Earth structure - Knowledge

911: 1168:(MSE) retaining walls may be used for embankments. MSE walls combine a concrete leveling pad, wall facing panels, coping, soil reinforcement and select backfill. A variety of designs of wall facing panels may be used. After the leveling pad has been laid and the first row of panels has been placed and braced, the first layer of earth backfill is brought in behind the wall and compacted. The first set of reinforcements is then laid over the earth. The reinforcements, which may be tensioned polymer or galvanized metal strips or grids, are attached to the facing panels. This process is repeated with successive layers of panels, earth and reinforcements. The panels are thus tied into the earth embankment to make a stable structure with balanced stresses. 602:. Local subsoil of almost any composition can be used, although an adobe mix would be preferable. The soil is moistened so it will compact into a stable structure when packed into woven polypropylene or burlap sacks or tubes. Plastic mesh is sometimes used. Polypropylene (pp) sacks are most common, since they are durable when covered, cheap, and widely available. The bags are laid in courses, with barbed wire between each course to prevent slipping. Each course is tamped after it is laid. The structure in pp bags is similar to adobe but more flexible. With mesh tubing the structure is like rammed earth. Earthbags may be used to make dome-shaped or vertical wall buildings. With soil stabilization they may also be used for retaining walls. 806:. The farmer would use a plow to cut the sod into bricks 1 by 2 feet (0.30 by 0.61 m), which were then piled up to form the walls. The sod strips were piled grass-side down, staggered in the same way as brickwork, in three side-by-side rows, resulting in a wall over 3 feet (0.91 m) thick. The sod wall was built around door and window frames, and the corners of the wall were secured by rods driven vertically through them. The roof was made with poles or brush, covered with prairie grass, and then sealed with a layer of sod. Sod houses were strong and often lasted many years, but they were damp and dirty unless the interior walls were plastered. The roofs tended to leak, and sometimes collapsed in a rainstorm. 295: 1132: 579:(CEB) were traditionally made by using a stick to ram soil into a wooden mold. Today they are usually made from subsoil compressed in a hand-operated or powered machine. In the developing world, manual machines can be a cost-effective solution for making uniform building blocks, while the more complex and expensive motorized machines are less likely to be appropriate. Although labor-intensive, CEB construction avoids the cost of buying and transporting materials. Block-making machines may form blocks that have interlocking shapes to reduce the requirement for mortar. The block may have holes or grooves so rods such as bamboo can be inserted to improve earthquake resistance. 362:. Cob walls are usually built up in courses, have no mortar joints and need 30% or more clay in the soil. Cob can be used as in-fill in post-and-beam buildings, but is often used for load bearing walls, and can bear up to two stories. A cob wall should be at least 16 inches (410 mm) thick, and the ratio of width to height should be no more than one to ten. It will typically be plastered inside and out with a mix of lime, soil and sand. Cob is fireproof, and its thermal mass helps stabilize indoor temperatures. Tests have shown that cob has some resistance to seismic activity. However, building codes in the developed world may not recognize cob as an approved material. 739: 896: 973: 340: 1033: 611: 661: 371: 942: 513: 4843: 4696: 881: 701:, most of the ancient homes were built 12 metres (39 ft) below ground level, and surrounded courtyards about 12 metres (39 ft) square. The homes were reached through tunnels. Other examples of subterranean, semi-subterranean or cliff-based dwellings in both hot and cold climates are found in Turkey, northern China and the Himalayas, and the southwest USA. A number of Buddhist monasteries built from earth and other materials into cliff sides or caves in Himalayan areas such as 4742: 4655: 927: 4643: 528: 455:. A rammed earth wall is built by placing damp soil in a temporary form. The soil is manually or mechanically compacted and then the form is removed. Rammed earth is generally made without much water, and so does not need much time to dry as the building rises. It is susceptible to moisture, so must be laid on a course that stops rising dampness, must be roofed or covered to keep out water from above, and may need protection through some sort of plaster, paint or sheathing. 4754: 787: 4805: 4730: 4631: 425: 284: 42: 1188: 163: 416:

stabilize the soil, which adds to the cost. If earth contains little clay and holds 10% or more cement, it is in effect concrete. Cement is not particularly environmentally friendly, since the manufacturing process generates large amounts of carbon dioxide. Low-density stabilized earth will be porous and weak. The earth must therefore be compacted either by a machine that makes blocks or within the wall using the "rammed earth" technique.

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have included mud plaster, lime plaster, whitewash or stucco. Adobe walls were historically made by laying the bricks with mud mortar, which swells and shrinks at the same rate as the bricks when wetted or dried, heated or cooled. Modern adobe may be stabilized with cement and bonded with cement mortars, but cement mortars will cause unstabilized adobe bricks to deteriorate due to the different rates of thermal expansion and contraction.

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techniques were highly advanced in Egypt by 2500 BC. Adobe construction is common throughout much of Africa today. Adobe bricks are traditionally made from sand and clay mixed with water to a plastic consistency, with straw or grass as a binder. The mud is prepared, placed in wooden forms, tamped and leveled, and then turned out of the mold to dry for several days. The bricks are then stood on end to air-cure for a month or more.

4831: 4819: 993: 4855: 866: 4766: 4879: 4795: 4718: 4619: 4867: 4667: 1366: 1179:. The term MSE is usually used in the US to distinguish it from "Reinforced Earth", a trade name of the Reinforced Earth Company, but elsewhere Reinforced Soil is the generally accepted term. MSE construction is relatively fast and inexpensive, and although labor-intensive, it does not demand high levels of skill. It is therefore suitable for developing as well as developed countries. 562: 1241: 387:

likely to deteriorate due to freezing or rain came from dried sloughs. Turf was once extensively used for the walls of houses in Ireland, Scotland and Iceland, where some turf houses may still be found. A turf house may last fifty years or longer if well-maintained in a cold climate. The Icelanders find that the best quality turf is the

774:. In prehistoric Britain simple circular wattle and daub shelters were built wherever adequate clay was available. Wattle and daub is still found as the panels in timber-framed buildings. Generally the walls are not structural, and in interior use the technique in the developed world was replaced by lath and plaster, and then by 859:. The building went through a series of construction phases, growing eventually to a height of about 32 metres (105 ft), with three main platforms, four plazas and many smaller rooms and enclosures. The walls were covered by striking multi-colored murals and friezes; those visible today date from about 400–610 AD. 499:, completed in 80 AD, still stand. Their longevity may be explained by the fact that the builders used a relatively dry mix of mortar and aggregate and compacted it by pounding it down to eliminate air pockets. Although derived from earth products, concrete structures would not usually be considered earth structures. 731:

ring of shorter posts, also connected by cross beams. Rafters radiated from the central cross beams to the outside cross beams, and then split planks or beams formed the slanting or vertical side walls. The structure was covered by sticks and brush or grass, covered in turn by a heavy layer of earth or

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Builders should be aware that organic reinforcements embedded in walls may be destroyed before the building is retired. Attachment details of reinforcement are critical to resist higher forces. Best adobe shear strength came from horizontal reinforcement attached directly to vertical rebar spanning

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of North America. They have wood post and beam construction and are dome-shaped. A typical structure would have four or more central posts planted in the ground and connected at the top by cross beams. The smoke hole would be left open in the center. Around the central structure there was a larger

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that is mainly composed of silica and alumina, with other ingredients such as quartz sand. The porosity of the brick depends on the materials and on the firing temperature and duration. The bricks may vary in color depending on the amount of iron and calcium carbonate in the materials used, and the

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In the southwest United States and Mexico adobe buildings had massive walls and were rarely more than two stories high. Adobe mission churches were never more than about 35 feet (11 m). Since adobe surfaces are fragile, coatings are used to protect them. These coatings, periodically renewed,

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Preferably the sand content of the soil will be 65% – 75%. Soils with low clay content, or with no more than 15% non-expansive clay, are suitable for stabilized earth. The clay percentage may be reduced by adding sand, if available. If there is more than 15% clay it may take more than 10% cement to

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is a mix of sand, silt and clay in which none predominates. Soils are given different names depending on the relative proportions of sand, silt and clay such as "Silt Loam", "Clay Loam" and "Silty Clay". Loam construction, the subject of this article, referred to as adobe construction when it uses

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Many types of reinforcement can increase wall strength, such as plastic or wire mesh and reinforcing rods of steel or fiberglass or bamboo. Earth resists compression well but is weak when twisted. Tensile reinforcement must span potential damage points and be well-anchored to increase out-of-plane

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Mudbricks or Adobe bricks are preformed modular masonry units of sun-dried mud that were invented at different times in different parts of the world as civilization developed. Construction with bricks avoids the delays while each course of puddled mud dries. Wall murals show that adobe production

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Coursed mud construction is one of the oldest approaches to building walls. Moist mud is formed by hand to make the base of a wall, and allowed to dry. More mud is added and allowed to dry to form successive courses until the wall is complete. With puddled mud, a hand-made mud form is filled with

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in Spanish, can be used to make tough and durable walls. The sod is cut from soil that has a heavy mat of grass roots, which may be found in river bottom lands. It is stood on edge to dry before being used in construction. European settlers on the North American Prairies found that the sod least

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Stronger soils make stronger walls. Adobe builders can test cured blocks for strength by dropping from a specific height or by breaking them with a lever. Builders using immediate techniques like earthbag, cob, or rammed earth may prefer approximate crushing tests on smaller samples that can be

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by the end of 1914. The two lines of trenches faced each other, manned by soldiers living in appalling conditions of cold, damp and filth. Conditions were worst in the Allied trenches. The Germans were more willing to accept the trenches as long-term positions, and used concrete blocks to build

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Trenches were used by besieging forces to approach a fortification while protected from missiles. Sappers would build "saps", or trenches, that zig-zagged towards the fortress being attacked. They piled the excavated dirt to make a protective wall or gabion. The combined trench depth and gabion

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in a kiln dates to about 3500 BC. Fired bricks were being used to build durable masonry across Europe, Asia and North Africa by 1200 BC and still remain an important building material. Modern fired clay bricks are formed from clays or shales, shaped and then fired in a kiln for 8–12 hours at a

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Regions with low seismic risk are safe for most earth buildings, but historic construction techniques often cannot resist even medium earthquake levels effectively because of earthen buildings' three highly undesirable qualities as a seismic building material: being relatively 'weak, heavy and

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Suitable earth must be used, with enough clay to hold the block together and resist erosion, but not too much expansive clay. When the block has been made from stabilized earth, which contains cement, the concrete must be given perhaps three weeks to cure. During this time the blocks should be

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Clay is usually hard and strong when dry, but becomes very soft when it absorbs water. The dry clay helps hold an earth wall together, but if the wall is directly exposed to rain, or to water leaking down from the roof, it may become saturated. Earth may be "stabilized" to make it more weather

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In recent years, interest in loam construction has revived in the developed world. It is seen as a way to minimize use of fossil fuels and pollution, particularly carbon dioxide, during manufacture, and to create a comfortable living environment through the high mass and high absorption of the

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walls between three and five stories high. A toulou might house up to 80 families. Smaller interior buildings are often enclosed by these huge peripheral walls which can contain halls, storehouses, wells and living areas. The structure resembles a small fortified city. The walls are formed by

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Robust layout means buildings more square than elongated, and symmetrical not L-shaped, as well as no 'soft' first stories (stories with large windows, buildings on unbraced columns). New Zealand's earthen building guidelines check for enough bracing wall length in each of the two principal

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construction. Each course is about 18 to 24 inches (460 to 610 mm) thick, and about 18 to 24 inches (460 to 610 mm) high. Typically the technique is used for garden walls but not for house construction, presumably because of concern about the strength of walls made in this way. A

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in what became Illinois, completed around 1100 AD, which has a base larger than that of the Great Pyramid at Giza. Many of the mounds underwent multiple episodes of mound construction at periodic intervals, some becoming quite large. They are believed to have played a central role in the

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is an old building technique in which vines or smaller sticks are interwoven between upright poles, and then mud mixed with straw and grass is plastered over the wall. The technique is found around the world, from the Nile Delta to Japan, where bamboo was used to make the wattle. In

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and only the foundations remain, but originally it stood 300 feet (91 m) high on a base about 660 feet (200 m) square. Sun-dried bricks were used for the interior and kiln-fired bricks for the facing. The bricks were held together by clay or bitumen.

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in 2600–1900 BC, during the period when cities first appeared in the region. Thick sloping walls made of rammed earth became a characteristic of traditional Buddhist monasteries throughout the Himalayas and became very common in northern Indian areas such as

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disadvantage to the approach is that a lot of time can be spent waiting for each course to dry. Another technique, used in areas where wood is plentiful, is to build a wood-frame house and to infill it with mud, primarily to provide insulation. In parts of

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European pioneer farmers in the prairies of North America, where there is no wood for construction, often made their first home in a dug-out cave in the side of a hill or ravine, with a covering over the entrance. When they had time, they would build a

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Earth has been used to construct fortifications for thousands of years, including strongholds and walls, often protected by ditches. Aerial photography in Europe has revealed traces of earth fortifications from the Roman era, and later medieval times.

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compacting earth mixed with stone, bamboo, wood and other readily available materials, and are to 6 feet (1.8 m) thick. The result is a well-lit, well-ventilated, windproof and earthquake-proof building that is warm in winter and cool in summer.

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and northern India are often perilously placed. Starting in the 1970s, interest in the technique has revived in developed countries. By setting an earth house into the ground, the house will be cooler in the warm season and warmer in the cool season.

1219:(1861−1865) trenches were used for defensive positions throughout the struggle, but played an increasingly important role in the campaigns of the last two years. Military earthworks perhaps culminated in the vast network of trenches built during 3666:

The Conservation of Decorated Surfaces on Earthen Architecture: Proceedings from the International Colloquium Organized by the Getty Conservation Institute and the National Park Service, Mesa Verde National Park, Colorado, USA, September 22–25,

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minerals with a sheet-like structure. The very small clay particles interact with each other physically and chemically. Even a small proportion of clay affects the physical properties of the soil much more than might be expected. Clays such as

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and other rivers, which was molded and burned in peat-fired kilns for three or four weeks. The bricks were then given about three weeks to cool before being removed. Modern processes use higher temperatures and much shorter firing times.

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has been used for thousands of years to make energy-efficient dwellings. There are various configurations. At one extreme, an earth sheltered dwelling is completely underground, with perhaps an open courtyard to provide air and light. An

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stacked and kept from drying out by sprinkling water over them. This may be a problem in hot, dry climates where water is scarce. Closely stacking the blocks and covering them with a polythene sheet may help reduce water loss.

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were built on the northwest coast of Europe, and later by European settlers on the North American prairies. Adobe or mud-brick buildings are built around the world and include houses, apartment buildings, mosques and churches.

826:, Mali, was first built at the start of the 14th century AD (8th century AH) from round mud bricks and a stone-mud mixture, and was rebuilt several times afterwards, steadily growing in size. Further south in Mali, the 1294:, Canada, is an embankment dam about 18 kilometres (11 mi) long and from 40 to 88 metres (131 to 289 ft) high. By volume of fill, as of 2001 it was believed to be the largest earth structure in the world. 1345:

Wall containment can be added to techniques like adobe to resist loss of material that leads to collapse. Confined masonry is effective for adobe against quake forces of 0.3 g may be useful with earthen masonry.

1283:. Such a dam is composed of fragmented independent material particles. The friction and interaction of particles binds the particles together into a stable mass rather than by the use of a cementing substance. 834:, a dramatic example of Sahel mudbrick architecture. was built in 1907, based on the design of an earlier Great Mosque first built on the site in 1280. Mudbrick requires maintenance, and the fundamentalist ruler 1271:

mound of various compositions of soil, sand, clay and/or rock. It has a semi-permanent natural waterproof covering for its surface, and a dense, waterproof core. This makes such a dam impervious to surface or

849:, who visited the site in 1694. At that time it had long been abandoned. By the time a temporary roof was installed in 1903 the adobe building had been standing empty and unmaintained for hundreds of years. 1058:

contained about three million bricks, none more than 15 inches (380 mm) in length, so construction would have been a huge project. The largest ziggurat was in Babylon, and is thought by some to be the

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height might be 8 to 10 feet (2.4 to 3.0 m). Sometimes the sap was a tunnel, dug several feet below the surface. Sappers were highly skilled and highly paid due to the extreme danger of their work.

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farmers between 100 and 900 AD, in what is now the southwest of the US, were bermed structures, partially embedded in south-facing slopes. Their successful design was used for hundreds of years. At

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may be set into a slope, with windows or door openings in one or more of its sides, or the building may be on ground level, but with earth mounded against the walls, and perhaps with an earth roof.

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are engineering works created through moving or processing quantities of soil or unformed rock. The material may be moved to another location and formed into a desired shape for a purpose.

1019:, China. They were mostly built between the 13th and the 20th centuries. A tulou is a large, enclosed and fortified earth building, rectangular or circular, with very thick load-bearing 910: 2918:

San Bartolome, A., E. Delgado and D. Quiun (2009) Seismic Behavior of a Two Story Model of Confined Adobe Masonry. 11th Canadian Masonry Symposium, Toronto, Ontario, May 31- June 3, 2009

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may also be added to earth intended for construction which adds strength, although the stabilized earth is not as strong as fired clay or concrete. Mixtures of cement and lime, or

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Although construction using the basic principles of MSE has a long history, MSE was developed in its current form in the 1960s. The reinforcing elements used can vary but include

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The Romans made durable concrete strong enough for load-bearing walls. Roman concrete contains a rubble of broken bricks and rocks set in mortar. The mortar included lime and

766:, now in Illinois, USA, wattle and daub houses were built with the floor lowered by 1 to 3 feet (0.30 to 0.91 m) below the ground. A variant of the technique is called 3067:

Aerial Photography and Archaeology 2003: A Century of Information ; Papers Presented During the Conference Held at the Ghent University, December 10th - 12th, 2003

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The word "adobe" is derived from the ancient Egyptian "tob", meaning "brick". The Arabs adopted the word as "at-tub" or "attuba", and the Spanish made this "adobe".

313:, straw may be added, some form of stabilizing material such as lime or cement may be used to harden the earth, and the earth may be compacted to increase strength. 4757: 1054:

between the end of the 4th millennium BC and the 2nd millennium BC, rising in a series of terraces to a temple up to 200 feet (61 m) above ground level. The

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Interlaced wood in earthen walls reduces quake damage if wood is not damaged by dry rot or insects. Timberlacing includes finely webbed Dhajji, and other types.

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amount of oxygen in the kiln. Bricks may decay due to crystallization of salts on the brick or in its pores, from frost action and from acidic gases.

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The straw and grass in adobe does not make the brick any stronger in the long term, but helps ensure that the bricks shrink uniformly as they dry.

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was built of rammed earth. From there the technology was brought to Europe by the Romans. Rammed earth structures may be long lasting. Most of the

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is a huge earthwork that stretches along the disputed border between England and Wales. Little is known about the period or the builder, King

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Soil is created from rock that has been chemically or physically weathered, transported, deposited and precipitated. Soil particles include

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Fired bricks and concrete are derived from earth, but structures built from these materials are usually not considered earth structures.

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directions, based on wall thickness, story height, bracing wall spacing, and the roof, loft and second story weight above earthen walls.

1154:, embankments and dams are types of earthwork. A levee, floodbank or stopbank is an elongated natural ridge or artificially constructed 1208:, who died in 796 AD. An early timber and earth fortification might later be succeeded by a brick or stone structure on the same site. 75:

Soil is still an economical material for many applications, and may have low environmental impact both during and after construction.

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will include stretcher bricks with their long, narrow side exposed and header bricks crossing from side to side. There are various

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Trench Warfare under Grant and Lee: Field Fortifications in the Overland Campaign: Field Fortifications in the Overland Campaign

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Key factors to improved seismic performance are soil strength, construction quality, robust layout and seismic reinforcement.

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Materials for Sustainable Sites: A Complete Guide to the Evaluation, Selection, and Use of Sustainable Construction Materials

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that shelter as many as 80 families. Other types of earth structure include mounds and pyramids used for religious purposes,

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The Homestead Act of 1862: A Primary Source History of the Settlement of the American Heartland in the Late 19th Century

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in Yemen, designated a World Heritage Site in 1982, is known for its ten-story unreinforced mud-brick buildings. The

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The Preservation of Historic Architecture: The U.S. Government's Official Guidelines for Preserving Historic Homes

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Builders must understand construction processes and be able to produce consistent quality for strong buildings.

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wall that regulates water levels. It is usually earthen and often runs parallel to the course of a river in its

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King, Bruce (2008) The Renaissance of Earthen Architecture: A fresh and updated look at clay-based construction

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Bricks are laid in courses bonded with mortar, a combination of Portland cement, lime and sand. A wall that is

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Earth usually requires some sort of processing for use in construction. It may be combined with water to make

5235: 5116: 4658: 2959: 2906: 1165: 147: 880: 495:, a volcanic material that contributed significantly to its strength. Roman concrete structures such as the 3984: 3281: 865: 483:. In Northern Europe there are rammed earth buildings up to seven stories high and two hundred years old. 5548: 20: 5148: 4593: 1123:, Mexico, was started in 100 AD. The stone-faced structure contains two million tons of rammed earth. 2836:

Langenbach, Randolph (2005) Collapse from the Inside Out. SismoAdobe 2005, Catholic University of Peru

1112:/town house platforms, residence platforms, square ground and rotunda platforms, and dance platforms. 231:

unfired clay bricks, is an ancient building technology. It was used in the early civilizations of the

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There are innumerable examples of mud brick or adobe building around the world. The walled city of

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do not expand or contract when wetted or dried, and are useful for brick-making. Others, such as

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Bhutan International Conference on Disaster Management and Cultural Heritage, 12–14 December 2010

1442: – A type of concrete using lime from burnt shell, sometimes considered earthen architecture 1419: – Structures and processes of building structures that are more environmentally responsible 358:

material made from soil that includes clay, sand or small stones and an organic material such as

647:"bonds", or patterns of stretchers and headers, including the English, Dutch and Flemish bonds. 5630: 5441: 5255: 5091: 5066: 4917: 4896: 4788: 4431:. Soil Conservation Service / Natural Resources Conservation Service. U.S. Dept. of Agriculture 4196: 576: 565: 103: 4465: 4444: 4426: 4169: 4115: 4040: 4004: 3929: 3710: 3661: 3580: 3553: 3499: 3424: 3326: 3113: 3092: 3065: 3038: 3011: 2990: 1407: – Style of architecture that uses native materials and upcycled materials to build homes 5317: 5126: 4634: 4519: 4492: 4331: 4304: 4277: 4250: 4223: 4142: 4061: 3881: 3863: 3757: 3472: 3255: 3140: 1398: 1287: 1032: 591: 107: 90:

or turf. Soil may be stabilized by the addition of lime or cement, and may be compacted into

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The Natural Building Companion: A Comprehensive Guide to Integrative Design and Construction

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Morris, Hugh (1993) The Strength of Engineered Earth Buildings. Ipenz Annual Conference 1993

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Walls, Ramparts, and Lines of Demarcation: Selected Studies from Antiquity to Modern Times

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Rammed earth is a technique for building walls using natural raw materials such as earth,

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houses use a "wattle" of poles interwoven with sticks to provide stability for mud walls.

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Heavy Burdens on Small Shoulders: The Labour of Pioneer Children on the Canadian Prairies

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10 in) in diameter. Both sand and silt are mostly inert rock particles, including

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material. The two main technologies are stamped or rammed earth, clay or loam, called

224:, expand or contract considerably when wet or dry, and are not suitable for building. 5494: 5240: 5131: 5101: 4952: 4525: 4498: 4471: 4450: 4387: 4337: 4310: 4283: 4256: 4229: 4202: 4175: 4148: 4121: 4046: 4010: 3969: 3935: 3889: 3840: 3792: 3765: 3716: 3670: 3640: 3613: 3586: 3559: 3532: 3505: 3478: 3457: 3430: 3353: 3332: 3313: 3303: 3293: 3261: 3240: 3146: 3119: 3098: 3071: 3044: 3017: 2996: 1512:

mixed with water and clay, has been used to protect earth walls since ancient times.

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resistant. The practice of stabilizing earth by adding burnt lime is centuries old.

72:. It may be combined with other materials, compressed and/or baked to add strength. 68:. Since soil is a widely available material, it has been used in construction since 5544: 5431: 5322: 5287: 5262: 5121: 4942: 4102: 3828: 3289: 3203: 2858:

Stouter, Patti (2017) Field Tests for Strength of Building Soils, Build Simple Inc.

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One source estimates that as many as three billion people live in earth buildings.

1454: – Form of Earth Shelter Dwelling in the Loess Plateau, Chinese cave dwellings 1422: 963: 852: 790: 775: 735:. Some groups plastered the whole structure with mud, which dried to form a shell. 698: 682: 676: 595: 459: 355: 118: 4769: 2592: 2590: 2493: 2491: 1075:

Many pre-Columbian Native American societies of ancient North America built large

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stability. Bond beams at wall tops are vital and must be well attached to walls.

1331: 1264: 758: 448: 401: 256: 126: 467:. The technique spread to the Middle East, and to North Africa, and the city of 370: 5607: 5499: 5416: 5220: 4982: 4972: 4858: 3182: 2989:

Alfaro, M.C.; Balasubramaniam, A.S.; Bergado, Dennes; Chai, J.C. (1994-01-01).

2587: 2488: 1603: 1601: 1599: 1439: 1416: 1339: 1256: 1205: 1201: 1140: 1092:

mound-building peoples' religious life and documented uses include semi-public

1080: 1060: 1055: 569: 351: 212: 151: 83: 5537: 1232:

secure shelters deep underground, often with electrical lighting and heating.

598:

technique that has evolved from historic military construction techniques for

512: 5694: 5635: 5474: 5352: 5347: 5302: 5071: 4467:"It's Your Misfortune and None of My Own": A New History of the American West 3844: 3317: 3299: 1105: 856: 743: 288: 260: 232: 4842: 4695: 4497:. Vol. Offa's Dyke: a monument without a history?. LIT Verlag Münster. 3691: 1596: 5655: 5650: 5640: 5620: 5307: 5250: 5081: 4798: 4741: 4654: 4545: 3732:"Loam Construction – From a Niche Product to an Industrial Building System" 3555:

Sustainable Building – Design Manual: sustainable building design practices

1433: 1428: 1308:

brittle'. However, earthen buildings can be built to resist seismic loads.

1176: 1093: 1037: 1020: 1012: 1008: 846: 619: 527: 252: 135: 91: 4707: 4642: 3908: 3298:. drawings by David Etherton. London, England ; New York, N.Y., USA: 2992:

Improvement Techniques of Soft Ground in Subsiding and Lowland Environment

2158: 5665: 5362: 5245: 5184: 4753: 3285: 1522: 1224: 1220: 1120: 1109: 1084: 786: 723: 687: 615: 424: 303: 240: 122: 4804: 4729: 4630: 3966:

Building with Earth: Design and Technology of a Sustainable Architecture

283: 5489: 5469: 5357: 5169: 5164: 5086: 5076: 4957: 4702: 4622: 3832: 1370: 1335: 1280: 1159: 835: 521: 287:

Traditional round mud and thatch houses forming a family compound near

69: 4106: 3709:

Kennedy, Joseph F.; Wanek, Catherine; Smith, Michael G. (2002-06-01).

3373: 263:. As of 2005 about 1.5 billion people lived in houses built of loam. 41: 5645: 5625: 5511: 5327: 5312: 4928: 4870: 4670: 4333:

The Good House Book: A Common-sense Guide to Alternative Homebuilding

4306:

Islamic Ideology and Ritual: Architectural and Spatial Manifestations

3992:, Swedish Mining Association, Natur Vards Verket, European Commission 3955:

Merritt, Frederick S.; Loftin, M. Kent; Ricketts, Jonathan T (1995).

2960:

Dhajji Construction for One and Two Story Earthquake Resistant Houses

2905:

Blondet, Marcial, G. Villa Garcia M., S. Brzev and A. Rubinos (2011)

2563: 1541: 1404: 1228: 1192: 1187: 1155: 1136: 803: 644: 517: 496: 409: 322:

wetter mud and allowed to dry. In Iran, puddled mud walls are called

217: 166: 130: 2785: 1436: – Creation of buildings, structures, and sculpture using stone 917: 831: 275:, typically using sun-dried bricks made of a mud and straw mixture. 26: 5675: 5562: 5292: 5267: 5194: 5111: 4777: 3198: 3138: 2497: 2089: 2087: 2085: 1690: 1413: – Scientific study of earth materials in engineering problems 1245: 1101: 1047: 887: 823: 794: 771: 539: 476: 468: 429: 347:, England, hundreds of years old, thatched to protect it from water 299: 221: 201: 162: 99: 31: 4830: 4818: 4117:

The Archaeology of the Prussian Crusade: Holy War and Colonisation

3814:"Higher Ground: The Archaeology of North American Platform Mounds" 2316: 2314: 1374: 992: 855:

in what is now northern Peru is a large adobe temple built by the

5615: 5587: 5272: 5199: 5189: 5179: 5174: 4882: 4854: 4356: 2269: 1607: 1451: 1330:

Building techniques that are more ductile than brittle, like the

1291: 1276: 1088: 1076: 763: 694: 672: 632: 437: 405: 328: 197: 50: 4765: 2988: 2973:

Earthquake Resistant Traditional Construction is not an Oxymoron

2907:

Earthquake Resistant Construction of Adobe Buildings: A Tutorial

2659: 2596: 2111: 2082: 2058: 2046: 2034: 1876: 1754: 1549:, an earth sheltered dwelling around a deeply sunken courtyard. 5597: 5592: 5582: 5572: 5504: 5277: 5225: 5035: 4878: 4794: 4717: 4407:

Teter, Norman Carroll; Liu, Robert C.; Kent, Thomas E. (1964).

2665: 2311: 1526: 1509: 1378: 1249: 1097: 1016: 1000: 979: 872: 815: 706: 668: 599: 464: 452: 248: 193: 46: 4618: 2539: 2338: 5050: 2247: 2245: 2220: 2218: 2205: 2203: 1386: 1172: 1151: 1064: 1051: 747: 710: 702: 627: 543: 444: 433: 359: 272: 244: 236: 143: 139: 111: 95: 54: 4866: 4666: 3865:

Building Craftsmanship in Brick and Tile and in Stone Plates

3712:

The Art of Natural Building: Design, Construction, Resources

3013:

Agricultural Productivity: Measurement and Sources of Growth

2476: 2370: 2368: 2301: 2299: 1807: 1805: 1659: 1657: 1655: 1365: 1325: 5045: 5040: 5030: 5025: 5020: 5005: 2024: 2022: 2009: 2007: 1994: 1992: 1990: 1041: 902: 561: 227: 205: 185: 181: 177: 138:

are large fortified rammed earth buildings in southeastern

65: 35: 4093:

Petroski, Henry (2006). "Levees and Other Raised Ground".

2809: 2464: 2242: 2215: 2200: 1618: 1616: 1240: 1083:. Among the largest and best-known of these structures is 4073:"Mechanically Stabilized Earth Wall Inspector's Handbook" 3931:

Adobe and Rammed Earth Buildings: Design and Construction

2701: 2365: 2296: 2286: 2284: 1802: 1652: 1640: 1260: 732: 391:, the top 5 centimetres (2.0 in) of the grass turf. 379: 310: 87: 79: 2773: 2575: 2142: 2140: 2138: 2019: 2004: 1987: 1837: 1835: 1822: 1820: 1628: 3217: 2895:

4299:1998 Earth Buildings Not Requiring Specific Design

2791: 2551: 2355: 2353: 1732: 1730: 1728: 1715: 1713: 1711: 1613: 2689: 2677: 2641: 2392: 2281: 2099: 2070: 1927: 1915: 1696: 1584: 978:

Art on an adobe building at Shantiniketan University,

3954: 3730:

Koch, Gerhard; Koch, Christine; Seidl, Josef (2005).

3180: 2749: 2737: 2607: 2605: 2569: 2527: 2515: 2452: 2380: 2326: 2275: 2164: 2135: 2123: 1905: 1903: 1888: 1866: 1864: 1862: 1847: 1832: 1817: 1790: 1669: 3280: 3091:

Boyer, Lester L.; Grondzik, Walter T. (1987-01-01).

2761: 2713: 2503: 2350: 2230: 1963: 1882: 1778: 1766: 1725: 1708: 614:

English bond bricks from 1454 at the Old College in

354:, sometimes referred to as "monolithic adobe", is a 3328:

Handbook of North American Indians : Southeast

2797: 2725: 2617: 2188: 1975: 1951: 1939: 1742: 1574: 1572: 1570: 64:is a building or other structure made largely from 4410:Use of Stabilized Earth Block in Farm Construction 4248: 3880:Look, David W.; Tiller, de Teel Patterson (2004). 3236:African Architecture: Evolution and Transformation 2629: 2602: 2416: 2404: 2257: 2176: 1900: 1859: 1760: 169:by clay, silt and sand composition as used by the 16:Building or other structure made largely from soil 3914:American Railroad Journal and Mechanic's Magazine 3708: 2440: 2428: 2117: 2093: 2064: 2052: 2040: 1395: – Earthbag construction material and method 1263:. It is typically created by the emplacement and 631:temperature of 900–1150 °C. The result is a 5692: 4167: 3983:Morgenstern, Norbert R. (19–20 September 2001), 3372: 3063: 2671: 2482: 2320: 1567: 1389: – Earth-based stabilized building material 3916:. Simmons-Boardman Publishing Corporation. 1840 3202:. Macau Cultural Affairs Bureau. Archived from 458:In China, rammed earth walls were built by the 428:Old school built of rammed earth in 1836–37 in 4518:Young, Biloine W.; Fowler, Melvin Leo (2000). 3986:Geotechnics and Mine Waste Management – Update 3788:Concrete Vaulted Construction in Imperial Rome 3010:Ball, Virgil; Norton, George W. (2002-04-30). 2159:Manufacture of Brick – Yellow Dutch Brick 1840 717: 412:and lime, may also be used for stabilization. 78:Earth structure materials may be as simple as 4561: 4521:Cahokia, the Great Native American Metropolis 3811: 3729: 3090: 2847:Materials and Workmanship for Earth Buildings 2545: 2251: 2224: 2209: 1663: 1646: 4575: 4406: 4168:Racusin, Jacob Deva; McArleton, Ace (2012). 3609:Moche Art and Visual Culture in Ancient Peru 3139:Cornerstones Community Partnerships (2006). 1811: 1525:were made from clay or mud dredged from the 1315:oven-dried and crushed under a small lever. 1302: 4517: 4279:Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering 4140: 3982: 3910:"Manufacture of Brick – Yellow Dutch Brick" 3165: 3142:Adobe Conservation: A Preservation Handbook 2815: 2779: 2374: 2305: 901:Old mud dwellings and modern mud mosque in 726:is a circular building made by some of the 507: 4568: 4554: 4275: 4113: 3968:. Basel/Berlin/Boston: Birkhäuser Verlag. 3882:"Preservation of Historic Adobe Buildings" 3879: 3009: 2869:Improving the Overall Construction Quality 2707: 2028: 2013: 1998: 1634: 1622: 86:. Sturdy dwellings may be also built from 4249:Rollings-Magnusson, Sandra (2012-06-11). 3784: 3200:"Earthen Houses (Tulou), Fujian Province" 2931:Earthquake Engineering Research Institute 2909:Earthquake Engineering Research Institute 2884:, 3rd edition, AIDG AWB and Haiti Rewired 1933: 1448: – Living below the ground's surface 1425: – Sustainable construction practice 1326:Seismic-Resistant Construction Techniques 1050:were elevated temples constructed by the 1015:in the mountainous areas in southeastern 556: 516:Adobe bricks near a construction site in 94:. Construction is faster with pre-formed 4490: 4379: 4302: 4092: 4032:Science and civilisation in China V4 pt3 3632: 3449: 3324: 2755: 2743: 2695: 2683: 2581: 2557: 2398: 2344: 2332: 2076: 1853: 1841: 1826: 1796: 1691:Cornerstones Community Partnerships 2006 1364: 1239: 1186: 1130: 1031: 991: 785: 737: 659: 609: 560: 526: 511: 423: 369: 338: 293: 282: 161: 40: 25: 4276:Shah, D.L.; Shroff, A.V. (2003-01-01). 4059: 4042:Wars of the Age of Louis Xiv, 1650-1715 4029: 4002: 3927: 3812:Lindauer, Owen; Blitz, John H. (1997). 3605: 3387: 3345: 3253: 3111: 3064:Bourgeois, Jean; Meganck, Marc (2005). 2845:Standards New Zealand (1998) 4298:1998 2533: 2521: 2509: 2498:Earthen Houses (Tulou), Fujian Province 2470: 2458: 2290: 2236: 2105: 1969: 1894: 1748: 1719: 1702: 475:was made from rammed earth, as was the 331:a similar technique was used with cob. 5693: 4442: 3689: 3659: 3578: 3531:. Western National Parks Association. 3406: 3295:The Penguin dictionary of architecture 2803: 2386: 2170: 2146: 2129: 1870: 1675: 1027: 838:had let the previous mosque collapse. 809: 4549: 4463: 4329: 4114:Pluskowski, Aleksander (2013-05-07). 4070: 4038: 3963: 3957:Standard Handbook for Civil Engineers 3861: 3551: 3497: 3232: 3036: 2767: 2719: 2647: 2635: 2623: 2611: 2359: 2194: 1981: 1957: 1945: 1921: 1784: 1772: 1736: 1608:Soil Composition and Formation, SCDNR 1545:were shot in the Hotel Sidi Driss in 1182: 150:retaining walls, forts, trenches and 4446:Hydrology: An Environmental Approach 4424: 4228:. Constable & Robinson Limited. 4221: 4194: 4080:Florida Department of Transportation 4071:Passe, Paul D. (14 September 2000). 3755: 3524: 3470: 2731: 2446: 2434: 2422: 2263: 2182: 1909: 1590: 1578: 1297: 948:San Francisco de Asis Mission Church 781: 3528:Casa Grande Ruins National Monument 3422: 3388:Goodnow, Cecelia (5 October 2007). 2570:Merritt, Loftin & Ricketts 1995 2410: 1334:type of earthbag, or tire walls of 1288:Syncrude Mildred Lake Tailings Dyke 1011:is a type of rural dwelling of the 933:Casa Grande Ruins National Monument 655: 605: 394: 13: 3821:Journal of Archaeological Research 3409:"Introduction to rock filled dams" 3390:"Thinking of building a cob home?" 3184:Random House Unabridged Dictionary 3097:. Texas A&M University Press. 2882:Confined Masonry Workshop Handbook 1883:Fleming, Honour & Pevsner 1966 1235: 753: 82:, or mud mixed with straw to make 45:Earthen hut with thatched roof in 14: 5712: 4586:Offshore geotechnical engineering 4201:. Princeton Architectural Press. 3582:Geomaterials Under the Microscope 3040:The Ecology of Building Materials 871:High-rise mud brick buildings in 502: 117:Types of earth structure include 4877: 4865: 4853: 4841: 4829: 4817: 4803: 4793: 4776: 4764: 4752: 4740: 4728: 4716: 4694: 4665: 4653: 4641: 4629: 4617: 4524:. University of Illinois Press. 4470:. University of Oklahoma Press. 4413:. U.S. Department of Agriculture 4362:ACE Basin Characterization Study 4358:"Soil Composition and Formation" 4303:Sliwoski, Amelia Helena (2007). 3868:. CUP Archive. GGKEY:GRKYD84ZXLH 3737:. Stay with Clay. Archived from 3477:. Univ of North Carolina Press. 2965: 2958:Schacher, Tom and Q. Ali (2009) 2952: 2943: 2934: 2921: 2912: 2899: 2887: 2874: 2861: 2852: 2839: 2830: 2821: 1223:(1914−1918) that stretched from 971: 955: 940: 925: 909: 894: 879: 864: 4443:Watson, Ian (13 October 1993). 4255:. University of Alberta Press. 4039:Nolan, Cathal J. (2008-01-01). 3934:. University of Arizona Press. 3639:. I. K. International Pvt Ltd. 2118:Kennedy, Wanek & Smith 2002 2094:Kennedy, Wanek & Smith 2002 2065:Kennedy, Wanek & Smith 2002 2053:Kennedy, Wanek & Smith 2002 2041:Kennedy, Wanek & Smith 2002 1533: 1515: 1502: 1493: 1484: 1162:or along low-lying coastlines. 419: 4147:. The Rosen Publishing Group. 3791:. Cambridge University Press. 3633:Jagadish, K. S. (2007-01-01). 3606:Jackson, Margaret Ann (2008). 3453:Trench Fighting of World War I 3376:. UNESCO World Heritage Centre 3260:. The Rosen Publishing Group. 3254:Faiella, Graham (2005-08-01). 1475: 1466: 950:at Ranchos de Taos, New Mexico 365: 1: 5236:Mechanically stabilized earth 4222:Robb, Brian J. (2012-09-06). 4034:. Cambridge University Press. 3928:McHenry, Paul Graham (1984). 3579:Ingham, Jeremy (2010-07-15). 3450:Hamilton, John (2010-09-01). 3257:The Technology of Mesopotamia 2929:Confined Masonry Construction 2893:Standards New Zealand (1998) 1556: 1166:Mechanically stabilized earth 1126: 626:The technique of firing clay 148:mechanically stabilized earth 4988:Hydraulic conductivity tests 4174:. Chelsea Green Publishing. 4006:Native American Architecture 3785:Lancaster, Lynne C. (2005). 3636:Building with Stabilized Mud 3471:Hess, Earl J. (2011-04-01). 3352:. Lorenz Educational Press. 3346:Forrest, Kent (1969-09-01). 2927:Rodriguez, Mario (undated) 2880:Totten, Craig (ed.) (2010) 2672:Bourgeois & Meganck 2005 2321:Racusin & McArleton 2012 1561: 586: 278: 7: 5549:Stress distribution in soil 4141:Porterfield, Jason (2004). 4060:Outlook (3 November 2008). 4009:. Oxford University Press. 3331:. Smithsonian Institution. 3112:Calkins, Meg (2008-09-22). 2792:Embankment dam: forces, PBS 1664:Koch, Koch & Seidl 2005 1647:Koch, Koch & Seidl 2005 1360: 1354:from footing to bond beam. 1096:'s house platforms, public 718:Native American earth lodge 650: 486: 21:Internal structure of Earth 10: 5717: 4699:Pore pressure measurement 4225:A Brief Guide to Star Wars 3959:(4 ed.). McGraw-Hill. 3715:. New Society Publishers. 3501:A Companion to World War I 3498:Horne, John (2011-11-23). 3394:Seattle Post-Intelligencer 3325:Fogelson, Raymond (2004). 2981: 1812:Teter, Liu & Kent 1964 1508:Whitewash, made of ground 1079:earth structures known as 987: 746:village on the A109 road, 537: 374:Sod bricks in a house wall 18: 5606: 5561: 5460: 5452:Preconsolidation pressure 5424: 5415: 5388: 5208: 5157: 5144: 5059: 5013: 5004: 4927: 4847:Standard penetration test 4605: 4592: 4583: 3862:Lloyd, Nathaniel (1929). 3525:Houk, Rose (1996-01-01). 3504:. John Wiley & Sons. 3118:. John Wiley & Sons. 2962:, United Nations Pakistan 2867:Smart Shelter Foundation 2546:Lindauer & Blitz 1997 2276:Earth Lodge, Random House 2252:Boyer & Grondzik 1987 2225:Boyer & Grondzik 1987 2210:Boyer & Grondzik 1987 1303:Designing for Earthquakes 1115:The 207 feet (63 m) 997:Tianluokeng Tulou cluster 4948:California bearing ratio 4746:Rotary-pressure sounding 4577:Geotechnical engineering 4380:Sunshine, Paula (2006). 4030:Needham, Joseph (1971). 3690:Keable, Rowland (2012). 3219:"Embankment dam: forces" 3094:Earth Shelter Technology 1459: 1411:Geotechnical engineering 1259:is a massive artificial 1191:Soldiers in a trench on 508:Mud brick or adobe brick 19:Not to be confused with 5368:Geosynthetic clay liner 5343:Expanded clay aggregate 4963:Proctor compaction test 4904:Crosshole sonic logging 4890:Nuclear densometer test 4647:Geo-electrical sounding 4464:White, Richard (1991). 4364:. SCDNR. Archived from 4003:Nabokov, Peter (1989). 3696:Rammed Earth Consulting 3660:Jerome, Pamela (2006). 3407:Graham, Andrew (1997). 2306:Young & Fowler 2000 1761:Rollings-Magnusson 2012 1401: – Building method 886:Mud wall and mosque in 577:Compressed earth blocks 568:housing being built in 157: 104:compressed earth blocks 5631:Earthquake engineering 5442:Lateral earth pressure 5067:Hydraulic conductivity 4918:Wave equation analysis 4897:Exploration geophysics 4789:Deformation monitoring 4758:Rotary weight sounding 4491:Williams, Ann (2009). 4330:Snell, Clarke (2004). 3964:Minke, Gernot (2021). 3669:. Getty Publications. 3233:Elleh, Nnamdi (1998). 2029:Look & Tiller 2004 2014:Look & Tiller 2004 1999:Look & Tiller 2004 1635:Ball & Norton 2002 1623:Shah & Shroff 2003 1539:The opening scenes of 1381: 1252: 1196: 1144: 1067:. It was destroyed by 1044: 1004: 798: 750: 679: 623: 573: 566:Compressed earth block 557:Compressed earth block 535: 531:Making mudbricks near 524: 440: 375: 348: 334: 316: 306: 291: 173: 57: 38: 4809:Settlement recordings 4734:Rock control drilling 4635:Cone penetration test 4386:. Osprey Publishing. 4195:Rael, Ronald (2009). 4066:. Outlook Publishing. 3585:. Manson Publishing. 3423:Ham, Anthony (2009). 3037:Berge, Bjørn (2009). 2347:, p. Back cover. 1399:Earthbag construction 1368: 1243: 1190: 1134: 1035: 995: 789: 741: 663: 613: 592:Earthbag construction 564: 530: 515: 427: 373: 342: 297: 286: 165: 44: 30:Old adobe minaret in 29: 5671:Agricultural science 5373:Cellular confinement 3758:"Bricklaying Basics" 3552:ICAEN (2004-01-01). 3187:. Random House. 1997 2971:Langenbach, Rudolph 2483:Fujian Tulou, UNESCO 1135:Retaining wall near 345:Harwell, Oxfordshire 211:Clays typically are 5563:Numerical analysis 5447:Overburden pressure 5437:Pore water pressure 5217:Shoring structures 5092:Reynolds' dilatancy 4993:Water content tests 4978:Triaxial shear test 4938:Soil classification 4911:Pile integrity test 3756:Kreh, Dick (1997). 3411:. Durham University 3349:Sumer and Babylonia 2940:King, Bruce. (2008) 2473:, pp. 133–134. 1069:Alexander the Great 1028:Mounds and pyramids 820:Djinguereber Mosque 810:Mud brick buildings 693:Pit houses made by 533:Cooktown, Australia 473:Great Wall of China 5538:Slab stabilisation 5518:Stability analysis 4198:Earth Architecture 4095:American Scientist 3833:10.1007/bf02229110 3145:. Sunstone Press. 3070:. Academia Press. 2662:, p. 132-133. 2660:Alfaro et al. 1994 2597:Alfaro et al. 1994 1593:, p. 112-113. 1446:Underground living 1382: 1267:of a complex semi- 1253: 1217:American Civil War 1197: 1195:during World War I 1183:Forts and trenches 1145: 1117:Pyramid of the Sun 1045: 1005: 799: 751: 680: 624: 574: 536: 525: 481:Kingdom of Granada 441: 376: 349: 307: 292: 255:river valleys, in 174: 58: 39: 5686: 5685: 5557: 5556: 5533:Sliding criterion 5495:Response spectrum 5411: 5410: 5241:Pressure grouting 5140: 5139: 5000: 4999: 4953:Direct shear test 4659:Permeability test 4531:978-0-252-06821-8 4504:978-3-8258-9478-8 4477:978-0-8061-2567-1 4456:978-1-56670-087-0 4393:978-0-7478-0652-3 4343:978-1-57990-281-0 4316:978-0-549-17365-6 4289:978-90-5809-235-9 4262:978-0-88864-590-6 4235:978-1-78033-583-4 4208:978-1-56898-767-5 4181:978-1-60358-339-8 4154:978-1-4042-0178-1 4127:978-1-136-16281-7 4107:10.1511/2006.57.7 4052:978-0-313-35920-0 4016:978-0-19-503781-4 3975:978-3-0356-2253-9 3941:978-0-8165-1124-2 3895:978-1-59921-714-7 3798:978-1-139-44434-7 3771:978-1-56158-214-3 3764:. Taunton Press. 3722:978-0-86571-433-5 3676:978-0-89236-850-1 3646:978-81-89866-21-1 3619:978-0-8263-4365-9 3592:978-1-84076-600-4 3565:978-81-7993-053-3 3538:978-1-877856-71-6 3511:978-1-118-27580-1 3484:978-0-8078-8238-2 3463:978-1-61714-407-3 3436:978-1-74104-821-6 3429:. Lonely Planet. 3359:978-1-55863-387-2 3338:978-0-16-072300-1 3309:978-0-14-051241-0 3290:Pevsner, Nikolaus 3267:978-1-4042-0560-4 3246:978-0-07-021506-1 3152:978-0-86534-527-0 3125:978-0-470-41892-5 3104:978-0-89096-302-9 3077:978-90-382-0782-7 3050:978-1-85617-537-1 3023:978-0-7923-7622-4 3002:978-90-5410-153-6 1924:, pp. 27–28. 1298:Structural issues 1063:mentioned in the 843:Casa Grande Ruins 782:Prairie sod house 112:fired clay bricks 5708: 5701:Earth structures 5545:Bearing capacity 5432:Effective stress 5422: 5421: 5323:Land reclamation 5263:Land development 5158:Natural features 5155: 5154: 5122:Specific storage 5011: 5010: 4943:Atterberg limits 4881: 4869: 4857: 4845: 4833: 4821: 4807: 4797: 4782:Screw plate test 4780: 4768: 4756: 4744: 4732: 4720: 4698: 4669: 4657: 4645: 4633: 4621: 4603: 4602: 4570: 4563: 4556: 4547: 4546: 4541: 4539: 4538: 4514: 4512: 4511: 4487: 4485: 4484: 4460: 4439: 4437: 4436: 4421: 4419: 4418: 4403: 4401: 4400: 4376: 4374: 4373: 4353: 4351: 4350: 4326: 4324: 4323: 4299: 4297: 4296: 4272: 4270: 4269: 4245: 4243: 4242: 4218: 4216: 4215: 4191: 4189: 4188: 4164: 4162: 4161: 4137: 4135: 4134: 4110: 4089: 4087: 4086: 4077: 4067: 4056: 4035: 4026: 4024: 4023: 3999: 3998: 3997: 3991: 3979: 3960: 3951: 3949: 3948: 3924: 3922: 3921: 3905: 3903: 3902: 3888:. Globe Pequot. 3876: 3874: 3873: 3858: 3856: 3855: 3849: 3843:. Archived from 3818: 3808: 3806: 3805: 3781: 3779: 3778: 3752: 3750: 3749: 3743: 3736: 3726: 3705: 3703: 3702: 3686: 3684: 3683: 3656: 3654: 3653: 3629: 3627: 3626: 3602: 3600: 3599: 3575: 3573: 3572: 3548: 3546: 3545: 3521: 3519: 3518: 3494: 3492: 3491: 3467: 3446: 3444: 3443: 3419: 3417: 3416: 3403: 3401: 3400: 3384: 3382: 3381: 3369: 3367: 3366: 3342: 3321: 3277: 3275: 3274: 3250: 3229: 3227: 3226: 3214: 3212: 3211: 3195: 3193: 3192: 3177: 3175: 3174: 3162: 3160: 3159: 3135: 3133: 3132: 3108: 3087: 3085: 3084: 3060: 3058: 3057: 3033: 3031: 3030: 3006: 2976: 2969: 2963: 2956: 2950: 2947: 2941: 2938: 2932: 2925: 2919: 2916: 2910: 2903: 2897: 2891: 2885: 2878: 2872: 2865: 2859: 2856: 2850: 2849:pp. 64-65, 67-68 2843: 2837: 2834: 2828: 2825: 2819: 2816:Morgenstern 2001 2813: 2807: 2801: 2795: 2789: 2783: 2777: 2771: 2765: 2759: 2753: 2747: 2741: 2735: 2729: 2723: 2717: 2711: 2705: 2699: 2693: 2687: 2681: 2675: 2669: 2663: 2657: 2651: 2650:, p. 16-17. 2645: 2639: 2633: 2627: 2621: 2615: 2609: 2600: 2594: 2585: 2584:, pp. 7–11. 2579: 2573: 2567: 2561: 2555: 2549: 2548:, p. 169ff. 2543: 2537: 2531: 2525: 2519: 2513: 2507: 2501: 2495: 2486: 2480: 2474: 2468: 2462: 2456: 2450: 2444: 2438: 2432: 2426: 2420: 2414: 2408: 2402: 2396: 2390: 2384: 2378: 2375:Porterfield 2004 2372: 2363: 2357: 2348: 2342: 2336: 2330: 2324: 2318: 2309: 2303: 2294: 2288: 2279: 2273: 2267: 2261: 2255: 2249: 2240: 2234: 2228: 2222: 2213: 2207: 2198: 2192: 2186: 2180: 2174: 2168: 2162: 2156: 2150: 2144: 2133: 2127: 2121: 2115: 2109: 2103: 2097: 2091: 2080: 2074: 2068: 2062: 2056: 2050: 2044: 2038: 2032: 2026: 2017: 2011: 2002: 1996: 1985: 1979: 1973: 1967: 1961: 1955: 1949: 1943: 1937: 1931: 1925: 1919: 1913: 1907: 1898: 1892: 1886: 1880: 1874: 1868: 1857: 1851: 1845: 1839: 1830: 1824: 1815: 1809: 1800: 1794: 1788: 1782: 1776: 1770: 1764: 1758: 1752: 1746: 1740: 1734: 1723: 1717: 1706: 1700: 1694: 1688: 1679: 1673: 1667: 1661: 1650: 1644: 1638: 1632: 1626: 1620: 1611: 1605: 1594: 1588: 1582: 1576: 1550: 1547:Matmata, Tunisia 1537: 1531: 1519: 1513: 1506: 1500: 1497: 1491: 1488: 1482: 1479: 1473: 1470: 1423:Natural building 975: 966:, Trujillo, Peru 964:Huaca de la Luna 959: 944: 929: 916:Great Mosque of 913: 898: 883: 868: 853:Huaca de la Luna 791:Omer Madison Kem 776:gypsum wallboard 728:Native Americans 699:Matmata, Tunisia 683:Earth sheltering 677:Earth sheltering 675:, an example of 656:Earth sheltering 606:Fired clay brick 596:natural building 395:Stabilized earth 356:natural building 191: 5716: 5715: 5711: 5710: 5709: 5707: 5706: 5705: 5691: 5690: 5687: 5682: 5661:Earth materials 5602: 5564: 5553: 5462: 5456: 5407: 5384: 5338:Earth structure 5333:Erosion control 5231:Ground freezing 5221:Retaining walls 5204: 5146: 5136: 5097:Angle of repose 5055: 4996: 4930: 4923: 4922: 4883:Visible bedrock 4835:Simple sounding 4823:Shear vane test 4599:instrumentation 4598: 4596: 4588: 4579: 4574: 4544: 4536: 4534: 4532: 4509: 4507: 4505: 4482: 4480: 4478: 4457: 4434: 4432: 4416: 4414: 4398: 4396: 4394: 4383:Wattle and Daub 4371: 4369: 4348: 4346: 4344: 4321: 4319: 4317: 4294: 4292: 4290: 4267: 4265: 4263: 4240: 4238: 4236: 4213: 4211: 4209: 4186: 4184: 4182: 4159: 4157: 4155: 4132: 4130: 4128: 4084: 4082: 4075: 4053: 4021: 4019: 4017: 3995: 3993: 3989: 3976: 3946: 3944: 3942: 3919: 3917: 3900: 3898: 3896: 3871: 3869: 3853: 3851: 3847: 3816: 3803: 3801: 3799: 3776: 3774: 3772: 3747: 3745: 3741: 3734: 3723: 3700: 3698: 3681: 3679: 3677: 3651: 3649: 3647: 3624: 3622: 3620: 3597: 3595: 3593: 3570: 3568: 3566: 3543: 3541: 3539: 3516: 3514: 3512: 3489: 3487: 3485: 3464: 3441: 3439: 3437: 3414: 3412: 3398: 3396: 3379: 3377: 3364: 3362: 3360: 3339: 3310: 3272: 3270: 3268: 3247: 3239:. McGraw-Hill. 3224: 3222: 3209: 3207: 3190: 3188: 3181:"Earth Lodge". 3172: 3170: 3157: 3155: 3153: 3130: 3128: 3126: 3105: 3082: 3080: 3078: 3055: 3053: 3051: 3028: 3026: 3024: 3003: 2984: 2979: 2970: 2966: 2957: 2953: 2948: 2944: 2939: 2935: 2926: 2922: 2917: 2913: 2904: 2900: 2892: 2888: 2879: 2875: 2866: 2862: 2857: 2853: 2844: 2840: 2835: 2831: 2826: 2822: 2814: 2810: 2802: 2798: 2790: 2786: 2780:Dam Basics, PBS 2778: 2774: 2766: 2762: 2754: 2750: 2742: 2738: 2730: 2726: 2718: 2714: 2708:Pluskowski 2013 2706: 2702: 2694: 2690: 2682: 2678: 2670: 2666: 2658: 2654: 2646: 2642: 2634: 2630: 2622: 2618: 2610: 2603: 2595: 2588: 2580: 2576: 2572:, p. 13.1. 2568: 2564: 2556: 2552: 2544: 2540: 2532: 2528: 2520: 2516: 2508: 2504: 2496: 2489: 2481: 2477: 2469: 2465: 2457: 2453: 2445: 2441: 2433: 2429: 2421: 2417: 2409: 2405: 2397: 2393: 2385: 2381: 2373: 2366: 2358: 2351: 2343: 2339: 2331: 2327: 2319: 2312: 2304: 2297: 2289: 2282: 2274: 2270: 2262: 2258: 2250: 2243: 2235: 2231: 2223: 2216: 2208: 2201: 2193: 2189: 2181: 2177: 2169: 2165: 2157: 2153: 2145: 2136: 2128: 2124: 2116: 2112: 2104: 2100: 2092: 2083: 2075: 2071: 2063: 2059: 2051: 2047: 2039: 2035: 2027: 2020: 2012: 2005: 1997: 1988: 1980: 1976: 1968: 1964: 1956: 1952: 1944: 1940: 1932: 1928: 1920: 1916: 1908: 1901: 1893: 1889: 1881: 1877: 1869: 1860: 1852: 1848: 1840: 1833: 1825: 1818: 1810: 1803: 1795: 1791: 1783: 1779: 1771: 1767: 1759: 1755: 1747: 1743: 1735: 1726: 1718: 1709: 1701: 1697: 1689: 1682: 1674: 1670: 1662: 1653: 1645: 1641: 1633: 1629: 1621: 1614: 1606: 1597: 1589: 1585: 1577: 1568: 1564: 1559: 1554: 1553: 1538: 1534: 1520: 1516: 1507: 1503: 1498: 1494: 1489: 1485: 1480: 1476: 1471: 1467: 1462: 1457: 1393:Contained earth 1363: 1332:contained earth 1328: 1305: 1300: 1238: 1236:Embankment dams 1185: 1129: 1087:at the site of 1081:platform mounds 1030: 1003:province, China 990: 983: 976: 967: 960: 951: 945: 936: 930: 921: 920:, Mali, in 1972 914: 905: 899: 890: 884: 875: 869: 812: 784: 759:Wattle and daub 756: 754:Wattle and daub 720: 658: 653: 641:one brick thick 608: 589: 559: 546: 538:Main articles: 510: 505: 489: 460:Longshan people 422: 402:Portland cement 397: 382:bricks, called 368: 337: 319: 281: 271:in French, and 189: 160: 152:embankment dams 127:Wattle and daub 62:earth structure 24: 17: 12: 11: 5: 5714: 5704: 5703: 5684: 5683: 5681: 5680: 5679: 5678: 5668: 5663: 5658: 5653: 5648: 5643: 5638: 5633: 5628: 5623: 5618: 5612: 5610: 5608:Related fields 5604: 5603: 5601: 5600: 5595: 5590: 5585: 5580: 5575: 5569: 5567: 5559: 5558: 5555: 5554: 5552: 5551: 5542: 5541: 5540: 5535: 5530: 5528:Classification 5525: 5520: 5509: 5508: 5507: 5502: 5500:Seismic hazard 5497: 5487: 5482: 5477: 5472: 5466: 5464: 5458: 5457: 5455: 5454: 5449: 5444: 5439: 5434: 5428: 5426: 5419: 5413: 5412: 5409: 5408: 5406: 5405: 5400: 5394: 5392: 5386: 5385: 5383: 5382: 5377: 5376: 5375: 5370: 5365: 5360: 5350: 5345: 5340: 5335: 5330: 5325: 5320: 5315: 5310: 5305: 5300: 5295: 5290: 5285: 5280: 5275: 5270: 5265: 5260: 5259: 5258: 5253: 5248: 5243: 5238: 5233: 5228: 5223: 5214: 5212: 5206: 5205: 5203: 5202: 5197: 5192: 5187: 5182: 5177: 5172: 5167: 5161: 5159: 5152: 5142: 5141: 5138: 5137: 5135: 5134: 5129: 5127:Shear strength 5124: 5119: 5114: 5109: 5104: 5102:Friction angle 5099: 5094: 5089: 5084: 5079: 5074: 5069: 5063: 5061: 5057: 5056: 5054: 5053: 5048: 5043: 5038: 5033: 5028: 5023: 5017: 5015: 5008: 5002: 5001: 4998: 4997: 4995: 4990: 4985: 4983:Oedometer test 4980: 4975: 4973:Sieve analysis 4970: 4965: 4960: 4955: 4950: 4945: 4940: 4935: 4933: 4925: 4924: 4921: 4920: 4914: 4913: 4907: 4906: 4900: 4899: 4893: 4892: 4886: 4885: 4874: 4873: 4862: 4861: 4859:Total sounding 4850: 4849: 4838: 4837: 4826: 4825: 4814: 4813: 4812: 4811: 4801: 4785: 4784: 4773: 4772: 4761: 4760: 4749: 4748: 4737: 4736: 4725: 4724: 4713: 4712: 4711: 4710: 4705: 4691: 4690: 4689: 4688: 4683: 4678: 4662: 4661: 4650: 4649: 4638: 4637: 4626: 4625: 4614: 4613: 4611: 4600: 4590: 4589: 4584: 4581: 4580: 4573: 4572: 4565: 4558: 4550: 4543: 4542: 4530: 4515: 4503: 4488: 4476: 4461: 4455: 4440: 4422: 4404: 4392: 4377: 4354: 4342: 4336:. Lark Books. 4327: 4315: 4300: 4288: 4273: 4261: 4246: 4234: 4219: 4207: 4192: 4180: 4165: 4153: 4138: 4126: 4111: 4090: 4068: 4057: 4051: 4036: 4027: 4015: 4000: 3980: 3974: 3961: 3952: 3940: 3925: 3906: 3894: 3877: 3859: 3827:(2): 169–207. 3809: 3797: 3782: 3770: 3753: 3727: 3721: 3706: 3687: 3675: 3657: 3645: 3630: 3618: 3603: 3591: 3576: 3564: 3558:. TERI Press. 3549: 3537: 3522: 3510: 3495: 3483: 3468: 3462: 3447: 3435: 3420: 3404: 3385: 3374:"Fujian Tulou" 3370: 3358: 3343: 3337: 3322: 3308: 3278: 3266: 3251: 3245: 3230: 3215: 3196: 3178: 3163: 3151: 3136: 3124: 3109: 3103: 3088: 3076: 3061: 3049: 3034: 3022: 3007: 3001: 2985: 2983: 2980: 2978: 2977: 2964: 2951: 2942: 2933: 2920: 2911: 2898: 2886: 2873: 2860: 2851: 2838: 2829: 2820: 2808: 2796: 2784: 2772: 2770:, p. 214. 2760: 2748: 2736: 2734:, p. xiv. 2724: 2722:, p. 417. 2712: 2710:, p. 118. 2700: 2688: 2676: 2674:, p. 323. 2664: 2652: 2640: 2628: 2616: 2601: 2599:, p. 131. 2586: 2574: 2562: 2560:, p. 741. 2550: 2538: 2526: 2514: 2502: 2487: 2475: 2463: 2451: 2439: 2427: 2415: 2413:, p. 498. 2403: 2391: 2389:, p. 144. 2379: 2364: 2362:, p. 228. 2349: 2337: 2325: 2323:, p. 252. 2310: 2295: 2293:, p. 126. 2280: 2268: 2256: 2241: 2229: 2214: 2199: 2187: 2175: 2173:, p. 166. 2163: 2161:, p. 290. 2151: 2149:, p. 164. 2134: 2132:, p. 163. 2122: 2120:, p. 152. 2110: 2108:, p. 162. 2098: 2096:, p. 149. 2081: 2069: 2067:, p. 140. 2057: 2055:, p. 139. 2045: 2043:, p. 138. 2033: 2018: 2003: 1986: 1974: 1962: 1950: 1938: 1934:Lancaster 2005 1926: 1914: 1899: 1887: 1875: 1858: 1846: 1831: 1816: 1801: 1789: 1787:, p. 233. 1777: 1775:, p. 232. 1765: 1753: 1741: 1739:, p. 114. 1724: 1707: 1705:, p. 110. 1695: 1680: 1678:, p. 290. 1668: 1651: 1639: 1637:, p. 219. 1627: 1612: 1595: 1583: 1565: 1563: 1560: 1558: 1555: 1552: 1551: 1532: 1514: 1501: 1492: 1483: 1474: 1464: 1463: 1461: 1458: 1456: 1455: 1449: 1443: 1440:Tabby concrete 1437: 1431: 1426: 1420: 1417:Green building 1414: 1408: 1402: 1396: 1390: 1383: 1362: 1359: 1340:base isolation 1327: 1324: 1304: 1301: 1299: 1296: 1257:embankment dam 1237: 1234: 1206:Offa of Mercia 1184: 1181: 1141:West Yorkshire 1128: 1125: 1061:Tower of Babel 1056:Ziggurat of Ur 1029: 1026: 989: 986: 985: 984: 977: 970: 968: 961: 954: 952: 946: 939: 937: 931: 924: 922: 915: 908: 906: 900: 893: 891: 885: 878: 876: 870: 863: 811: 808: 783: 780: 755: 752: 719: 716: 657: 654: 652: 649: 607: 604: 588: 585: 570:Midland, Texas 558: 555: 509: 506: 504: 503:Building units 501: 488: 485: 421: 418: 396: 393: 367: 364: 336: 333: 318: 315: 298:Mud houses in 280: 277: 213:phyllosilicate 159: 156: 125:are examples. 119:earth shelters 15: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 5713: 5702: 5699: 5698: 5696: 5689: 5677: 5674: 5673: 5672: 5669: 5667: 5664: 5662: 5659: 5657: 5654: 5652: 5649: 5647: 5644: 5642: 5639: 5637: 5636:Geomorphology 5634: 5632: 5629: 5627: 5624: 5622: 5619: 5617: 5614: 5613: 5611: 5609: 5605: 5599: 5596: 5594: 5591: 5589: 5586: 5584: 5581: 5579: 5576: 5574: 5571: 5570: 5568: 5566: 5560: 5550: 5546: 5543: 5539: 5536: 5534: 5531: 5529: 5526: 5524: 5521: 5519: 5516: 5515: 5513: 5510: 5506: 5503: 5501: 5498: 5496: 5493: 5492: 5491: 5488: 5486: 5483: 5481: 5480:Consolidation 5478: 5476: 5475:Frost heaving 5473: 5471: 5468: 5467: 5465: 5459: 5453: 5450: 5448: 5445: 5443: 5440: 5438: 5435: 5433: 5430: 5429: 5427: 5423: 5420: 5418: 5414: 5404: 5401: 5399: 5396: 5395: 5393: 5391: 5387: 5381: 5378: 5374: 5371: 5369: 5366: 5364: 5361: 5359: 5356: 5355: 5354: 5353:Geosynthetics 5351: 5349: 5348:Crushed stone 5346: 5344: 5341: 5339: 5336: 5334: 5331: 5329: 5326: 5324: 5321: 5319: 5316: 5314: 5311: 5309: 5306: 5304: 5303:Cut-and-cover 5301: 5299: 5296: 5294: 5291: 5289: 5286: 5284: 5281: 5279: 5276: 5274: 5271: 5269: 5266: 5264: 5261: 5257: 5254: 5252: 5249: 5247: 5244: 5242: 5239: 5237: 5234: 5232: 5229: 5227: 5224: 5222: 5219: 5218: 5216: 5215: 5213: 5211: 5207: 5201: 5198: 5196: 5193: 5191: 5188: 5186: 5183: 5181: 5178: 5176: 5173: 5171: 5168: 5166: 5163: 5162: 5160: 5156: 5153: 5150: 5143: 5133: 5130: 5128: 5125: 5123: 5120: 5118: 5115: 5113: 5110: 5108: 5105: 5103: 5100: 5098: 5095: 5093: 5090: 5088: 5085: 5083: 5080: 5078: 5075: 5073: 5072:Water content 5070: 5068: 5065: 5064: 5062: 5058: 5052: 5049: 5047: 5044: 5042: 5039: 5037: 5034: 5032: 5029: 5027: 5024: 5022: 5019: 5018: 5016: 5012: 5009: 5007: 5003: 4994: 4991: 4989: 4986: 4984: 4981: 4979: 4976: 4974: 4971: 4969: 4966: 4964: 4961: 4959: 4956: 4954: 4951: 4949: 4946: 4944: 4941: 4939: 4936: 4934: 4932: 4926: 4919: 4916: 4915: 4912: 4909: 4908: 4905: 4902: 4901: 4898: 4895: 4894: 4891: 4888: 4887: 4884: 4880: 4876: 4875: 4872: 4868: 4864: 4863: 4860: 4856: 4852: 4851: 4848: 4844: 4840: 4839: 4836: 4832: 4828: 4827: 4824: 4820: 4816: 4815: 4810: 4806: 4802: 4800: 4796: 4792: 4791: 4790: 4787: 4786: 4783: 4779: 4775: 4774: 4771: 4770:Sample series 4767: 4763: 4762: 4759: 4755: 4751: 4750: 4747: 4743: 4739: 4738: 4735: 4731: 4727: 4726: 4723: 4719: 4715: 4714: 4709: 4706: 4704: 4701: 4700: 4697: 4693: 4692: 4687: 4684: 4682: 4679: 4677: 4674: 4673: 4672: 4668: 4664: 4663: 4660: 4656: 4652: 4651: 4648: 4644: 4640: 4639: 4636: 4632: 4628: 4627: 4624: 4620: 4616: 4615: 4612: 4609: 4604: 4601: 4595: 4594:Investigation 4591: 4587: 4582: 4578: 4571: 4566: 4564: 4559: 4557: 4552: 4551: 4548: 4533: 4527: 4523: 4522: 4516: 4506: 4500: 4496: 4495: 4489: 4479: 4473: 4469: 4468: 4462: 4458: 4452: 4449:. CRC Press. 4448: 4447: 4441: 4430: 4429: 4425:USDA (1974). 4423: 4412: 4411: 4405: 4395: 4389: 4385: 4384: 4378: 4368:on 2014-10-01 4367: 4363: 4359: 4355: 4345: 4339: 4335: 4334: 4328: 4318: 4312: 4308: 4307: 4301: 4291: 4285: 4282:. CRC Press. 4281: 4280: 4274: 4264: 4258: 4254: 4253: 4247: 4237: 4231: 4227: 4226: 4220: 4210: 4204: 4200: 4199: 4193: 4183: 4177: 4173: 4172: 4166: 4156: 4150: 4146: 4145: 4139: 4129: 4123: 4120:. Routledge. 4119: 4118: 4112: 4108: 4104: 4100: 4096: 4091: 4081: 4074: 4069: 4065: 4064: 4058: 4054: 4048: 4044: 4043: 4037: 4033: 4028: 4018: 4012: 4008: 4007: 4001: 3988: 3987: 3981: 3977: 3971: 3967: 3962: 3958: 3953: 3943: 3937: 3933: 3932: 3926: 3915: 3911: 3907: 3897: 3891: 3887: 3883: 3878: 3867: 3866: 3860: 3850:on 2012-04-15 3846: 3842: 3838: 3834: 3830: 3826: 3822: 3815: 3810: 3800: 3794: 3790: 3789: 3783: 3773: 3767: 3763: 3759: 3754: 3744:on 2011-07-16 3740: 3733: 3728: 3724: 3718: 3714: 3713: 3707: 3697: 3693: 3688: 3678: 3672: 3668: 3663: 3658: 3648: 3642: 3638: 3637: 3631: 3621: 3615: 3612:. UNM Press. 3611: 3610: 3604: 3594: 3588: 3584: 3583: 3577: 3567: 3561: 3557: 3556: 3550: 3540: 3534: 3530: 3529: 3523: 3513: 3507: 3503: 3502: 3496: 3486: 3480: 3476: 3475: 3469: 3465: 3459: 3455: 3454: 3448: 3438: 3432: 3428: 3427: 3421: 3410: 3405: 3395: 3391: 3386: 3375: 3371: 3361: 3355: 3351: 3350: 3344: 3340: 3334: 3330: 3329: 3323: 3319: 3315: 3311: 3305: 3301: 3300:Penguin Books 3297: 3296: 3291: 3287: 3283: 3282:Fleming, John 3279: 3269: 3263: 3259: 3258: 3252: 3248: 3242: 3238: 3237: 3231: 3220: 3216: 3206:on 2014-05-12 3205: 3201: 3197: 3186: 3185: 3179: 3168: 3164: 3154: 3148: 3144: 3143: 3137: 3127: 3121: 3117: 3116: 3110: 3106: 3100: 3096: 3095: 3089: 3079: 3073: 3069: 3068: 3062: 3052: 3046: 3043:. Routledge. 3042: 3041: 3035: 3025: 3019: 3015: 3014: 3008: 3004: 2998: 2995:. 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ABDO. 3292:(1966). 2411:Ham 2009 1361:See also 1246:Mica Dam 1102:mortuary 888:Timbuktu 824:Timbuktu 795:Nebraska 772:Colombia 651:Examples 540:Mudbrick 487:Concrete 477:Alhambra 469:Carthage 430:Bonbaden 389:Strengur 300:Kandahar 202:feldspar 5616:Geology 5588:SVSlope 5398:Shallow 5318:Grading 5256:Tieback 5200:Subsoil 5190:Bedrock 5180:Topsoil 5175:Terrain 4968:R-value 4931:testing 4681:Dynamic 4608:in situ 4606:Field ( 4063:Outlook 3762:Masonry 2982:Sources 1521:Yellow 1452:Yaodong 1292:Alberta 1277:erosion 1274:seepage 1269:plastic 1227:to the 1215:In the 1089:Cahokia 988:Toulous 764:Cahokia 695:Hohokam 673:Iceland 633:ceramic 600:bunkers 572:in 2006 479:in the 438:Germany 406:bitumen 384:terrone 329:England 257:Central 198:calcite 51:Kassala 49:, near 5598:Plaxis 5593:UTEXAS 5583:SVFlux 5573:SEEP2D 5425:Forces 5278:Trench 5226:Gabion 5036:Gravel 4676:Static 4528: 4501: 4474: 4453: 4390: 4340: 4313: 4286: 4259: 4232: 4205: 4178: 4151: 4124: 4049: 4013: 3972: 3938: 3892: 3839: 3795: 3768: 3719: 3692:"FAQs" 3673: 3643: 3616: 3589: 3562: 3535: 3508: 3481: 3460: 3433: 3356: 3335: 3316: 3306: 3264: 3243: 3149: 3122: 3101: 3074: 3047: 3020: 2999: 1527:IJssel 1510:gypsum 1379:Brazil 1250:Canada 1152:Levees 1098:temple 1017:Fujian 1001:Fujian 980:Bolpur 918:Djenné 873:Shibam 832:Djenné 816:Shibam 797:(1886) 744:Maasai 707:Bhutan 669:Keldur 628:bricks 465:Sikkim 453:gravel 253:Yellow 249:Ganges 194:quartz 144:levees 47:Toteil 5578:STABL 5051:Loess 5014:Types 4076:(PDF) 3990:(PDF) 3848:(PDF) 3837:S2CID 3817:(PDF) 3742:(PDF) 3735:(PDF) 3221:. 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