2044:, was both a politician and large land owner, who was unwilling implement land reform. The state's power regarding subsoil rights meant that the mining and petroleum industries that were developed and owned by foreign industrialists now had less secure title to their enterprises. The industrial sector of Mexico evaded revolutionary violence and many Mexican and foreign industrialists remained in Mexico, but the uncertainty and risk of new investments in Mexican industry meant that it did not expand in the immediate post-Revolutionary period. An empowered labor movement with constitutionally guaranteed rights was a new factor industrialists also had to deal with. However, despite the protections of organized labor's rights to fair wages and working conditions, the constitution restricted laborers' ability to emigrate to the U.S. to work. It "required each Mexican to have a labor contract signed by municipal authorities and the consulate of the country where they intended to work." Since "U.S. law prohibited offering contracts to foreign laborers before they entered the United States," Mexicans migrating without a permission from Mexico did so illegally.
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1920s through the 1940s. The enrollment rates of the country's youth increased threefold during this period; consequently when this generation was employed by the 1940s their economic output was more productive. Additionally, the government fostered the development of consumer goods industries directed toward domestic markets by imposing high protective tariffs and other barriers to imports. The share of imports subject to licensing requirements rose from 28 percent in 1956 to an average of more than 60 percent during the 1960s and about 70 percent in the 1970s. Industry accounted for 22 percent of total output in 1950, 24 percent in 1960, and 29 percent in 1970. The share of total output arising from agriculture and other primary activities declined during the same period, while services stayed constant. The government promoted industrial expansion through public investment in agricultural, energy, and transportation infrastructure. Cities grew rapidly during these years, reflecting the shift of employment from agriculture to industry and services. The urban population increased at a high rate after 1940 (see Urban
Society, ch. 2).
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population was 15 million while that of the U.S. was 92 million. Lack of slow natural increase and higher death rates coupled with lack of immigration meant that Mexico had a much smaller labor force in comparison. Americans moved to Mexico in the largest numbers, but most to pursue ranching and farming themselves, and were the largest group on foreign nationals in Mexico. In 1900, there were only 2800 British citizens living in Mexico, 16,000 Spaniards, 4,000 French, and 2,600 Germans. Foreign enterprises employed significant numbers of foreign workers, especially in skilled, higher paying positions keeping
Mexicans in semi-skilled positions with much lower pay. The foreign workers did not generally know Spanish, so business transactions were done in the foreign industrialists' language. The cultural divide extended to religious affiliation (many were Protestants) and different attitudes "about authority and justice." There were few foreigner workers in the central Mexican textile industry, but many in mining and petroleum, where Mexicans had little or no experience with advanced technologies.
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of revenue to function meant that internal tariffs impeded trade. For the weak federal government, a large source of revenue was the customs revenue on imports and exports. The
Mexican government floated loans to foreign firms in the form of bonds. In 1824 the Mexican government floated a bond taken up by a London bank, B.A. Goldschmidt and Company; in 1825 Barclay, Herring, Richardson and Company of London not only loaned more money to the Mexican government, but opened a permanent office. The establishment of a permanent branch of Barclay, Herring, Richardson and Co. in Mexico in 1825 and then establishment of the Banco de Londres y Sud AmĂ©rica in Mexico set the framework for foreign loans and investment in Mexico. The Banco de Londres issued paper money for private not public debt. Paper money was a first for Mexico which had long used silver coinage. After an extended civil war and foreign invasions, the late nineteenth century saw the more systematic growth of banking and foreign investment during the Porfiriato (1876â1911).
2426:. Mexico implemented an IMF adjustment program and received financial backing from the United States. According to a 2017 study, "Key US and Mexican officials recognized that an IMF program of currency devaluation and austerity would probably fail in its stated objective of reducing Mexico's balance of payments deficit. Nevertheless, US Treasury and Federal Reserve officials, fearing that a Mexican default might lead to bank failures and subsequent global financial crisis, intervened to an unprecedented degree in the negotiations between the IMF and Mexico. The United States offered direct financial support and worked through diplomatic channels to insist that Mexico accept an IMF adjustment program, as a way of bailing out US banks. Mexican president Luis EcheverrĂa's administration consented to IMF adjustment because officials perceived it as the least politically costly option among a range of alternatives."
1630:. Railroads dramatically decreased transportation costs so that heavy or bulky products could be exported to Mexico's Gulf Coast ports as well as rail links on the U.S. border. The railway system expanded from a line from Mexico City to the Gulf Coast port of Veracruz to create an entire network of railways that encompassed most regions of Mexico. Railroads were initially owned almost exclusively by foreign investors, expanded from 1,000 kilometers to 19,000 kilometers of track between 1876 and 1910. Railways have been termed a "critical agent of capitalist penetration," Railways linked areas of the country that previously suffered from poor transportation capability, that is, they could produce goods, but could not get them to market. When British investors turned their attention to Mexico, they primarily made investments in railways and mines, sending both money and engineers and skilled mechanics.
2036:. Urban labor needed cheap foodstuffs and sought the expansion of the industrial sector versus subsistence peasant agriculture. Labor's support was rewarded in the new constitution. The drafting of that constitution was major outcome of the nearly decade-long conflict. Organized labor was a big winner, with Article 123 enshrining in the constitution basic worker rights, such as the right to organize and strike, the eight-hour day, and safe working conditions. Organized labor could no longer be simply suppressed by the industrialists or the Mexican state. Although Mexican and foreign industrialists now had to contend with a new legal framework, the Revolution did not, in fact, destroy the industrial sector, either its factories, extractive facilities, or its industrial entrepreneurs, so that once the fighting stopped in 1917, production resumed.
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pushed north. Northern Mexico was mainly dry and its indigenous population nomadic or semi-nomadic, allowing
Spanish ranching activities to expand largely without competition. As mining areas developed in the north, Spanish haciendas and ranches supplied products from cattle, not just meat, but hides and tallow, for the silver mining areas. Spaniards also grazed sheep, which resulted in ecological decline since sheep cropped grass to its roots preventing regeneration. Central Mexico attracted a larger proportion of Spanish settlement and landed enterprises there shifted from mixed agriculture and ranching to solely agriculture. Ranching was more widespread in the north, with its vast expanses and little access to water. Spaniards imported seeds for production of wheat for their own consumption.
692:
1158:), in which the crown mandated that the church turn over its funds to the crown, which would in turn pay the church five percent on the principal. Since the church was the major source of credit for hacendados, miners, and merchants, the new law meant that they had to pay the principal to the church immediately. For borrowers who counted on thirty or more year mortgages to repay the principal, the law was a threat to their economic survival. For conservative elements in New Spain that were loyal to the crown, this most recent change in policy was a blow. With the Napoleonic invasion of Iberia in 1808, which placed Napoleon's brother Joseph on the Spanish throne, an impact in New Spain was to suspend the implementation on the deleterious Act of Consolidation.
1713:
1538:(1867â76), following the fall of the French-backed empire of Maximilian of Habsburg (1862â67). Mexican conservatives had invited Maximilian to be Mexico's monarch with the expectation that he would implement policies favorable to conservatives. Maximilian held liberal ideas which alienated his conservative supporters. The withdrawal of French military support for Maximilian, alienation of his conservative patrons, and post-Civil War support for Benito JuĂĄrez's republican government by the U.S. government precipitated Maximilian's fall. The conservatives' support for the foreign monarch destroyed their credibility and allowed the liberal republicans to dominate economic policy after 1867 until the outbreak of the
2193:. CĂĄrdenas also nationalized the paper industry, whose best-selling product was newsprint. In Mexico the paper industry was controlled by a single firm, the San Rafael y Anexas paper company. Since there was no well-developed capital market in Mexico c. 1900, a single company could dominate the market. But in 1936, CĂĄrdenas considered newsprint a strategic company and nationalized it. By nationalizing it, a company with poor prospects for flourishing could continue via government support. During the 1930s, agricultural production also rose steadily, and urban employment expanded in response to rising domestic demand. The government offered tax incentives for production directed toward the home market.
1966:
1116:
2084:, that guaranteed petroleum enterprises already built in Mexico. It also settled some claims between the U.S. and Mexico stemming from the Revolution. The treaty had an important impact for the Mexican government, since it paved the way for U.S. recognition of ObregĂłn's government. The agreement not only normalized diplomatic relations, but also opened the way for U.S. military aid to the regime and gave ObregĂłn the means to suppress a rebellion. As the Porfiriato had demonstrated, a strong government that could maintain order paved the way for other national benefits; however, the Constitution of 1917 sought to enshrine rights of groups that suffered under that authoritarian regime.
570:
1337:
2579:(NAFTA). In 1994 the commerce and services sectors accounted for 22 percent of Mexico's total GDP. Manufacturing followed at 20 percent; transport and communications at 10 percent; agriculture, forestry, and fishing at 8 percent; construction at 5 percent; mining at 2 percent; and electricity, gas, and water at 2 percent (services 80%, industry and mining 12%, agriculture 8%). Some two-thirds of GDP in 1994 (67 percent) was spent on private consumption, 11 percent on public consumption, and 22 percent on fixed investment. During 1994 private consumption rose by 4 percent, public consumption by 2 percent, public investment by 9 percent, and private investment by 8 percent.
1634:
1789:(sisal) haciendas. YucatĂĄn's capital of MĂ©rida saw many elites build mansions based on the fortunes they made in henequen. The financing of Mexican domestic industry was accomplished through a small group of merchant-financiers, who could raise the capital for high start up costs of domestic enterprises, which included the importation of machinery. Although industries were created, the national market was yet to be built so that enterprises ran inefficiently well below their capacity. Overproduction was a problem since even a minor downturn in the economy meant the consumers with little buying power had to choose necessities over consumer-goods.
2017:
1031:
1769:
424:
2480:âby the end of 1982 they were insufficient to cover three weeks' importsâforced the government to devalue the peso three times during 1982. Devaluation further fueled inflation and prevented short-term recovery, depressing real wages and increasing the private sector's burden in servicing its dollar-denominated debt. Interest payments on long-term debt alone were equal to 28 percent of export revenue. Cut off from additional credit, the government declared an involuntary moratorium on debt payments in August 1982, and the following month it announced the nationalization of Mexico's private banking system.
762:
1896:
1665:
401:
1385:) of two corporate groups, churchmen and the military, remained in force so that there were differential legal rights and access to courts. Elite Mexicans dominated the agrarian sector, owning large estates. With the Roman Catholic Church still the only religion and its economic power as a source of credit for elites, conservative landowners and the Church held tremendous economic power. The largest percentage of the Mexican population was engaged in subsistence agriculture and many were only marginally engaged in market activities. Foreigners dominated commerce and trade.
1851:
1911:
2716:
1613:, Mexico underwent rapid but highly unequal growth. The phrase "order and progress" of the DĂaz regime was shorthand for political order laying the groundwork for progress to transform and modernize Mexico on the model of Western Europe or the United States. The apparent political stability of the regime created a climate of trust for foreign and domestic entrepreneurs to invest in Mexico's modernization. Rural banditry, which had increased following the demobilization of republican force, was suppressed by DĂaz, using the rural police force,
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1112:
junior members of the family in provincial cities. For merchants in
Guatemala City dealing in indigo, they had direct contact with merchants in CĂĄdiz, the main port in Spain, indicating the level of importance of this dye stuff in trade as well as the strengthening of previously remote areas with larger trade networks, in this case by passing Mexico City merchant houses. There was increased commercial traffic between New Spain, New Granada (northern South America), and Peru and during wartime, trade was permitted with neutral countries.
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1389:
produced a significant proportion of agricultural output and were outside tithe collection, while private agriculturalists' costs were higher due to the tithe. It has been argued that an impact of the tithe was in fact to keep more land in the hands of the Church and
Indigenous villages. As for the uses the Church put this ten percent of the agrarian output subject to it, it has been argued that rather being spent on "unproductive" activities that the Church had a greater liquidity that could be translated into credit for enterprises.
503:(1876â1911). Mexico was opened to foreign investment and, to a lesser extent, foreign workers. Foreign capital built railway networks, one of the keys for transforming the Mexican economy, by linking regions of Mexico and major cities and ports. As the construction of the railway bridge over a deep canyon at Metlac demonstrates, Mexico's topography was a barrier to economic development. The mining industry revived in the north of Mexico, and the petroleum industry developed in the north Gulf Coast states with foreign capitals.
978:) in Seville registered and regulated exports and imports as well as issuing licenses for Spaniards emigrating to the New World. Exports were silver and dyestuffs and imported were luxury goods from Europe, while a local economy of high bulk, low value products were produced in Mexico. Artisans and workers of various types provided goods and services to urban dwellers. In Mexico City and other Spanish settlements, the lack of a system of potable water meant that the services of water carriers supplied individual households.
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1941:
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nineteenth century by railroad construction. But the problems of entrepreneurship in the colonial period carried forward into the post-independence period. Internal tariffs, licensing for enterprises, special taxes, lack of legislation to promote joint-stock companies that protected investors, lack of enforcement to collect loans or enforce contracts, lack of patent protections, and the lack of a unified court system or legal framework to promote business made creating an enterprise a lengthy and fraught process.
416:
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and as Mexico's entered a phase of rapid industrialization, the U.S. and Mexico cooperated closely on illegal border crossings by
Mexicans. For the Mexican government, this loss of labor was "a shameful exposure of the failure of the Mexican Revolution to provide economic well-being for many of Mexico's citizens, but it also drained the country of one of its greatest natural resources, a cheap and flexible labor supply." The U.S. and Mexico cooperated closely to stop the flow, including the 1954 program called
1866:
1881:
945:
1107:, the organization of elite merchants, was established in Mexico City, which raised the status of merchants, and later consulados were established in Veracruz, Guadalajara, and Guatemala City indicating the growth of a core economic group in those cities. Central regions could get imports those firms handled relatively easily, but with a bad transportation network, other regions became economic backwaters and smuggling and other non-sanctioned economic activity took place. The economic policy of
1725:
period onward, the North had developed huge landed estates devoted mainly to cattle ranching. With the expansion of the rail network northward and with the
Mexican government's policies of surveying land and clearing land titles, commercial agriculture expanded enormously, especially along the U.S.-Mexico border. Both U.S. and Mexican entrepreneurs began investing heavily in modernized large-scale agricultural estates along the railroad lines of the north. The family of future Mexican president
777:
1295:
unemployed, with only a small artisan sector. Although New Spain had been the major producer of silver and the greatest source of income for the
Spanish crown, Mexico ceased to produce silver in any significant amounts until the late nineteenth century. Poor transportation, the disappearance of a ready source of mercury from Spain, and deterioration and destruction of deep mining shafts meant that the motor of Mexico's economy ground to a halt. A brief period of monarchic rule in the
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1472:
905:
2443:
91:
1601:
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petrochemicals became the economy's most dynamic growth sector. Rising oil income allowed the government to continue its expansionary fiscal policy, partially financed by higher foreign borrowing. Between 1978 and 1981, the economy grew more than 8 percent annually, as the government spent heavily on energy, transportation, and basic industries. Manufacturing output expanded during these years, growing by 8.2 percent in 1978, 9.3 percent in 1979, and 8.2 percent in 1980.
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in refining silver. The larger the amount of mercury used in refining, the greater pure silver was extracted from ore. Another important element for the eighteenth-century economic boom was the number of wealthy
Mexicans who were involved in multiple enterprises as owners, investors, or creditors. Mining is an expensive and uncertain extractive enterprise needed large capital investments for digging and shoring up shafts as well as draining water as mines got deeper.
2538:
1412:
1147:, the crown established a new administrative system, the intendancy, with much better paid crown officials, with the hope that graft and other personal enrichment would not be so tempting. In the eighteenth century, there were new and increased taxes including on maize, wheat flour, and wood. Fluctuations in rainfall and harvests played havoc with the price of maize, which often resulted in civil unrest, such that the crown began establishing granaries (
1057:
civil office holding, ecclesiastical positions, but also entrance of women into convents, which necessitated a significant dowry. A convent for Indigenous women of "pure blood" was established in the eighteenth century. Indigenous men from the mid-sixteenth century had been barred from the priesthood, not only excluding them from empowerment in the spiritual realm, but also depriving them of the honor, prestige, and income that a priest could garner.
2053:
1589:
1224:
2403:
1926:
2239:
2993:
2279:'s (1946â52) full-scale import-substitution program stimulated output by boosting internal demand. The government raised import controls on consumer goods but relaxed them on capital goods, which it purchased with international reserves accumulated during the war. The government spent heavily on infrastructure. By 1950 Mexico's road network had expanded to 21,000 kilometers, of which some 13,600 were paved. Large-scale dam building for
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359:
1839:, or S.A.) and were listed on the Mexican stock exchange. Enterprises sourced their merchandise from abroad, using British, German, Belgian, and Swiss suppliers, but they also sold textiles made in their own factories in Mexico, creating a level of vertical integration. The Barcelonettes, as they were called, also innovated by using hydroelectric power in some of their textile factories, and supplied some surrounding communities.
432:
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the government might fail to achieve fiscal balance and have to expand the money supply and raise taxes deterred private investment and encouraged massive capital flight that further increased inflationary pressures. The resulting reduction in domestic savings impeded growth, as did the government's rapid and drastic reductions in public investment and its raising of real domestic interest rates to deter capital flight.
2671:$ 181B; China $ 52.1B; Germany $ 14.9B; Japan $ 14.8B, and South Korea $ 10.9B. "The economy of Mexico has an Economic Complexity Index (ECI) of 1.1 making it the 21st most complex country. Mexico exports 182 products with revealed comparative advantage (meaning that its share of global exports is larger than what would be expected from the size of its export economy and from the size of a product's global market)."
1578:
2503:
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1094:), based in Seville. Officials in Seville registered shipsâ cargoes and passengers bound for the Indies (as the crown to the end of the colonial era called its territories) and upon arrival in New World ports, other crown officials inspected cargo and passengers. In Mexico, the Gulf Coast port of Veracruz, New Spain's oldest Spanish city and main port, and the Pacific coast port of Acapulco, the terminus of the
1793:
productivity during a time of stagnating or decreasing wages and deteriorating work conditions, the repression of worker's unions by the police and army, and the highly unequal distribution of wealth. When a political opposition to the Porfirian regime developed in 1910, following DĂaz's initial statement that he would not run again for the presidency in 1910 and then reneging, there was considerable unrest.
2588:
2979:
892:. In the early colonial period Mexico was briefly a silk producer. When the transpacific trade with Manila developed in the late sixteenth century, the finer quality Asian silks out-competed locally produced ones. The bulk of luxury yard goods were imported from northern Europe via Spain. For rough cloth for the urban masses, cotton and wool were produced and woven in Mexico in small workshops called
703:
24:
2223:
1822:) in Mexico City, trading in commodities and stocks. With increasing political stability and economic growth, Mexico's urban populations had more disposable income and spent it on consumer goods. In Mexico City, several French entrepreneurs established department stores stocked with goods form the global economy. Such enterprises promoting consumer culture were taking hold in Paris (the
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skyrocketing, forcing Mexico in the early 1980s to become a net importer of foodstuffs. The portion of import categories subject to controls rose from 20 percent of the total in 1977 to 24 percent in 1979. The government raised tariffs concurrently to shield domestic producers from foreign competition, further hampering the modernization and competitiveness of Mexican industry.
1333:, which was the exclusive religious institution with spiritual power, but it was also a major holder of real estate and source of credit for Mexican elites. The Mexican military was also a stronger institution than the state, and intervened in politics on a regular basis. Local militias also continued to exist, with the potential for both enforcing order and creating disorder.
2522:
and public investment at an 11 percent pace. Throughout the 1980s, the productive sectors of the economy contributed a decreasing share to GDP, while the services sectors expanded their share, reflecting the rapid growth of the informal economy and the change from good jobs to bad ones (services jobs). De la Madrid's stabilization strategy imposed high social costs: real
3279:
silver-encrusted rocks they wanted. They could then sell this valuable ore in the black market or attempt to refine it into pure silver on their own. The pepena system existed in many mines throughout Mexico... Reséndez, Andrés. The Other Slavery: The Uncovered Story of Indian Enslavement in America (Kindle Locations 1857-1861). Houghton Mifflin Harcourt. Kindle Edition.
555:, with the expanded treaty going into effect in Mexico, the U.S., and Canada on January 1, 1994. In the twenty-first century, Mexico has strengthened its trade ties with China, but Chinese investment projects in Mexico have hit roadblocks in 2014â15. Mexico's continued dependence on oil revenues has had a deleterious impact on the economy, as it happened in the 2010s.
1447:, a state owned bank was established in order to provide pecuniary aid and machinery to Mexico's industry and agriculture. This was the first formal bank in Mexican history but the experiment had limited success, succeeding mainly in the field of textiles. The establishment of a national bank was further decreed in 1837.
722:), making mining more respectable. The crown promulgated a new mining code that limited liability and protected patents as technical improvements were developed. Highly successful miners purchased titles of nobility in the eighteenth century, valorizing their status in society as well as bringing revenues to the crown.
475:
needs, with international trade mainly conducted through colonial monopolies. Crown economic policies rattled American-born elitesâ loyalty to Spain when in 1804, it instituted a policy to make mortgage holders pay immediately the principal on their loans, threatening the economic position of cash-strapped landowners.
1569:(1876â1911)) that per capita incomes climbed, finally reaching again the level of the late colonial era. "Between 1877 and 1910 national income per capita grew at an annual rate of 2.3 percentâextremely rapid growth by world standards, so fast indeed that per capita income more than doubled in thirty-three years."
998:, were of little economic interest. California's rich deposits of gold were unknown in the colonial era and had they been discovered that whole region's history would not be one of marginal importance. To the south, trunk lines connected Mexico's center to Oaxaca and the port of Acapulco, the terminus of the
1989:. For Mexican and foreign large-land owners, Madero's vague promise was a threat to their economic interests. For the peasants in Morelos, a sugar-growing area close to Mexico City, Madero's slowness to make good on his promise to restore village lands prompted a revolt against the government. Under the
2346:, or SNTE) are examples of how the use of government benefits are not being applied to improve the quality in the investigation of the use of oil or the basic education in Mexico as long as their leaders show publicly that they are living wealthily. With 1.4 million members, the teachers' union is
2640:
contingencies fund, applied during the peso crisis to protect Mexican banks, became a subject of controversy. By 1996 Mexican government and independent analysts saw signs that the country had begun to emerge from its economic recession. The economy contracted by 1 percent during the first quarter of
2574:
Due to the financial crisis that took place in 1982, the total public investment on infrastructure plummeted from 12.5% of GDP to 3.5% in 1989. After rising during the early years of Salinas' presidency, the growth rate of real GDP began to slow during the early 1990s. During 1993 the economy grew by
2263:
was set up with orderly migration flows were regulated by both governments. However, many Mexicans could not qualify for the program and migrated north illegally, without permission from their own government and with no sanction from U.S. authorities. In the post-war period as the U.S. economy boomed
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term to include any enterprise in which the government had an interest. An important achievement of the CĂĄrdenas presidency was "the restoration of social peace" achieved in part by not exacerbating the long simmering post-revolutionary conflict between the Mexican state and the Roman Catholic Church
2125:
took hold. It had already slowed in the 1920s, with investor pessimism and the fall of Mexican exports as well as capital flight. Even before the Great Crash of the U.S. stock market in 1929, Mexican export incomes fell between 1926 and 1928 from $ 334 million to $ 299 million (approximately 10%) and
1800:
in 1906, in which Mexican workers protested that they were paid half what U.S. nations earned for the same work. U.S. marshals and citizens crossed from Arizona to Sonora to suppress the strike, resulting in 23 deaths. The violent incident was evidence that there was labor unrest in Mexico, something
1676:
Mining silver continued as an enterprise, but copper emerged as a valuable mining resource as electricity became an important technological innovation. The creation of telephone and telegraph networks meant large-scale demand for copper wiring. Individual foreign entrepreneurs and companies purchased
1553:
structure to revitalize the mining industry, and improved the transportation and communications infrastructure to allow fuller exploitation of the country's natural resources. The government issued contracts for construction of a new rail line northward to the United States, and in 1873 completed the
1450:
Despite obstacles to industrialization in the early post-independence period, cotton textiles produced in factories owned by Mexicans date from the 1830s in the central region. The Banco de AvĂo did loan money to cotton textile factories during its existence, so that in the 1840s, there were close to
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Church. These entrepreneurs were later accused of preferring the symbolic wealth of tangible, secure, and unproductive property to the riskier and more difficult but innovative and potentially more profitable work of investing in industry, but the fact is that agriculture was the only marginally safe
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that targeted Spaniards (both peninsular-born and American-born) and their properties. American-born Spaniards who might have opted for political independence retrenched and supported to conservative elements and the insurgency for independence was a small regional struggle. In 1812, Spanish liberals
876:
Cattle ranching needed less labor than agriculture but did need sufficient grazing land for their herds to increase. As more Spaniards settled in the central areas of Mexico where there were already large numbers of indigenous settlements, the number of ranching enterprises declined, and ranching was
3288:
Already by the late sixteenth century, free wage earners outnumbered forced workers in some mines. More recent studies have revealed a sobering reality, however. While salaried workers did indeed account for a significant percentage of the workforce in many minesâ including thirty-six percent of all
2670:
Mexico is an integral part of the North American Free Trade Agreement and the U.S. is its top trading partner. As of 2017, Mexico's biggest imports (in U.S. dollars) came from the U.S. $ 307Billion; Canada $ 22B; China $ 8.98B; Germany $ 8.83; and Japan $ 5.57. Its biggest imports came from the U.S.
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By 1988 (de la Madrid's final year as President) inflation was at last under control, fiscal and monetary discipline attained, relative price adjustment achieved, structural reform in trade and public-sector management underway, and the economy was bound for recovery. But these positive developments
2498:
reduced public spending drastically and stimulated exports to balance the national accounts. Recovery was slow to materialize, however. The economy stagnated throughout the 1980s as a result of continuing negative terms of trade, high domestic interest rates, and scarce credit. Widespread fears that
1462:
Some of the factors that impeded Mexico's own industrial development were also barriers to penetration of British capital and goods in the early republic. Small-scale manufacturing in Mexico could make a modest profit in the regions where it existed, but with high transportation costs and protective
1407:
The Mexican government could not count on revenues from silver mining to fund its operations. The exit of Spanish merchants involved in the transatlantic trade was also a blow to the Mexican economy. The division of the former viceroyalty into separate states of a federal system, all needed a source
1290:
Although independence might have brought about rapid economic growth in Mexico since the Spanish crown was no longer the sovereign, Mexico's economic position in 1800 was far better than it would be for over the next hundred years. In many ways the colonial economic system remained largely in place,
1188:
In the late colonial era, the Spanish crown had implemented what has been called a "revolution in government", which significantly realigned New Spain's administration with significant economic impacts. When the Napoleonic invasion of Iberia ousted the Bourbon monarch, there was a significant period
1056:
There was no equal standing before the law, given the exemptions of corporate entities (including indigenous communities) and legal distinctions between races. Only those defined as Spaniards, either peninsular- or American-born of legitimate birth had access to a variety of elite privileges such as
1021:
Elites invested their fortunes in real estate, mainly in rural enterprises and to a lesser extent urban properties, but often lived in nearby cities or the capital. The Roman Catholic Church functioned as a mortgage bank for elites. The Church itself accrued tremendous wealth, aided by the fact that
1009:
Bad transportation was a major stumbling block to the movement of goods and people within Mexico, which had generally difficult topography. There were few paved roads and dirt tracks turned impassible during the rainy season. Rather than hauling goods by carts drawn by oxen or mules, the most common
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caused the economy to contract by an estimated 7 percent during 1995. Investment and consumption both fell sharply, the latter by some 10 percent. Agriculture, livestock, and fishing contracted by 4 percent; mining by 1 percent; manufacturing by 6 percent; construction by 22 percent; and transport,
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began to emerge under a more independent model, while the former institutionalized unions had become very corrupt, violent, and led by gangsters. From the 1990s onwards, this new model of independent unions prevailed, a number of them represented by the National Union of Workers / UniĂłn Nacional de
2234:
Mexico's inward-looking development strategy produced sustained economic growth of 3 to 4 percent and modest 3 percent inflation annually from the 1940s until the 1970s. This growth was sustained by the government's increasing commitment to primary education for the general population from the late
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Article 27 of the Constitution empowered the state to expropriate private holdings if deemed in the national interest and returned subsoil rights to the state. It enshrined the right of the state could expropriate land and redistribute it to peasant cultivators. Although there could be a major roll
1764:
Mexico was not a favored destination for European immigrants the way the United States, Argentina, and Canada were in the nineteenth century, creating expanded work forces there. Mexico's population in 1800 at 6 million was a million larger than that of the young U.S. republic, but in 1910 Mexico's
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wrote a critique of the decline of Spain as an economic power in 1796 that contended the stagnation of Spanish agriculture was a major cause of Spain's economic problems. He recommended that the crown press for major changes in the agrarian sector, including the breakup of entailed estates, sale of
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or Spanish assembly. Goods produced by or for indigenous peoples were exempted from the alcabala. In the eighteenth century, with more effective collection of the sales tax, the revenues increased significantly. Other taxes included the tithe, which was a ten percent tax on agricultural production;
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began restricting the number of American-born men appointed to office, which was not only a diminution of their own and their familiesâ status, but also excluded them from the revenues and other benefits that flowed from office holding. The benefits were not merely the salary, but also the networks
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The eighteenth century saw New Spain increase the size and complexity of its economy. Silver remained the motor of the economy, and production increased even though few new mines came into production. The key to the increased production was the lowering of the price of mercury, an essential element
725:
Wealth from Spanish mining fueled the transatlantic economy, with silver becoming the main precious metal in circulation worldwide. Although the northern mining did not itself become the main center of power in New Spain, the silver extracted there was the most important export from the colony. The
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For their troubles, they were compensated with real salaries and, âfar more important,â as Bishop Mota y Escobar perceptively wrote, âwith silver ore that they got to keep and which they call among themselves pepena.â Indeed, after doing their daily work, free Indians were permitted to collect any
2655:
In 2018 negotiations opened between the Donald Trump administration of the United States, the government of Mexico, and the government of Canada to revise and update provisions of the 1994 North American Free Trade Agreement. As of April 2020, Canada and Mexico have notified the U.S. that they are
2521:
Mexico's GDP grew at an average rate of just 0.1 percent per year between 1983 and 1988, while inflation on an average of 100%. Public consumption grew at an average annual rate of less than 2 percent, and private consumption not at all. Total investment fell at an average annual rate of 4 percent
2433:
This renewed growth rested on shaky foundations. Mexico's external indebtedness mounted, and the peso became increasingly overvalued, hurting non-oil exports in the late 1970s and leading to a second peso devaluation in 1980. Production of basic food crops stagnated and the population increase was
2004:
American-owned enterprises especially were targets during revolutionary violence, but there was generally loss of life and property damage in areas of conflict. Revolutionaries confiscated haciendas with livestock, machinery, and buildings. Railways used for troop movements in northern Mexico were
1724:
Northern Mexico had the greatest concentration of mineral resources as well as closest proximity to a major market for foodstuffs, the United States. As the railroad system improved, and as the population grew in the western U.S., large-scale commercial agriculture became viable. From the colonial
1376:
during Mexico's brief post-independence monarchy. He was president of Mexico on multiple occasions, seeming to prefer having the job rather than doing the job. Mexico in this period was characterized by the collapse of silver exports, political instability, and foreign invasions and conflicts that
1111:
that was instituted in 1778, it was not full free trade but trade between ports in the Spanish empire and those in Spain; it was designed to stimulate trade. In Mexico, the big merchant families continued to dominate trade, with the main merchant house in Mexico City and smaller outlets staffed by
1046:
Although many enterprises, such as merchant houses and mining, were highly profitable, they were often family firms. The components of Roman Catholic Church had a considerable number of landed estates and the Church received income from the tithe, a ten percent tax on agricultural output. However,
1042:
Crown policies generally impeded entrepreneurial activity in New Spain, through laws and regulations that were disincentives to the creation of new enterprises. There was no well-defined or enforceable set of property rights, but the crown claimed rights over subsoil resources, such as mining. The
717:
of the eighteenth century, the crown increased mercury production at Almadén and lowered the price to miners by half resulting in a huge increase in Mexico's silver production. As production costs dropped, mining became less risky so that there was a new surge of mine openings and improvements. In
1976:
The outbreak of the Revolution in 1910 began as a political crisis over presidential succession and exploded into civil wars of movement in northern Mexico and guerrilla warfare in the peasant centers near Mexico City. The former working relationship between the Mexican government and foreign and
1792:
Under the surface of all this apparent economic prosperity and modernization, popular discontent was reaching the boiling point. The economic-political elite scarcely noticed the country's widespread dissatisfaction with the political stagnation of the Porfiriato, the increased demands for worker
1380:
The social hierarchy in Mexico was modified in the early independence era, such that racial distinctions were eliminated and the formal bars to non-whites' upward mobility were eliminated. When the Mexican republic was established in 1824, noble titles were eliminated, however, special privileges
1069:
The interventionist and pervasively arbitrary nature of the institutional environment forced every enterprise, urban or rural, to operate in a highly politicized manner, using kinship networks, political influence, and family prestige to gain privileged access to subsidized credit, to aid various
467:
has been characterized by resource extraction, agriculture, and a relatively underdeveloped industrial sector. Economic elites in the colonial period were predominantly Spanish-born, active as transatlantic merchants and mine owners, and diversifying their investments with the landed estates. The
2287:
Mexico's strong economic performance continued into the 1960s, when GDP growth averaged about 7 percent overall and about 3 percent per capita. Consumer price inflation averaged only 3 percent annually. Manufacturing remained the country's dominant growth sector, expanding 7 percent annually and
2181:
traditionally trained lawyers and doctors, and in its colonial incarnation, it was a religiously affiliated university. UNAM has continued to be the main university for aspiring politicians to attend, at least as undergraduates, but the National Polytechnic Institute marked a significant step in
1388:
It was contended by Mexican liberals that the Catholic Church was an obstacle to Mexico's development through its economic activities. The Church was the beneficiary of the tithe, a ten percent tax on agricultural production, until its abolition in 1833. Church properties and Indigenous villages
1206:
silver of coin minted in 1821 asserts. Anti-French forces, particularly the British, had enabled the return of Ferdinand VII to the throne. Ferdinand's armed forces were to be sent to its overseas empire to reverse the gains that many colonial regions had gained. However, the troops mutinied and
474:
was envisioned by the Spanish crown as a supplier of wealth to Iberia, which was accomplished through large silver mines and indigenous labor. A colonial economy to supply foodstuffs and products from ranching as well as a domestic textile industry meant that the economy provided much of its own
2561:
announced his government's national development plan for 1989â94, which called for annual GDP growth of 6 percent and an inflation rate similar to those of Mexico's main trading partners. Salinas planned to achieve this sustained growth by boosting the investment share of GDP and by encouraging
2031:
faction of Mexico's North was victorious in 1915â16. Northern revolutionaries were not sympathetic to demands by peasants in central Mexico seeking the return of village land a reversion to small-scale agriculture. The Constitutionalists mobilized organized labor against the peasant uprising in
1805:
of fomenting the strike. The significance of the strike is disputed, but one scholar considers it "an important benchmark for the Porfirian labor movement as well as the regime. It raised the social question in a dramatic fashion, and at the same time fused it with Mexican nationalism. In 1907,
1622:
Changes in fundamental legal principles of ownership during the Porfiriato had a positive effect on foreign investors. During Spanish rule, the crown controlled subsoil rights of its territory so that silver mining, the motor of the colonial economy, was controlled by the crown with licenses to
1422:
Faced with political disruptions, civil wars, unstable currency, and the constant threat of banditry in the countryside, most wealthy Mexicans invested their assets in the only stable productive enterprises that remained viable: large agricultural estates with access to credit from the Catholic
1403:
In the first half of the nineteenth century, obstacles to industrialization were largely internal, while in the second half largely external. Internal impediments to industrialization were due to Mexico's difficult topography and lack of secure and efficient transportation, remedied in the late
850:
and in ranching, with cattle and sheep. Great haciendas did not completely dominate the agrarian sector, since there were products that could be efficiently produced by smaller holders and indigenous villages, such as fruits and vegetables, cochineal red dye, and animals that could be raised in
808:
production in Mexico. Areas that had never seen indigenous cultivation became important for commercial agriculture, particularly what has been called the "near North" of Mexico, just north of indigenous settlement in central Mexico. Wheat cultivation using oxen and Spanish plows was done in the
2104:
of 1926â29. Such violence in the center of the country killed tens of thousands and prompted many living in the region to migrate to the United States. For the United States, the situation was worrisome, since U.S. industrialists continued to have significant investments in Mexico and the U.S.
1810:
engaged in a dispute after being locked out from their factory. DĂaz sent the Mexican army to suppress the action, resulting in loss of life of an unknown number of Mexicans. Before 1909 most workers were reformist and not anti-DĂaz, but did seek government intervention on their behalf against
1458:
In the early republic, other industries developed on a modest scale, including glass, paper, and beer brewing. Other enterprises produced leather footwear, hats, wood-working, tailoring, and bakeries, all of which were small-scale and designed to serve domestic, urban consumers within a narrow
1174:
in the early nineteenth century, influenced by Jovellanos's from the late eighteenth century, had a direct impact on Mexican liberals seeking to make the agrarian sector more profitable. Abad y Queipo "fixed upon the inequitable distribution of property as the chief cause of New Spain's social
482:
in 1821 was initially difficult for the country, with the loss of its supply of mercury from Spain in silver mines. Most of the patterns of wealth in the colonial era continued into the first half of the nineteenth century, with agriculture being the main economic activity through the labor of
2329:
In the 1980s, Mexico began adhering to Washington Consensus policies, selling off state industries such as railroad and telecommunications to private industries. The new owners had an antagonistic attitude towards unions, which, accustomed to comfortable relationships with the state, were not
1834:
was one example, with its five-story building in downtown was constructed of iron. The flourishing of such stores was a signal of Mexico's modernity and participation in the transnational cosmopolitanism of the era. French immigrants from the Barcelonette region of France established the vast
675:
silver mine of Peru. Spaniards established of cities in the mining region as well as agrarian enterprises supplying foodstuffs and material goods necessary for the mining economy. For Mexico, which did not have a vast supply of trees to use as fuel to extract silver from ore by high heat, the
2570:
of the economy. His first priority was to reduce Mexico's external debt; in mid-1989 the government reached agreement with its commercial bank creditors to reduce its medium- and long-term debt. The following year, Salinas took his next step toward higher capital inflows by lowering domestic
2544:
business activities have had a significant impact on Mexico's economy, contributing to economic growth, infrastructure development, and job creation. His influence extends beyond business into areas such as social welfare and public policy, making him a central figure in Mexican business and
1427:
in times of such uncertainty. Furthermore, with low per capita income and a stagnant, shallow market, agriculture was not very profitable. The Church could have loaned money for industrial enterprises, the costs and risks of starting one in the circumstances of bad transportation and lack of
1294:
At the end of the colonial era, there was no national market and only poorly developed regional markets. The largest proportion of the population was poor, both peasants, who worked small holdings for subsistence or worked for low wages, and urban dwellers, most of whom were underemployed or
919:
1074:
The most closely controlled commodity from New Spain (and Peru) was the production and transportation of silver. Crown officials monitored each step of the process, from licensing on those who developed mines, to transportation, to minting of uniform size and quality silver bars and coins.
2429:
Although significant oil discoveries in 1976 allowed a temporary recovery, the windfall from petroleum sales also allowed continuation of EcheverrĂa's fiscal policies. In the mid-1970s, Mexico went from being a net importer of oil and petroleum products to a significant exporter. Oil and
2390:
Although the Mexican economy maintained its rapid growth during most of the 1970s, it was progressively undermined by fiscal mismanagement and by a poor export industrial sector and a resulting deterioration of the investment climate. The GDP grew more than 6 percent annually during the
981:
A network of cities and towns developed, some were founded on previous indigenous city-states, (such as Mexico City) while secondary cities were established as provincial areas gained population because of economic activity. The main axis was from Veracruz, via the well-situated city of
1784:
Mexican entrepreneurs also created large enterprises, many of which were vertically integrated. Some of these include steel, cement, glass, explosives, cigarettes, beer, soap, cotton and wool textiles, and paper. YucatĂĄn underwent an agricultural boom with the creation of large-scale
1623:
mining entrepreneurs was a privilege and not a right. The Mexican government changed the law to giving absolute subsoil rights to property owners. For foreign investors, protection of their property rights meant that mining and oil enterprises became much more attractive investments.
737:, but Mexico's mines developed in the north outside of the zone of dense indigenous settlement. They were ethnically mixed and mobile, becoming culturally part of the Hispanic sphere even if their origins were indigenous. Mine workers were generally well paid with a daily wage of 4
1801:
the DĂaz regime sought to deny. The enforcement of labor discipline by U.S. nationals was publicly seen as a violation of Mexican sovereignty, but there were no consequences for the government of Sonora for permitting the foreigners' actions. The DĂaz regime accused the radical
1270:. For elites in New Spain, the specter of liberal policies that would have a deleterious impact on their social and economic position propelled former royalists to join the insurgent cause, thus bringing about Mexican independence in 1821. A pact between former royalist officer
2350:'s largest; half of Mexico's government employees are teachers. It controls school curriculums, and all teacher appointments. Until recently, retiring teachers routinely "gave" their lifelong appointment to a relative or "sell" it for anywhere in between $ 4,700 and $ 11,800.
605:
The colonial landscape in central Mexico became a patchwork of different sized holdings by Spaniards and indigenous communities. As the crown began limiting the encomienda in the mid-sixteenth century to prevent the development of an independent seigneurial class through the
1329:. The Mexican state was a weak institution, with regional struggles between those favoring federalism and a weak central government versus those favoring a strong central government with states subordinate to it. The weakness of the state contrasts with the strength of
1608:
When DĂaz first came to power, the country was still recovering from a decade of civil war and foreign intervention, and the country was deeply in debt. DĂaz saw investment from the United States and Europe as a way to build a modern and prosperous country. During the
536:(ISI). The Mexican economy experienced the limits of ISI and economic nationalism in the 1970s. Large oil reserves discovered in the Gulf of Mexico in the late 1970s led the country to borrow heavily from foreign banks with loans denominated in U.S. dollars. When the
2321:
During these 40 years, the primary aim of the trade unions was not to benefit the workers, but to carry out the state's economic policy under their cosy relationship with the ruling party. This economic policy, which peaked in the 1950s and 60s with the so-called
3289:
Indians in Parralâ these workers did not replace coerced laborers, but rather coexisted with them. ResĂ©ndez, AndrĂ©s. The Other Slavery: The Uncovered Story of Indian Enslavement in America (Kindle Locations 1863-1866). Houghton Mifflin Harcourt. Kindle Edition.
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of undocumented Mexican workers in the U.S. at the time. The largest sector of the Mexican economy remained subsistence agriculture so that these fluctuations in the world market and the Mexican industrial sector did not affect all sectors of Mexico equally.
2288:
attracting considerable foreign investment. Mining grew at an annual rate of nearly 4 percent, trade at 6 percent, and agriculture at 3 percent. By 1970 Mexico had diversified its export base and become largely self-sufficient in food crops, steel, and most
4649:
841:
and smaller agrarian enterprises as well as broader regional studies were done in the 1960s and 1970s. These studies of individual haciendas and regions over time postulate that hacienda owners were profit-seeking entrepreneurs. They had the advantage of
2121:, helped stabilize the political and economic system, creating a mechanism to manage conflicts and set the stage for more orderly presidential elections. Later that year, the U.S. stock market crashed and the Mexican economy suffered as the worldwide
1522:
reneging on the payment of foreign loans contracted by the rival conservative government. European powers prepared to intervene for repayment of the loans, but it was France with imperial ambitions that carried out an invasion and the installation of
858:
As Spanish agrarian enterprises developed, acquiring title to land became important. As the size of the indigenous labor force dropped and as the number of Spaniards seeking land and access to labor increased, a transitional labor institution called
588:), on agriculture and ranching, and on trade, with manufacturing playing a minor role. In the immediate post-conquest period (1521â40), the dense indigenous and hierarchically organized central Mexican peoples were employed as labor and producers of
2254:
Although growth of the urban labor force exceeded even the growth rate of industrial employment, with surplus workers taking low-paying service jobs, many Mexican laborers migrated to the United States where wages were higher. During World War II,
1083:) restricted the practice of certain professions, such as those engaged in painting, gilded framer makers, music instrument makers, and others. Indigenous and mixedârace castas were considered a threat, producing quality products far more cheaply.
2112:
The Mexican political system was again seen as fragile when in 1928 José de León Toral, a Cristero, assassinated president-elect Obregón, who would have returned to the presidency after a four-year hiatus. Calles stepped in to form in 1929 the
865:("allotment") developed, in which the crown allotted indigenous labor to Spaniards on a temporary basis. Many Spanish landowners found the system unsatisfactory since they could not count on receiving an allocation that suited their needs. The
1353:
Trade was stagnant, imports did not pay, contraband drove prices down, debts private and public went unpaid, merchants suffered all manner of injustices and operated at the mercy of weak and corruptible governments, commercial houses skirted
1835:
majority of the department stores in Porfirian Mexico. These immigrants had dominated the retail apparel market for increasingly fashion-conscious elites. Two of the biggest enterprises adopted the business model of the joint stock company (
1143:); and fees for licensing and other government regulation. Crown officials (with the exception of the viceroy) often purchased their offices, with the price recouped through fees and other means. During the late eighteenth century with the
2283:
power and flood control were initiated, most prominently the Papaloapan Project in southern Mexico. In recent years, there has been a re-evaluation of such infrastructure projects, particularly their negative impact on the environment.
2373:
with GM since the opening of the plant in 1995, and an allied "independent" union received only small percentages of the vote. A worker at the plant with 10 years service reported wages of 480 pesos ($ 23.27) for a 12-hour shift. At
1286:
brought about Mexican independence in September 1821. Rather than the insurgency being a social revolution, in the end it allowed conservative forces in now independent Mexico to remain at the top of the social and economic system.
2571:
borrowing costs, reprivatizing the banking system, and broaching the idea of a free-trade agreement with the United States. These announcements were soon followed by increased levels of capital repatriation and foreign investment.
2417:
to exacerbate inflation and upset the balance of payments. Moreover, President EcheverrĂa's leftist rhetoric and actionsâsuch as abetting land seizures by peasantsâeroded investor confidence and alienated the private sector. The
1047:
there were no laws that promoted "economies of scale through joint stock companies or corporations." There were corporate entities, particularly the Church and indigenous communities, but also corporate groups with privileges (
1495:
abolished corporationsâ right to own property as corporations, a reform aimed at breaking the economic power of the Catholic Church and Indigenous communities which held land as corporate communities. The Reform also mandated
958:
Cities had concentrations of crown officials, high ecclesiastical officials, merchants, and artisans, with the viceregal capital of Mexico City, having the largest. Mexico City was founded on the ruins of the Aztec capital of
1175:
squalor and advocated ownership of land as the chief remedy." At the end of the colonial era, land was concentrated in large haciendas and the vast number of peasants had insufficient land and the agrarian sector stagnated.
1078:
The crown established monopolies in other commodities, most importantly mercury from Almadén, the key component in silver refining. But the crown also established monopolies over tobacco production and manufacturing. Guilds
1201:
When the Bourbon monarchy was restored in 1814, Ferdinand VII swore allegiance to the constitution, but almost immediately reneged and returned to autocratic rule and asserted his rule being "by the grace of God" as the 8
967:
is deeply entwined in the development of the Mexican economy. Two main ports, Veracruz on the Caribbean coast the served the transatlantic trade and Acapulco on the Pacific coast, the terminus for the Asian trade via the
2126:
then fell even further as the Depression took hold, essentially collapsing. In 1932, GDP dropped 16%, after drops in 1927 of 5.9%, in 1928 5.4%, and 7.7%, such that there was a drop in GDP of 30.9% in a six-year period.
602:. Conquerors built private fortunes less from the plunder of conquest than from the labor and tribute and the acquisition of land in areas where they held encomiendas, translating that into long-term sustainable wealth.
2075:
with the United States, an important step in securing recognition. Concessions made to foreign oil during the Porfiriato were a particularly difficult matter in the post-Revolutionary period, but General and President
1348:
The new republic's situation did not promote economic growth and development. The British established a network of merchant houses in the major cities. However, according to Hilarie J. Heath, the results were bleak:
1189:
of political instability in Spain and Spain's overseas possessions, as many elements of society viewed Joseph Napoleon as an illegitimate usurper of the throne. In 1810, with the massive revolt led by secular cleric
1657:. Oil has been an important contributor to the Mexican economy as well as an ongoing political issue, since early development was entirely in the hands of foreigners. Economic nationalism played the key role in the
799:
Although pre-Hispanic Mexico produced surpluses of corn (maize) and other crops for tribute and subsistence use, Spaniards began commercial agriculture, cultivating wheat, sugar, fruit trees, and even for a period,
1043:
crown's lack of investment in a good system of paved roads made moving products to market insecure and expensive, so enterprises had a narrower reach for their products, particularly bulky agricultural products.
2091:
succeeded ObregĂłn in the presidency; he was another of the revolutionary generals who then became president of Mexico. An important economic achievement of the Calles administration was the 1925 founding of the
2620:(EZLN) in Chiapas took several small towns, belying Mexico's assurances that the government created the conditions for stability. In March 1994, the Institutional Revolutionary Party's presidential candidate
2550:
were inadequate to attract foreign investment and return capital in sufficient quantities for sustained recovery. A shift in development strategy became necessary, predicated on the need to generate a net
1010:
mode of transporting goods was via pack mules. Poor infrastructure was coupled with poor security, so that banditry was an impediment to the safe transport of people and goods. In the Northern area, the
733:
system which allowed miners to take especially promising ore for themselves. There was a brief period of mining in central and southern Mexico that mobilized indigenous men's involuntary labor by the
614:
was a major economic institution of the early period, it was gradually abandoned due to the drop in indigenous populations, economic growth and the expansion of the number of Spaniards in New Spain.
1753:
became a banker and intermediary between foreign investors and the Mexican government. As a powerful politician and landowner, Creel "became one of the most hated symbols of the Porfirian regime."
2353:
In 2022, Sindicato independiente nacional de trabajadores trabajadoras de la industria automotriz, SINTTIA, a union backed by American and Canadian unions won a union representation election at a
1459:
market. There were no factories to produce machines used in manufacturing, although there was a small iron and steel industry in the late 1870s before Porfirio DĂaz's regime took hold after 1876.
828:
The system of land tenure has been cited as one of the reasons that Mexico failed to develop economically during the colonial period, with large estates inefficiently organized and run and the "
753:
at the Real del Monte mine, owned by the Conde de Regla, in which they closed down the mine and murdered a royal official. In the colonial period, mine workers were the elites of free workers,
2575:
a negligible amount, but growth rebounded to almost 4 percent during 1994, as fiscal and monetary policy were relaxed and foreign investment was bolstered by United States ratification of the
2628:. Salinas was loath to devalue the currency in the final months of his term, leaving to his successor to deal with the economic consequences. In December 1994 Zedillo was inaugurated. The
1985:, calling for a revolt against DĂaz. In his plan he made the vague promise to return stolen village lands, making Madero appear sympathetic to the peasantry and potentially bringing about
1741:, where cotton was commercially grown. Madero sought to interest fellow large landowners in the region in pushing for the construction of a high dam to control periodic flooding along the
4588:
1002:. YucatĂĄn was more easily accessed from Cuba than Mexico City, but it had a dense Maya population so there was a potential labor force to produce products such as sugar, cacao, and later
1619:, often transporting them and their horses on trains. Other factors promoting a better economic situation were the elimination of local customs duties that had hindered domestic trade.
2005:
hard hit by the destruction of tracks, bridges, and rolling stock. Significantly, the Gulf Coast petroleum installations were not damaged. They were a vital source of revenue for the
1134:
or sales tax was established in Spain in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, and was especially favored by the crown because in Spain it did not fall under the jurisdiction of the
2422:
disequilibrium became unsustainable as capital flight intensified, leading the government to devalue the peso by 58 percent in 1976. The action ended Mexico's twenty-year unmodified
2204:(1940â46) in 1941 reorganized the National Finance Bank. During his presidency, Mexico's economy recovered from the Depression and entered a period of sustained growth, known as the
2185:
The railroads had been nationalized in 1929 and 1930 under CĂĄrdenas's predecessors, but his nationalization of the Mexican petroleum industry was a major move in 1938, which created
2456:
The macroeconomic policies of the 1970s left Mexico's economy highly vulnerable to external conditions. These turned sharply against Mexico in the early 1980s, and caused the worst
5261:
Tutino, John. "Life and Labor in North Mexican Haciendas: The Querétaro-San Luis Potosà Region, 1775-1810," in Elsa Cecilia Frost, Michael C. Meyer, and Josefina Zoraida Våzquez,
1977:
domestic enterprises was nearing an end with the fall of the DĂaz government, producing uncertainty for businesses. The upstart challenger to Porfirio DĂaz in the 1910 election,
1745:, and increase agricultural production there. One was constructed in the post-revolutionary period. The bilingual son of a U.S. immigrant to Mexico and the niece of the powerful
1760:
Building of large-scale infrastructure, such as dams, was part of modernization. Dams allowed for the expansion of irrigated commercial agriculture. Abel Briquet, photographer
1592:
A photo of the Metlac railway bridge, an example of engineering achievement that overcame geographical barriers and allowed efficient movement of goods and people. Photo by
1038:
system in eighteenth-century Mexico. Spaniards were at the top of the system with mixed-race men and women consigned to the bottom ranks, with both engaging in manual labor.
1910:
1554:
commercially vital Mexico CityâVeracruz railroad, begun in 1837 but disrupted by civil wars and the French invasion from 1850 to 1868. Protected by high tariffs, Mexico's
510:. Following the military phase of the Revolution, Mexican regimes attempted to "transform a largely rural and backward country⊠into a middle-sized industrial power." The
648:, the big transformation in New Spain's economy came in the mid-sixteenth century with discoveries of large deposits of silver. Near Mexico City, the Nahua settlement of
1830:), catering to elite urban consumers. They used advertising and innovative ways of displaying and selling goods. Female clerks catered to customers. In Mexico City, the
2409:, President of Mexico 1976â82, whose government borrowed heavily from foreign banks with loans in dollars against future oil revenues, crashed when oil prices dropped.
1561:
Mexican per capita income had fallen during the period 1800 until sometime in the 1860s, but began recovering during the Restored Republic. However, it was during the
3793:
Von Wobeser, Gisela. "La consolidaciĂłn de vales reales como factor determinante de la lucha de independencia en MĂ©xico, 1804-1808." Historia mexicana (2006): 373-425.
1604:
Map of first Mexican rail line between Veracruz and Mexico City. The creation of a railway network was the key to Mexico's rapid growth in the late nineteenth century
1895:
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1996. The Mexican government reported growth of 7 percent for the second quarter, and the Union Bank of Switzerland forecast economic growth of 4 percent for 1996.
6661:
1940:
7246:
634:
Silver became the motor of the Spanish colonial economy both in New Spain and in Peru. It was mined under license from the crown, with a fifth of the proceeds (
718:
the eighteenth century, mining was professionalized and elevated in social prestige with the establishment of the royal college of mining and a miners' guild (
4567:
Patrick H. Cosby, "Leviathan in the Tropics: A postcolonial environmental history of the Papaloapan Projects in Mexico." PhD diss. University of Florida 2011.
1451:
60 factories in Puebla and Mexico City to supply the most robust consumer market in the capital. In the colonial era, that region had seen the development of
726:
control that the royal mints exerted over the uniform weight and quality of silver bars and coins made Spanish silver the most accepted and trusted currency.
5394:
ChallĂș, AmĂlcar E.; Solares, Israel GarcĂa; GĂłmezâGalvarriato, Aurora (2024). "Rentâwage inequality in Mexico City, 1770â1930". The Economic History Review.
1796:
As industrial enterprises grew in Mexico, workers organized to assert their rights. Strikes occurred in the mining industry, most notably at the U.S.-owned
7115:
5866:
2310:
Before the 1990s, unions in Mexico had been historically part of a state institutional system. From 1940 until the 1980s, during the worldwide spread of
1850:
1880:
6421:
1098:
were busy when ships were in port, but they did not have large numbers of Spanish settlers in large part due to their disagreeable tropical climate.
729:
Many of the laborers in the silver mines were free wage earners drawn by high wages and the opportunity to acquire wealth for themselves through the
1166:
common lands to individuals, and other instruments to make agriculture more profitable. In New Spain, the bishop-elect of the diocese of Michoacan,
5415:
John H. Coatsworth and Alan M. Taylor, eds. Cambridge, Massachusetts: David Rockefeller Center for Latin American Studies, Harvard University 1998.
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2399:(1976â82). But economic activity fluctuated wildly during the decade, with spurts of rapid growth followed by sharp depressions in 1976 and 1982.
749:
was worth more than the daily wage. Mine owners sought to terminate the practice. Mine workers pushed back against mine owners, particularly in a
2318:, the Mexican unions did not operate independently, but instead as part of a state institutional system, largely controlled by the ruling party.
851:
confined spaces, such as pigs and chickens. Small holders also produced wine, cotton and tobacco. In the eighteenth century, the crown created a
4585:
2149:(Nafinsa)). as a "semi-private finance company to sell rural real estate" but its mandate was expanded during the term of CĂĄrdenas's successor,
7083:
4182:
Tenenbaum, Barbara A. and James N. McElveen, "From speculative to substantive boom: the British in Mexico, 1821-1911." in Oliver Marshall, ed.
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developed, and most needed both a small permanent labor force supplemented by temporary labor at peak times, such as planting and harvesting.
7231:
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Indians, Merchants, and Markets: A Reinterpretation of the Repartimiento and Spanish-Indian Economic Relations in Colonial Oaxaca, 1750â1821
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Miller, Richard Ulric. "American Railroad Unions and the National Railways of Mexico: An Exercise in Nineteenth-Century Manifest Destiny,"
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Southern Methodist University, Central University Libraries, DeGolyer Library. See:digitalcollections.smu.edu/cdm/ref/collection/mex/id/508
1969:
Revolutionaries outside Cuernavaca 1911. Trains were used to transport men and horses. Trains and tracks were targets in warfare. Photo by
1558:
doubled its production of processed items between 1854 and 1877. Overall, manufacturing grew using domestic capital, though only modestly.
1865:
1510:
that had allowed ecclesiastics and military personnel to be tried by their own courts were abolished. Liberals codified the Reform in the
1198:
adopted a written constitution that established the crown as a constitutional monarch and limited the power of the Roman Catholic Church.
1070:
stratagems for recruiting labor, to collect debts or enforce contracts, to evade taxes or circumvent courts, and to defend titles to land.
7098:
6288:
387:
7130:
7043:
6616:
5601:
Razo, Armando and Stephen Haber, "The Rate of Growth of Productivity in Mexico, 1850-1933: Evidence from the Cotton Textile Industry,"
2096:, that became the first permanent government bank (following the nineteenth-century failure of the Banco de AvĂo). Calles enforced the
908:
41:
7295:
7216:
6384:
2109:, a former Wall Street banker, brokered an agreement in 1929 between the Mexican government and the Cristeros, which restored peace.
4558:, revised and enlarged edition. New York: Atheneum 1963, (originally published by Harvard University Press 1953, pp. 374â75, 382â85.
2633:
storage, and communications by 2 percent. The only sector to register positive growth was utilities, which expanded by 3 percent.
2612:, Salinas stripped three zeros from the peso, creating a parity of $ 1 new peso for $ 1000 of the old ones. On 1 January 1994, the
2178:
610:, Spaniards who had become landowners acquired permanent and part-time labor from Indigenous and mixed-race workers. Although the
7307:
6777:
5730:
5077:
Haskett, Robert S. "Our Suffering with the Taxco Tribute": Involuntary Mine Labor and Indigenous Society in Central New Spain,"
4296:
Bound in Twine: The History and Ecology of the Henequen-Wheat Complex for Mexico and the American and Canadian Plains, 1880-1950
7362:
7352:
7155:
7058:
6543:
6298:
6167:
5366:
Brown, Jonathan C. "Foreign Investment and Domestic Politics: British Development of Mexican Petroleum during the Porfiriato,"
3171:
Robert S. Haskett, "Our Suffering with the Taxco Tribute: Involuntary Mine Labor and Indigenous Society in Central New Spain,"
33:
4630:
2177:
in 1936 in northern Mexico City, to train professional scientists and engineers to forward Mexico's economic development. The
2165:
Education had always been a key factor in the nation's development, with liberals enshrining secular, public education in the
2145:(1934â1940), which initiated a new phase of industrialization in Mexico. In 1934, CĂĄrdenas created the National Finance Bank (
2129:
The Great Depression brought Mexico a sharp drop in national income and internal demand after 1929. A complicating factor for
1154:
In a major move to tap what it thought was a major source of revenue, the crown in 1804 promulgated the Act of Consolidation (
795:'s most important export product after silver and its production was almost exclusively in the hands of indigenous cultivators
528:
of 1938. Mexico benefited from its participation in World War II, and the post-war years experienced what has been called the
7312:
6857:
6431:
5568:
5514:
5389:
5203:
Sampat Assadourian, Carlos. "The Colonial Economy: The Transfer of the European System of Production to New Spain and Peru,"
4792:
4728:
4304:
2617:
2194:
784:
533:
5831:
5796:
4674:
Kershaw, Paul V. (2017-05-16). "Averting a global financial crisis: the US, the IMF, and the Mexican debt crisis of 1976".
2339:
1549:(1857â72) sought to attract foreign capital to finance Mexico's economic modernization. His government revised the tax and
1370:
The early republic has often been called the "Age of Santa Anna," a military hero, participant in the coup ousting emperor
496:
251:
196:
114:
1925:
1251:"King of the Spains and the Indies, Mexico , 8 reales." Crowned Spanish arms between the Pillars of Hercules adorned with
596:. Indigenous communities' tribute and labor (but not land) were granted to individual conquerors in an arrangement called
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4845:
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3184:
Alan Probert, "Bartolomé de Medina: The Patio Process and the Sixteenth Century Silver Crisis" in Bakewell, Peter, ed.
2256:
2130:
2105:
government had a long-term desire for peace along its long southern border with Mexico. The U.S. ambassador to Mexico,
2068:
1396:
5462:
The Politics of Property Rights: Political Instability, Credible Commitments, and Economic Growth in Mexico, 1876-1929
4481:
4197:
British Lions and Mexican Eagles: Business, Politics, and Empire in the Career of Weetman Pearson in Mexico, 1889-1919
3074:
Miguel S. Woinczek. "Industrialization, Foreign Capital, and Technology Transfer: The Mexican Experience, 1930â1985."
2071:
was established to deal with claims by Americans for property-loss during the Revolution. ObregĂłn also negotiated the
5993:
5881:
5821:
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1981:, was from a very wealthy, estate-owning family in northern Mexico. After the fraudulent election, Madero issued the
177:
4393:, "The Crimes and Consequences of Illegal Immigration: A Cross-Border Examination of Operation Wetback, 1943â1954."
2174:
7367:
7327:
7236:
6960:
6736:
6569:
5988:
5963:
5743:
5671:
Wionczek, Miguel S. "Industrialization, Foreign Capital, and Technology Transfer: The Mexican Experience 1930â85,"
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1682:
326:
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770:
468:
largest population sector was indigenous subsistence farmers, which predominantly inhabited the center and south.
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The largest silver deposits were found north of the zone of dense indigenous communities and Spanish settlement.
380:
2173:
to exclude and counter the Roman Catholic Church from its long-standing role in education. CĂĄrdenas founded the
2154:
in Mexico, extensive redistribution of land to the peasantry, and re-organizing the party originally created by
1786:
994:. There was a road further north to New Mexico, but Mexico's far north, except for a few mining centers such as
7226:
6990:
6900:
6885:
6711:
6701:
6609:
6230:
5958:
2603:
1170:, was influenced by Jovellanos's work and proposed similar measures in Mexico. The bishop-elect's proposal for
1115:
5636:
Topik, Steven. "the Economic Role of the State in Liberal Regimes: Brazil and Mexico Compared, 1888â1910," in
1484:
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2067:
was elected president of Mexico. A key task was to secure diplomatic recognition from the United States. The
1316:
626:
Miner's gear from the colonial period in Mexico on display at the Historical Archive and Museum of Mining in
408:
149:
5315:
Armstrong, Christopher and H.V. Nelles. "A Curious Capital Flow: Canadian Investment in Mexico, 1902â1910,"
3895:
Hilarie J. Heath, "British Merchant Houses in Mexico, 1821-1860: Conforming Business Practices and Ethics,"
1712:
986:
to Mexico City. Another axis connected Mexico City and Puebla to the mining areas of the north, centered on
835:
caused waste and misallocation of resources." These causes were posited before a plethora of studies of the
680:
that used mercury to chemically extract the silver from ore was a breakthrough. Spain had a mercury mine in
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import tariffs and internal transit tariffs, there was not enough profit for British to pursue that route.
1283:
1263:
1162:
1119:
880:
Both Spaniards and the indigenous produced native products commercially, particular the color-fast red dye
4985:
Church Wealth in Mexico: A Study of the "Juzgado de CapellanĂas" in the Archbishopric of Mexico, 1800â1856
4611:
Murillo, M. Victoria. "From populism to neoliberalism: Labor unions and market reforms in Latin America."
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into one with sectoral representation of workers, peasants, the popular sector, and the Mexican army. The
1965:
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6726:
6716:
6706:
6676:
6646:
6208:
6108:
6035:
5769:
5723:
5629:
Smith, Robert Freeman. "The Formation and Development of the International Bankers Committee in Mexico."
5347:
The Mexican Mining Industry, 1890â1950: A Study of the Interaction of Politics, Economics, and Technology
5155:
Shadows over Anahuac: An Ecological Interpretation of Crisis and Development in Central Mexico, 1730â1800
4751:
2802:
2162:
created the mechanism to manage conflicting economic and political groups and manage national elections.
1518:
or the Three Yearsâ War was won by Liberals, but Mexico plunged again in conflict with the government of
1436:
1366:
in 1852. The "Age of Santa Anna" is characterized by poor conditions for economic growth and development.
479:
348:
336:
124:
5273:
Hacienda and Market in Eighteenth-Century Mexico: The Rural Economy of the Guadalajara Region, 1675â1820
7332:
7280:
7206:
7145:
7120:
7073:
7022:
7000:
6985:
6920:
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6797:
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6756:
6751:
6721:
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6651:
6640:
6511:
6332:
6223:
5886:
5841:
5032:
4833:
3751:
Lavrin, AsunciĂłn, "The Execution of the Law of Consolidacion in New Spain: Economic Aims and Results."
3422:
2326:", saw rising incomes and improved standards of living but the primary beneficiaries were the wealthy.
2016:
2009:
faction that was ultimately victorious in the decade-long civil conflict. The promulgation of the 1917
1535:
1239:"Ferdinand VII by the Grace of God, 1821." Right profile of Ferdinand VII with cloak and laurel wreath.
750:
373:
219:
70:
5411:
Coatsworth, John H. "Economic and Institutional Trajectories in Nineteenth-Century Latin America," in
5354:
The Mexican Economy, 1870-1930: Essays on the Economic History of Institutions, Revolution, and Growth
1982:
1399:. The Catholic Church was a major economic force during the colonial era and early nineteenth century.
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6602:
6416:
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6040:
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2827:
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2276:
2226:
Mexican guest workers arrive in Los Angeles as part of Mexican participation in World War II via the
1658:
1633:
525:
488:
284:
4616:
1030:
45:
6915:
6852:
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6318:
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6003:
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2406:
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2197:
began to make a slow advance during the 1930s, although it was not yet official government policy.
577:
299:
164:
5622:
Schoonover, Thomas. "Dollars Over Dominion: United States Economic Interests in Mexico, 1861-67,"
5446:
Haber, Stephen H. "Assessing the Obstacles to Industrialisation: The Mexican Economy, 1830â1940,"
5418:
4390:
2608:
The last years of the Salinas administration were turbulent ones. In 1993 when Mexico experienced
2382:
state, the union has negotiated average pay of 600 pesos ($ 29.15) a day for an eight-hour shift.
2155:
2088:
1101:
Restricting trade put big merchant houses, largely family businesses, in a privileged position. A
846:
that smaller holders and indigenous villages did not in cultivation of grains, pulque, sugar, and
688:). The higher the proportion of mercury in the process meant the higher the extraction of silver.
423:
7393:
7337:
6389:
6250:
5978:
5786:
5659:
The Mexican Heartland: How Communities Shaped Capitalism,, a Nation, and World History, 1500-2000
5481:
5434:
Working Women, Entrepreneurs, and the Mexican Revolution: The Coffee Culture of CĂłrdoba, Veracruz
1994:
1946:
1497:
1320:
761:
663:
became the most important centers of silver production, but there were many others, including in
5846:
4785:
The Mexican Heartland: How Communities Shaped Capitalism, a Nation, and World History, 1500-2000
4232:
Watering the Revolution: An Environmental and Technological History of Agrarian Reform in Mexico
2201:
974:
640:) rendered to the crown. Although the Spaniards sought gold, and there were some small mines in
6454:
6359:
6265:
6255:
6113:
6093:
5791:
5716:
4894:
Veracruz Merchants, 1770â1829: A Mercantile Elite in Late Bourbon and Early Independent Mexico.
3882:
Stephen Haber, "Assessing the Obstacles to Industrialisation: The Mexican Economy, 1830â1940,"
3021:
2477:
2006:
1815:
1768:
1694:
1645:
on the Gulf Coast dates from the late nineteenth century. Two prominent foreign investors were
1524:
1312:
1214:
964:
511:
142:
90:
2777:
1856:
1371:
1271:
6526:
6379:
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6193:
6123:
6076:
6015:
5836:
4802:
4294:
3588:
Justice by Insurance: The General Indian Court of Mexico and the Legal Aides of the Half-Real
3530:
Building the King's Highway: Labor, Society, and Family on Mexico's Caminos Reales, 1757â1804
1986:
1802:
1746:
1664:
1171:
515:
214:
5561:
The Sausage Rebellion: Public Health, Private Enterprise, and Meat in Mexico City, 1890-1917
4372:
Haber, "Assessing the Obstacles to Industrialisation: the Mexican Economy, 1830â1940," p. 27
3100:
James Lockhart, "Encomienda and Hacienda: The Evolution of the Great Estate in the Indies,"
2927:
2247:
1325:
The early post-independence period in Mexican was organized as a federal republic under the
1299:
ended with a military coup in 1822 and the formation of a weak federated republic under the
6538:
6374:
6349:
6344:
6235:
6140:
5774:
5759:
5615:
Schell, William, Jr. "Money as Commodity: Mexico's Conversion to the Gold Standard, 1905."
5340:
Institutions and Investment: The Political Basis of Industrialization in Mexico Before 1911
4752:
CBC News, "Mexico joins Canada, notifies U.S. it's ready to implement new NAFTA" 2020/04/04
2719:
2526:
per capita fell 5 percent each year between 1983 and 1988. High levels of unemployment and
2315:
2170:
2166:
2150:
2142:
2134:
2020:
2010:
1998:
1997:(PLM) articulated a political and economic agenda, much of which was incorporated into the
1511:
1326:
1300:
1296:
1167:
499:, the late nineteenth century found political stability and economic prosperity during the
129:
99:
5896:
5224:
Super, John C. "QuerĂ©taro Obrajes: Industry and Society in Provincial Mexico, 1600â1810,"
2461:
2451:
1807:
1716:
The Moctezuma Brewery, near Orizaba. Beer making was an enterprise introduced by Germans.
305:
8:
6491:
6481:
6364:
6270:
6150:
6098:
5921:
5901:
5275:. Berkeley: University of California Press 1981. Reprinted 2006, Rowman and Littlefield.
2877:
2629:
2495:
2487:
2423:
2419:
2064:
2056:
2041:
1978:
1901:
1871:
1726:
400:
321:
5006:
Bureaucrats, Planters, and Workers: The Making of the Tobacco Monopoly in Bourbon Mexico
4723:(Primera ediciĂłn ed.). MĂ©xico, D.F.: Fondo de Cultura EconĂłmica. pp. 754â771.
3385:
Bureaucrats, Planters, and Workers: The Making of the Tobacco Monopoly in Bourbon Mexico
2698:
Please help update this article to reflect recent events or newly available information.
2040:
back of changes in land tenure, the leader of the Constitutionalists and now President,
1444:
6521:
6496:
6059:
6045:
5861:
5638:
Guiding the Invisible Hand: Economic Liberalism and the State in Latin American History
4962:
Chowning, Margaret. "The ConsolidaciĂłn de Vales Reales in the Bishopric of Michoacan,"
4820:
Transatlantic Ties in the Spanish Empire. Brihuega, Spain and Puebla, Mexico, 1560â1620
4699:
3780:
Chowning, Margaret. "The ConsolidaciĂłn de Vales Reales in the Bishopric of Michoacan,"
3426:
2101:
1960:
1627:
1539:
1466:
843:
507:
229:
5114:
The Making of a Strike: Mexican Silver Workers' Struggles in Real del Monte, 1766â1775
3543:
Crown and Clergy in Colonial Mexico, 1759â1821: The Crisis of Ecclesiastical Privilege
3045:
2902:
2752:
2141:
In the mid-1930s, Mexico's economy started to recover under the General and President
2093:
1267:
822:
668:
7272:
6562:
6446:
6426:
6411:
6308:
6240:
6181:
6155:
5968:
5943:
5933:
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5564:
5510:
5385:
5276:
5245:
5194:
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5158:
5144:
5122:"The Execution of the Law of ConsolidaciĂłn in New Spain: Economic Aims and Results."
5103:
5068:
5054:
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4995:
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4855:
4841:
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4734:
4724:
4703:
4691:
4448:
Unwanted Mexican Americans in the Great Depression: Repatriation Pressures, 1929â1939
4300:
3011:
2715:
2665:
2563:
2523:
2305:
2265:
2028:
1831:
1528:
1515:
1429:
1123:
1122:, who proposed a major land reform in Spain that also influenced Mexico. Portrait by
1086:
The crown sought to control trade and emigration to its overseas territories via the
995:
664:
294:
241:
79:
2100:
articles of the Constitution of 1917, prompting a major outbreak of violence in the
2077:
1487:
in 1854 ushered in a major period of institutional and economic reform. The Liberal
506:
Regional civil wars broke out in 1910 and lasted until 1920, known generally as the
6464:
6218:
5911:
5906:
5806:
4683:
2506:
2243:
2122:
2047:
1931:
1730:
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1555:
1358:
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whose mercury was exported to Mexico. (Peru had its own local source of mercury at
331:
316:
154:
5404:
Coatsworth, John H. "Obstacles to Economic Growth in Nineteenth-Century Mexico",
4687:
1993:, sweeping land reform was the core of their demands. Earlier, the demands by the
1581:
1566:
1546:
1519:
6578:
6533:
6516:
6506:
6469:
6404:
6354:
5891:
5233:
Migrants in the Mexican North. Mobility, Economy, and Society in a Colonial World
5119:
4592:
4105:
John H. Coatsworth, "Obstacles to Economic Growth in Nineteenth-Century Mexico,"
3869:
John H. Coatsworth, "Obstacles to Economic Growth in Nineteenth-Century Mexico,"
3061:
John H. Coatsworth, "Obstacles of Economic Growth in Nineteenth-Century Mexico",
2625:
2527:
2370:
2323:
2260:
2227:
2217:
2205:
2081:
2072:
2033:
1916:
1756:
1706:
1678:
1646:
1593:
1501:
1144:
1061:
922:
714:
584:
Mexico's economy in the colonial period was based on resource extraction (mainly
529:
415:
289:
235:
6594:
5399:
Growth Against Development: The Economic Impact of Railroads in Porfirian Mexico
5191:
Textiles and Capitalism in Mexico: an Economic History of the Obrajes, 1539â1840
4146:
Growth Against Development: The Economic Impact of Railroads in Porfirian Mexico
4067:
Textiles and Capitalism in Mexico: an Economic History of the Obrajes, 1539â1840
2490:, President of Mexico 1982â88, who dealt with the financial debacle of the 1980s
2464:, "the lost decade", i.e., of economic growth. By mid-1981, Mexico was beset by
1415:
1178:
419:
Silver peso mined and minted in colonial Mexico, which became a global currency.
7347:
6203:
6025:
5536:
5268:
5265:. Mexico and Tucson: El Colegio de MĂ©xico and University of Arizona Press 1979.
3860:
John H. Coatsworth, "Obstacles to Economic Growth in Nineteenth-Century Mexico"
3300:
The Making of a Strike: Mexican Workersâ Struggles in Real del Monte, 1766â1775
2984:
2609:
2510:
2473:
2465:
2414:
2354:
1797:
1698:
1626:
The earliest and most far reaching foreign investment was in the creation of a
1341:
1279:
1190:
1095:
1087:
999:
969:
952:
944:
801:
548:
246:
5645:
Making a New World: Founding Capitalism in the BajĂo and Spanish North America
5051:
The Leverage of Labor. Managing the CortĂ©s Haciendas in Tehuantepec, 1588â1688
1411:
1262:
In 1820, Spanish liberals staged a coup and forced Ferdinand to reinstate the
776:
7382:
7357:
6583:
6436:
6130:
4952:
4945:"Mexican Silver Mining in the Eighteenth Century: The Revival of Zacatecas."
4942:
4933:
4916:
4899:
4738:
4717:
CĂĄrdenas, Enrique (2015). "Cambio estructural, crisis y rescate: 1989-1995".
4695:
4598:
3818:
3802:
3557:
3470:
Textiles and Capitalism in Mexico: An Economic History of Obrajes, 1539â1840.
3444:
A plague of sheep : environmental consequences of the conquest of Mexico
3337:
3139:
2970:
2347:
2311:
2289:
2280:
2106:
2013:
was one of the first acts of the faction named for the Constitution of 1857.
1990:
1886:
1819:
1811:
foreign owners' unfair practices, particularly regarding wage differentials.
1750:
885:
861:
677:
514:
gave the Mexican government the power to expropriate property, which favored
363:
4992:
Bubbles and Bonanzas: British Investors and Investments in Mexico, 1824-1860
4763:
1823:
1471:
1130:
Internal trade in Mexico was hampered by taxes and levies by officials. The
622:
6474:
6275:
5871:
5573:
Pletcher, David M. "Mexico Opens the Door to American Capital, 1877â1880",
3483:
Of Things of the Indies: Essays Old and New in Early Latin American History
2998:
2567:
2331:
2293:
2272:
2097:
1690:
1669:
1654:
1440:
960:
926:
904:
685:
593:
573:
537:
256:
5359:
Brown, Jonathan C. "Foreign and Native-Born Workers in Porfirian Mexico,"
4718:
4221:
Brown, Jonathan C., "Foreign and Native-Born Workers in Porfirian Mexico".
1600:
1392:
1022:
as a corporation, its holdings were not broken up to distribute to heirs.
932:
911:
in Mexico. Mules were the main way cargo was moved overland, engraving by
814:
645:
6459:
5582:
Rails, Mines, and Progress: Seven American Promoters in Mexico, 1867â1911
5455:
Industry and Underdevelopment: The Industrialization of Mexico, 1890â1940
4581:
2541:
2531:
2442:
1970:
1827:
1777:
1742:
1717:
636:
5256:
Puebla de los Angeles. Industry and Society in a Mexican City, 1700â1850
4536:
HernĂĄndez, "The Crimes and Consequences of Illegal Immigration," p. 423.
4523:
Easterlin, R. "Why Isn't the Whole World Developed?", Appendix Table 1.
2537:
2476:. This disequilibrium, along with the virtual disappearance of Mexico's
1919:, a Briton who made a fortune during the Porfiriato in railroads and oil
1475:
The Constitution incorporated individual laws passed during the Liberal
1053:), such as miners and merchants who had separate courts and exemptions.
925:, the mainstay of transatlantic and transpacific shipping, engraving by
487:(ca. 1850â1861; 1867â76) attempted to curtail the economic power of the
5856:
5851:
5826:
5811:
5493:
A Pueblo Divided: Business, Property, and Community in Papantla, Mexico
5141:
A Plague of Sheep: Environmental Consequences of the Conquest of Mexico
5127:
4815:
3900:
3756:
3256:. Austin: University of Texas Institute of Latin American Studies 1976.
2395:(1970â76), and at about a 6 percent rate during that of his successor,
2375:
2023:
that set a new framework for the Mexican political and economic systems
1610:
1562:
1479:
and touched off an extended conflict between Liberals and Conservatives
1424:
987:
912:
660:
598:
544:
500:
492:
484:
483:
indigenous and mixed-race peasants. The mid-nineteenth-century Liberal
224:
191:
185:
159:
5287:
The Mining Community in Northern New Spain: The Parral Mining District
3087:
Tracy Wilkinson, "Mexico, buffeted by low oil prices, cuts spending",
2402:
2242:
Map of the Papaloapan River drainage basin before construction of the
2052:
1588:
1432:
power or demand meant that agriculture was a more prudent investment.
695:
681:
491:
and to modernize and industrialize the Mexican economy. Following the
5764:
5675:(SAGE, London, Beverly Hills, and New Delhi) Vol. 17 (1986), 283â302.
4720:
El largo curso de la economĂa mexicana : de 1780 a nuestros dĂas
4381:
Haber, "Assessing the Obstacles to Industrialisation", p. 27â28.
3078:(SAGE. London, Beverly Hills, and New Delhi). Vol 17 (1986), 283â302.
2514:
2457:
2238:
1492:
1223:
1193:
rapidly expanded into a social upheaval of Indigenous and mixed-race
1103:
991:
881:
869:
for agriculture was abolished in 1632. Large-scale landed estates or
792:
788:
656:
564:
471:
404:
119:
5702:
5100:
Colonial Entrepreneurs: Families and Business in Bourbon Mexico City
3612:. Mexico: EdiciĂłn y DistribuciĂłn Ibero Americana Publicaciones 1954.
1637:
Oil drilling on Mexico's Gulf Coast was a capital-intensive industry
1467:
Liberal reform, French intervention and Restored Republic, 1855â1876
972:, allowed the crown to regulate trade. In Spain the House of Trade (
855:
monopoly on both cultivation and manufacturing of tobacco products.
672:
540:
dropped in the 1980s, Mexico experienced a severe financial crisis.
6394:
5876:
2637:
1734:
1003:
948:
837:
706:
607:
274:
5708:
5507:
From the Grounds Up: Building an Export Economy in Southern Mexico
5167:
Patch, Robert W. "Agrarian Change in Eighteenth-Century Yucatan,"
4866:
Silver Mining and Society in Colonial Mexico: Zacatecas, 1546â1700
4178:
4176:
4120:
Empire and Revolution: The Americans in Mexico since the Civil War
3851:. New York and Cambridge: Cambridge University Press 1983, p. 415.
2211:
1418:, politician and government official, founder of the Banco de AvĂo
918:
810:
713:
The crown had a monopoly on mercury and set its price. During the
702:
5310:
Outcasts in Their Own Land: Mexican Industrial workers, 1906â1911
4514:
Haber, "Assessing the Obstacles to Industrialisation," pp. 25â26.
4424:
Haber, "Assessing the Obstacles to Industrialisation", pp. 28-29.
3610:
Los gremios mexicanos: La organizaciĂłn en Nueva España, 1521â1861
3267:
Silver Mining and Society in Colonial Mexico: Zacatecas 1546â1700
2222:
1949:, whose family owned millions of acres of land in northern Mexico
1773:
1738:
1702:
1615:
1488:
1476:
937:
852:
818:
627:
589:
547:
economic policies and made constitutional changes to promote the
5589:
Mexican Government and Industrial Development: The Banco de AvĂo
5522:
The Power and the Money: The Mexican Financial System, 1876-1928
5484:. "The Working Class and the Mexican Revolution, c. 1900-1920,"
4545:
HernĂĄndez, "The Crimes and Consequences of Immigration," p. 425.
2502:
2483:
2259:
had improved significantly from the previous three decades. The
2048:
Consolidating the Revolution and the Great Depression, 1920â1940
1577:
1183:
431:
5739:
5640:, Joseph L. Love and Nils Jacobsen, eds. New York 1988, 117â44.
5478:, vol. 1 pp. 135â138. Chicago: Fitzroy and Dearborn, 1996.
5303:
Railroad Radicals in Cold War Mexico: Gender, Class, and Memory
4650:"'Fed up' GM workers in Mexico pick new union in historic vote"
4173:
3142:
and Harry E. Cross, "Colonial Silver Mining: Mexico and Peru,"
2472:, and a deteriorating balance of payments that spurred massive
2468:, higher world interest rates, rising inflation, an overvalued
2379:
1818:
was founded in 1895, with headquarters on Plateros Street (now
1814:
Signs of economic prosperity were apparent in the capital. The
1686:
1550:
1514:. A civil war between Liberals and Conservatives, known as the
1194:
1140:
1139:
tributes paid by non-whites (Indigenous, Blacks and mixed-race
983:
889:
641:
585:
5680:
Banqueros y revolucionarios: La soberania financiera de MĂ©xico
1889:, northern banker and landowner, key figure in the DĂaz regime
1207:
prevented a renewed assertion of royal control in the Indies.
813:, a region that includes a number of states of modern Mexico,
5556:. Mexico: Centro de Estudios Monetarios Latinomericanos 1963.
5529:
Governing Capital: International Finance and Mexican Politics
5382:
Creating Mexican Consumer Culture in the Age of Porfirio Diaz
5324:
Managing Mexico: Economists from Nationalism to Neoliberalism
4973:. Los Angeles: UCLA Latin American Center Publications 1993.
4352:
Creating Mexican Consumer Culture in the Age of Porfirio Diaz
2650:
2587:
2358:
2230:, freeing U.S. labor to fight overseas. Los Angeles, CA, 1942
2190:
1506:
1179:
From the era of independence to the Liberal Reform, 1800â1855
1049:
1035:
847:
649:
519:
4955:
and Harry Cross. "Colonial Silver Mining: Mexico and Peru,"
4354:. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press 2012 p. 108-15
4096:
Haber, "Assessing the Obstacles to Industrialisation," p. 7.
3959:
Haber, "Assessing the Obstacles to Industrialisation", p. 6.
3048:, "The Execution of the Law of Consolidation in New Spain."
2338:
Current old institutions like the Oil Workers Union and the
5610:
The Mexican Economy: Twentieth Century Structure and Growth
4921:
Haciendas and Ranchos in the Mexican BajĂo: LeĂłn, 1700â1860
4904:
Early Colonial Trade and Navigation between Mexico and Peru
3950:
Haber, "Assessing Obstacles to Industrialisation", pp. 1â2.
3714:
The Sale of Public Office in the Indies Under the Hapsburgs
2469:
1954:
1455:, small-scale workshops that wove cotton and woolen cloth.
805:
5207:
Vol. 24, Quincentenary Supplement. (1992), pp. 55â68.
4803:
http://eh.net/encyclopedia/the-economic-history-of-mexico/
4628:
4319:
Haber, "Assessing the Obstacles of Industrialisation," 19.
4019:
4017:
1904:, wealthy landowner who challenged DĂaz for the presidency
899:
576:
Mural of exploitation of Mexico by Spanish conquistadors,
4586:
U.S.-supported Economics Spurred Mexican Emigration, pt.1
4472:
Haber, "Assessing Obstacles to Industrialisation," p. 29.
4415:
Haber, "Assessing Obstacles to Industrialisation," p. 28.
4122:. Berkeley: University of California Press Du 2002, p. 73
3997:
Obstacles to Economic Growth in Nineteenth-Century Mexico
3809:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press 1991, pp. 510â12.
1584:, liberal military hero and President of Mexico 1876â1911
1291:
despite the transition to formal political independence.
1151:) to moderate the fluctuations and to forestall rioting.
5176:
Fernando CortĂ©s and the Marquesado in Morelos, 1522â1547
5126:
Vol. 53, No. 1 (Feb., 1973), pp. 27â49 Stable URL:
4505:
Haber, "Assessing Obstacles to Industrialisation," p. 29
4078:
Haber, "Assessing Obstacles to Industrialisation," p. 9.
4056:
Haber, "Assessing Obstacles to Industrialisation," p. 7.
4047:
Haber, "Assessing Obstacles to Industrialization", p. 2.
3911:
William Schell, Jr. "Banking and Finance: 1821â1910" in
1534:
The seeds of economic modernization were laid under the
1025:
1014:
or "uncivilized Indians" opposed settlement and travel.
5469:
The Limits of State Autonomy: Post-Revolutionary Mexico
4764:
Observatory of Economic Complexity, Mexico Profile 2017
4435:
La industrializaciĂłn mexicana durante la Gran DepresiĂłn
4087:
Haber, Assessing Obstacles to Industrialisation," p. 9.
4029:
4014:
4002:
3968:
Haber, "Assessing Obstacles to Industrialisation," p. 1
3494:
Coatsworth, "Obstacles to Economic Development", p. 92.
2582:
3553:
3551:
2200:
To foster industrial expansion, the administration of
4461:
Decade of Betrayal: Mexican Repatriation in the 1930s
4328:
Anderson, Rodney D. "Industrial Labor: 1876-1910" in
4283:
Haber, "Assessing Obstacles to Industrialization", 2.
4247:, vol. 1, p. 369. Chicago: Fitzroy and Dearborn 1997.
4170:
Brown, "Foreign and Native-Born Workers", map. p. 788
3915:, vol. 1, p. 131. Chicago: Fitzroy and Dearborn 1993.
2530:, especially in rural areas, stimulated migration to
5596:
La industria textil y el movimiento obrero en MĂ©xico
5563:. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press 2006.
5554:
EvoluciĂłn de las instituciones financieras en MĂ©xico
5384:. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press 2012.
5178:. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press 1973.
5157:. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press 1997.
5102:. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press 1983.
4463:. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1995.
3481:
Lockhart, James. "Trunk Lines and Feeder Lines," in
2960:
2674:
2460:
since the 1930s, with the period known in Mexico as
781:
Indigenous man collecting cochineal with a deer tail
5221:. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press 1985.
5136:. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press 1985.
4577:
4575:
4573:
3755:Vol. 53, No. 1 (Feb., 1973), pp. 27-49 Stable URL:
3548:
3515:
3513:
3485:. Stanford: Stanford University Press 1999, 120â57.
3370:
3368:
1649:, who was later knighted by the British crown, and
5591:. Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press 1983.
5474:Hamilton, Nora. "Banking and Finance, 1910â40" in
5460:Haber, Stephen H., Armando Razo, and Noel Maurer.
5401:. DeKalb: Northern Illinois University Press 1981.
4875:. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press 1970.
4647:
4256:Coatsworth, "Obstacles to Economic Growth," p. 83.
3519:Coatsworth, "Obstacles to Economic Growth", p. 93.
3374:Coatsworth, "Obstacles to Economic Growth," p. 87.
3362:Coatsworth, "Obstacles of Economic Growth", p. 87.
3353:Coatsworth, "Obstacles to Economic Growth," p. 86.
2616:(NAFTA) came into effect and on the same day, the
2344:Sindicato Nacional de Trabajadores de la EducaciĂłn
963:and has never given up its primacy in Mexico. The
558:
6624:
5698:Dean Peter Krogh Foreign Affairs Digital Archives
5022:. Gainesville: University of Florida Press 1993.
4937:Miners and Merchants in Bourbon Mexico, 1763â1810
4801:edited by Robert Whaples. December 27, 2018. URL
4777:
4629:Juan Montes; José de Córdoba (21 December 2012).
4496:. New York: Oxford University Press 1963, p. 244.
4406:HernĂĄndez, "The Crimes and Consequences", p. 424.
4274:Brown, "Foreign and Native-Born Workers," p. 790.
4265:Brown, "Foreign and Native-Born Workers", p. 789.
3599:Coatsworth, "Obstacles to Economic Growth" p. 94.
3505:A Guide to the Law and Legal Literature of Mexico
7380:
5377:. Berkeley: University of California Press 1992.
5289:. Berkeley: University of California Press 1949.
5065:Politics and Trade in Southern Mexico, 1750â1812
4913:. Berkeley: University of California Press 1943.
4906:. Berkeley: University of California Press 1954.
4840:. Los Angeles: UCLA Latin American Center 1976.
4570:
4341:Anderson, "Industrial Labor: 1876-1910", p. 685.
4234:. Durham: Duke University Press 2017, pp. 23-25.
4135:, vol. 1, pp. 746â49. Fitzroy and Dearborn 1997.
3716:. Berkeley: University of California Press 1953.
3590:. Berkeley: University of California Press 1983.
3577:. Gainesville: University of Florida Press 1952.
3510:
3459:. Berkeley: University of California Press 1943.
3365:
3344:. Berkeley: University of California Press 1943.
3235:
3233:
2292:. Although its imports remained high, most were
5413:Latin America and the World Economy since 1800,
4850:Altman, Ida, Sarah Cline, and Javier Pescador.
4797:Salvucci, Richard . âMexico: Economic Historyâ
3254:The Mexican Nobility at Independence, 1780â1826
3154:
3152:
2212:World War II and the Mexican miracle, 1940â1970
427:Historical GDP per capita development of Mexico
5509:. Stanford: Stanford University Press, 2019.
5193:. Princeton: Princeton University Press 1987.
5143:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press 1997.
4873:The Sugar Haciendas of the Marqueses del Valle
4631:"Mexico Takes On Teachers Over School Control"
3113:Ida Altman, Sarah Cline, and Javier Pescador,
741:per day plus a share of the ore produced, the
6610:
5724:
5471:. Princeton: Princeton University Press 1982.
5436:. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press 2013.
5326:. Princeton: Princeton University Press 2001.
5305:. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press 2014.
5116:. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press 1988.
5067:. New York: Cambridge University Press 1971.
4987:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press 1967.
4923:. New York: Cambridge University Press 1987.
4184:English speaking communities in Latin America
4069:. Princeton: Princeton University Press 1987.
3834:image of Ferdinand VII of Spain on the eight
3564:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press 1971.
3433:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press 1983.
3302:. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press 1988.
3269:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press 1971.
3230:
2385:
2059:, General and President of MĂ©xico (1920â1924)
1772:French-owned RĂo Blanco textile factory near
1184:Late colonial era and independence, 1800â1822
381:
311:
5464:. New York: Cambridge University Press 2003.
5312:. DeKalb: Northern Illinois University 1976.
5294:
5244:. Stanford: Stanford University Press 1979.
5039:. Stanford: Stanford University Press 1964.
5020:Economic Growth and Change in Bourbon Mexico
4939:. New York: Cambridge University Press 1971.
4882:. Stanford: Stanford University Press 2000.
4868:. New York: Cambridge University Press 1971.
4641:
4459:Francisco Balderrama and Raymond RodrĂguez,
4450:. Tucson: University of Arizona Press, 1974.
4332:. Chicago: Fitroy Dearborn 1997, pp. 683-84.
4148:. DeKalb: Northern Illinois University 1981.
3472:Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1987.
3446:. New York: Cambridge University Press 1994.
3149:
2644:
1701:mine workers went on strike in 1906 and the
6261:North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA)
5524:. Stanford: Stanford University Press 2002.
5495:. Stanford: Stanford University Press 2004.
5457:. Stanford: Stanford University Press 1989.
5356:. Stanford: Stanford University Press 2002.
5342:. Stanford: Stanford University Press 2001.
4822:. Stanford: Stanford University Press 2000.
4199:. Stanford: Stanford University Press 2011.
3575:"The Fuero Militar" in New Spain, 1764â1800
2437:
756:
532:(ca. 1946â1970). This growth was fueled by
6617:
6603:
5731:
5717:
5682:. Mexico: Fondo de Cultura EconĂłmico 1994.
5626:vol 45, No. 1 (Feb. 1976), pp. 23â45.
5352:Bortz, Jeffrey L. and Stephen Haber, eds.
5008:. Austin: University of Texas Press 1992.
4494:Mexico: Revolution to Evolution: 1940â1960
4243:Wasserman, Mark. "Enrique Clay Creel" in
4131:Schmidt, Arthur, "José Ives Limantour" in
3532:. Tucson: University of Arizona Press 2005
3126:Ida Altman, Sarah Cline, Javier Pescador,
940:, Spanish port for the transatlantic trade
388:
374:
5498:Ludlow, Leonor and Carlos Marichal, eds.
5088:. Austin: University of Texas Press 1991.
4896:Tucson: University of Arizona Press 1988.
3387:. Austin: University of Texas Press 1992.
1306:
5612:. New Haven: Yale University Press 1970.
5584:. Ithaca: Cornell University Press 1958.
5531:. Ithaca: Cornell University Press 1990.
5329:
5086:The Encomenderos of New Spain, 1521â1555
4716:
4035:
4023:
4008:
3186:Mines of Silver and Gold in the Americas
2714:
2586:
2536:
2501:
2482:
2441:
2401:
2237:
2221:
2179:National Autonomous University of Mexico
2051:
2015:
1964:
1955:Era of the Mexican Revolution, 1910â1920
1767:
1755:
1729:developed successful enterprises in the
1711:
1663:
1632:
1599:
1587:
1576:
1572:
1470:
1410:
1391:
1357:
1335:
1114:
1029:
943:
931:
917:
903:
884:, as well as the fermented juice of the
775:
760:
701:
690:
621:
568:
430:
422:
414:
399:
5534:
5242:Landlord and Peasant in Colonial Oaxaca
5214:. New York: E.P. Dutton & Co. 1959.
5018:Garner, Richard and Spiro E. Stafanou.
4673:
4648:Daina Beth Solomon (February 3, 2022).
4397:, vol. 37. no. 4 (Winter, 2006), p.423.
1859:, DĂaz's minister of finance, 1893â1911
900:Cities, trade and transportation routes
7381:
5703:Products of Mexico and Central America
5647:. Durham: Duke University Press 2011.
5219:The Origins of Church Wealth in Mexico
5053:. Durham: Duke University Press 1989.
4293:Evans, Sterling D. (14 January 2013).
3977:Schell, "Banking and Finance", p. 131.
3873:vol. 83, No. 1 (Feb. 1978), pp. 80â100
3562:Miners and Merchants in Bourbon Mexico
2413:Fiscal expenditures combined with the
2330:prepared to fight back. A movement of
1687:American Smelting and Refining Company
1377:lost Mexico a huge area of its North.
6598:
5712:
5441:Las huelgas textiles en el porfiriato
5363:vol. 98(June 1993), pp. 786â818.
5263:Labor and Laborers in Mexican History
5095:. Durham: Duke University Press 1991.
4292:
3986:Schell, "Banking and Finance" p. 131.
2624:was assassinated and was replaced by
2618:Zapatista Army of National Liberation
2195:Import-substitution industrialization
2080:negotiated a settlement in 1923, the
1483:The Liberals' ouster of conservative
1065:of useful connections to do business:
1034:A single-canvas painting showing the
1026:Crown policy and economic development
551:. The country campaigned to join the
534:import substitution industrialization
5128:https://www.jstor.org/stable/2512521
4622:
3847:James Lockhart and Stuart Schwartz,
3757:https://www.jstor.org/stable/2512521
2678:
2583:NAFTA, economic crisis, and recovery
2296:used to expand domestic production.
2182:reforming Mexican higher education.
1874:, Scientist and DĂaz's father-in-law
1677:mining sites. Among the owners were
46:move details into the article's body
17:
5738:
5661:. Princeton University Press 2017.
5500:Banco y Poder en MĂ©xico, 1800â1925.
5226:Hispanic American Historical Review
5169:Hispanic American Historical Review
5124:Hispanic American Historical Review
5079:Hispanic American Historical Review
4964:Hispanic American Historical Review
4957:Hispanic American Historical Review
4947:Hispanic American Historical Review
4852:The Early History of Greater Mexico
4808:
4787:. Princeton University Press 2018.
3897:Hispanic American Historical Review
3782:Hispanic American Historical Review
3769:The Early History of Greater Mexico
3753:Hispanic American Historical Review
3740:The Early History of Greater Mexico
3701:The Early History of Greater Mexico
3688:The Early History of Greater Mexico
3675:The Early History of Greater Mexico
3662:The Early History of Greater Mexico
3649:The Early History of Greater Mexico
3636:The Early History of Greater Mexico
3623:The Early History of Greater Mexico
3326:The Early History of Greater Mexico
3313:The Early History of Greater Mexico
3241:The Early History of Greater Mexico
3225:The Early History of Greater Mexico
3212:The Early History of Greater Mexico
3199:The Early History of Greater Mexico
3173:Hispanic American Historical Review
3144:Hispanic American Historical Review
3128:The Early History of Greater Mexico
3115:The Early History of Greater Mexico
3102:Hispanic American Historical Review
3065:, vol. 83, no. 1 (Feb. 1978) p. 86.
3050:Hispanic American Historical Review
2614:North American Free Trade Agreement
2600:North American Free Trade Agreement
2593:North American Free Trade Agreement
2577:North American Free Trade Agreement
2365:(CTM), a union affiliated with the
1798:Cananea Consolidated Copper Company
1697:became infamous in Mexico when its
1565:(the rule of General and President
553:North American Free Trade Agreement
543:From the 1980s, Mexico implemented
13:
5617:Mexican Studies/Estudios Mexicanos
5538:Present and Past Banking in Mexico
5093:Mexico's Merchant Elite, 1590â1660
4772:
4299:. Texas A&M University Press.
4186:(Macmillan, 2000): 51-79, at p 69.
2656:ready to implement the agreement.
2069:American-Mexican Claims Commission
1733:region, which spans the states of
1695:Greene Consolidated Copper Company
1397:Mexico City Metropolitan Cathedral
652:was found in 1534 to have silver.
14:
7405:
5882:Institutional Revolutionary Party
5687:
5603:Journal of Latin American Studies
5486:Journal of Latin American Studies
5448:Journal of Latin American Studies
5205:Journal of Latin American Studies
5134:Rural Society in Colonial Morelos
3884:Journal of Latin American Studies
3027:Economic history of Latin America
2675:PesoâUS dollar exchange 1970â2018
2513:) with steel mill ruins, east of
2494:By late 1982, incoming President
2367:Institutional Revolutionary Party
2340:National Education Workers' Union
2160:Partido de la RevoluciĂłn Mexicana
2119:Institutional Revolutionary Party
951:in 1628, Mexican terminus of the
671:, optimistically named after the
667:(Chihuahua) and later strikes in
6662:Democratic Republic of the Congo
5535:McCaleb, Walter Flavius (1920).
5427:El Porfiriato: La vida econĂłmica
4757:
4745:
4710:
4676:The International History Review
4667:
4605:
4561:
4548:
4539:
4530:
4517:
4508:
4499:
4486:
4475:
4466:
4453:
4440:
4427:
4418:
4409:
4400:
4395:The Western Historical Quarterly
4384:
4375:
4366:
4357:
4344:
4335:
4322:
4313:
4286:
4277:
4109:vol. 83, no. 1 (Feb. 1978) p. 81
2991:
2977:
2963:
2683:
2659:
2363:Confederation of Mexican Workers
1939:
1924:
1909:
1894:
1879:
1864:
1849:
1683:American Telephone and Telegraph
1222:
785:JosĂ© Antonio de Alzate y RamĂrez
357:
89:
22:
5705:from the early mid-20th century
5258:. Boulder: Westview Press 1989.
5235:. Boulder: Westview Press 1989.
5049:Gutierrez Brockington, Lolita.
4911:Silk Raising in Colonial Mexico
4525:The Journal of Economic History
4482:es:Nacional Financiera (MĂ©xico)
4268:
4259:
4250:
4237:
4224:
4215:
4202:
4189:
4164:
4159:Foreign and Native-Born Workers
4151:
4138:
4125:
4112:
4099:
4090:
4081:
4072:
4059:
4050:
4041:
3989:
3980:
3971:
3962:
3953:
3944:
3931:
3918:
3905:
3889:
3876:
3863:
3854:
3841:
3828:
3812:
3796:
3787:
3774:
3761:
3745:
3732:
3727:Early History of Greater Mexico
3719:
3706:
3693:
3680:
3667:
3654:
3641:
3628:
3615:
3602:
3593:
3580:
3567:
3535:
3522:
3497:
3488:
3475:
3462:
3457:Silk Raising in Colonial Mexico
3449:
3436:
3416:
3411:Early History of Greater Mexico
3403:
3398:Early History of Greater Mexico
3390:
3377:
3356:
3347:
3342:Silk Raising in Colonial Mexico
3331:
3318:
3305:
3292:
3282:
3272:
3259:
3246:
3217:
3204:
3191:
3178:
3165:
3160:Early History of Greater Mexico
2446:Mexico inflation rate 1970â2022
2299:
2115:Partido Nacional Revolucionario
1331:Roman Catholic Church in Mexico
830:concentration of land ownership
559:Economy of New Spain, 1521â1821
5330:Bancroft, Hubert Howe (1888).
5084:Himmerich y Valencia, Robert.
4778:Colonial and post-independence
3133:
3120:
3107:
3094:
3081:
3068:
3055:
3039:
2604:1994 economic crisis in Mexico
2257:MexicoâUnited States relations
2175:Instituto Politécnico Nacional
2131:MexicoâUnited States relations
1934:, U.S. investor in Mexican oil
1776:, the site of a major strike.
1062:Bourbon administrative reforms
1060:In the eighteenth century the
1:
7303:Confederate States of America
6626:Economic histories by country
5802:Centralist Republic of Mexico
5694:Mexican Economic Crisis (80s)
4688:10.1080/07075332.2017.1326966
3188:. Variorum: Brookfield, 1997.
3032:
3017:Economy of Prehispanic Mexico
2853:Ernesto Zedillo Ponce de LeĂłn
2722:to Mexican Peso exchange rate
1317:Centralist Republic of Mexico
1156:ConsolidaciĂłn de Vales Reales
409:Prehistory Museum of Valencia
6231:Institutional stock exchange
5867:Second American intervention
5375:Oil and Revolution in Mexico
4556:The United States and Mexico
3939:Obstacles to Economic Growth
3926:Obstacles to Economic Growth
3007:Corruption Perceptions Index
2943:Mid-market rates: 2018-10-13
2391:administration of President
1806:workers at the French-owned
1643:petroleum industry in Mexico
1284:Army of the Three Guarantees
1264:Spanish Constitution of 1812
1163:Gaspar Melchor de Jovellanos
1120:Gaspar Melchor de Jovellanos
709:mercury amalgam from Almaden
512:Mexican Constitution of 1917
463:Since the colonial era, the
7:
7363:Scotland in the Middle Ages
7232:Mongolian People's Republic
6432:Water supply and sanitation
5797:Spanish reconquest attempts
5631:Journal of Economic History
5217:Schwaller, John Frederick.
2956:
2803:Miguel de la Madrid Hurtado
2562:private investment through
2369:(PRI) which had negotiated
1653:, as well as Rockefeller's
1485:Antonio LĂłpez de Santa Anna
1439:intellectual and statesman
1364:Antonio LĂłpez de Santa Anna
1249:HISPAN ET IND REX M 8 R I I
10:
7410:
7389:Economic history of Mexico
7313:England in the Middle Ages
5832:Second French intervention
5780:Control of Central America
5439:Gonzålez Navarro, Moisés.
5432:Fowler-Salamini, Heather.
5423:Historia Moderna de MĂ©xico
5406:American Historical Review
5361:American Historical Review
4107:American Historical Review
3871:American Historical Review
3063:American Historical Review
2738:Exchange rate at beginning
2663:
2648:
2597:
2534:and to the United States.
2449:
2386:Deterioration in the 1970s
2303:
2215:
2133:in this period was forced
1958:
1842:
1808:RĂo Blanco textile factory
1679:Amalgamated Copper Company
1340:Militia of Guazacualco by
1310:
1237:FERDIN VII DEI GRATIA 1821
562:
497:Second French intervention
465:economic history of Mexico
7255:
7197:
7176:
7014:
6871:
6770:
6632:
6556:
6445:
6340:
6331:
6189:
6180:
6067:
6058:
6031:Tropical cyclone rainfall
5929:
5920:
5750:
5624:Pacific Historical Review
5295:Post-independence economy
5091:Hoberman, Louisa Schell.
5037:Aztecs Under Spanish Rule
4994:. Lexington Books, 2011.
4838:Provinces of Early Mexico
3899:73#2 (1993), pp. 261-290
3091:, January 31, 2015, p. A7
2828:Carlos Salinas de Gortari
2692:This section needs to be
2645:The USMCA Trade Agreement
2566:of state enterprises and
2559:Carlos Salinas de Gortari
2557:In April 1989, President
2063:In 1920, Sonoran general
1659:Mexican oil expropriation
1221:
1212:
676:invention in 1554 of the
617:
580:, Mexico City (1929â1945)
526:Mexican oil expropriation
285:Petroleum nationalization
6072:Administrative divisions
5594:Ramos EscandĂłn, Carmen.
5541:. Harper & Brothers.
5132:Martin, Cheryl English.
3507:. Washington, D.C. 1945.
2903:Felipe CalderĂłn Hinojosa
2438:1982 crisis and recovery
1668:Mining enterprise 1905,
757:Agriculture and ranching
518:through the creation of
300:Mexican Movement of 1968
120:Viceroyalty of New Spain
6487:Handcrafts and folk art
6256:National stock exchange
5994:Protected natural areas
5822:Second Mexican Republic
5787:Supreme Executive Power
5429:, 2 parts. Mexico 1965.
5368:Business History Review
5317:Business History Review
5210:Schurz, William Lytle.
4591:19 October 2017 at the
3886:, 24#1 (1992), pp. 1â32
3545:. London: Athlone 1968.
3130:, Pearson 2003, p. 162.
3117:, Pearson 2003, 163â64.
2753:Luis EcheverrĂa Ălvarez
2393:Luis EcheverrĂa Ălvarez
2271:In the years following
2117:, the precursor to the
1995:Liberal Party of Mexico
1983:Plan of San Luis PotosĂ
1947:William Randolph Hearst
1641:The development of the
1498:equality before the law
1321:Second Mexican Republic
1161:A Spanish intellectual
178:Second Federal Republic
7044:Bosnia and Herzegovina
6299:States by unemployment
6289:Science and technology
5792:First Mexican Republic
5673:Development and Change
5605:30, 3 (1998), 481-517.
5502:Mexico: Grijalbo 1986.
5476:Encyclopedia of Mexico
5443:. Puebla, Mexico 1970.
5419:CosĂo Villegas, Daniel
5139:Melville, Elinor G.K.
4754:accessed 06 April 2020
4330:Encyclopedia of Mexico
4245:Encyclopedia of Mexico
4133:Encyclopedia of Mexico
3913:Encyclopedia of Mexico
3608:Manel Carrera Stampa,
3442:Elinor G.K. Melville,
3076:Development and Change
3052:52 (Feb. 1973), 27-49.
3022:Latin American economy
2723:
2595:
2546:
2518:
2491:
2478:international reserves
2447:
2410:
2251:
2231:
2147:Nacional Financiera SA
2087:General and President
2060:
2024:
1973:
1816:Mexican stock exchange
1781:
1761:
1721:
1673:
1638:
1605:
1597:
1585:
1525:Maximilian of Habsburg
1480:
1435:In October, 1835, the
1419:
1400:
1367:
1362:General and President
1345:
1313:First Mexican Republic
1307:Early republic to 1855
1215:Ferdinand VII of Spain
1213:Silver 8 real coin of
1127:
1072:
1039:
965:history of Mexico City
955:
941:
929:
915:
796:
773:
710:
699:
631:
581:
480:Independence of Mexico
460:
428:
420:
412:
252:Occupation of Veracruz
7237:Serbia and Montenegro
7198:Former industrialized
6527:Our Lady of Guadalupe
6021:Territorial evolution
5837:Second Mexican Empire
5505:Lurtz, Casey Marina.
5408:, 83 (February 1978).
5345:Bernstein, Marvin D.
5189:Salvucci, Richard J.
4990:Costeloe, Michael P.
4983:Costeloe, Michael P.
4959:, 52:4(1972): 545â79.
4615:52.2 (2000): 135-168
4391:Kelly Lytle HernĂĄndez
4210:Empire and Revolution
4065:Richard J. Salvucci,
3528:Castleman, Bruce A.,
3468:Richard J. Salvucci,
2718:
2664:Further information:
2590:
2540:
2505:
2486:
2445:
2405:
2371:sweet-heart contracts
2357:plant in the city of
2304:Further information:
2241:
2225:
2156:Plutarco ElĂas Calles
2089:Plutarco ElĂas Calles
2055:
2019:
1968:
1803:Mexican Liberal Party
1771:
1759:
1747:Creel-Terrazas family
1715:
1667:
1636:
1603:
1591:
1580:
1573:Porfiriato, 1876â1911
1474:
1414:
1395:
1361:
1339:
1172:land reform in Mexico
1118:
1067:
1033:
947:
935:
921:
907:
779:
764:
745:. In some cases, the
705:
698:mercury mine in Spain
694:
625:
572:
434:
426:
418:
403:
215:Second Mexican Empire
7256:Historical economies
6544:World Heritage Sites
5959:Environmental issues
5817:MexicanâAmerican War
5775:First Mexican Empire
5397:Coatsworth, John H.
5004:Deans-Smith, Susan.
4971:The Book of Tributes
4799:EH.Net Encyclopedia,
4144:Coatsworth, John H.
2622:Luis Donaldo Colosio
2316:Washington Consensus
2277:Miguel Alemån Valdés
2202:Manuel Ăvila Camacho
2171:Constitution of 1917
2167:Constitution of 1857
2151:Manuel Avila Camacho
2135:Mexican repatriation
2021:Constitution of 1917
2011:Constitution of 1917
1999:Constitution of 1917
1512:Constitution of 1857
1327:Constitution of 1824
1301:Constitution of 1824
1297:First Mexican Empire
1168:Manuel Abad y Queipo
1092:Casa de ContrataciĂłn
975:Casa de ContrataciĂłn
337:Coronavirus pandemic
312:1982 economic crisis
165:MexicanâAmerican War
7099:Republic of Ireland
6778:Antigua and Barbuda
6199:Automotive industry
6087:Chamber of Deputies
5770:War of Independence
5633:23 (December 1963).
5608:Reynolds, Clark W.
5598:. Mexico city 1988.
5580:Pletcher, David M.
5552:Moore, O. Ernesto.
5373:Brown, Jonathan C.
5228:56 (1976): 197â216.
5174:Riley, G. Michael.
4635:Wall Street Journal
4527:Vol. 41 No. 1, 1981
3849:Early Latin America
3784:69(3)(1989) 451â78.
3431:Early Latin America
3383:Susan Deans-Smith,
3175:71:3(1991): 447â75.
3146:52:4(1972): 545â79.
2878:Vicente Fox Quezada
2778:José Lopez Portillo
2630:Mexican peso crisis
2496:Miguel de la Madrid
2488:Miguel de la Madrid
2424:fixed exchange rate
2420:balance of payments
2407:José López Portillo
2397:José López Portillo
2187:Petroleos Mexicanos
2042:Venustiano Carranza
1979:Francisco I. Madero
1902:Francisco I. Madero
1872:Manuel Romero Rubio
1857:José Yves Limantour
1727:Francisco I. Madero
1272:AgustĂn de Iturbide
407:from Mexico at the
322:Mexican peso crisis
197:French intervention
150:Centralist Republic
125:War of Independence
6400:Indigenous peoples
6304:Telecommunications
6163:State legislatures
6104:Federal government
5984:Metropolitan areas
5862:Mexican Revolution
5587:Potash, Robert A.
5559:Pilcher, Jeffrey.
5527:Maxfield, Sylvia.
5453:Haber, Stephen H.
5370:61(1987), 387â416.
5308:Anderson, Rodney.
5301:Alegre, Robert F.
5254:Thomson, Guy P.C.
5239:Taylor, William B.
5231:Swann, Michael M.
5212:The Manila Galleon
5081:71:3(1991) 447â75.
5063:Hamnett, Brian R.
4966:69:3(1989) 451â78.
4949:50(2)1970: 665â81.
4892:Booker, Jackie R.
4433:Enrique CĂĄrdenas,
4118:Hart, John Mason.
3455:Woodrow W. Borah,
2928:Enrique Peña Nieto
2724:
2596:
2547:
2519:
2492:
2466:falling oil prices
2448:
2411:
2252:
2248:Miguel AlemĂĄn Lake
2232:
2102:Cristero rebellion
2061:
2025:
1974:
1961:Mexican Revolution
1782:
1762:
1722:
1674:
1639:
1606:
1598:
1586:
1540:Mexican Revolution
1481:
1437:Conservative Party
1420:
1401:
1368:
1346:
1278:unified under the
1128:
1040:
956:
942:
930:
916:
844:economies of scale
797:
774:
771:JosĂ© MarĂa Velasco
711:
700:
632:
594:Spanish conquerors
582:
508:Mexican Revolution
461:
429:
421:
413:
7376:
7375:
7328:Habsburg monarchy
7296:Republic of China
6592:
6591:
6552:
6551:
6327:
6326:
6176:
6175:
6146:Political parties
6109:Foreign relations
6054:
6053:
5842:Restored Republic
5760:Pre-Columbian era
5678:ZebadĂșa, Emilio.
5569:978-0-8263-3796-2
5515:978-1-5036-0389-9
5390:978-0-8263-4454-0
5380:Brunker, Steven.
5332:History of Mexico
4864:Bakewell, Peter.
4793:978-0-691-17436-5
4730:978-607-16-2812-1
4554:Howard F. Cline,
4492:Howard F. Cline,
4446:Abraham Hoffman,
4350:Brunker, Steven.
4306:978-1-62288-001-0
4230:Wolfe, Mikael D.
3823:The First America
3807:The First America
3104:49:3(1969) 411â29
3089:Los Angeles Times
3012:Economy of Mexico
2954:
2953:
2944:
2713:
2712:
2666:Economy of Mexico
2564:denationalization
2524:disposable income
2462:La DĂ©cada Perdida
2452:La DĂ©cada Perdida
2306:Mexican labor law
2266:Operation Wetback
2029:Constitutionalist
2007:Constitutionalist
1832:Palacio de Hierro
1536:Restored Republic
1529:Emperor of Mexico
1516:War of the Reform
1430:consumer spending
1260:
1259:
1256:
1240:
1124:Francisco de Goya
398:
397:
364:Mexico portal
306:La DĂ©cada Perdida
295:Mexican Dirty War
279:(1928–1934)
242:Plan of Guadalupe
236:La decena trĂĄgica
220:Restored Republic
115:Spanish-Aztec War
63:
62:
42:length guidelines
7401:
7318:Ethiopian Empire
7273:Byzantine Empire
7222:Empire of Brazil
6619:
6612:
6605:
6596:
6595:
6572:
6565:
6512:National symbols
6338:
6337:
6279:
6224:Renewable energy
6214:Economic history
6187:
6186:
6065:
6064:
5927:
5926:
5907:Chiapas conflict
5807:Texas Revolution
5733:
5726:
5719:
5710:
5709:
5577:XVI (1959) 1â14.
5542:
5467:Hamilton, Nora.
5338:Beatty, Edward.
5335:
5285:West, Robert C.
5171:65:1(1985)21-49.
5153:Ouweneel, Arij.
5120:Lavrin, AsunciĂłn
4909:Borah, Woodrow.
4878:Baskes, Jeremy.
4854:. Pearson 2003.
4832:Altman, Ida and
4809:Colonial economy
4766:
4761:
4755:
4749:
4743:
4742:
4714:
4708:
4707:
4671:
4665:
4664:
4662:
4660:
4645:
4639:
4638:
4626:
4620:
4609:
4603:
4579:
4568:
4565:
4559:
4552:
4546:
4543:
4537:
4534:
4528:
4521:
4515:
4512:
4506:
4503:
4497:
4490:
4484:
4479:
4473:
4470:
4464:
4457:
4451:
4444:
4438:
4431:
4425:
4422:
4416:
4413:
4407:
4404:
4398:
4388:
4382:
4379:
4373:
4370:
4364:
4361:
4355:
4348:
4342:
4339:
4333:
4326:
4320:
4317:
4311:
4310:
4290:
4284:
4281:
4275:
4272:
4266:
4263:
4257:
4254:
4248:
4241:
4235:
4228:
4222:
4219:
4213:
4206:
4200:
4193:
4187:
4180:
4171:
4168:
4162:
4155:
4149:
4142:
4136:
4129:
4123:
4116:
4110:
4103:
4097:
4094:
4088:
4085:
4079:
4076:
4070:
4063:
4057:
4054:
4048:
4045:
4039:
4033:
4027:
4021:
4012:
4006:
4000:
3993:
3987:
3984:
3978:
3975:
3969:
3966:
3960:
3957:
3951:
3948:
3942:
3935:
3929:
3922:
3916:
3909:
3903:
3893:
3887:
3880:
3874:
3867:
3861:
3858:
3852:
3845:
3839:
3832:
3826:
3816:
3810:
3800:
3794:
3791:
3785:
3778:
3772:
3765:
3759:
3749:
3743:
3736:
3730:
3723:
3717:
3710:
3704:
3697:
3691:
3684:
3678:
3671:
3665:
3658:
3652:
3645:
3639:
3632:
3626:
3619:
3613:
3606:
3600:
3597:
3591:
3584:
3578:
3573:Lyle McAlister,
3571:
3565:
3555:
3546:
3539:
3533:
3526:
3520:
3517:
3508:
3503:Vance, John T.,
3501:
3495:
3492:
3486:
3479:
3473:
3466:
3460:
3453:
3447:
3440:
3434:
3420:
3414:
3407:
3401:
3394:
3388:
3381:
3375:
3372:
3363:
3360:
3354:
3351:
3345:
3335:
3329:
3322:
3316:
3309:
3303:
3296:
3290:
3286:
3280:
3276:
3270:
3265:Peter Bakewell,
3263:
3257:
3250:
3244:
3237:
3228:
3221:
3215:
3208:
3202:
3195:
3189:
3182:
3176:
3169:
3163:
3156:
3147:
3137:
3131:
3124:
3118:
3111:
3105:
3098:
3092:
3085:
3079:
3072:
3066:
3059:
3053:
3043:
3001:
2996:
2995:
2994:
2987:
2982:
2981:
2980:
2973:
2968:
2967:
2966:
2942:
2726:
2725:
2708:
2705:
2699:
2687:
2686:
2679:
2507:Parque Fundidora
2244:Cerro de Oro Dam
2123:Great Depression
1943:
1932:Edward L. Doheny
1928:
1913:
1898:
1883:
1868:
1853:
1837:sociedad anĂłnima
1731:Comarca Lagunera
1651:Edward L. Doheny
1556:textile industry
1502:legal privileges
1276:Vicente Guerrero
1247:
1235:
1226:
1210:
1209:
767:Valley of Mexico
578:Palacio Nacional
457:
451:
445:
439:
390:
383:
376:
362:
361:
360:
332:Mexican drug war
317:Chiapas conflict
280:
155:Texas Revolution
93:
83:
65:
64:
58:
55:
49:
40:Please read the
26:
25:
18:
7409:
7408:
7404:
7403:
7402:
7400:
7399:
7398:
7379:
7378:
7377:
7372:
7251:
7227:Empire of Japan
7207:Austria-Hungary
7199:
7193:
7172:
7010:
6966:Solomon Islands
6867:
6766:
6628:
6623:
6593:
6588:
6575:
6568:
6561:
6548:
6441:
6417:Public holidays
6390:Nationality law
6385:Life expectancy
6323:
6277:
6172:
6136:Law enforcement
6050:
6041:Water resources
5916:
5892:Mexican miracle
5746:
5737:
5690:
5685:
5491:Kouri, Emilio.
5297:
5292:
5269:Van Young, Eric
5112:Ladd, Doris M.
5098:Kicza, John E.
5033:Gibson, Charles
4871:Barrett, Ward.
4811:
4780:
4775:
4773:Further reading
4770:
4769:
4762:
4758:
4750:
4746:
4731:
4715:
4711:
4672:
4668:
4658:
4656:
4646:
4642:
4627:
4623:
4613:World Politics
4610:
4606:
4596:, interview at
4593:Wayback Machine
4580:
4571:
4566:
4562:
4553:
4549:
4544:
4540:
4535:
4531:
4522:
4518:
4513:
4509:
4504:
4500:
4491:
4487:
4480:
4476:
4471:
4467:
4458:
4454:
4445:
4441:
4432:
4428:
4423:
4419:
4414:
4410:
4405:
4401:
4389:
4385:
4380:
4376:
4371:
4367:
4362:
4358:
4349:
4345:
4340:
4336:
4327:
4323:
4318:
4314:
4307:
4291:
4287:
4282:
4278:
4273:
4269:
4264:
4260:
4255:
4251:
4242:
4238:
4229:
4225:
4220:
4216:
4207:
4203:
4194:
4190:
4181:
4174:
4169:
4165:
4156:
4152:
4143:
4139:
4130:
4126:
4117:
4113:
4104:
4100:
4095:
4091:
4086:
4082:
4077:
4073:
4064:
4060:
4055:
4051:
4046:
4042:
4034:
4030:
4022:
4015:
4007:
4003:
3994:
3990:
3985:
3981:
3976:
3972:
3967:
3963:
3958:
3954:
3949:
3945:
3936:
3932:
3923:
3919:
3910:
3906:
3894:
3890:
3881:
3877:
3868:
3864:
3859:
3855:
3846:
3842:
3833:
3829:
3817:
3813:
3801:
3797:
3792:
3788:
3779:
3775:
3766:
3762:
3750:
3746:
3738:Altman et al.,
3737:
3733:
3724:
3720:
3711:
3707:
3698:
3694:
3685:
3681:
3672:
3668:
3659:
3655:
3647:Altman et al.,
3646:
3642:
3633:
3629:
3620:
3616:
3607:
3603:
3598:
3594:
3586:Woodrow Borah,
3585:
3581:
3572:
3568:
3556:
3549:
3541:Farriss, N.M.,
3540:
3536:
3527:
3523:
3518:
3511:
3502:
3498:
3493:
3489:
3480:
3476:
3467:
3463:
3454:
3450:
3441:
3437:
3427:Stuart Schwartz
3421:
3417:
3408:
3404:
3395:
3391:
3382:
3378:
3373:
3366:
3361:
3357:
3352:
3348:
3336:
3332:
3323:
3319:
3311:Altman et al.,
3310:
3306:
3298:Doris M. Ladd,
3297:
3293:
3287:
3283:
3277:
3273:
3264:
3260:
3252:Doris M. Ladd,
3251:
3247:
3238:
3231:
3223:Altman et al.,
3222:
3218:
3209:
3205:
3196:
3192:
3183:
3179:
3170:
3166:
3157:
3150:
3138:
3134:
3125:
3121:
3112:
3108:
3099:
3095:
3086:
3082:
3073:
3069:
3060:
3056:
3046:AsunciĂłn Lavrin
3044:
3040:
3035:
2997:
2992:
2990:
2983:
2978:
2976:
2969:
2964:
2962:
2959:
2709:
2703:
2700:
2697:
2688:
2684:
2677:
2668:
2662:
2653:
2647:
2626:Ernesto Zedillo
2606:
2598:Main articles:
2585:
2528:underemployment
2454:
2440:
2388:
2324:Mexican Miracle
2308:
2302:
2261:Bracero Program
2228:Bracero Program
2220:
2218:Mexican miracle
2214:
2206:Mexican Miracle
2143:LĂĄzaro CĂĄrdenas
2094:Banco de MĂ©xico
2082:Bucareli Treaty
2073:Bucareli Treaty
2050:
2034:Emiliano Zapata
1963:
1957:
1950:
1944:
1935:
1929:
1920:
1917:Weetman Pearson
1914:
1905:
1899:
1890:
1884:
1875:
1869:
1860:
1854:
1845:
1709:suppressed it.
1707:Arizona Rangers
1672:, photographer.
1647:Weetman Pearson
1628:railway network
1594:Guillermo Kahlo
1575:
1469:
1378:
1323:
1311:Main articles:
1309:
1268:Cortes of CĂĄdiz
1246:
1234:
1186:
1181:
1145:Bourbon reforms
1028:
1012:Ăndios bĂĄrbaros
923:Spanish galleon
902:
823:San Luis PotosĂ
759:
715:Bourbon reforms
669:San Luis PotosĂ
620:
567:
561:
530:Mexican Miracle
489:Catholic Church
459:
455:
453:
449:
447:
443:
441:
437:
394:
358:
356:
342:
341:
290:Mexican miracle
278:
270:
262:
261:
210:
202:
201:
180:
170:
169:
145:
135:
134:
110:
102:
81:
74:
59:
53:
50:
39:
36:may be too long
31:This article's
27:
23:
12:
11:
5:
7407:
7397:
7396:
7394:Third-Worldism
7391:
7374:
7373:
7371:
7370:
7365:
7360:
7355:
7353:Ottoman Empire
7350:
7345:
7340:
7335:
7330:
7325:
7320:
7315:
7310:
7308:Dutch Republic
7305:
7300:
7299:
7298:
7293:
7288:
7283:
7275:
7270:
7268:Ashanti Empire
7265:
7263:Ancient Greece
7259:
7257:
7253:
7252:
7250:
7249:
7244:
7239:
7234:
7229:
7224:
7219:
7214:
7212:Czechoslovakia
7209:
7203:
7201:
7195:
7194:
7192:
7191:
7186:
7180:
7178:
7174:
7173:
7171:
7170:
7169:
7168:
7163:
7156:United Kingdom
7153:
7148:
7143:
7138:
7133:
7128:
7123:
7118:
7113:
7108:
7103:
7102:
7101:
7091:
7086:
7081:
7076:
7071:
7066:
7061:
7059:Czech Republic
7056:
7051:
7046:
7041:
7036:
7031:
7026:
7018:
7016:
7012:
7011:
7009:
7008:
7003:
6998:
6993:
6988:
6983:
6978:
6973:
6968:
6963:
6958:
6953:
6948:
6943:
6938:
6933:
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6923:
6918:
6913:
6908:
6903:
6898:
6893:
6888:
6883:
6875:
6873:
6869:
6868:
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6865:
6860:
6855:
6850:
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6810:
6805:
6800:
6795:
6790:
6785:
6780:
6774:
6772:
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6765:
6764:
6759:
6754:
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6714:
6709:
6704:
6699:
6694:
6689:
6684:
6679:
6674:
6669:
6664:
6659:
6654:
6649:
6644:
6636:
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6630:
6629:
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6607:
6599:
6590:
6589:
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6574:
6573:
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6509:
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6477:
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6462:
6457:
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6449:
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6442:
6440:
6439:
6434:
6429:
6424:
6419:
6414:
6409:
6408:
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6402:
6392:
6387:
6382:
6377:
6372:
6367:
6362:
6357:
6352:
6347:
6341:
6335:
6329:
6328:
6325:
6324:
6322:
6321:
6319:Water scarcity
6316:
6314:Transportation
6311:
6306:
6301:
6296:
6291:
6286:
6281:
6273:
6271:Pension system
6268:
6263:
6258:
6253:
6248:
6243:
6238:
6233:
6228:
6227:
6226:
6216:
6211:
6206:
6201:
6196:
6190:
6184:
6178:
6177:
6174:
6173:
6171:
6170:
6165:
6160:
6159:
6158:
6148:
6143:
6138:
6133:
6128:
6127:
6126:
6121:
6111:
6106:
6101:
6096:
6091:
6090:
6089:
6084:
6074:
6068:
6062:
6056:
6055:
6052:
6051:
6049:
6048:
6043:
6038:
6033:
6028:
6023:
6018:
6013:
6012:
6011:
6009:Municipalities
6001:
5996:
5991:
5986:
5981:
5976:
5971:
5966:
5964:Extreme points
5961:
5956:
5951:
5948:Climate change
5941:
5936:
5930:
5924:
5918:
5917:
5915:
5914:
5909:
5904:
5899:
5894:
5889:
5884:
5879:
5874:
5869:
5864:
5859:
5854:
5849:
5844:
5839:
5834:
5829:
5824:
5819:
5814:
5809:
5804:
5799:
5794:
5789:
5784:
5783:
5782:
5772:
5767:
5762:
5756:
5754:
5748:
5747:
5736:
5735:
5728:
5721:
5713:
5707:
5706:
5700:
5689:
5688:External links
5686:
5684:
5683:
5676:
5669:
5667:978-0691174365
5657:Tutino, John.
5655:
5653:978-0822349891
5643:Tutino, John.
5641:
5634:
5627:
5620:
5613:
5606:
5599:
5592:
5585:
5578:
5571:
5557:
5550:
5543:
5532:
5525:
5520:Maurer, Noel.
5518:
5503:
5496:
5489:
5479:
5472:
5465:
5458:
5451:
5444:
5437:
5430:
5416:
5409:
5402:
5395:
5392:
5378:
5371:
5364:
5357:
5350:
5349:. Albany 1964.
5343:
5336:
5334:. Vol. 6.
5327:
5320:
5313:
5306:
5298:
5296:
5293:
5291:
5290:
5283:
5281:978-0742553569
5266:
5259:
5252:
5250:978-0804707961
5236:
5229:
5222:
5215:
5208:
5201:
5199:978-0691077499
5187:
5184:978-0826302632
5172:
5165:
5163:978-0826317315
5151:
5149:978-0521574488
5137:
5130:
5117:
5110:
5108:978-0826306555
5096:
5089:
5082:
5075:
5073:978-0521078603
5061:
5059:978-0822308843
5047:
5045:978-0804709125
5030:
5028:978-0813011837
5016:
5014:978-0292707863
5002:
5000:978-0739151198
4988:
4981:
4967:
4960:
4950:
4940:
4931:
4929:978-0521102360
4914:
4907:
4900:Borah, Woodrow
4897:
4890:
4888:978-0804735124
4876:
4869:
4862:
4860:978-0130915436
4848:
4846:978-0879031107
4834:James Lockhart
4830:
4828:978-0804736633
4812:
4810:
4807:
4806:
4805:
4795:
4783:Tutino, John.
4779:
4776:
4774:
4771:
4768:
4767:
4756:
4744:
4729:
4709:
4682:(2): 292â314.
4666:
4640:
4621:
4604:
4569:
4560:
4547:
4538:
4529:
4516:
4507:
4498:
4485:
4474:
4465:
4452:
4439:
4437:. Mexico 1987.
4426:
4417:
4408:
4399:
4383:
4374:
4365:
4356:
4343:
4334:
4321:
4312:
4305:
4285:
4276:
4267:
4258:
4249:
4236:
4223:
4214:
4201:
4195:Garner, Paul.
4188:
4172:
4163:
4150:
4137:
4124:
4111:
4098:
4089:
4080:
4071:
4058:
4049:
4040:
4038:, p. 520.
4028:
4026:, p. 551.
4013:
4011:, p. 519.
4001:
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3979:
3970:
3961:
3952:
3943:
3930:
3917:
3904:
3888:
3875:
3862:
3853:
3840:
3827:
3811:
3795:
3786:
3773:
3767:Altman et al,
3760:
3744:
3731:
3725:Altman et al,
3718:
3705:
3699:Altman et al,
3692:
3686:Altman et al,
3679:
3673:Altman et al,
3666:
3660:Altman et al,
3653:
3640:
3634:Altman et al,
3627:
3621:Altman et al.
3614:
3601:
3592:
3579:
3566:
3547:
3534:
3521:
3509:
3496:
3487:
3474:
3461:
3448:
3435:
3423:James Lockhart
3415:
3409:Altman et al,
3402:
3396:Altman et al,
3389:
3376:
3364:
3355:
3346:
3330:
3328:, pp. 163â168.
3324:Altman et al,
3317:
3304:
3291:
3281:
3271:
3258:
3245:
3239:Altman et al,
3229:
3216:
3210:Altman et al,
3203:
3197:Altman et al,
3190:
3177:
3164:
3158:Altman et al,
3148:
3132:
3119:
3106:
3093:
3080:
3067:
3054:
3037:
3036:
3034:
3031:
3030:
3029:
3024:
3019:
3014:
3009:
3003:
3002:
2988:
2985:History portal
2974:
2958:
2955:
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2780:
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2773:
2770:
2767:
2764:
2761:
2758:
2755:
2749:
2748:
2747:% devaluation
2745:
2742:
2739:
2736:
2733:
2730:
2711:
2710:
2691:
2689:
2682:
2676:
2673:
2661:
2658:
2649:Main article:
2646:
2643:
2610:hyperinflation
2584:
2581:
2552:capital inflow
2511:Fundidora Park
2474:capital flight
2439:
2436:
2415:1973 oil shock
2387:
2384:
2355:General Motors
2335:Trabajadores.
2301:
2298:
2290:consumer goods
2246:, showing the
2216:Main article:
2213:
2210:
2078:Alvaro ObregĂłn
2065:Ălvaro ObregĂłn
2057:Ălvaro ObregĂłn
2049:
2046:
2032:Morelos under
1959:Main article:
1956:
1953:
1952:
1951:
1945:
1938:
1936:
1930:
1923:
1921:
1915:
1908:
1906:
1900:
1893:
1891:
1885:
1878:
1876:
1870:
1863:
1861:
1855:
1848:
1844:
1841:
1826:) and London (
1780:, photographer
1749:of Chihuahua,
1720:, photographer
1705:in Mexico and
1574:
1571:
1468:
1465:
1375:
1356:
1355:
1342:Claudio Linati
1308:
1305:
1280:Plan de Iguala
1274:and insurgent
1266:passed by the
1258:
1257:
1241:
1228:
1227:
1219:
1218:
1191:Miguel Hidalgo
1185:
1182:
1180:
1177:
1109:comercio libre
1096:Manila Galleon
1088:House of Trade
1027:
1024:
1000:Manila galleon
970:Manila Galleon
953:Manila galleon
901:
898:
802:mulberry trees
758:
755:
619:
616:
560:
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549:private sector
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247:Tampico Affair
244:
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225:The Porfiriato
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2:
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7368:Tamil Country
7366:
7364:
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7354:
7351:
7349:
7346:
7344:
7343:Mongol Empire
7341:
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6858:United States
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6582:
6580:
6577:
6576:
6571:
6567:
6564:
6560:
6559:
6555:
6545:
6542:
6540:
6537:
6535:
6532:
6528:
6525:
6524:
6523:
6520:
6518:
6515:
6513:
6510:
6508:
6505:
6503:
6500:
6498:
6495:
6493:
6490:
6488:
6485:
6483:
6480:
6476:
6473:
6472:
6471:
6468:
6466:
6463:
6461:
6458:
6456:
6453:
6452:
6450:
6448:
6444:
6438:
6435:
6433:
6430:
6428:
6425:
6423:
6422:States by HDI
6420:
6418:
6415:
6413:
6410:
6406:
6403:
6401:
6398:
6397:
6396:
6393:
6391:
6388:
6386:
6383:
6381:
6378:
6376:
6373:
6371:
6368:
6366:
6363:
6361:
6358:
6356:
6353:
6351:
6348:
6346:
6343:
6342:
6339:
6336:
6334:
6330:
6320:
6317:
6315:
6312:
6310:
6307:
6305:
6302:
6300:
6297:
6295:
6294:States by GDP
6292:
6290:
6287:
6285:
6282:
6280:
6274:
6272:
6269:
6267:
6264:
6262:
6259:
6257:
6254:
6252:
6251:Manufacturing
6249:
6247:
6244:
6242:
6239:
6237:
6234:
6232:
6229:
6225:
6222:
6221:
6220:
6217:
6215:
6212:
6210:
6207:
6205:
6202:
6200:
6197:
6195:
6192:
6191:
6188:
6185:
6183:
6179:
6169:
6168:Supreme Court
6166:
6164:
6161:
6157:
6154:
6153:
6152:
6149:
6147:
6144:
6142:
6139:
6137:
6134:
6132:
6129:
6125:
6122:
6120:
6117:
6116:
6115:
6112:
6110:
6107:
6105:
6102:
6100:
6097:
6095:
6092:
6088:
6085:
6083:
6080:
6079:
6078:
6075:
6073:
6070:
6069:
6066:
6063:
6061:
6057:
6047:
6044:
6042:
6039:
6037:
6034:
6032:
6029:
6027:
6024:
6022:
6019:
6017:
6014:
6010:
6007:
6006:
6005:
6002:
6000:
5997:
5995:
5992:
5990:
5987:
5985:
5982:
5980:
5977:
5975:
5972:
5970:
5967:
5965:
5962:
5960:
5957:
5955:
5952:
5949:
5945:
5942:
5940:
5937:
5935:
5932:
5931:
5928:
5925:
5923:
5919:
5913:
5910:
5908:
5905:
5903:
5900:
5898:
5895:
5893:
5890:
5888:
5885:
5883:
5880:
5878:
5875:
5873:
5870:
5868:
5865:
5863:
5860:
5858:
5855:
5853:
5850:
5848:
5845:
5843:
5840:
5838:
5835:
5833:
5830:
5828:
5825:
5823:
5820:
5818:
5815:
5813:
5810:
5808:
5805:
5803:
5800:
5798:
5795:
5793:
5790:
5788:
5785:
5781:
5778:
5777:
5776:
5773:
5771:
5768:
5766:
5763:
5761:
5758:
5757:
5755:
5753:
5749:
5745:
5741:
5734:
5729:
5727:
5722:
5720:
5715:
5714:
5711:
5704:
5701:
5699:
5695:
5692:
5691:
5681:
5677:
5674:
5670:
5668:
5664:
5660:
5656:
5654:
5650:
5646:
5642:
5639:
5635:
5632:
5628:
5625:
5621:
5618:
5614:
5611:
5607:
5604:
5600:
5597:
5593:
5590:
5586:
5583:
5579:
5576:
5572:
5570:
5566:
5562:
5558:
5555:
5551:
5548:
5547:Labor History
5544:
5540:
5539:
5533:
5530:
5526:
5523:
5519:
5516:
5512:
5508:
5504:
5501:
5497:
5494:
5490:
5487:
5483:
5480:
5477:
5473:
5470:
5466:
5463:
5459:
5456:
5452:
5449:
5445:
5442:
5438:
5435:
5431:
5428:
5424:
5420:
5417:
5414:
5410:
5407:
5403:
5400:
5396:
5393:
5391:
5387:
5383:
5379:
5376:
5372:
5369:
5365:
5362:
5358:
5355:
5351:
5348:
5344:
5341:
5337:
5333:
5328:
5325:
5322:Babb, Sarah.
5321:
5318:
5314:
5311:
5307:
5304:
5300:
5299:
5288:
5284:
5282:
5278:
5274:
5270:
5267:
5264:
5260:
5257:
5253:
5251:
5247:
5243:
5240:
5237:
5234:
5230:
5227:
5223:
5220:
5216:
5213:
5209:
5206:
5202:
5200:
5196:
5192:
5188:
5185:
5181:
5177:
5173:
5170:
5166:
5164:
5160:
5156:
5152:
5150:
5146:
5142:
5138:
5135:
5131:
5129:
5125:
5121:
5118:
5115:
5111:
5109:
5105:
5101:
5097:
5094:
5090:
5087:
5083:
5080:
5076:
5074:
5070:
5066:
5062:
5060:
5056:
5052:
5048:
5046:
5042:
5038:
5034:
5031:
5029:
5025:
5021:
5017:
5015:
5011:
5007:
5003:
5001:
4997:
4993:
4989:
4986:
4982:
4980:
4979:0-87903-082-8
4976:
4972:
4969:Cline, Sarah.
4968:
4965:
4961:
4958:
4954:
4951:
4948:
4944:
4941:
4938:
4935:
4932:
4930:
4926:
4922:
4918:
4915:
4912:
4908:
4905:
4901:
4898:
4895:
4891:
4889:
4885:
4881:
4877:
4874:
4870:
4867:
4863:
4861:
4857:
4853:
4849:
4847:
4843:
4839:
4835:
4831:
4829:
4825:
4821:
4817:
4814:
4813:
4804:
4800:
4796:
4794:
4790:
4786:
4782:
4781:
4765:
4760:
4753:
4748:
4740:
4736:
4732:
4726:
4722:
4721:
4713:
4705:
4701:
4697:
4693:
4689:
4685:
4681:
4677:
4670:
4655:
4651:
4644:
4636:
4632:
4625:
4618:
4614:
4608:
4602:, 1 May 2010.
4601:
4600:
4599:The Real News
4595:
4594:
4590:
4587:
4583:
4578:
4576:
4574:
4564:
4557:
4551:
4542:
4533:
4526:
4520:
4511:
4502:
4495:
4489:
4483:
4478:
4469:
4462:
4456:
4449:
4443:
4436:
4430:
4421:
4412:
4403:
4396:
4392:
4387:
4378:
4369:
4360:
4353:
4347:
4338:
4331:
4325:
4316:
4308:
4302:
4298:
4297:
4289:
4280:
4271:
4262:
4253:
4246:
4240:
4233:
4227:
4218:
4211:
4205:
4198:
4192:
4185:
4179:
4177:
4167:
4160:
4154:
4147:
4141:
4134:
4128:
4121:
4115:
4108:
4102:
4093:
4084:
4075:
4068:
4062:
4053:
4044:
4037:
4036:Bancroft 1888
4032:
4025:
4024:Bancroft 1888
4020:
4018:
4010:
4009:Bancroft 1888
4005:
3998:
3992:
3983:
3974:
3965:
3956:
3947:
3940:
3934:
3927:
3921:
3914:
3908:
3902:
3898:
3892:
3885:
3879:
3872:
3866:
3857:
3850:
3844:
3837:
3831:
3824:
3820:
3815:
3808:
3804:
3799:
3790:
3783:
3777:
3771:, pp. 311â12.
3770:
3764:
3758:
3754:
3748:
3741:
3735:
3728:
3722:
3715:
3709:
3702:
3696:
3689:
3683:
3676:
3670:
3663:
3657:
3650:
3644:
3637:
3631:
3624:
3618:
3611:
3605:
3596:
3589:
3583:
3576:
3570:
3563:
3559:
3554:
3552:
3544:
3538:
3531:
3525:
3516:
3514:
3506:
3500:
3491:
3484:
3478:
3471:
3465:
3458:
3452:
3445:
3439:
3432:
3428:
3424:
3419:
3412:
3406:
3399:
3393:
3386:
3380:
3371:
3369:
3359:
3350:
3343:
3339:
3338:Woodrow Borah
3334:
3327:
3321:
3314:
3308:
3301:
3295:
3285:
3275:
3268:
3262:
3255:
3249:
3242:
3236:
3234:
3226:
3220:
3213:
3207:
3200:
3194:
3187:
3181:
3174:
3168:
3161:
3155:
3153:
3145:
3141:
3136:
3129:
3123:
3116:
3110:
3103:
3097:
3090:
3084:
3077:
3071:
3064:
3058:
3051:
3047:
3042:
3038:
3028:
3025:
3023:
3020:
3018:
3015:
3013:
3010:
3008:
3005:
3004:
3000:
2989:
2986:
2975:
2972:
2971:Mexico portal
2961:
2949:
2946:
2940:
2937:
2934:
2931:
2929:
2926:
2925:
2921:
2918:
2915:
2912:
2909:
2906:
2904:
2901:
2900:
2896:
2893:
2890:
2887:
2884:
2881:
2879:
2876:
2875:
2871:
2868:
2865:
2862:
2859:
2856:
2854:
2851:
2850:
2846:
2843:
2840:
2837:
2834:
2831:
2829:
2826:
2825:
2821:
2818:
2815:
2812:
2809:
2806:
2804:
2801:
2800:
2796:
2793:
2790:
2787:
2784:
2781:
2779:
2776:
2775:
2771:
2768:
2765:
2762:
2759:
2756:
2754:
2751:
2750:
2746:
2743:
2740:
2737:
2734:
2731:
2728:
2727:
2721:
2717:
2707:
2695:
2690:
2681:
2680:
2672:
2667:
2660:Current trade
2657:
2652:
2642:
2639:
2634:
2631:
2627:
2623:
2619:
2615:
2611:
2605:
2601:
2594:
2591:Logo for the
2589:
2580:
2578:
2572:
2569:
2565:
2560:
2555:
2553:
2545:philanthropy.
2543:
2539:
2535:
2533:
2529:
2525:
2516:
2512:
2508:
2504:
2500:
2497:
2489:
2485:
2481:
2479:
2475:
2471:
2467:
2463:
2459:
2453:
2444:
2435:
2431:
2427:
2425:
2421:
2416:
2408:
2404:
2400:
2398:
2394:
2383:
2381:
2377:
2372:
2368:
2364:
2360:
2356:
2351:
2349:
2348:Latin America
2345:
2341:
2336:
2333:
2327:
2325:
2319:
2317:
2313:
2312:neoliberalism
2307:
2297:
2295:
2294:capital goods
2291:
2285:
2282:
2281:hydroelectric
2278:
2274:
2269:
2267:
2262:
2258:
2249:
2245:
2240:
2236:
2229:
2224:
2219:
2209:
2207:
2203:
2198:
2196:
2192:
2188:
2183:
2180:
2176:
2172:
2168:
2163:
2161:
2157:
2152:
2148:
2144:
2139:
2136:
2132:
2127:
2124:
2120:
2116:
2110:
2108:
2107:Dwight Morrow
2103:
2099:
2095:
2090:
2085:
2083:
2079:
2074:
2070:
2066:
2058:
2054:
2045:
2043:
2037:
2035:
2030:
2022:
2018:
2014:
2012:
2008:
2002:
2000:
1996:
1992:
1991:Plan of Ayala
1988:
1984:
1980:
1972:
1967:
1962:
1948:
1942:
1937:
1933:
1927:
1922:
1918:
1912:
1907:
1903:
1897:
1892:
1888:
1887:Enrique Creel
1882:
1877:
1873:
1867:
1862:
1858:
1852:
1847:
1846:
1840:
1838:
1833:
1829:
1825:
1821:
1820:Madero Street
1817:
1812:
1809:
1804:
1799:
1794:
1790:
1788:
1779:
1775:
1770:
1766:
1758:
1754:
1752:
1751:Enrique Creel
1748:
1744:
1740:
1736:
1732:
1728:
1719:
1714:
1710:
1708:
1704:
1700:
1696:
1692:
1688:
1684:
1680:
1671:
1666:
1662:
1660:
1656:
1652:
1648:
1644:
1635:
1631:
1629:
1624:
1620:
1618:
1617:
1612:
1602:
1595:
1590:
1583:
1582:Porfirio DĂaz
1579:
1570:
1568:
1567:Porfirio DĂaz
1564:
1559:
1557:
1552:
1548:
1547:Benito JuĂĄrez
1543:
1541:
1537:
1532:
1530:
1526:
1521:
1520:Benito JuĂĄrez
1517:
1513:
1509:
1508:
1503:
1499:
1494:
1490:
1486:
1478:
1473:
1464:
1460:
1456:
1454:
1448:
1446:
1445:Banco de AvĂo
1442:
1438:
1433:
1431:
1426:
1417:
1413:
1409:
1405:
1398:
1394:
1390:
1386:
1384:
1374:
1373:
1365:
1360:
1352:
1351:
1350:
1343:
1338:
1334:
1332:
1328:
1322:
1318:
1314:
1304:
1302:
1298:
1292:
1288:
1285:
1281:
1277:
1273:
1269:
1265:
1254:
1250:
1245:
1242:
1238:
1233:
1230:
1229:
1225:
1220:
1216:
1211:
1208:
1205:
1199:
1196:
1192:
1176:
1173:
1169:
1164:
1159:
1157:
1152:
1150:
1146:
1142:
1137:
1133:
1125:
1121:
1117:
1113:
1110:
1106:
1105:
1099:
1097:
1093:
1089:
1084:
1082:
1076:
1071:
1066:
1063:
1058:
1054:
1052:
1051:
1044:
1037:
1032:
1023:
1019:
1015:
1013:
1007:
1005:
1001:
997:
993:
989:
985:
979:
977:
976:
971:
966:
962:
954:
950:
946:
939:
934:
928:
924:
920:
914:
910:
906:
897:
895:
891:
887:
886:maguey cactus
883:
878:
874:
872:
868:
867:repartimiento
864:
863:
862:repartimiento
856:
854:
849:
845:
840:
839:
834:
831:
826:
824:
820:
816:
812:
807:
803:
794:
790:
786:
782:
778:
772:
768:
763:
754:
752:
748:
744:
740:
736:
735:repartimiento
732:
727:
723:
721:
716:
708:
704:
697:
693:
689:
687:
683:
679:
678:patio process
674:
670:
666:
662:
658:
653:
651:
647:
643:
639:
638:
629:
624:
615:
613:
609:
603:
601:
600:
595:
591:
587:
579:
575:
571:
566:
556:
554:
550:
546:
541:
539:
535:
531:
527:
523:
522:
517:
513:
509:
504:
502:
498:
494:
490:
486:
481:
476:
473:
469:
466:
458: 3 month
446: 10 year
440: 30 year
435:Mexico bonds
433:
425:
417:
410:
406:
402:
391:
386:
384:
379:
377:
372:
371:
369:
368:
365:
355:
354:
351:
350:
346:
345:
338:
335:
333:
330:
328:
325:
323:
320:
318:
315:
313:
310:
308:
307:
303:
301:
298:
296:
293:
291:
288:
286:
283:
281:
277:
273:
272:
266:
265:
258:
255:
253:
250:
248:
245:
243:
240:
238:
237:
233:
231:
228:
226:
223:
221:
218:
216:
213:
212:
206:
205:
198:
195:
193:
190:
188:
187:
183:
182:
179:
174:
173:
166:
163:
161:
158:
156:
153:
151:
148:
147:
144:
139:
138:
131:
128:
126:
123:
121:
118:
116:
113:
112:
109:The New Spain
106:
105:
101:
100:Pre-Columbian
97:
96:
92:
88:
87:
84:
78:
77:
72:
67:
66:
57:
54:December 2023
47:
43:
37:
35:
29:
20:
19:
16:
7358:Roman Empire
7323:Feudal Japan
7291:Ming dynasty
7286:Song dynasty
7242:Soviet Union
7217:East Germany
7021:
6961:Saudi Arabia
6878:
6832:
6737:South Africa
6639:
6455:Architecture
6360:Demographics
6213:
6204:Central bank
6114:Human rights
6094:Constitution
5912:War on drugs
5887:World War II
5872:Cristero War
5765:Colonial era
5679:
5672:
5658:
5644:
5637:
5630:
5623:
5619:12:1 (1996).
5616:
5609:
5602:
5595:
5588:
5581:
5575:The Americas
5574:
5560:
5553:
5546:
5537:
5528:
5521:
5506:
5499:
5492:
5488:, 16 (1984).
5485:
5482:Knight, Alan
5475:
5468:
5461:
5454:
5447:
5440:
5433:
5426:
5422:
5412:
5405:
5398:
5381:
5374:
5367:
5360:
5353:
5346:
5339:
5331:
5323:
5316:
5309:
5302:
5286:
5272:
5262:
5255:
5241:
5232:
5225:
5218:
5211:
5204:
5190:
5175:
5168:
5154:
5140:
5133:
5123:
5113:
5099:
5092:
5085:
5078:
5064:
5050:
5036:
5019:
5005:
4991:
4984:
4970:
4963:
4956:
4953:D.A. Brading
4946:
4943:D.A. Brading
4936:
4934:D.A. Brading
4920:
4917:D.A. Brading
4910:
4903:
4893:
4879:
4872:
4865:
4851:
4837:
4819:
4798:
4784:
4759:
4747:
4719:
4712:
4679:
4675:
4669:
4657:. Retrieved
4653:
4643:
4634:
4624:
4612:
4607:
4597:
4584:
4563:
4555:
4550:
4541:
4532:
4524:
4519:
4510:
4501:
4493:
4488:
4477:
4468:
4460:
4455:
4447:
4442:
4434:
4429:
4420:
4411:
4402:
4394:
4386:
4377:
4368:
4359:
4351:
4346:
4337:
4329:
4324:
4315:
4295:
4288:
4279:
4270:
4261:
4252:
4244:
4239:
4231:
4226:
4217:
4209:
4204:
4196:
4191:
4183:
4166:
4158:
4153:
4145:
4140:
4132:
4127:
4119:
4114:
4106:
4101:
4092:
4083:
4074:
4066:
4061:
4052:
4043:
4031:
4004:
3996:
3995:Coatsworth,
3991:
3982:
3973:
3964:
3955:
3946:
3938:
3937:Coatsworth,
3933:
3925:
3924:Coatsworth,
3920:
3912:
3907:
3896:
3891:
3883:
3878:
3870:
3865:
3856:
3848:
3843:
3835:
3830:
3822:
3819:D.A. Brading
3814:
3806:
3803:D.A. Brading
3798:
3789:
3781:
3776:
3768:
3763:
3752:
3747:
3739:
3734:
3726:
3721:
3713:
3712:J.H. Parry,
3708:
3700:
3695:
3687:
3682:
3674:
3669:
3661:
3656:
3648:
3643:
3635:
3630:
3622:
3617:
3609:
3604:
3595:
3587:
3582:
3574:
3569:
3561:
3558:D.A. Brading
3542:
3537:
3529:
3524:
3504:
3499:
3490:
3482:
3477:
3469:
3464:
3456:
3451:
3443:
3438:
3430:
3418:
3410:
3405:
3397:
3392:
3384:
3379:
3358:
3349:
3341:
3333:
3325:
3320:
3312:
3307:
3299:
3294:
3284:
3274:
3266:
3261:
3253:
3248:
3240:
3224:
3219:
3211:
3206:
3198:
3193:
3185:
3180:
3172:
3167:
3159:
3143:
3140:D.A. Brading
3135:
3127:
3122:
3114:
3109:
3101:
3096:
3088:
3083:
3075:
3070:
3062:
3057:
3049:
3041:
2999:Money portal
2701:
2693:
2669:
2654:
2635:
2607:
2573:
2568:deregulation
2556:
2548:
2520:
2493:
2455:
2432:
2428:
2412:
2389:
2378:'s plant in
2352:
2343:
2337:
2328:
2320:
2314:through the
2309:
2300:Labor unions
2286:
2275:, President
2273:World War II
2270:
2253:
2233:
2199:
2186:
2184:
2164:
2159:
2146:
2140:
2128:
2114:
2111:
2098:anticlerical
2086:
2062:
2038:
2026:
2003:
1975:
1836:
1813:
1795:
1791:
1783:
1763:
1723:
1691:Phelps Dodge
1675:
1670:Abel Briquet
1655:Standard Oil
1640:
1625:
1621:
1614:
1607:
1560:
1544:
1533:
1505:
1482:
1461:
1457:
1452:
1449:
1441:Lucas Alaman
1434:
1421:
1416:Lucas AlamĂĄn
1406:
1402:
1387:
1382:
1379:
1369:
1347:
1324:
1293:
1289:
1261:
1252:
1248:
1243:
1236:
1231:
1203:
1200:
1187:
1160:
1155:
1153:
1148:
1135:
1131:
1129:
1108:
1102:
1100:
1091:
1085:
1080:
1077:
1073:
1068:
1059:
1055:
1048:
1045:
1041:
1020:
1016:
1011:
1008:
980:
973:
961:Tenochtitlan
957:
927:Albert Durer
893:
879:
875:
870:
866:
860:
857:
836:
832:
827:
798:
780:
765:View of the
746:
742:
738:
734:
730:
728:
724:
719:
712:
686:Huancavelica
654:
635:
633:
611:
604:
597:
583:
574:Diego Rivera
542:
538:price of oil
520:
505:
477:
470:
464:
462:
452: 1 year
347:
327:PRI downfall
304:
275:
257:Cristero War
234:
184:
130:First Empire
51:
34:lead section
32:
15:
7333:Inca Empire
7281:Han dynasty
7189:New Zealand
7151:Switzerland
7116:Netherlands
6976:South Korea
6956:Philippines
6936:North Korea
6692:Ivory Coast
6380:Immigration
6246:Land reform
6194:Agriculture
6016:Territories
5954:Earthquakes
5902:Peso crisis
5897:Lost Decade
4816:Altman, Ida
4659:February 4,
4582:Dan La Botz
2935:(2012â2018)
2910:(2006â2012)
2542:Carlos Slim
2532:Mexico City
1987:land reform
1971:Hugo Brehme
1778:C. B. Waite
1743:Nazas River
1718:C. B. Waite
1354:bankruptcy.
751:1766 strike
637:quinto real
516:land reform
80:History of
7383:Categories
7247:Yugoslavia
6991:Tajikistan
6901:East Timor
6886:Azerbaijan
6880:Arab world
6712:Mozambique
6702:Madagascar
6539:Television
6497:Literature
6375:Healthcare
6350:Censorship
6345:Corruption
6278:(currency)
6236:Irrigation
5857:Porfiriato
5852:Yaqui Wars
5827:La Reforma
5812:Pastry War
5425:, 7 vols.
3033:References
2869:$ 3,400.64
2838:$ 2,289.58
2819:$ 2,132.71
2816:$ 2,289.58
2744:Difference
2450:See also:
2376:Volkswagen
2332:new unions
1824:Bon Marché
1611:Porfiriato
1563:Porfiriato
1545:President
1500:, so that
1425:investment
1372:AugustĂn I
1253:PLVS VLTRA
1149:alhondigas
988:Guanajuato
913:Carl Nebel
661:Guanajuato
659:and later
612:encomienda
599:encomienda
592:goods for
563:See also:
545:neoliberal
501:Porfiriato
493:Reform War
230:Revolution
192:Reform War
186:La Reforma
160:Pastry War
7200:economies
7184:Australia
7111:Lithuania
6971:Singapore
6946:Palestine
6911:Indonesia
6838:Nicaragua
6783:Argentina
6502:Monuments
6492:Languages
6365:Education
6284:Petroleum
6241:Labor law
6209:Companies
6151:President
6099:Elections
5989:Mountains
5922:Geography
5847:Caste War
5696:from the
5549:15(1974).
5450:24(1992).
5421:, et al.
5319:58(1984).
4739:924299167
4704:157404519
4696:0707-5332
4161:, p. 811.
3825:, p. 568.
3742:, p. 310.
3729:, p. 306.
3703:, p. 306.
3690:, p. 153.
3651:, p. 297.
3638:, p. 296.
3625:, p. 296.
3413:, p. 166.
3315:, p. 293.
3214:, p. 291.
2885:2000â2006
2860:1994â2000
2835:1988â1994
2810:1982â1988
2785:1976â1982
2760:1970â1976
2729:President
2515:Monterrey
2458:recession
1661:of 1938.
1542:in 1910.
1493:lerdo law
1104:consulado
1006:(sisal).
992:Zacatecas
882:cochineal
871:haciendas
815:Querétaro
793:New Spain
789:Cochineal
720:consulado
657:Zacatecas
646:MichoacĂĄn
630:, Mexico.
565:New Spain
472:New Spain
405:Axe-money
209:1864â1928
44:and help
7338:Iroquois
7161:Scotland
7136:Slovakia
7126:Portugal
7049:Bulgaria
6996:Thailand
6951:Pakistan
6941:Mongolia
6931:Malaysia
6891:Cambodia
6848:Paraguay
6808:Colombia
6788:Barbados
6771:Americas
6762:Zimbabwe
6672:Ethiopia
6657:Botswana
6579:Category
6522:Religion
6482:Folklore
6141:Military
6119:Intersex
6077:Congress
6060:Politics
6046:Wildlife
6036:Volcanos
5877:Maximato
5744:articles
4589:Archived
4212:, p. 264
3941:, p. 90.
3928:, p. 89.
3677:, p. 36.
3664:, p. 301
2957:See also
2941:$ 18.86
2913:$ 10.900
2891:$ 10.880
2844:$ 892.00
2813:$ 150.29
2794:$ 127.60
2791:$ 150.29
2704:May 2022
2638:Fobaproa
2250:(center)
2169:and the
1828:Harrod's
1787:henequen
1735:Coahuila
1491:via the
1282:and the
1132:alcabala
1004:henequen
949:Acapulco
936:16th c.
909:Arrieros
838:hacienda
787:(1777).
707:Cinnabar
608:New Laws
524:and the
495:and the
349:Timeline
276:Maximato
71:a series
69:Part of
7177:Oceania
7094:Ireland
7089:Hungary
7079:Germany
7069:Estonia
7064:Denmark
7054:Croatia
7039:Belgium
7034:Austria
7029:Albania
7006:Vietnam
6863:Uruguay
6828:Jamaica
6818:Ecuador
6747:Tunisia
6732:Somalia
6727:Senegal
6717:Nigeria
6707:Morocco
6677:Eritrea
6647:Algeria
6563:Outline
6470:Cuisine
6447:Culture
6437:Welfare
6427:Smoking
6412:Poverty
6333:Society
6309:Tourism
6182:Economy
6156:Cabinet
5974:Islands
5969:Forests
5944:Climate
5934:Borders
5752:History
4654:Reuters
4157:Brown,
3400:p. 166.
3243:p. 292.
3227:p. 291.
3201:p. 290.
3162:p. 169.
2938:$ 12.50
2916:$ 12.50
2888:$ 9.360
2866:$ 9.360
2863:$ 3,410
2841:$ 3,410
2788:$ 22.69
2769:$ 10.19
2766:$ 22.69
2763:$ 12.50
2694:updated
1843:Gallery
1774:Orizaba
1739:Durango
1703:rurales
1699:Cananea
1616:rurales
1489:Reforma
1477:Reforma
1453:obrajes
1244:Reverse
1232:Obverse
1217:, 1821
1081:gremios
938:Seville
894:obrajes
853:tobacco
819:Jalisco
747:partido
743:partido
696:Almadén
682:Almadén
628:Pachuca
590:tribute
485:Reforma
7348:Muisca
7277:China
7146:Sweden
7131:Russia
7121:Norway
7084:Greece
7074:France
7023:Europe
7015:Europe
7001:Turkey
6986:Taiwan
6921:Israel
6843:Panama
6833:Mexico
6798:Canada
6793:Brazil
6757:Zambia
6752:Uganda
6722:Rwanda
6687:Guinea
6652:Angola
6641:Africa
6633:Africa
6584:Portal
6534:Sports
6465:Cinema
6395:People
6219:Energy
6082:Senate
6004:States
5999:Rivers
5939:Cities
5742:
5740:Mexico
5665:
5651:
5567:
5513:
5388:
5279:
5248:
5197:
5182:
5161:
5147:
5106:
5071:
5057:
5043:
5026:
5012:
4998:
4977:
4927:
4886:
4858:
4844:
4826:
4791:
4737:
4727:
4702:
4694:
4617:online
4303:
4208:Hart,
3901:online
2919:$ 1.60
2894:$ 1.45
2822:1552%
2741:at end
2380:Puebla
2361:. The
1693:. The
1689:, and
1551:tariff
1507:fueros
1443:, the
1383:fueros
1344:, 1828
1319:, and
1255:motto.
1195:castas
1141:castas
1136:cortes
1050:fueros
996:Parral
984:Puebla
890:pulque
833:per se
821:, and
739:reales
731:pepena
673:PotosĂ
665:Parral
642:Oaxaca
618:Mining
586:silver
521:ejidos
456:
450:
444:
438:
269:Modern
82:Mexico
73:on the
7166:Wales
7141:Spain
7106:Italy
6981:Syria
6926:Japan
6906:India
6896:China
6823:Haiti
6803:Chile
6742:Sudan
6697:Kenya
6682:Ghana
6667:Egypt
6570:Index
6517:Radio
6507:Music
6405:Women
6370:Flags
6355:Crime
6276:Peso
5979:Lakes
4700:S2CID
3838:coin.
2872:180%
2797:562%
2735:Years
2732:Party
2651:USMCA
2359:Silao
2191:Pemex
1036:casta
848:sisal
811:BajĂo
650:Taxco
6916:Iran
6872:Asia
6853:Peru
6813:Cuba
6475:Wine
6124:LGBT
6026:Time
5663:ISBN
5649:ISBN
5565:ISBN
5511:ISBN
5386:ISBN
5277:ISBN
5246:ISBN
5195:ISBN
5180:ISBN
5159:ISBN
5145:ISBN
5104:ISBN
5069:ISBN
5055:ISBN
5041:ISBN
5024:ISBN
5010:ISBN
4996:ISBN
4975:ISBN
4925:ISBN
4884:ISBN
4856:ISBN
4842:ISBN
4824:ISBN
4789:ISBN
4735:OCLC
4725:ISBN
4692:ISSN
4661:2022
4301:ISBN
3836:real
3425:and
2922:15%
2897:15%
2847:36%
2772:82%
2636:The
2602:and
2470:peso
2027:The
1737:and
1204:real
990:and
806:silk
804:for
791:was
644:and
478:The
6460:Art
6266:Oil
6131:Law
4919:,
4684:doi
2932:PRI
2907:PAN
2882:PAN
2857:PRI
2832:PRI
2807:PRI
2782:PRI
2757:PRI
2720:USD
2189:or
1527:as
1504:or
783:by
769:by
7385::
5271:.
5035:.
4902:.
4836:.
4818:.
4733:.
4698:.
4690:.
4680:40
4678:.
4652:.
4633:.
4572:^
4175:^
4016:^
3821:,
3805:,
3560:,
3550:^
3512:^
3429:,
3367:^
3340:,
3232:^
3151:^
2950:-
2554:.
2268:.
2208:.
2001:.
1685:,
1681:,
1531:.
1315:,
1303:.
896:.
888:,
825:.
817:,
6618:e
6611:t
6604:v
5950:)
5946:(
5732:e
5725:t
5718:v
5517:.
5186:.
4741:.
4706:.
4686::
4663:.
4637:.
4619:.
4309:.
3999:.
2947:-
2706:)
2702:(
2696:.
2517:.
2509:(
2342:(
2322:"
1596:.
1381:(
1126:.
1090:(
1079:(
411:.
389:e
382:t
375:v
56:)
52:(
48:.
38:.
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.