384:
382:
380:
3348:
1282:
1280:
896:
894:
892:
339:
1704:
1702:
673:
671:
526:"Physiological foundations of mental activity"
388:
2636:
2634:
2316:
2042:
2040:
1349:
707:
377:
2683:
2592:
2354:
2128:
1855:
1277:
1146:
1111:
944:Kalfaoglu, C; Stafford, T; Milne, L (2018).
889:
789:"Medial frontal cortex in action monitoring"
787:Luu P, Flaisch T, Tucker DM (January 2000).
690:
59:
3102:
2640:
2328:Journal of Experimental Psychology. General
2093:
1699:
1199:
751:
668:
183:
2631:
2405:
2037:
1287:Pailing PE, Segalowitz SJ (January 2004).
1082:
174:
51:and was called "error detector". Later in
3273:International Journal of Psychophysiology
3085:
2950:
2901:
2875:
2792:International Journal of Psychophysiology
2745:International Journal of Psychophysiology
2715:
2666:
2606:
2518:
2474:
2374:
2291:
2238:
2184:International Journal of Psychophysiology
2060:
1953:
1777:
1627:
1578:
1529:
1174:
1076:
856:
814:
804:
591:International Journal of Psychophysiology
500:
451:
441:
106:
3391:
1120:Brain Research. Cognitive Brain Research
780:
162:
3108:
993:
696:
3425:
3320:10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2007.12.001
3149:10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2008.04.006
423:
2496:
2494:
626:Perspectives on Psychological Science
2641:Olvet DM, Hajcak G (December 2008).
530:International Review of Neurobiology
524:Bechtereva NP, Gretchin VB (1968).
13:
3031:10.1097/01.wnr.0000221830.95598.ea
2491:
1919:10.1111/j.1467-9280.1994.tb00630.x
806:10.1523/JNEUROSCI.20-01-00464.2000
731:10.1111/j.1467-9280.1993.tb00586.x
14:
3449:
2552:Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience
2049:Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience
1132:10.1016/j.cogbrainres.2005.02.003
149:Feedback error-related negativity
80:
2894:10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2007.07.017
2876:Fein G, Chang M (January 2008).
2855:10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2009.08.014
2520:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2021.117932
2420:10.1111/j.1467-9280.2008.02053.x
2302:10.1111/j.1469-8986.2005.00270.x
1964:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2005.04.035
1483:10.1111/j.1469-8986.2005.00265.x
1220:10.1097/00001756-200107030-00018
915:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2009.05.064
124:
43:The ERN was first discovered in
23:), sometimes referred to as the
3385:
3342:
3299:
3257:
3214:
3171:
3127:
3053:
3010:
2967:
2918:
2869:
2834:
2779:
2732:
2586:
2543:
2442:
2399:
2271:
2218:
2171:
1994:
1933:
1898:
1845:
1794:
1745:
1669:10.1016/j.biopsycho.2017.01.012
1644:
1595:
1546:
1497:
1462:
1440:10.1016/j.biopsycho.2010.02.002
1419:
1392:
1322:
1242:
1057:
1042:
987:
937:
745:
430:Frontiers in Human Neuroscience
262:Lateralized readiness potential
198:and the Pe has a dipole in the
3285:10.1016/j.ijpsycho.2009.06.003
3192:10.1016/j.psychres.2008.06.015
2943:10.1016/j.biopsych.2007.12.016
2804:10.1016/j.ijpsycho.2020.01.005
2757:10.1016/j.ijpsycho.2016.07.001
2696:Archives of General Psychiatry
2455:Journal of Abnormal Psychology
2196:10.1016/j.ijpsycho.2014.06.007
622:"The Error-Related Negativity"
613:
603:10.1016/j.ijpsycho.2005.06.005
578:
517:
493:10.1523/JNEUROSCI.3349-11.2011
468:
417:
322:Somatosensory evoked potential
252:Early left anterior negativity
139:Dorsolateral prefrontal cortex
1:
3223:Developmental Neuropsychology
2149:10.1016/s0301-0511(01)00076-x
1876:10.1016/s0028-3932(03)00121-0
1711:Developmental Neuropsychology
1370:10.1016/S0925-4927(01)00117-2
1167:10.1016/S0304-3940(98)00035-4
867:10.1016/S0301-0511(99)00031-9
542:10.1016/s0074-7742(08)60392-x
333:
242:Contingent negative variation
114:Obsessive Compulsive Disorder
3363:10.1097/wnr.0b013e32833283fe
2227:Trends in Cognitive Sciences
1097:10.1016/0013-4694(92)90054-L
7:
3109:Dehaene, Stanislas (2014).
2976:Experimental Brain Research
2882:Drug and Alcohol Dependence
2843:Drug and Alcohol Dependence
2617:10.1037/0033-295x.109.4.679
2114:10.1037/0096-1523.21.6.1312
2003:Experimental Brain Research
1401:Journal of Psychophysiology
1331:Journal of Psychophysiology
793:The Journal of Neuroscience
481:The Journal of Neuroscience
224:
10:
3454:
2647:Clinical Psychology Review
2249:10.1016/j.tics.2004.10.003
1522:10.1016/j.jaac.2017.10.007
1413:10.1027/0269-8803.19.4.298
1343:10.1027/0269-8803.23.3.113
994:Clayson, Peter E. (2020).
403:10.1037/0096-1523.26.1.141
200:posterior cingulate cortex
38:
3235:10.1207/s15326942dn2903_3
2708:10.1001/archpsyc.65.5.513
2659:10.1016/j.cpr.2008.07.003
2564:10.1162/jocn.1997.9.6.788
2015:10.1007/s00221-004-1985-z
1723:10.1207/s15326942dn2503_6
1620:10.3758/s13415-015-0360-9
766:10.1111/1469-8986.3710043
363:10.1111/1469-8986.3850752
196:anterior cingulate cortex
156:anterior cingulate cortex
131:Anterior cingulate cortex
121:negative ERN amplitudes.
60:Component characteristics
638:10.1177/1745691617715310
443:10.3389/fnhum.2012.00088
247:Difference due to memory
184:Error-related positivity
17:Error-related negativity
2385:10.1111/1469-8986.00107
2071:10.1162/jocn.2008.20110
1823:10.1126/science.1087847
1308:10.1111/1469-8986.00124
257:Late positive component
175:Pre-movement positivity
66:event-related potential
29:event-related potential
27:, is a component of an
3433:Electroencephalography
232:Bereitschaftspotential
107:Functional sensitivity
33:electroencephalography
2931:Biological Psychiatry
2408:Psychological Science
2137:Biological Psychology
1907:Psychological Science
1657:Biological Psychology
1428:Biological Psychology
845:Biological Psychology
719:Psychological Science
163:Clinical applications
2595:Psychological Review
1155:Neuroscience Letters
3180:Psychiatry Research
1815:2003Sci...302..120I
1358:Psychiatry Research
697:Gehring WJ (1993).
312:P300 (neuroscience)
267:Mismatch negativity
3406:10.1111/psyp.12370
3078:10.1111/psyp.13392
2988:10.1007/BF00235441
1770:10.1111/jcpp.12604
1571:10.1111/psyp.13089
1263:10.1111/psyp.14496
1012:10.1111/psyp.13583
965:10.1037/xhp0000417
424:Wessel JR (2012).
49:Natalia Bekhtereva
3438:Evoked potentials
1516:(12): 1097–1105.
551:978-0-12-366811-0
3445:
3418:
3417:
3394:Psychophysiology
3389:
3383:
3382:
3346:
3340:
3339:
3308:Neuropsychologia
3303:
3297:
3296:
3270:
3261:
3255:
3254:
3218:
3212:
3211:
3175:
3169:
3168:
3137:Neuropsychologia
3131:
3125:
3124:
3106:
3100:
3099:
3089:
3066:Psychophysiology
3057:
3051:
3050:
3014:
3008:
3007:
2971:
2965:
2964:
2954:
2922:
2916:
2915:
2905:
2873:
2867:
2866:
2838:
2832:
2831:
2783:
2777:
2776:
2736:
2730:
2729:
2719:
2687:
2681:
2680:
2670:
2638:
2629:
2628:
2610:
2590:
2584:
2583:
2547:
2541:
2540:
2522:
2498:
2489:
2488:
2478:
2467:10.1037/a0023664
2446:
2440:
2439:
2403:
2397:
2396:
2378:
2363:Psychophysiology
2358:
2352:
2351:
2340:10.1037/a0027586
2323:
2314:
2313:
2295:
2280:Psychophysiology
2275:
2269:
2268:
2242:
2222:
2216:
2215:
2175:
2169:
2168:
2132:
2126:
2125:
2097:
2091:
2090:
2064:
2044:
2035:
2034:
1998:
1992:
1991:
1957:
1937:
1931:
1930:
1902:
1896:
1895:
1864:Neuropsychologia
1859:
1853:
1849:
1843:
1842:
1798:
1792:
1791:
1781:
1749:
1743:
1742:
1706:
1697:
1696:
1648:
1642:
1641:
1631:
1599:
1593:
1592:
1582:
1559:Psychophysiology
1550:
1544:
1543:
1533:
1501:
1495:
1494:
1471:Psychophysiology
1466:
1460:
1459:
1423:
1417:
1416:
1396:
1390:
1389:
1353:
1347:
1346:
1326:
1320:
1319:
1296:Psychophysiology
1293:
1284:
1275:
1274:
1255:Psychophysiology
1246:
1240:
1239:
1203:
1197:
1196:
1178:
1150:
1144:
1143:
1115:
1109:
1108:
1080:
1074:
1073:
1066:Psychophysiology
1061:
1055:
1054:
1046:
1040:
1039:
1000:Psychophysiology
991:
985:
984:
950:
941:
935:
934:
898:
887:
886:
860:
840:
829:
828:
818:
808:
784:
778:
777:
754:Psychophysiology
749:
743:
742:
714:
705:
704:
694:
688:
687:
680:Psychophysiology
675:
666:
665:
617:
611:
610:
605:. Archived from
597:(2–3): 227–234.
582:
576:
575:
570:. Archived from
521:
515:
514:
504:
472:
466:
465:
455:
445:
421:
415:
414:
386:
375:
374:
351:Psychophysiology
346:
3453:
3452:
3448:
3447:
3446:
3444:
3443:
3442:
3423:
3422:
3421:
3390:
3386:
3357:(16): 1486–90.
3347:
3343:
3304:
3300:
3268:
3262:
3258:
3219:
3215:
3176:
3172:
3143:(10): 2545–55.
3132:
3128:
3121:
3107:
3103:
3058:
3054:
3015:
3011:
2972:
2968:
2923:
2919:
2874:
2870:
2839:
2835:
2784:
2780:
2737:
2733:
2688:
2684:
2639:
2632:
2608:10.1.1.334.5138
2591:
2587:
2548:
2544:
2499:
2492:
2447:
2443:
2404:
2400:
2376:10.1.1.533.4268
2359:
2355:
2324:
2317:
2293:10.1.1.718.1750
2276:
2272:
2240:10.1.1.335.6481
2223:
2219:
2176:
2172:
2133:
2129:
2098:
2094:
2062:10.1.1.471.7640
2045:
2038:
1999:
1995:
1955:10.1.1.688.5110
1938:
1934:
1903:
1899:
1860:
1856:
1850:
1846:
1809:(5642): 120–2.
1799:
1795:
1764:(10): 1145–53.
1750:
1746:
1707:
1700:
1649:
1645:
1600:
1596:
1551:
1547:
1502:
1498:
1467:
1463:
1424:
1420:
1397:
1393:
1354:
1350:
1327:
1323:
1291:
1285:
1278:
1247:
1243:
1204:
1200:
1176:1854/LU-8650250
1151:
1147:
1116:
1112:
1081:
1077:
1062:
1058:
1047:
1043:
992:
988:
948:
942:
938:
899:
890:
858:10.1.1.463.5431
851:(2–3): 87–107.
841:
832:
785:
781:
750:
746:
715:
708:
695:
691:
676:
669:
618:
614:
583:
579:
552:
522:
518:
487:(44): 15640–9.
473:
469:
422:
418:
387:
378:
347:
340:
336:
331:
227:
186:
177:
171:
165:
151:
127:
109:
88:Stroop paradigm
83:
62:
41:
12:
11:
5:
3451:
3441:
3440:
3435:
3420:
3419:
3400:(4): 449–459.
3384:
3341:
3314:(7): 1877–87.
3298:
3256:
3213:
3170:
3126:
3120:978-0670025435
3119:
3101:
3052:
3025:(9): 883–886.
3009:
2982:(2): 158–168.
2966:
2937:(7): 615–625.
2917:
2888:(1–3): 141–8.
2868:
2849:(2–3): 181–5.
2833:
2778:
2731:
2682:
2653:(8): 1343–54.
2630:
2601:(4): 679–709.
2585:
2542:
2490:
2441:
2398:
2369:(6): 895–903.
2353:
2334:(4): 799–807.
2315:
2270:
2233:(12): 539–46.
2217:
2190:(3): 283–297.
2170:
2127:
2108:(6): 1312–22.
2092:
2055:(9): 1637–55.
2036:
1993:
1932:
1913:(5): 303–305.
1897:
1854:
1844:
1793:
1744:
1698:
1643:
1594:
1545:
1496:
1461:
1418:
1407:(4): 298–304.
1391:
1348:
1337:(3): 113–125.
1321:
1276:
1241:
1198:
1145:
1110:
1075:
1056:
1041:
986:
936:
909:(4): 2023–30.
888:
830:
779:
744:
725:(6): 385–390.
706:
689:
667:
632:(2): 200–204.
612:
609:on 2018-04-21.
577:
574:on 2019-02-02.
550:
516:
467:
416:
376:
337:
335:
332:
330:
329:
324:
319:
314:
309:
304:
299:
294:
289:
284:
279:
274:
269:
264:
259:
254:
249:
244:
239:
234:
228:
226:
223:
185:
182:
176:
173:
164:
161:
150:
147:
126:
123:
108:
105:
82:
81:Main paradigms
79:
61:
58:
40:
37:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
3450:
3439:
3436:
3434:
3431:
3430:
3428:
3415:
3411:
3407:
3403:
3399:
3395:
3388:
3380:
3376:
3372:
3368:
3364:
3360:
3356:
3352:
3345:
3337:
3333:
3329:
3325:
3321:
3317:
3313:
3309:
3302:
3294:
3290:
3286:
3282:
3278:
3274:
3267:
3260:
3252:
3248:
3244:
3240:
3236:
3232:
3229:(3): 431–45.
3228:
3224:
3217:
3209:
3205:
3201:
3197:
3193:
3189:
3185:
3181:
3174:
3166:
3162:
3158:
3154:
3150:
3146:
3142:
3138:
3130:
3122:
3116:
3112:
3105:
3097:
3093:
3088:
3083:
3079:
3075:
3072:(9): e13392.
3071:
3067:
3063:
3056:
3048:
3044:
3040:
3036:
3032:
3028:
3024:
3020:
3013:
3005:
3001:
2997:
2993:
2989:
2985:
2981:
2977:
2970:
2962:
2958:
2953:
2948:
2944:
2940:
2936:
2932:
2928:
2921:
2913:
2909:
2904:
2899:
2895:
2891:
2887:
2883:
2879:
2872:
2864:
2860:
2856:
2852:
2848:
2844:
2837:
2829:
2825:
2821:
2817:
2813:
2809:
2805:
2801:
2797:
2793:
2789:
2782:
2774:
2770:
2766:
2762:
2758:
2754:
2750:
2746:
2742:
2735:
2727:
2723:
2718:
2713:
2709:
2705:
2702:(5): 513–20.
2701:
2697:
2693:
2686:
2678:
2674:
2669:
2664:
2660:
2656:
2652:
2648:
2644:
2637:
2635:
2626:
2622:
2618:
2614:
2609:
2604:
2600:
2596:
2589:
2581:
2577:
2573:
2569:
2565:
2561:
2558:(6): 788–98.
2557:
2553:
2546:
2538:
2534:
2530:
2526:
2521:
2516:
2512:
2508:
2504:
2497:
2495:
2486:
2482:
2477:
2472:
2468:
2464:
2461:(1): 173–86.
2460:
2456:
2452:
2445:
2437:
2433:
2429:
2425:
2421:
2417:
2413:
2409:
2402:
2394:
2390:
2386:
2382:
2377:
2372:
2368:
2364:
2357:
2349:
2345:
2341:
2337:
2333:
2329:
2322:
2320:
2311:
2307:
2303:
2299:
2294:
2289:
2286:(2): 151–60.
2285:
2281:
2274:
2266:
2262:
2258:
2254:
2250:
2246:
2241:
2236:
2232:
2228:
2221:
2213:
2209:
2205:
2201:
2197:
2193:
2189:
2185:
2181:
2174:
2166:
2162:
2158:
2154:
2150:
2146:
2143:(3): 173–89.
2142:
2138:
2131:
2123:
2119:
2115:
2111:
2107:
2103:
2096:
2088:
2084:
2080:
2076:
2072:
2068:
2063:
2058:
2054:
2050:
2043:
2041:
2032:
2028:
2024:
2020:
2016:
2012:
2008:
2004:
1997:
1989:
1985:
1981:
1977:
1973:
1969:
1965:
1961:
1956:
1951:
1947:
1943:
1936:
1928:
1924:
1920:
1916:
1912:
1908:
1901:
1893:
1889:
1885:
1881:
1877:
1873:
1870:(1): 118–30.
1869:
1865:
1858:
1848:
1840:
1836:
1832:
1828:
1824:
1820:
1816:
1812:
1808:
1804:
1797:
1789:
1785:
1780:
1775:
1771:
1767:
1763:
1759:
1755:
1748:
1740:
1736:
1732:
1728:
1724:
1720:
1717:(3): 355–76.
1716:
1712:
1705:
1703:
1694:
1690:
1686:
1682:
1678:
1674:
1670:
1666:
1662:
1658:
1654:
1647:
1639:
1635:
1630:
1625:
1621:
1617:
1614:(4): 723–35.
1613:
1609:
1605:
1598:
1590:
1586:
1581:
1576:
1572:
1568:
1565:(9): e13089.
1564:
1560:
1556:
1549:
1541:
1537:
1532:
1527:
1523:
1519:
1515:
1511:
1507:
1500:
1492:
1488:
1484:
1480:
1476:
1472:
1465:
1457:
1453:
1449:
1445:
1441:
1437:
1434:(2): 257–63.
1433:
1429:
1422:
1414:
1410:
1406:
1402:
1395:
1387:
1383:
1379:
1375:
1371:
1367:
1364:(2): 101–10.
1363:
1359:
1352:
1344:
1340:
1336:
1332:
1325:
1317:
1313:
1309:
1305:
1301:
1297:
1290:
1283:
1281:
1272:
1268:
1264:
1260:
1256:
1252:
1245:
1237:
1233:
1229:
1225:
1221:
1217:
1214:(9): 1851–5.
1213:
1209:
1202:
1194:
1190:
1186:
1182:
1177:
1172:
1168:
1164:
1160:
1156:
1149:
1141:
1137:
1133:
1129:
1126:(2): 317–25.
1125:
1121:
1114:
1106:
1102:
1098:
1094:
1091:(6): 477–82.
1090:
1086:
1079:
1071:
1067:
1060:
1052:
1045:
1037:
1033:
1029:
1025:
1021:
1017:
1013:
1009:
1006:(8): e13583.
1005:
1001:
997:
990:
982:
978:
974:
970:
966:
962:
958:
954:
947:
940:
932:
928:
924:
920:
916:
912:
908:
904:
897:
895:
893:
884:
880:
876:
872:
868:
864:
859:
854:
850:
846:
839:
837:
835:
826:
822:
817:
812:
807:
802:
798:
794:
790:
783:
775:
771:
767:
763:
759:
755:
748:
740:
736:
732:
728:
724:
720:
713:
711:
702:
701:
693:
685:
681:
674:
672:
663:
659:
655:
651:
647:
643:
639:
635:
631:
627:
623:
616:
608:
604:
600:
596:
592:
588:
581:
573:
569:
565:
561:
557:
553:
547:
543:
539:
535:
531:
527:
520:
512:
508:
503:
498:
494:
490:
486:
482:
478:
471:
463:
459:
454:
449:
444:
439:
435:
431:
427:
420:
412:
408:
404:
400:
397:(1): 141–51.
396:
392:
385:
383:
381:
372:
368:
364:
360:
357:(5): 752–60.
356:
352:
345:
343:
338:
328:
325:
323:
320:
318:
315:
313:
310:
308:
305:
303:
300:
298:
295:
293:
290:
288:
285:
283:
280:
278:
275:
273:
270:
268:
265:
263:
260:
258:
255:
253:
250:
248:
245:
243:
240:
238:
235:
233:
230:
229:
222:
218:
216:
212:
208:
203:
201:
197:
192:
181:
172:
169:
160:
157:
146:
142:
140:
136:
132:
125:Theory/source
122:
118:
115:
104:
101:
96:
91:
89:
78:
76:
71:
67:
57:
54:
50:
46:
36:
34:
30:
26:
22:
18:
3397:
3393:
3387:
3354:
3350:
3344:
3311:
3307:
3301:
3279:(1): 19–27.
3276:
3272:
3259:
3226:
3222:
3216:
3186:(2): 144–8.
3183:
3179:
3173:
3140:
3136:
3129:
3110:
3104:
3069:
3065:
3055:
3022:
3018:
3012:
2979:
2975:
2969:
2934:
2930:
2920:
2885:
2881:
2871:
2846:
2842:
2836:
2795:
2791:
2781:
2748:
2744:
2734:
2699:
2695:
2685:
2650:
2646:
2598:
2594:
2588:
2555:
2551:
2545:
2510:
2506:
2458:
2454:
2444:
2414:(2): 103–8.
2411:
2407:
2401:
2366:
2362:
2356:
2331:
2327:
2283:
2279:
2273:
2230:
2226:
2220:
2187:
2183:
2173:
2140:
2136:
2130:
2105:
2101:
2095:
2052:
2048:
2009:(1): 60–70.
2006:
2002:
1996:
1948:(3): 602–8.
1945:
1941:
1935:
1910:
1906:
1900:
1867:
1863:
1857:
1847:
1806:
1802:
1796:
1761:
1757:
1747:
1714:
1710:
1660:
1656:
1646:
1611:
1607:
1597:
1562:
1558:
1548:
1513:
1509:
1499:
1477:(1): 72–82.
1474:
1470:
1464:
1431:
1427:
1421:
1404:
1400:
1394:
1361:
1357:
1351:
1334:
1330:
1324:
1302:(1): 84–95.
1299:
1295:
1254:
1244:
1211:
1207:
1201:
1158:
1154:
1148:
1123:
1119:
1113:
1088:
1084:
1078:
1069:
1065:
1059:
1050:
1044:
1003:
999:
989:
959:(1): 69–88.
956:
952:
939:
906:
902:
848:
844:
799:(1): 464–9.
796:
792:
782:
760:(1): 43–54.
757:
753:
747:
722:
718:
699:
692:
683:
679:
629:
625:
615:
607:the original
594:
590:
580:
572:the original
533:
529:
519:
484:
480:
470:
433:
429:
419:
394:
390:
354:
350:
219:
204:
187:
178:
170:
166:
152:
143:
128:
119:
110:
95:Flanker task
92:
84:
77:electrodes.
63:
42:
24:
20:
16:
15:
3351:NeuroReport
3019:NeuroReport
1208:NeuroReport
1161:(2): 65–8.
536:: 329–352.
215:Stroop task
93:A standard
3427:Categories
3113:. Viking.
2513:: 117932.
2507:NeuroImage
1972:2262/30186
1942:NeuroImage
903:NeuroImage
334:References
3208:207446529
2828:210933345
2812:0167-8760
2798:: 50–72.
2765:0167-8760
2751:: 17–32.
2603:CiteSeerX
2529:1053-8119
2371:CiteSeerX
2288:CiteSeerX
2235:CiteSeerX
2204:0167-8760
2057:CiteSeerX
1950:CiteSeerX
1927:144007484
1677:0301-0511
1663:: 87–99.
1271:0048-5772
1036:216084678
1020:1469-8986
853:CiteSeerX
646:1745-6916
560:0074-7742
327:Visual N1
237:C1 and P1
3414:25327938
3379:31173397
3371:19809369
3336:10992143
3328:18514679
3293:19607863
3251:26971925
3243:16671860
3200:19700203
3165:12322358
3157:18533202
3096:31081153
3047:37340197
3039:16738481
3004:25140343
2961:18339358
2912:17869027
2863:19781864
2820:31987869
2773:27378538
2726:18458203
2677:18694617
2625:12374324
2580:25731024
2572:23964600
2537:33677074
2485:21604824
2436:16118604
2428:18271855
2393:14986842
2348:22390264
2310:15787852
2257:15556023
2212:24950132
2157:11399349
2087:13944789
2079:18345992
2031:24173453
2023:15480606
1988:15497532
1980:16024258
1892:34604786
1884:14615082
1839:20984400
1831:14526085
1788:27569003
1739:17152414
1731:15148003
1693:24643120
1685:28143802
1638:25967929
1589:29682751
1540:29173744
1491:15720582
1448:20152879
1386:21537300
1378:11738544
1316:14693003
1236:31526106
1228:11435911
1193:18103169
1140:15993769
1028:32324305
973:28447844
923:19486945
875:10686361
825:10627622
774:10705766
739:17422146
654:29592655
511:22049407
462:22529791
411:10696610
371:11577898
225:See also
3087:6699894
2996:5799432
2952:2580803
2903:2430520
2717:2761826
2668:2615243
2476:4254813
2265:6185169
2122:7490583
1811:Bibcode
1803:Science
1779:5047056
1629:4641754
1580:6113062
1531:5975216
1456:2634362
1185:9533395
1105:1375556
981:7855008
931:1269317
883:8569230
816:6774138
662:4459484
568:4887001
502:3241968
453:3328124
75:mastoid
70:voltage
39:History
3412:
3377:
3369:
3334:
3326:
3291:
3249:
3241:
3206:
3198:
3163:
3155:
3117:
3094:
3084:
3045:
3037:
3002:
2994:
2959:
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2900:
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2810:
2771:
2763:
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2675:
2665:
2623:
2605:
2578:
2570:
2535:
2527:
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2426:
2391:
2373:
2346:
2308:
2290:
2263:
2255:
2237:
2210:
2202:
2165:247129
2163:
2155:
2120:
2085:
2077:
2059:
2029:
2021:
1986:
1978:
1952:
1925:
1890:
1882:
1852:Press.
1837:
1829:
1786:
1776:
1737:
1729:
1691:
1683:
1675:
1636:
1626:
1587:
1577:
1538:
1528:
1489:
1454:
1446:
1384:
1376:
1314:
1269:
1234:
1226:
1191:
1183:
1138:
1103:
1034:
1026:
1018:
979:
971:
929:
921:
881:
873:
855:
823:
813:
772:
737:
660:
652:
644:
566:
558:
548:
509:
499:
460:
450:
436:: 88.
409:
369:
100:Stroop
3375:S2CID
3332:S2CID
3269:(PDF)
3247:S2CID
3204:S2CID
3161:S2CID
3043:S2CID
3000:S2CID
2824:S2CID
2576:S2CID
2432:S2CID
2261:S2CID
2161:S2CID
2083:S2CID
2027:S2CID
1984:S2CID
1923:S2CID
1888:S2CID
1835:S2CID
1735:S2CID
1689:S2CID
1452:S2CID
1382:S2CID
1292:(PDF)
1232:S2CID
1189:S2CID
1072:: 32.
1032:S2CID
977:S2CID
949:(PDF)
927:S2CID
879:S2CID
735:S2CID
686:: 34.
658:S2CID
3410:PMID
3367:PMID
3324:PMID
3289:PMID
3239:PMID
3196:PMID
3153:PMID
3115:ISBN
3092:PMID
3035:PMID
2992:PMID
2957:PMID
2908:PMID
2859:PMID
2816:PMID
2808:ISSN
2769:PMID
2761:ISSN
2722:PMID
2673:PMID
2621:PMID
2568:PMID
2533:PMID
2525:ISSN
2481:PMID
2424:PMID
2389:PMID
2344:PMID
2306:PMID
2253:PMID
2208:PMID
2200:ISSN
2153:PMID
2118:PMID
2075:PMID
2019:PMID
1976:PMID
1880:PMID
1827:PMID
1784:PMID
1727:PMID
1681:PMID
1673:ISSN
1634:PMID
1585:PMID
1536:PMID
1487:PMID
1444:PMID
1374:PMID
1312:PMID
1267:ISSN
1224:PMID
1181:PMID
1136:PMID
1101:PMID
1024:PMID
1016:ISSN
969:PMID
919:PMID
871:PMID
821:PMID
770:PMID
650:PMID
642:ISSN
564:PMID
556:ISSN
546:ISBN
507:PMID
458:PMID
407:PMID
367:PMID
317:P600
307:P200
292:N400
287:N200
282:N170
277:N100
272:N2pc
209:and
207:ADHD
191:P300
135:fMRI
53:1990
45:1968
3402:doi
3359:doi
3316:doi
3281:doi
3231:doi
3188:doi
3184:169
3145:doi
3082:PMC
3074:doi
3027:doi
2984:doi
2947:PMC
2939:doi
2898:PMC
2890:doi
2851:doi
2847:106
2800:doi
2796:150
2753:doi
2749:111
2712:PMC
2704:doi
2663:PMC
2655:doi
2613:doi
2599:109
2560:doi
2515:doi
2511:234
2471:PMC
2463:doi
2459:121
2416:doi
2381:doi
2336:doi
2332:141
2298:doi
2245:doi
2192:doi
2145:doi
2110:doi
2067:doi
2011:doi
2007:160
1968:hdl
1960:doi
1915:doi
1872:doi
1819:doi
1807:302
1774:PMC
1766:doi
1719:doi
1665:doi
1661:124
1624:PMC
1616:doi
1575:PMC
1567:doi
1526:PMC
1518:doi
1479:doi
1436:doi
1409:doi
1366:doi
1362:108
1339:doi
1304:doi
1259:doi
1216:doi
1171:hdl
1163:doi
1159:242
1128:doi
1093:doi
1008:doi
961:doi
911:doi
863:doi
811:PMC
801:doi
762:doi
727:doi
634:doi
599:doi
538:doi
497:PMC
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359:doi
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