1990:
1347:
1136:
357:
696:
651:
607:
1529:
hominin fossils in Europe and Asia were either too incomplete and fragmentary to be reliably identified at the species level or exhibited morphological traits specific to the region where they were recovered. Furthermore, most of the sites where these fossils were recovered preserved geological contexts that could not be reliably dated. Because of this, there was some debate in regards to if archaic humans spread from Africa in the Late
Pliocene or Early Pleistocene as the result of a web of ecomorphological factors, or around 1 million years ago as the result of technological innovations such as the
1365:, and the further suggestion that some of the other skulls might represent distinct taxa as well, would mean that Dmanisi would have been home to at least four different hominid taxa and thus "hold the world record in hominid palaeospecies diversity documented at a single site that extends over a mere 40 m (430 sq ft), and probably over a mere couple of centuries". The Dmanisi team wrote that Schwartz, Tattersall and Chi had deliberately ignored previous morphological analyses and also noted that character state variation in Asian and African
394:(then in Tbilisi) were summoned to the site and on the next morning, the mandible was freed from the rock around it, a complicated process that took nearly an entire day. Once freed, the mandible was unmistakably the jaw of a primate and importantly, it preserved a complete row of teeth with little sign of wear. The lack of wear suggested that the primate would have been young, about 20–24 years old, though its classification was as of yet unknown. After they returned to Tbilisi, the mandible was studied in detail by Vekua, Lordkipanidze and archaeologist
463:
220:
568:
860:
742:
1325:, was invalid in zoological nomenclature. Most importantly, Schwartz, Tattersall and Chi questioned if the morphological comparisons were detailed enough to come to this conclusion and questioned the methods which Lordkipanidze and colleagues had used to determine what is and is not interspecific variation. The researchers did not see the fact that the fossils were from the same site and a relatively short time period as enough to determine that they all came from the same species and that the previous claims of
1999:
1488:
286:
1645:
1636:
1625:
1616:
964:
33:
1337:-type cranial variation could not both be correct at the same time. They also questioned if all morphological differences could truly be attributed to age, wear and pathology. Several traits within the skulls and teeth of all the Dmanisi skulls were put forward as "potentially species-distinguishing features" and Schwartz, Tattersall and Chi concluded that at least the D2600 mandible, and thus Skull 5 as a whole, should remain classified as a distinct species,
5745:
2397:
5769:
2019:
811:
2010:
2130:
135:
1246:
5757:
293:
1069:
432:, then visited the site and discovered further fragments. With these fragments, they were able to piece together the skull of an archaic human, with broken off teeth and a broken off upper jaw. That same year, a more well-preserved skull was discovered and together, the two skulls allowed for inferences as to the nature and classification of the fossil hominins.
269:, who directed several expeditions. In 1982, archaeologists at Dmanisi discovered 3 metre (10 ft) deep pits, cut in compact sandy clay. The archaeologists believed the pits were made for some economic purpose in the Middle Ages. After they cleaned them out, they discovered fossilised animal bones on the walls and bottom of the pits. The
1178:, it was comparable to (or in cases, less than) the dimorphism between gorillas. They concluded that "in our view, there are currently no compelling anatomical grounds for sorting any of the Dmanisi fossils to other than a single species", but noted that this species would have possessed sexual dimorphism greater than later
193:. The Dmanisi fossil site was located near an ancient lake shore, surrounded by forests and grasslands and home to a diverse fauna of Pleistocene animals. The favourable climate at Dmanisi might have acted as a refuge for hominins in the Early Pleistocene and it would have been reachable from Africa through the
1528:
The timing of the first archaic human migration out of Africa and the identity of the hominin species that undertook this migration are controversial. This derives from the sparse Early
Pleistocene hominin fossil record outside of Africa. Before the discovery of the Dmanisi skulls, the earliest known
1262:
and modern human samples. Individuals in all four samples generally varied in size and in the orientation of the face relative to the braincase. Lordkipanidze and colleagues interpreted that the small-faced and more orthognathic skulls represented females and/or subadults and that the more prognathic
2080:
The environment would have been temperate, relatively humid and forested; with woodland and gallery forests, open grasslands, bush lands, tree savannahs and rocky terrains with shrub vegetation. The environment, which would also have experienced cold winters, would have been quite unlike that of the
1961:
suggests that the range of spinal flexion in the
Dmanisi hominins was comparable to modern humans and the relatively large cross-sectional areas of the vertebrae indicates resistance to increased compressive loads, suggesting that the hominins were capable of running and long-range walking. Because
1586:
In the late
Pliocene and Early Pleistocene, Georgia may have acted as a refuge for hominin groups living in regions of diminishing resources. The environment at Dmanisi would have been favourable to hominins due to the region's physical geography, including a temperate and varied environment and the
2460:
In addition to the tools found at the site, many unmodified stones that must have originated elsewhere on account of their mineralogical composition (meaning they had not arrived there naturally, but had been brought by hominins) have also been recovered. Larger unmodified stones may have been used
1266:
The large degree of variation expressed in the
Dmanisi fossils led Lordkipanidze and colleagues to suggest that the variation seen in other Pliocene and Pleistocene hominid fossils, typically used to justify several distinct fossil species, might have been misinterpreted as species diversity. Thus,
427:
of a hominin was discovered in the same layer as the jaw. Further discoveries were made in May 1999. Because of long-lasting periods of rainfall, the site was damaged. Archaeologist and expedition member Gocha
Kiladze found a thin, coin-sized skull fragment. Kiladze, Vekua, Lordkipanidze, alongside
2491:
Without fire to cook food, it would have been difficult for a toothless individual to survive for several years in a periodically cold environment. Though it is possible, through the use of pounding tools, that he would have survived on his own through consuming soft animal tissues, such as brains
2478:
Lordkipanidze believes that the small
Dmanisi hominins may have employed aggressive scavenging, throwing small rocks to pilfer food from local carnivores. It is possible that this power-scavenging was done in groups for protection, and it may have led to the development of kinship-dependent social
1576:
as 1.81 ± 0.03 million years old, only slightly younger than the underlying layer of volcanic rock. This earlier date contradicted the previous 1.77 million year old estimate based on palaeomagnetic data. Since the D2600 jaw was found in a slightly lower layer, it was considered possible that this
1080:
Lordkipanidze and colleagues described Skull 4 and its mandible in 2006, noting that it was similar to the fossils discovered previously and stating that with the possible exception of the D2600 mandible, all of the
Dmanisi fossils were assignable to a single species. They agreed that the Dmanisi
2416:
Over 10,000 stone tools have been recovered at
Dmanisi and their stratigraphic and spatial concentrations suggests a complex record of several reoccupations at the site. The tools found at Dmanisi are quite simple and are much the same as the tools of the Oldowan tradition created by hominins in
2367:
A majority of the fossils (including all hominin fossils) have been recovered from the fourth of five layers at the site, with the upper (somewhat younger) layers preserving later sediments. Layers 2 and 3 preserve substantially less fossil material, preserving almost no carnivore fossils and no
1369:
specimens, and the
Dmanisi fossils, suggest that the fossil cannot be assigned to different species, accusing Schwartz, Tattersall and Chi of effectively denying the morphological evidence from the Dmanisi fossils that did not fit with their hypothesis. One of the primary distinguishing features
482:
In 2002, the toothless skull of an old individual, Skull 4 (D3444, the associated jaw, D3900, was discovered in 2003) was discovered. Both Skull 3 and Skull 4 were noted as preserving a series of very primitive characteristics. The final skull, Skull 5 (D4500), was discovered in 2005. The skull
1969:
In 2008, palaeoanthropologists Ian J. Wallace, Brigitte Demes, William L. Jungers, Martin Alvero and Anne Su stated that they believed that the Dmanisi fossils were too fragmentary to infer the position of the feet (as medially positioned) with this much certainty, believing that more fossils,
1214:
A 2008 analysis of the teeth of Skulls 2 and 3 and the D2600 mandible by Lordkipanidze, Vekua and palaeoanthropologists MarĂa MartinĂłn-Torres, JosĂ© MarĂa BermĂşdez de Castro, Aida GĂłmez-Robles, Ann Mergvelashvili and Leyre Prado found that like other parts of the fossils, the teeth too showed a
1405:
Although certain traits were noted as setting Skull 5 "toward the periphery of the Dmanisi shape distribution", they concluded that "neither these differences, nor the proportions of the D2600 mandible, offer sufficient grounds for labeling Skull 5 as the 'holotype of the morphologically very
1161:
A 2006 comparative analysis of D211 and D2600 by palaeoanthropologists Matthew M. Skinner, Adam D. Gordon and Nicole J. Collard found that the degree of dimorphism expressed between the two mandibles was greater than expected in modern great apes and human, as well as in other extinct hominin
1773:
Skull 5 indicates that small brains, large faces (though it is most pronounced in Skull 5, the face is relatively prognathic in all specimens) and a generally prognathic and robust morphology was all within the range of variation of the Dmanisi hominin population. Based on the skulls and the
1173:
A more detailed 2008 comparative analysis of the mandibles, taking more anatomical features into account, by Rightmire, Lordkipanidze and palaeoanthropologist Adam Van Arsdale concluded that while the dimorphism between the mandibles was excessive when compared to modern humans, and to some
1360:
The Dmanisi research team, composed of those palaeontologists and researchers excavating at the Dmanisi site and studying the fossils, responded to Schwartz, Tattersall and Chi in the same year, maintaining that the fossils represented a single species. They noted that the distinction of
1595:, which already existed at this time. They may have established a foothold at Dmanisi before expanding elsewhere, since similar-aged animal fossils are present at sites in Romania, the Balkans and even Spain, some accompanied by stone tools reminiscent of those found at Dmanisi.
1320:
Palaeoanthropologists Jeffrey H. Schwartz, Ian Tattersall and Zhang Chi responded to Lordkipanidze and colleagues in 2014, disagreeing with the idea that all five skulls were from the same species. Schwartz, Tattersall and Chi also suggested that the use of a quadrinomial name,
2361:
In addition to berries and fruit, the hominins were probably capable of exploiting a wide range of resources for food. Meat is likely to have made up a major portion of their diet, especially during the winters, when other sources of food would have been more difficult to come
1253:
Skull 5, recovered in 2005 and described in 2013 by Lordkipanidze and colleagues, was upon its description determined to be from the same individual as the D2600 mandible and together, the two fossils significantly expanded the morphological range of the Dmanisi hominin
1812:
were small, about 105 cm (3.4 ft) tall, and had limb proportions intermediate between those of modern humans and those of other great apes, whereas the body proportions and stature of Turkana Boy were more or less modern. Postcranial fossils attributed to
1088:
That same year, a comparative analysis of Skulls 1 to 4 and the D2600 mandible by palaeoanthropologist G. Philip Rightmire, Lordkipanidze and Vekua again concluded that Skulls 1 through 4 could be assigned to the same species, but that the status of D2600 was more
2071:
With the sole exception of Skull 5 and its mandible (which are somewhat earlier in age), all of the hominin fossils are contemporaneous, with all of the fossils (including Skull 5) probably being deposited over a time interval possibly as short as 10–100 thousand
398:. It was quickly determined to represent a hominid, though its precise position within the family was unclear. Although a number of primitive features were observed, it was clear that the fossil (now given the designation D211) was the most similar to fossils of
1401:
and other archaic hominins, by the team reaffirmed that the variation between the Dmanisi fossils was not excessive relative to the variation in most other hominins, with some features, such as certain midfacial measurements, even being more variable in modern
1966:(closer together) and load would have been distributed more evenly over the rays (metatarsals and toes) than in modern humans. Despite these differences, the bones recovered suggest that the feet were overall similar to the feet of modern humans.
1962:
fossils of the shins and feet have been found, it is possible to reconstruct the orientation and positioning of the feet of the Dmanisi hominins relative to their walking direction. In the Dmanisi hominins, the feet would have been oriented more
1912:, which is compensated by a high degree of humeral torsion. Comparably, the torsion in the Dmanisi fossils is quite low, which indicates differing arm movement and orientation. It might mean that the arms would have been habitually oriented more
1756:
and the two features have previously separately been used to define different species. Had the braincase and face of Skull 5 been found as separate fossils at different localities, it is likely that they would have been attributed to different
1924:. Athletes that require high levels of mobility in their arms tend to have reduced humeral torsion, and the Dmanisi hominins might thus have been capable of a diverse range of arm movement. Humeral torsion is also low (or entirely absent) in
530:
fossils at a single site with a comparable temporal context. The variability in age (i.e. Skull 3 being subadult and Skull 4 being significantly older) and presumably sex also gives unique insight into the variability in early populations of
1257:
Lordkipanidze and colleagues interpreted Skull 5 as part of the same population as the rest of the Dmanisi fossils, as they came from the same general time and place, and had a range of variation similar to what is exhibited in chimpanzee,
376:
The expedition in 1991 was highly productive, uncovering abundant animal fossils and a considerable quantity of stone tools. On the morning of 25 September, a group of young archaeologists led by Medea Nioradze and Antje Justus uncovered a
999:
The mandible differed in its large size, morphological features and teeth proportions not only from the previously discovered jaw at Dmanisi but also from all other hominin jaws found to date, blending primitive features otherwise seen in
2487:
The old individual would have lived for a relatively long time after losing the teeth, indicated by the sockets of the teeth roots having been filled with bone tissue, something that is only possible if the individual in question is
90:
The taxonomic status of the Dmanisi hominins is somewhat unclear due to their small brain size, primitive skeletal architecture, and the range of variation exhibited between the skulls. Their initial description classified them as
2358:) were eaten by the Dmanisi hominins. The abundance of Boraginaceae seeds, often taken in later sites as an indication of human occupation, could mean that hominins were already having an impact on local flora at this early time.
82:
from a single site so early in time, though earlier fossils and artifacts have been found in Asia. Though their precise classification is controversial and disputed, the Dmanisi fossils are highly significant within research on
322:
During the 1983–1991 excavations, a large amount of animal fossils were collected, alongside some stone tools. The stone tools were quickly noted as highly archaic, far more primitive than other tools found in Eastern Europe.
103:. The discovery of a massive jaw, D2600, in 2000 led researchers to hypothesize that more than one hominin taxon had been present at the site and in 2002, the jaw was designated as the type specimen of the new species
1234:
In 2010, palaeoanthropologist P. James Macaluso Jr. concluded that Skulls 2 and 3 could comfortably be referred to the same species, but whether D2600 could also be referred to the same species as the rest was less
2105:
Though most of the preserved animal fossils suggest a predominantly forest-steppe ecosystem, some parts of the faunal assemblage highlight that parts of the environment would have been full-on steppe (as shown by
1774:
postcranial material, the Dmanisi hominins appears to have been small-brained individuals with prominent brow ridges, and stature, body mass and limb proportions at the lower range limit of modern human variation.
1580:
Stone tools found at Dmanisi site range in age from 1.85 million years old to 1.78 million years old, suggesting that hominins inhabited the site throughout the time between the two estimated ages of the fossils
1550:
to 1.85 million years old. The contours of the Pleistocene sediments indicate that relatively little time passed between the deposition of this volcanic rocks and the deposition of the newer sediments. Through
1577:
particular fossil was even earlier in age, but since there were no estimates of the sedimentation rate at the site, there could also only be a few millennia separating the jaw from the rest of the fossils.
452:
by some). The discovery of the two skulls was highly publicised in international media and the Georgian fossils were for the first time widely acknowledged as the earliest known hominins outside of Africa.
1838:(no complete skeleton has yet been recovered), the Dmanisi individuals were approximately 145–166 cm (4.8–5.4 ft) tall and weighed about 40–50 kg (88–110 lbs). They were smaller than
1883:(such as Turkana Boy). This might indicate that the evolution of improved walking and running performance was not a sudden change, but a continual process throughout the Early and Middle Pleistocene.
779:
Skull of an adult individual. Skull 5 is the first completely preserved Early Pleistocene adult hominid skull found. Interpreted as male on account of its massive and prominent cranial features.
2468:(unmodified stones moved from their natural context) recovered at Dmanisi are generally interpreted as stone reserves created by the hominins to avoid repeated visits to stone collection sites.
1422:
in so far that the Dmanisi hominins were found to broadly share many similarities with both species. The researchers found that the Dmanisi hominins "cannot unequivocally be referred either to
1059:) in 2005, noting that despite the differences in brain capacity between the skulls, they were not more morphologically distinct from each other than individuals of different sexes in modern
160:. The length and morphology of their legs was essentially modern and they would have been adapted to long-range walking and running, but their arms were likely more similar to the arms of
1115:
Though the others were unsure, Vekua supported the classification of D2600 as representing a distinct species separate from the rest of the fossils, preferring to keep its designation as
270:
476:
This jaw was very large and had highly developed posterior molar teeth. The following year, Skull 3 (D2700) and its corresponding jaw (D2735) was discovered, almost perfectly preserved.
1051:
Palaeoanthropologist Sang-Hee Lee supported the classification of all the Dmanisi hominin fossils as belonging to the same species (though made no comment on if that species should be
1457:
constitute a single evolutionary lineage which emerged in Africa and later spread throughout Eurasia. Phylogenetically, the Dmanisi population was suggested to represent a part of an
1536:
Since the discovery of the Dmanisi fossils, further even older hominin fossils been dated and discovered in China. Stone tools manufactured by hominins have been discovered on the
2455:) were used. The precise technique used differed from stone to stone, influenced by the shape of the initial stone. No new angles appear to have been created through the process.
832:
In 1996, palaeoanthropologists Günter Bräuer and Michael Shultz made note of both basal and derived traits, and instead concluded the mandible came from a derived population of
1374:
tooth roots, was pointed out as not actually carrying taxonomical significance since modern Sub-Saharan humans exhibit significant variation in this specific trait. The name
1341:, writing that "to deny this hominin a distinct identity is effectively to deny the utility of morphology in systematics, a radical proposition to which few would subscribe".
993:
3865:
Ferring, Reid; Oms, Oriel; AgustĂ, Jordi; Berna, Francesco; Nioradze, Medea; Shelia, Teona; Tappen, Martha; Vekua, Abesalom; Zhvania, David; Lordkipanidze, David (2011).
1227:-type traits. The teeth of Skulls 2 and 3 were found to be similar, whereas D2600 somewhat diverged in the size of the teeth and in the morphology of its roots. However,
1122:
They noted that if future analyses suggested that D2600 belonged to the same hominin population as the other fossils, the subspecies designation would appropriately be
1100:. In this respect, many of the primitive features could simply be interpreted as primitive retentions. Rightmire, Lordkipanidze and Vekua concluded that if some of the
2124:
Because deer fossils are particularly common (representing about 80% of the fossil found at Dmanisi), it is likely that forests were the dominant type of environment.
486:
The skulls were significant not only in their set of unique features. Skull 5 was the first found completely preserved adult hominin skull from the Early Pleistocene,
1162:
species. They suggested two alternative hypotheses: either that the fossils represented a single taxon with unusually high sexual dimorphism whose inclusion in
4273:
Pontzer, Herman; Rolian, Campbell; Rightmire, G. Philip; Jashashvili, Tea; Ponce de LeĂłn, Marcia S.; Lordkipanidze, David; Zollikofer, Christoph P. E. (2010).
4649:
Zhu, Zhaoyu; Dennell, Robin; Huang, Weiwen; Wu, Yi; Qiu, Shifan; Yang, Shixia; Rao, Zhiguo; Hou, Yamei; Xie, Jiubing; Han, Jiangwei; Ouyang, Tingping (2018).
4207:
MartinĂłn-Torres, MarĂa; BermĂşdez de Castro, JosĂ© MarĂa; GĂłmez-Robles, Aida; Margvelashvili, Ann; Prado, Leyre; Lordkipanidze, David; Vekua, Abesalom (2008).
2484:
There is also indirect evidence of social cooperation in Skull 4, which is from an individual that had lost all but a single tooth by the time of his death.
4098:
Lordkipanidze, David; Ponce de LeĂłn, Marcia S.; Margvelashvili, Ann; Rak, Yoel; Rightmire, G. Philip; Vekua, Abesalom; Zollikofer, Christoph P. E. (2013).
920:
2141:
Animal fossils recovered in the same sediments as the hominin remains demonstrate that Pleistocene Dmanisi would have been home to a highly diverse fauna,
2121:
The forests probably covered the mountain highlands and ground along the river channels whereas the flat river valleys were covered in steppe vegetation.
7168:
975:
In 2002, Vekua and colleagues described Skull 3 (D2700), including its associated mandible (D2735). They conclude that, though the individual resembled
1346:
429:
4457:
Schwartz, Jeffrey H.; Tattersall, Ian; Chi, Zhang (2014). "Comment on "A Complete Skull from Dmanisi, Georgia, and the Evolutionary Biology of Early
2281:
2229:
418:
outside Africa. This was confirmed once the basalts lying directly below the Pleistocene sediments were determined to be about 1.8 million years old.
259:
5614:
2077:
In the Pleistocene, the Dmanisi site would have been near a lake shore formed though the damming of the Mashavera and Pinazauri rivers by lava flow.
5807:
2291:
387:
87:. The Dmanisi hominins are known from over a hundred postcranial fossils and five famous well-preserved skulls, referred to as Dmanisi Skulls 1–5.
1989:
1653:
Facial reconstructions of the Dmanisi hominins, based on Skull 3 (top left), Skull 4 (top right), Skull 2 (bottom left) and Skull 5 (bottom right)
109:. Later analyses by the Dmanisi research team have concluded that all the skulls likely represent the same taxon with significant age-related and
7565:
7306:
6902:
5642:
988:
The D2600 mandible was also described in 2002 by Gabunia, Vekua and Lordkipanidze, together with French archaeologists and palaeoanthropologists
2372:, it probably also reflects some palaeoecological changes, probably coinciding with the aridisation of eastern Georgia in the Early Pleistocene.
4240:
Mgeladze, Ana; Lordkipanidze, David; Moncel, Marie-Hélène; Despriee, Jackie; Chagelishvili, Rusudan; Nioradze, Medea; Nioradze, Giorgi (2011).
2375:
The aridisation brought with it a considerable reduction in forested regions and the further spread of open vegetation and steppe environments.
1936:
is). Either way, the functionality and morphology of the arms in the Dmanisi hominins appears to have been more similar to the arms of earlier
945:
Gabunia and colleagues stated that the combination of features made it a possibility that the Dmanisi hominins were forerunners of both later
1383:
395:
1287:
rather than a distinct species) was suggested and since the Dmanisi hominins are believed to have originated from an early migration by the
7521:
7030:
1691:(brain-to-body-mass ratio) of the Dmanisi hominins (based on Skulls 1 to 4) is in the range of 2.6–3.1, at the lower end of estimates for
2259:
5490:
4242:"Hominin occupations at the Dmanisi site, Georgia, Southern Caucasus: Raw materials and technical behaviours of Europe's first hominins"
7353:
6804:
4441:
2461:
as tools for smashing bones, cutting meat and pounding flesh whereas smaller stones would have served other purposes, such as throwing.
84:
2429:
have also been recovered. The raw materials to make these stone tools probably came from the rivers and outcrops near the fossil site.
2317:
Carnivore activity might account for the fact that all of the hominin skulls were found within just a few square metres of each other.
903:
and the smaller cranial capacity of the Dmanisi fossils. A handful of features were noted as present in the Dmanisi fossils and Asian
839:
In 1998, palaeoanthropologists Antonio Rosas and José Bermúdez De Castro pointed out that such a mosaic anatomy is also documented in
4878:
4838:
1024:
They assigned all the Dmanisi hominins to the new species, and believed the significant disparity in robustness was caused by marked
277:
was informed immediately and systematic palaeontological excavations began in 1983, but ended in 1991 on account of financial issues.
4308:"Anatomical descriptions, comparative studies and evolutionary significance of the hominin skulls from Dmanisi, Republic of Georgia"
5730:
5574:
4888:
4801:
2436:(shaping of stone to create tools) took place at Dmanisi. Although the technique was not very elaborate, quality rocks (such as
435:
The first skull, dubbed Skull 2, was given the designation D2282 and the second skull, Skull 1, was given the designation D2280.
146:
Anatomically, the Dmanisi hominins exhibited a mosaic of traits, possessing some features reminiscent of later and more derived
7677:
7672:
5632:
4883:
4372:
Rightmire, G. Philip; Ponce de LeĂłn, Marcia S.; Lordkipanidze, David; Margvelashvili, Ann; Zollikofer, Christoph P. E. (2017).
1868:, dated to 2.5 million years old. In terms of the absolute length of the legs, the Dmanisi hominins were more similar to later
17:
4698:
Zollikofer, Christoph P. E.; Ponce de LeĂłn, Marca S.; Margvelashvili, Ann; Rightmire, G. Philip; Lordkipanidze, David (2014).
3832:
Garcia, Tristan; Féraud, Gilbert; Falguères, Christophe; de Lumley, Henry; Perrenoud, Christian; Lordkipanidze, David (2010).
5637:
5515:
4893:
4781:
4418:
4170:
1378:
was also defended in that it was used to denote a local population of a subspecies, similar to how quadrinomials are used in
274:
2330:
plants. Most of the plants identified are modern species that are inedible, though some edible plants were present, such as
1135:
250:
interest for some time, with a prominent archaeological excavation site being located within the ruins of the old city on a
5800:
1166:
was thus doubtful, or that D2600 should be considered as a representative of a separate, second species of hominins (i.e.
5594:
172:
in their small body (145–166 cm; 4.8–5.4 ft) and brain size (545–775 cc), both of which are more comparable to
4428:
Rosas, Antonio; De Castro, José Maria Bermúdez (1998). "On the taxonomic affinities of the Dmanisi mandible (Georgia)".
182:. Morphological traits unifying all of the skulls, though the degree in which they are pronounced differ, include large
5703:
3943:"Brief Communication: Is Variation in the Cranial Capacity of the Dmanisi Sample Too Hugh To Be From a Single Species?"
3715:"Earliest Pleistocene Hominid Cranial Remains from Dmanisi, Republic of Georgia: Taxonomy, Geological Setting, and Age"
1591:
mountain range served as a barrier for air masses from the north. They would probably have reached Georgia through the
2068:
The fossils recovered at Dmanisi are all from a relatively short temporal interval and represent a 'snapshot in time'.
821:
The D211 mandible was described in 1995 by Gabunia and Vekua, who classified it as belonging to a basal population of
408:. After prolonged discussion, Vekua and Gabunia came to the conclusion that the Dmanisi hominin was probably an early
6931:
5837:
5569:
912:
1875:
though the length of legs and the morphology of the metatarsals in the Dmanisi hominins was not as derived as later
7138:
7025:
5761:
1858:) in the Dmanisi fossils are comparable to those of modern humans, but are also comparable to some of the earliest
792:
The classification of the Dmanisi hominins is disputed and a discussion on whether they represent an early form of
1742:
The only fully complete skull found at Dmanisi is Skull 5, which can be distinguished from all other known fossil
7550:
6941:
5979:
5793:
5713:
5609:
164:
and modern non-human apes than to later hominins. The Dmanisi hominins would also have differed from later (non-
5708:
5009:
2096:
Even then, Pleistocene Dmanisi was probably warmer and drier than present day Georgia, perhaps comparable to a
306:
1546:
The Pleistocene sediments at Dmanisi are deposited directly atop a thick layer of volcanic rock that has been
285:
7667:
7163:
6693:
5953:
4831:
69:, Georgia. The fossils and stone tools recovered at Dmanisi range in age from 1.85 to 1.77 million years old,
6021:
1850:) or due to having adapted to a different environment. Limb proportions (measured through the length of the
1540:
in China and dated to 2.12 million years old, meaning that hominins must have left Africa before that time.
519:
The bones, some of them confidently associated with Skull 3, are from both adolescent and adult individuals.
7158:
6698:
6171:
5579:
5456:
5342:
3807:
Gabunia, Leo; de Lumley, Marie-Antoinette; Vekua, Abesalom; Lordkipanidze, David; de Lumley, Henry (2002).
5847:
3247:
6124:
5773:
5677:
5495:
5016:
4870:
4152:
3942:
1096:
in some respects, especially in size and (for some) cranial capacity, they shared far more features with
189:
In the Pleistocene, the climate of Georgia was more humid and forested than it is today, comparable to a
879:, the overall proportions of the facial skeleton, the relative narrowness of the skull beyond the face (
134:
7426:
7227:
5535:
5466:
5002:
4995:
4988:
4809:
4700:"Response to Comment on "A Complete Skull from Dmanisi, Georgia, and the Evolutionary Biology of Early
327:(dating through comparisons with fauna at other well-dated sites), they were determined to be from the
4507:
4340:
4307:
4274:
4241:
4208:
3833:
3808:
3775:
3640:
7232:
7047:
5718:
5510:
2496:, a more compelling possibility is that he might have been cared for by other members of his species.
2223:
1104:-like traits, such as the size, cranial capacity and parts of the facial morphology, were considered
880:
5500:
3834:"Earliest human remains in Eurasia: New Ar/Ar dating of the Dmanisi hominid-bearing levels, Georgia"
7421:
6513:
6058:
5749:
5052:
4824:
4160:
2432:
The presence of cores, flakes and chunks in addition to finished tools show that all the stages of
2199:
2178:
2037:
1949:
in the Dmanisi hominins appears to have been more similar to the spines of modern humans and early
1749:
The combination of large teeth and large face with a small braincase is otherwise unknown in early
1688:
113:, though this is not a universally held view. In 2006, the team favoured subsuming the taxon under
6585:
6580:
4762:; Weidemann, Konrad (eds) (1995). "Der altpaläolithische Fundplatz Dmanisi (Georgien, Kaukasus)."
2886:
2884:
2882:
2880:
7538:
7448:
6620:
6387:
6206:
6139:
5871:
5687:
5624:
5584:
5471:
5030:
4209:"Dental remains from Dmanisi (Republic of Georgia): Morphological analysis and comparative study"
2217:
483:
matched the jaw found in 2000 and the two were concluded as having come from the same individual.
438:
After studying the fossils for almost a year, it was determined that they somewhat differed from
356:
4408:
3755:
1746:
specimens (including the other Dmanisi skulls) by its large prognathic face and small braincase.
1710:
The encephalization quotient of Skull 5 was estimated at 2.4, within the range of variation for
423:
Excavations continued at the site, though hominin remains proved to be rare. In 1997, the right
7626:
7500:
7106:
6997:
6985:
6681:
6422:
6261:
5898:
5832:
5816:
5682:
5657:
5652:
5545:
5461:
5023:
4374:"Skull 5 from Dmanisi: Descriptive anatomy, comparative studies, and evolutionary significance"
3459:
3418:
3343:
3331:
3319:
3307:
2877:
1864:
1573:
1391:
A 2017 analysis of Skull 5 specifically, with comparisons to the other skulls and to skulls of
339:
1821:
are fragmentary, and so the time and means of transition from hominins capable of bipedalism (
1193:
is generally held to not be this dimorphic, some fossils, such as smaller skulls recovered at
695:
650:
479:
On account of its erupting wisdom teeth, Skull 3 was determined to be the skull of a subadult.
346:, have undertaken new excavations, completely funded by the Romano-Germanic Museum until 1999.
7662:
7365:
7301:
7175:
6868:
6794:
6568:
6563:
6501:
6440:
6377:
6325:
6318:
5864:
5066:
3437:
3435:
3433:
2426:
2097:
1555:
analyses it has been determined that the sediments are probably about 1.77 million years old,
1547:
1511:
1382:. The researchers pointed out that although the use of quadrinomials is not regulated by the
606:
524:
Together, the fossils at Dmanisi represent the most complete and richest collection of early
424:
190:
66:
6750:
4593:
3714:
3488:
3486:
2848:
2846:
2844:
2842:
2829:
2827:
2814:
2812:
2663:
2661:
2659:
2657:
1784:
Prior to the discovery of the Dmanisi fossils, knowledge of postcranial morphology in early
1567:(which is only known to have lived from 2.0 to 1.6 million years ago), reinforces this date.
1275:, might thus instead be due to regional variation in a single evolving lineage of hominins (
867:
Gabunia and colleagues described Skulls 1 and 2 in 2000, and noted they were reminiscent of
504:
Postcranial fossils comprise bones from all parts of the body and include parts of the arms,
7631:
7582:
7577:
7560:
7555:
7533:
7323:
7037:
6890:
6782:
6686:
6479:
6164:
5963:
5906:
5647:
5550:
5451:
5412:
5357:
5262:
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4959:
4715:
4662:
4556:
4470:
4206:
4115:
4070:
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3726:
3677:
3253:
2245:
1017:
They considered it sufficient grounds for the creation of a new species, which they dubbed
6134:
3430:
3283:
3271:
2322:
A large number of fossilised plant seeds have also been recovered at Dmanisi, mainly from
2137:(pictured), since hackberry seeds have been found in conjunction with the hominin fossils.
979:
in brain size and some facial features, it overall is consistent with an incredibly small
8:
7621:
7286:
7091:
6924:
6457:
6330:
6211:
6186:
5059:
4759:
3483:
2839:
2824:
2809:
2654:
1953:
than to the spines of australopithecines. The fossil vertebrae recovered at Dmanisi show
1397:
391:
361:
266:
4719:
4666:
4612:
Wallace, Ian J.; Demes, Brigitte; Jungers, William L.; Alvero, Martin; Su, Anne (2008).
4560:
4474:
4119:
4074:
3849:
3730:
3681:
2627:
1267:
the morphological diversity in contemporary African hominins, typically used to justify
7572:
7475:
7377:
7190:
6372:
6102:
6068:
5604:
5446:
5322:
4739:
4686:
4580:
4494:
4139:
4006:
3893:
3866:
3701:
3623:
3022:
1592:
1072:
The D2600 mandible (later associated with Skull 5), designated as the type specimen of
598:
Interpreted as male on account of the thick brow ridges and other minor skull features.
462:
194:
4699:
4540:
4099:
3824:
814:
Replicas of the D211 (right, discovered in 1991) and D2735 (left, discovered in 2001)
7614:
7604:
7594:
7543:
7200:
7118:
6412:
6397:
6382:
6362:
6253:
6232:
6043:
5886:
5768:
5723:
5589:
5530:
5520:
5291:
5255:
5109:
4903:
4777:
4743:
4731:
4678:
4637:
4572:
4527:
4508:"Mandibular size and shape variation in the hominins at Dmanisi, Republic of Georgia"
4486:
4445:
4414:
4395:
4360:
4327:
4294:
4261:
4228:
4181:
4166:
4131:
4086:
4041:
3998:
3965:
3898:
3795:
3742:
3693:
3641:"The morphological affinities of the Plio-Pleistocene mandible from Dmanisi, Georgia"
3601:
3599:
3597:
3162:
3160:
2369:
2264:
2194:
2048:
2032:
1921:
1704:
1410:'". The results of the analysis, which compared the skulls to many specimens of both
1153:
1025:
916:
405:
338:
Every year since 1991, the Georgian palaeontologists, joined by specialists from the
332:
315:
235:
110:
59:
4690:
4650:
4584:
4498:
4143:
4010:
1829:) remained unclear. In these respects, the Dmanisi fossils fill in a number of gaps.
1434:, was a "continuum of forms"; Skull 5 appears to share many primitive features with
494:
In addition to the skulls, about a hundred postcranial remains have been discovered.
7609:
7516:
7259:
7042:
6842:
6762:
6718:
6518:
6340:
6191:
6151:
5599:
5352:
5131:
4978:
4797:– website dedicated to research on the Dmanisi hominins and the Dmanisi fossil site
4723:
4670:
4651:"Hominin occupation of the Chinese Loess Plateau since about 2.1 million years ago"
4629:
4564:
4519:
4478:
4437:
4385:
4352:
4319:
4286:
4253:
4220:
4193:
4123:
4078:
4031:
3990:
3957:
3927:
3888:
3878:
3853:
3820:
3787:
3734:
3705:
3685:
3652:
3099:
3097:
2445:
1963:
1946:
1900:) influences the range of movement and the orientation of the arms relative to the
1588:
1002:
498:
165:
156:
7101:
7057:
3738:
3594:
3157:
2947:
2913:
2911:
741:
567:
7490:
7460:
7222:
7150:
7128:
7086:
6981:
6951:
6816:
6811:
6462:
6345:
5916:
5406:
5379:
5277:
5235:
4847:
4523:
4390:
4373:
4371:
4356:
4323:
4290:
4257:
4224:
3867:"Earliest human occupations at Dmanisi (Georgian Caucasus) dated to 1.85–1.78 Ma"
3857:
3776:"The environmental contexts of early human occupation of Georgia (Transcaucasia)"
3570:
3548:
3546:
3544:
3542:
3517:
3515:
3513:
3465:
3424:
3349:
3337:
3325:
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2890:
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2865:
2863:
2861:
2338:
1954:
1917:
1913:
1730:
1206:
1108:
and primitive retentions, there would be no reason to exclude Skulls 1 to 4 from
989:
968:
848:
748:
657:
324:
255:
219:
37:
3471:
3355:
3235:
3223:
3109:
3094:
2417:
Africa at least nearly a million years earlier. Most of the tools recovered are
1676:
548–680 cc) and falls below the standard cranial capacity otherwise ascribed to
1572:
In 2010, the hominin-bearing level of the Dmanisi fossil site was dated through
1418:
somewhat questioned the current recognition of species-level diversity in early
859:
428:
archaeologist Kakha Kakhiani and the head of the 1999 expedition, archaeologist
7599:
7526:
7348:
7313:
7244:
7133:
7005:
6713:
6298:
6288:
6109:
6090:
5226:
4930:
4916:
4855:
4100:"A Complete Skull from Dmanisi, Georgia, and the Evolutionary Biology of Early
3932:
3911:
3871:
Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America
2935:
2908:
2714:
2712:
2710:
2507:
2211:
2205:
2174:
1998:
1808:), gave little insight into early transitions in body proportions and stature.
1726:
1552:
883:) as well as a comparable height of the cranial vault and the thickness of the
825:
based on dental similarity especially with African specimens (sometimes called
510:
470:
More discoveries followed. In 2000, another hominin jaw (D2600) was discovered,
247:
4697:
4674:
4054:
3539:
3510:
3313:
3133:
2971:
2959:
2858:
2797:
899:; notably the lower cranial vault and somewhat thinner cranial vault bones in
473:
this time at a slightly lower layer (i.e. older) than the rest of the fossils.
97:(an otherwise African taxon), or potentially an early offshoot of later Asian
7656:
7485:
7470:
7416:
7394:
7291:
7279:
7195:
7064:
6946:
6907:
6895:
6883:
6595:
6506:
6435:
6176:
6119:
6097:
6006:
5938:
5933:
5911:
5394:
5247:
4937:
3384:
3382:
3189:
3187:
2923:
2441:
2437:
1537:
1496:
1284:
1202:
1105:
884:
489:
and Skull 4 is the only toothless hominin discovered in such early sediments.
444:
328:
93:
6026:
4727:
4568:
4482:
4127:
3883:
2707:
1717:
There are several features that distinguish the Dmanisi hominins from early
1644:
1635:
1624:
1615:
1487:
958:
7404:
7360:
7341:
7296:
7096:
7020:
6777:
6772:
6728:
6355:
6237:
6201:
6181:
6033:
6011:
5923:
5400:
5388:
5330:
5204:
5152:
5117:
5042:
4949:
4735:
4682:
4641:
4576:
4531:
4490:
4399:
4364:
4331:
4298:
4265:
4232:
4135:
4097:
4090:
4045:
4002:
3969:
3902:
3799:
3791:
3746:
3665:
3656:
3441:
3289:
3277:
3034:
3028:
2667:
2347:
2323:
2239:
1797:
1788:
had been very limited. Well-preserved fossils of earlier hominins, such as
1520:
1502:
1356:; D2600 (belonging to Skull 5) and D211 (belonging to Skull 2) are featured
1198:
1147:
681:
410:
386:
As the heads of the expedition, Georgian archaeologists and anthropologist
369:
115:
99:
7453:
4449:
4442:
10.1002/(SICI)1096-8644(199810)107:2<145::AID-AJPA2>3.0.CO;2-U
4052:
3978:
3697:
3492:
3379:
3184:
3172:
2852:
2833:
2818:
2633:
963:
32:
7443:
7433:
7389:
7384:
7336:
7274:
7237:
7210:
7111:
7081:
6956:
6878:
6799:
6787:
6548:
6533:
6523:
6494:
6452:
6367:
6335:
6283:
6216:
6053:
5928:
5785:
5284:
5211:
5183:
5176:
5124:
4339:
Rightmire, G. Philip; Van Arsdale, Adam P.; Lordkipanidze, David (2008).
2493:
2422:
2368:
rodent or reptile remains. Although this might be partly attributable to
2351:
2189:
2183:
2167:
2082:
2058:
2052:
2043:
1958:
1291:
lineage out of Africa, it was determined that they be best placed within
1141:
1130:), a new subspecies name would have to be selected for the other fossils.
687:
A handful of traits suggests an interpretation as male to be appropriate.
680:
Skull of a young individual. Generally gracile morphology, but the upper
243:
4594:"Dmanisi (Georgia) – Site of Discovery of the Oldest Hominid in Eurasia"
4082:
3582:
3558:
3527:
3498:
3406:
3121:
684:
have large crowns and massive roots; making assessing its sex difficult.
442:
in their jaws and skulls and were closer to the earlier African species
265:
Archaeological excavations began in 1936 on the initiative of historian
7587:
7480:
7438:
7254:
7217:
7180:
7076:
6663:
6575:
6402:
6303:
6276:
6196:
5994:
5948:
5859:
5827:
5269:
5190:
4633:
4198:
4036:
3961:
3199:
2449:
2418:
2396:
2286:
1659:
The cranial capacity of the Dmanisi hominins ranges from 546 to 775 cc,
1458:
1175:
923:, they were deemed to not hold "any special phylogenetic significance".
876:
251:
183:
174:
72:
making the Dmanisi hominins the earliest well-dated hominin fossils in
3394:
3295:
1240:
915:. Since these features also appeared in some African fossils, such as
871:
skulls. Numerous traits were noted as suggesting a close relation to
7495:
7264:
7249:
6847:
6832:
6757:
6740:
6658:
6543:
6484:
6474:
6469:
6392:
6271:
6159:
6085:
5852:
5842:
5336:
5241:
3916:
bearing travertine from KocabaĹź (Denizli, Turkey) at at least 1.1 Ma"
3689:
2758:
2756:
2754:
2724:
2409:
2275:
1764:, the anatomy of its braincase is considerably more similar to later
1734:
1543:
The Dmanisi hominins represent the earliest known hominins in Europe.
1530:
1060:
926:
Gabunia and colleagues concluded by referring the Dmanisi fossils to
4613:
4306:
Rightmire, G. Philip; Lordkipanidze, David; Vekua, Abesalom (2006).
4162:
On Human Nature: Biology, Psychology, Ethics, Politics, and Religion
3994:
2787:
2785:
2783:
2741:
2739:
2697:
2695:
2693:
2691:
2644:
2642:
2018:
2009:
1438:
whereas Skull 1, with the largest brain, is more similar to African
1315:, though no morphological comparisons were made to test this theory.
1279:). With this in mind, the classification of the African material as
810:
7269:
7205:
7052:
7010:
6745:
6653:
6528:
6350:
6313:
6293:
5197:
5162:
5139:
4860:
4239:
4019:
3605:
2617:
2615:
2613:
2611:
2609:
2465:
2433:
2327:
2234:
2155:
2129:
1909:
1889:
1561:
The fossils of other animals found at the site, such as the rodent
1371:
815:
642:
Gracile features, interpreted as the skull of an adolescent female.
378:
62:
4816:
4017:
3976:
3211:
3166:
2989:
2977:
2965:
2953:
2751:
7331:
7123:
7069:
7015:
6837:
6643:
6553:
6407:
6308:
6266:
6129:
6048:
6001:
5989:
5347:
4923:
4794:
4538:
4506:
Skinner, Matthew M.; Gordon, Adam D.; Collard, Nicole J. (2006).
4338:
4272:
3666:"A Plio-Pleistocene hominid from Dmanisi, East Georgia, Caucasus"
3477:
3241:
3229:
2941:
2929:
2917:
2780:
2736:
2688:
2639:
2513:
2405:
2401:
2391:
2181:) mammals and several extinct species are represented, including
2151:
2107:
2028:
1905:
1897:
1835:
1834:
Through calculations based on the size of their limb bones and a
1563:
365:
343:
311:
239:
231:
224:
198:
139:
73:
3809:"Discovery of a new hominid at Dmanisi (Transcaucasia, Georgia)"
3753:
3712:
3576:
3552:
3521:
3367:
3361:
3115:
3103:
2803:
2718:
2606:
1245:
7399:
6936:
6914:
6767:
6703:
6648:
6038:
6016:
5984:
5958:
3806:
3624:"Evolution of the 'Homo' genus: New mysteries and perspectives"
3139:
3040:
2871:
2332:
2314:, highlights that the environment must have been quite diverse.
2163:
2147:
2134:
1971:
1893:
1379:
1259:
1194:
730:
Skull of an elderly individual that had lost all but one tooth.
238:, about 85 kilometres (52.8 miles) from the country's capital,
4813:
at Origins – Exploring the Fossil Record – Bradshaw Foundation
3012:
3010:
3008:
3006:
3004:
3002:
3000:
2998:
2354:
in China), it is possible that hackberries (and also possibly
7465:
7185:
6919:
6873:
6735:
6590:
6538:
6114:
6080:
5422:
5313:
5303:
4774:
Der altpaläolithische Fundplatz Dmanisi (Georgien, Kaukasus).
3909:
2678:
2676:
2596:
2594:
2592:
2590:
2588:
2586:
2584:
2582:
2580:
2578:
2530:
2528:
2526:
2524:
2522:
2346:
seeds being frequent at other hominin sites as well (notably
1901:
1855:
1851:
4275:"Locomotor anatomy and biomechanics of the Dmanisi hominins"
3774:
Gabunia, Leo; Vekua, Abesalom; Lordkipanidze, David (2000).
3070:
1737:
having single roots and the angulation of the cranial vault.
27:
Hominid species or subspecies discovered in Dmanisi, Georgia
7411:
7372:
6852:
6708:
6638:
6558:
6430:
5943:
5081:
4614:"The Bipedalism of the Dmanisi Hominins: Pigeon-Toed Early
4305:
3831:
3447:
3388:
3205:
3193:
3178:
3058:
2995:
2452:
2159:
2115:
2111:
1760:
Despite the exterior morphological similarities to earlier
1352:
526:
400:
78:
40:, the skull of an adolescent individual, discovered in 2001
3082:
3046:
2673:
2575:
2519:
6723:
6489:
6447:
4611:
3773:
3588:
3564:
3533:
3504:
3412:
3127:
959:
Classification following the discovery of further fossils
895:
were found to distinguish the Dmanisi fossils from Asian
2896:
1842:
in Africa, possibly either due to being more primitive (
1068:
466:
Dmanisi Skull 5 (D4500) at the time of discovery in 2005
4805:
at Milne Publishing –The History of Our Tribe: Hominini
2565:
2563:
887:
bones. The same features typically used to distinguish
150:
and modern humans, while retaining features of earlier
4764:
Jahrbuch des Römisch-Germanischen Zentralmuseums Mainz
3259:
2561:
2559:
2557:
2555:
2553:
2551:
2549:
2547:
2545:
2543:
1299:. The researchers considered it possible that earlier
4601:
Bulletin of the Georgian National Academy of Sciences
4456:
3864:
3400:
3301:
2648:
1872:(including modern humans) than to australopithecines,
1370:
noted by Schwartz, Tattersall and Chi, the number of
1311:
also belonged to the same single evolving lineage of
4505:
4159:. In Tibayrenc, Michel; Ayala, Francisco J. (eds.).
3217:
2768:
2762:
1908:(which might otherwise restrict movement) is placed
497:
The first postcranial fossil discovered was a third
4182:"Variation in dental remains from Dmanisi, Georgia"
2540:
2027:Several now-extinct large carnivores co-existed at
1249:
Another view of Dmanisi Skull 3 (D2700 & D2735)
1241:
Classification following the description of Skull 5
1092:They noted that though the fossils were similar to
805:
448:(now considered an early African representative of
5326:(archaic homo sapiens, anatomically modern humans)
4591:
4341:"Variation in the mandibles from Dmanisi, Georgia"
3145:
2791:
2745:
2730:
2701:
2621:
1928:, which means that this might be a basal trait in
1350:Comparison of the mandibles of various species of
4648:
3756:"Current Research on the Hominid Site of Dmanisi"
3373:
7654:
1665:As such, their brain size overlaps with that of
3242:Rightmire, Van Arsdale & Lordkipanidze 2008
3230:Rightmire, Van Arsdale & Lordkipanidze 2008
2298:The co-occurrence of so many large carnivores;
1558:deposited in the earliest Upper Matuyama chron.
875:, including the presence and morphology of the
351:
214:
4592:Vekua, Abesalom; Lordkipanidze, David (2010).
4020:"A fourth hominin skull from Dmanisi, Georgia"
3910:Lebatard, Anne-Elisabeth; et al. (2013).
2114:fossils) and full-on forest (as shown through
1888:Humeral torsion (the angle formed between the
5801:
4832:
4150:
3638:
3453:
3076:
3016:
2682:
2600:
2534:
1449:This led the researchers to hypothesize that
1384:International Code of Zoological Nomenclature
1085:, potentially even to later Asian subspecies.
4413:(Revised ed.). Dorling Kindersley Ltd.
3663:
3064:
2902:
2133:The Dmanisi hominins may have partly fed on
1940:or australopithecines than to modern humans.
1825:) to hominins that were obligately bipedal (
1040:and an early species "near the roots of the
5311:
4427:
3088:
1932:(though it is unclear how basal or derived
1725:, including the well-developed brow ridge,
1482:
971:(D2700) and its associated mandible (D2735)
364:(left) showing a hominin jaw discovered at
197:. Stone tools found at the site are of the
5815:
5808:
5794:
4839:
4825:
4053:Lordkipanidze, David; et al. (2007).
4018:Lordkipanidze, David; et al. (2006).
3977:Lordkipanidze, David; et al. (2005).
2273:(the European gazelle), the goat-antelope
740:
694:
649:
605:
566:
360:Georgian archaeologist and anthropologist
4622:American Journal of Physical Anthropology
4430:American Journal of Physical Anthropology
4389:
4197:
4035:
3950:American Journal of Physical Anthropology
3931:
3892:
3882:
3639:Bräuer, Günter; Schultz, Michael (1996).
3206:Rightmire, Lordkipanidze & Vekua 2006
3194:Rightmire, Lordkipanidze & Vekua 2006
3179:Rightmire, Lordkipanidze & Vekua 2006
1974:and additional foot bones, were required.
1796:, such as the well-preserved skeleton of
1263:and large-faced skulls represented males.
796:, a distinct species of their own dubbed
5731:Human evolutionary developmental biology
4179:
3265:
2395:
2128:
1800:("Turkana Boy"; a 1.55 million year old
1486:
1473:lineage and already differentiated from
1345:
1244:
1231:has the same range of dental dimorphism.
1201:in Kenya and larger skulls recovered at
1134:
1067:
1010:with derived features otherwise seen in
962:
858:
809:
461:
355:
218:
133:
76:and the best preserved fossils of early
31:
4406:
3589:Gabunia, Vekua & Lordkipanidze 2000
3565:Gabunia, Vekua & Lordkipanidze 2000
3534:Gabunia, Vekua & Lordkipanidze 2000
3413:Gabunia, Vekua & Lordkipanidze 2000
3128:Gabunia, Vekua & Lordkipanidze 2000
3052:
1209:, Ethiopia, could disprove this notion.
800:or something else entirely are ongoing.
414:, and that it represented the earliest
14:
7655:
3979:"The earliest toothless hominin skull"
3664:Gabunia, Leo; Vekua, Abesalom (1995).
3621:
2774:
2569:
2408:(right, replica), compared to a later
1779:
1430:" and that there, in regards to early
1189:, the researchers noted that although
1139:Dmanisi Skull 3 compared to skulls of
1044:branch...foretelling the emergence of
457:
85:early hominin migrations out of Africa
6979:
6618:
5884:
5789:
5516:Evolutionary models of human drug use
4820:
4539:Vekua, Abesalom; et al. (2002).
3614:
2473:
1028:. Gabunia and colleagues interpreted
131:. The nomenclature is still debated.
65:whose fossils have been recovered at
6980:
5756:
4846:
3940:
3920:Earth and Planetary Science Letters
3302:Schwartz, Tattersall & Chi 2014
3151:
2085:, where earlier (and contemporary)
1295:with a quadrinomial (4-part) name;
843:, and suggested the classification
209:
24:
4752:
4165:. Academic Press. pp. 45–54.
3754:Gabunia, Leo; et al. (2000).
3713:Gabunia, Leo; et al. (2000).
3218:Skinner, Gordon & Collard 2006
2763:Skinner, Gordon & Collard 2006
1126:, but that if it was distinct (as
949:in Asia and hominins ancestral to
938:" meaning "of the group including
271:Georgian Paleobiological Institute
242:. It was founded as a city in the
25:
7689:
6932:Megalithic architectural elements
4788:
4776:Regensburg: Schnell und Steiner,
4055:"Postcranial evidence from early
1081:hominins were ancestral to later
787:
6619:
5767:
5755:
5744:
5743:
4180:Macaluso, Jr., P. James (2010).
2017:
2008:
1997:
1988:
1979:
1920:might have been positioned more
1643:
1634:
1623:
1614:
806:Early attempts at classification
595:Skullcap of an adult individual.
291:
284:
7551:Evolutionary origin of religion
1386:, it is not considered invalid.
1376:Homo erectus ergaster georgicus
1329:-type mandibular variation but
549:Skull & specimen number(s)
292:
3628:Mètode Science Studies Journal
2792:Vekua & Lordkipanidze 2010
2746:Vekua & Lordkipanidze 2010
2731:Vekua & Lordkipanidze 2010
2702:Vekua & Lordkipanidze 2010
2622:Vekua & Lordkipanidze 2010
2173:Most of the animals found are
1469:, placed near the base of the
1223:-type traits and more derived
1185:Preferring the designation of
545:
13:
1:
7678:Fossil taxa described in 2002
7673:Prehistoric Georgia (country)
7164:Art of the Middle Paleolithic
6694:British megalith architecture
4151:Lordkipanidze, David (2017).
3825:10.1016/S1631-0683(02)00032-5
3739:10.1126/science.288.5468.1019
2501:
2385:
1670:
7159:Art of the Upper Paleolithic
6699:Nordic megalith architecture
4524:10.1016/j.jhevol.2006.01.006
4391:10.1016/j.jhevol.2017.01.005
4357:10.1016/j.jhevol.2008.02.003
4324:10.1016/j.jhevol.2005.07.009
4291:10.1016/j.jhevol.2010.03.006
4258:10.1016/j.jhevol.2010.10.008
4225:10.1016/j.jhevol.2007.12.008
4024:The Anatomical Record Part A
3858:10.1016/j.quageo.2009.09.012
1916:(horizontally) and that the
1733:, the premolar teeth in the
911:, such as the presence of a
769:
760:
755:
721:
712:
707:
674:
669:
664:
632:
623:
618:
589:
584:
579:
352:Discovery of hominin remains
246:and has thus been a site of
215:Early excavations at Dmanisi
7:
5774:Evolutionary biology Portal
3254:MartinĂłn-Torres et al. 2008
2221:(the Etruscan rhinoceros),
1271:as a species distinct from
204:
10:
7694:
7307:British Isles and Brittany
7228:Gwion Gwion rock paintings
4512:Journal of Human Evolution
4410:Evolution: The Human Story
4378:Journal of Human Evolution
4345:Journal of Human Evolution
4312:Journal of Human Evolution
4279:Journal of Human Evolution
4246:Journal of Human Evolution
4213:Journal of Human Evolution
3933:10.1016/j.epsl.2013.12.031
3780:Journal of Human Evolution
3645:Journal of Human Evolution
2421:, but a smaller number of
2389:
2380:
2227:(the giant ostrich), deer
1662:with an average of 631 cc.
1600:
994:Marie-Antionette de Lumley
7509:
7322:
7149:
6996:
6992:
6975:
6861:
6825:
6674:
6631:
6627:
6614:
6421:
6252:
6225:
6150:
6076:
6067:
5972:
5897:
5893:
5885:
5880:
5823:
5739:
5719:Evolutionary anthropology
5696:
5670:
5623:
5561:
5480:
5439:
5432:
5378:
5302:
5225:
5150:
5104:
5097:
5080:
5040:
4976:
4947:
4911:
4902:
4869:
4854:
4675:10.1038/s41586-018-0299-4
3493:Lordkipanidze et al. 2007
3442:Lordkipanidze et al. 2013
3290:Lordkipanidze et al. 2013
3278:Lordkipanidze et al. 2013
3167:Lordkipanidze et al. 2006
3077:Bräuer & Schultz 1996
3029:Lordkipanidze et al. 2013
2990:Lordkipanidze et al. 2005
2978:Lordkipanidze et al. 2006
2966:Lordkipanidze et al. 2005
2954:Lordkipanidze et al. 2006
2853:Lordkipanidze et al. 2007
2834:Lordkipanidze et al. 2007
2819:Lordkipanidze et al. 2007
2668:Lordkipanidze et al. 2013
2634:Lordkipanidze et al. 2007
2464:The large collections of
2224:Pachystruthio dmanisensis
1957:, the orientation of the
1491:Successive dispersals of
1461:sequence, descended from
1215:combination of primitive
881:post-orbital constriction
560:
557:
554:
551:
548:
138:Location of discovery at
3838:Quaternary Geochronology
3065:Gabunia & Vekua 1995
2903:Gabunia & Vekua 1995
2200:Panthera gombaszoegensis
2179:European land mammal age
2038:Panthera gombaszoegensis
1904:. In modern humans, the
1862:and fossils referred to
1689:encephalization quotient
1605:
1483:Chronology and geography
891:from Asian specimens of
128:H. e. ergaster georgicus
94:Homo (erectus?) ergaster
7539:Evolutionary musicology
6942:Oldest extant buildings
6869:Archaeological features
6388:Prepared-core technique
5625:Origin of modern humans
4728:10.1126/science.1250081
4569:10.1126/science.1072953
4483:10.1126/science.1250056
4407:Roberts, Alice (2018).
4186:Anthropological Science
4128:10.1126/science.1238484
3884:10.1073/pnas.1106638108
3089:Rosas & Castro 1998
2218:Stephanorhinus etruscus
2203:(the European jaguar),
2190:Homotherium crenatidens
2184:Megantereon megantereon
2081:dry and hot steppes of
1465:and ancestral to later
863:Dmanisi Skull 2 (D2282)
836:, despite being so old.
753:D4500 (mandible D2600)
705:D3444 (mandible D3900)
662:D2700 (mandible D2735)
368:to American ambassador
234:is located in southern
7501:Unchambered long cairn
7349:Mound Builders culture
6682:Neolithic architecture
5817:Prehistoric technology
4810:Homo erectus georgicus
4545:from Dmanisi, Georgia"
4541:"A New Skull of Early
4153:"The History of Early
4059:from Dmanisi, Georgia"
3941:Lee, Sang-Hee (2005).
3813:Comptes Rendus Palevol
3792:10.1006/jhev.1999.0383
3657:10.1006/jhev.1996.0037
3622:AgustĂ, JordĂ (2018).
3314:Zollikofer et al. 2014
2413:
2342:. In conjunction with
2138:
2035:, including large cat
1896:articular axis of the
1865:Australopithecus garhi
1846:was also smaller than
1525:
1357:
1250:
1158:
1124:Homo erectus georgicus
1077:
972:
864:
818:
616:D2282 (mandible D211)
467:
373:
340:Romano-Germanic Museum
228:
143:
41:
18:Dmanisi Hominid Skulls
7176:List of Stone Age art
6378:Microblade technology
6326:Langdale axe industry
5924:Ard / plough
5633:Recent African origin
4871:Last common ancestors
3466:Rightmire et al. 2017
3425:Rightmire et al. 2017
3350:Rightmire et al. 2017
3338:Rightmire et al. 2017
3326:Rightmire et al. 2017
2891:Rightmire et al. 2017
2399:
2209:(the Etruscan bear),
2132:
2098:mediterranean climate
1548:radiometrically dated
1512:Homo neanderthalensis
1490:
1349:
1248:
1138:
1071:
966:
862:
813:
465:
425:third metatarsal bone
359:
222:
191:mediterranean climate
137:
58:were a population of
35:
7668:Homo erectus fossils
7583:Prehistoric medicine
7578:Prehistoric counting
7561:Prehistoric religion
7556:Paleolithic religion
7534:Behavioral modernity
6891:Causewayed enclosure
6783:Abri de la Madeleine
5907:Neolithic Revolution
5648:Behavioral modernity
5638:Multiregional origin
5418:archaic Homo sapiens
5413:Homo heidelbergensis
5358:Red Deer Cave people
4772:Jöris, Olaf (2008).
4760:Lordkipanidze, David
3606:Mgeladze et al. 2011
2246:Pliocrocuta perrieri
2215:(the Stenon zebra),
1970:particularly of the
1699:and more similar to
1406:distinctive species
733:Interpreted as male.
513:(vertebrae and ribs)
501:, recovered in 1997.
325:Biostratigraphically
307:class=notpageimage|
122:H. erectus georgicus
7622:Prehistoric warfare
6368:Magdalenian culture
6331:Levallois technique
6262:Earliest toolmaking
5285:H. neanderthalensis
5205:H. e. tautavelensis
4758:Bosinski, Gerhard;
4720:2014Sci...344..360Z
4667:2018Natur.559..608Z
4561:2002Sci...297...85V
4475:2014Sci...344..360S
4120:2013Sci...342..326L
4083:10.1038/nature06134
4075:2007Natur.449..305L
3850:2010QuGeo...5..443G
3731:2000Sci...288.1019G
3725:(5468): 1019–1025.
3682:1995Natur.373..509G
3577:Gabunia et al. 2000
3553:Gabunia et al. 2000
3522:Gabunia et al. 2000
3505:Wallace et al. 2008
3478:Pontzer et al. 2010
3401:Ferring et al. 2011
3362:Gabunia et al. 2000
3140:Gabunia et al. 2002
3116:Gabunia et al. 2000
3104:Gabunia et al. 2000
3055:, pp. 110–111.
3041:Gabunia et al. 2002
2872:Gabunia et al. 2002
2804:Gabunia et al. 2000
2733:, pp. 159–160.
2719:Gabunia et al. 2000
2649:Ferring et al. 2011
2514:Pontzer et al. 2010
1780:Postcranial anatomy
1398:Paranthropus boisei
1281:H. erectus ergaster
1032:as a descendant of
542:
541:The Dmanisi Skulls
458:Further discoveries
392:David Lordkipanidze
362:David Lordkipanidze
275:Academy of Sciences
267:Ivane Javakhishvili
223:Excavation site at
7573:Origin of language
7566:Spiritual drug use
7476:Rectangular dolmen
7378:Dartmoor kistvaens
7191:Carved stone balls
6903:Circular enclosure
6862:Other architecture
6805:Alp pile dwellings
6393:Solutrean industry
6304:Gravettian culture
5954:Secondary products
5472:Self-domestication
5263:H. heidelbergensis
5212:H. e. yuanmouensis
5177:H. e. lantianensis
4904:Australopithecines
4634:10.1002/ajpa.20827
4199:10.1537/ase.090501
4037:10.1002/ar.a.20379
3962:10.1002/ajpa.20105
3615:Cited bibliography
3454:Lordkipanidze 2017
3389:Garcia et al. 2010
3017:Lordkipanidze 2017
2683:Lordkipanidze 2017
2601:Lordkipanidze 2017
2535:Lordkipanidze 2017
2474:Social cooperation
2446:sedimentary stones
2414:
2336:(hackberries) and
2195:saber-toothed cats
2139:
2056:(bottom left) and
2049:saber-toothed cats
2041:(top left), hyena
1705:australopithecines
1593:Levantine corridor
1574:argon–argon dating
1526:
1358:
1323:H. e. e. georgicus
1297:H. e. e. georgicus
1251:
1159:
1078:
973:
917:Olduvai hominids 9
913:supramastoid crest
865:
819:
774:(mandible in 2002)
765:(mandible in 2000)
717:(mandible in 2003)
637:(mandible in 1995)
628:(mandible in 1991)
540:
468:
406:australopithecines
374:
229:
195:Levantine corridor
144:
42:
7650:
7649:
7646:
7645:
7642:
7641:
7595:Prehistoric music
7544:music archaeology
7201:Cup and ring mark
7026:Clothing/textiles
6971:
6970:
6967:
6966:
6610:
6609:
6606:
6605:
6413:Yubetsu technique
6398:Striking platform
6363:Lithic technology
6248:
6247:
6233:Game drive system
6152:Projectile points
6044:Mortar and pestle
5783:
5782:
5724:Paleoanthropology
5666:
5665:
5643:Archaic admixture
5521:Stoned ape theory
5457:Endurance running
5374:
5373:
5370:
5369:
5366:
5365:
5221:
5220:
5184:H. e. nankinensis
5140:H. tsaichangensis
5076:
5075:
4782:978-3-7954-2140-3
4661:(7715): 608–612.
4420:978-0-2413-0431-0
4172:978-0-12-420190-3
4114:(6156): 326–331.
4069:(7160): 305–310.
4030:(11): 1146–1157.
3989:(7034): 717–718.
3676:(6514): 509–512.
3579:, pp. 19–21.
2942:Vekua et al. 2002
2930:Vekua et al. 2002
2918:Vekua et al. 2002
2412:stone tool (left)
2370:preservation bias
2251:Mimomys tornensis
2033:Early Pleistocene
1026:sexual dimorphism
785:
784:
552:Cranial capacity
333:Early Pleistocene
111:sexual dimorphism
60:Early Pleistocene
16:(Redirected from
7685:
7610:Divje Babe flute
7517:Archaeoastronomy
7260:Petrosomatoglyph
6994:
6993:
6977:
6976:
6826:Water management
6629:
6628:
6616:
6615:
6519:Denticulate tool
6341:Lithic reduction
6074:
6073:
5895:
5894:
5882:
5881:
5810:
5803:
5796:
5787:
5786:
5771:
5759:
5758:
5747:
5746:
5683:Human prehistory
5658:Recent evolution
5653:Early migrations
5595:Thermoregulation
5496:Expensive tissue
5467:Sexual selection
5437:
5436:
5309:
5308:
5191:H. e. pekinensis
5102:
5101:
5095:
5094:
5010:A. bahrelghazali
4979:Australopithecus
4909:
4908:
4879:Chimpanzee–human
4867:
4866:
4841:
4834:
4827:
4818:
4817:
4747:
4694:
4645:
4608:
4598:
4588:
4535:
4502:
4453:
4424:
4403:
4393:
4368:
4335:
4302:
4269:
4236:
4203:
4201:
4176:
4147:
4094:
4049:
4039:
4014:
3973:
3947:
3937:
3935:
3906:
3896:
3886:
3861:
3828:
3803:
3770:
3760:
3750:
3709:
3690:10.1038/373509a0
3660:
3635:
3609:
3603:
3592:
3586:
3580:
3574:
3568:
3562:
3556:
3550:
3537:
3531:
3525:
3519:
3508:
3502:
3496:
3490:
3481:
3475:
3469:
3463:
3457:
3451:
3445:
3439:
3428:
3422:
3416:
3410:
3404:
3403:, p. 10432.
3398:
3392:
3386:
3377:
3371:
3365:
3359:
3353:
3347:
3341:
3335:
3329:
3323:
3317:
3316:, p. 360-b.
3311:
3305:
3304:, p. 360-a.
3299:
3293:
3287:
3281:
3275:
3269:
3263:
3257:
3251:
3245:
3239:
3233:
3227:
3221:
3215:
3209:
3203:
3197:
3191:
3182:
3176:
3170:
3164:
3155:
3149:
3143:
3137:
3131:
3125:
3119:
3113:
3107:
3101:
3092:
3086:
3080:
3074:
3068:
3062:
3056:
3050:
3044:
3038:
3032:
3026:
3020:
3014:
2993:
2987:
2981:
2975:
2969:
2963:
2957:
2951:
2945:
2939:
2933:
2927:
2921:
2915:
2906:
2900:
2894:
2888:
2875:
2869:
2856:
2850:
2837:
2831:
2822:
2816:
2807:
2801:
2795:
2789:
2778:
2772:
2766:
2760:
2749:
2743:
2734:
2728:
2722:
2716:
2705:
2699:
2686:
2680:
2671:
2665:
2652:
2646:
2637:
2631:
2625:
2619:
2604:
2598:
2573:
2567:
2538:
2532:
2517:
2511:
2404:stone tool from
2285:and the giraffe
2255:M. ostramosensis
2144:including pikas,
2047:(top right) and
2021:
2012:
2001:
1992:
1854:relative to the
1823:Australopithecus
1810:Australopithecus
1790:Australopithecus
1712:Australopithecus
1675:
1672:
1647:
1638:
1627:
1618:
1589:Greater Caucasus
1518:
1509:
1494:
1285:chronosubspecies
1217:Australopithecus
1003:Australopithecus
744:
698:
653:
609:
570:
543:
539:
430:Giorgi Kopaliani
295:
294:
288:
254:overlooking the
210:Research history
162:Australopithecus
157:Australopithecus
46:Dmanisi hominins
21:
7693:
7692:
7688:
7687:
7686:
7684:
7683:
7682:
7653:
7652:
7651:
7638:
7505:
7491:Stone box grave
7461:Megalithic tomb
7366:Cotswold-Severn
7318:
7223:Guardian stones
7151:Prehistoric art
7145:
6988:
6963:
6952:Timber trackway
6857:
6821:
6817:Wattle and daub
6670:
6649:Standing stones
6623:
6602:
6417:
6244:
6221:
6146:
6063:
5973:Food processing
5968:
5917:New World crops
5889:
5876:
5819:
5814:
5784:
5779:
5735:
5692:
5678:Human evolution
5662:
5619:
5563:
5557:
5536:Cooperative eye
5481:Specific models
5476:
5428:
5407:Homo antecessor
5362:
5298:
5292:H. rhodesiensis
5256:H. floresiensis
5217:
5198:H. e. soloensis
5170:H. e. georgicus
5146:
5110:H. gautengensis
5085:
5083:
5072:
5036:
4972:
4943:
4898:
4889:Orangutan–human
4858:
4850:
4848:Human evolution
4845:
4791:
4755:
4753:Further reading
4750:
4714:(6182): 360–b.
4596:
4555:(5578): 85–89.
4469:(6182): 360–a.
4421:
4173:
3995:10.1038/434717b
3945:
3877:(26): 10432–6.
3758:
3617:
3612:
3604:
3595:
3587:
3583:
3575:
3571:
3563:
3559:
3551:
3540:
3532:
3528:
3520:
3511:
3503:
3499:
3491:
3484:
3476:
3472:
3464:
3460:
3452:
3448:
3440:
3431:
3423:
3419:
3411:
3407:
3399:
3395:
3387:
3380:
3374:Zhu et al. 2018
3372:
3368:
3364:, p. 1019.
3360:
3356:
3348:
3344:
3336:
3332:
3324:
3320:
3312:
3308:
3300:
3296:
3288:
3284:
3276:
3272:
3264:
3260:
3252:
3248:
3240:
3236:
3228:
3224:
3216:
3212:
3204:
3200:
3192:
3185:
3177:
3173:
3169:, p. 1156.
3165:
3158:
3150:
3146:
3138:
3134:
3126:
3122:
3118:, p. 1021.
3114:
3110:
3106:, p. 1020.
3102:
3095:
3087:
3083:
3075:
3071:
3063:
3059:
3051:
3047:
3039:
3035:
3027:
3023:
3015:
2996:
2988:
2984:
2976:
2972:
2964:
2960:
2956:, p. 1150.
2952:
2948:
2940:
2936:
2928:
2924:
2916:
2909:
2901:
2897:
2889:
2878:
2870:
2859:
2851:
2840:
2832:
2825:
2817:
2810:
2802:
2798:
2790:
2781:
2773:
2769:
2761:
2752:
2744:
2737:
2729:
2725:
2717:
2708:
2700:
2689:
2681:
2674:
2666:
2655:
2647:
2640:
2632:
2628:
2620:
2607:
2599:
2576:
2568:
2541:
2533:
2520:
2512:
2508:
2504:
2476:
2394:
2388:
2383:
2282:Bison georgicus
2279:sp., the bison
2230:Cervus perrieri
2066:
2065:
2064:
2063:
2062:(bottom right).
2024:
2023:
2022:
2014:
2013:
2004:
2003:
2002:
1994:
1993:
1982:
1955:lumbar lordosis
1934:H. floresiensis
1926:H. floresiensis
1918:shoulder girdle
1782:
1673:
1657:
1656:
1655:
1654:
1650:
1649:
1648:
1640:
1639:
1630:
1629:
1628:
1620:
1619:
1608:
1603:
1516:
1507:
1492:
1485:
1243:
1205:, Tanzania and
1154:H. floresiensis
969:Dmanisi Skull 3
961:
808:
790:
773:
764:
752:
749:Dmanisi Skull 5
716:
704:
702:Dmanisi Skull 4
661:
658:Dmanisi Skull 3
636:
627:
615:
613:Dmanisi Skull 2
576:
574:Dmanisi Skull 1
499:metatarsal bone
460:
354:
320:
319:
318:
309:
303:
302:
301:
300:
296:
217:
212:
207:
52:Dmanisi people,
38:Dmanisi Skull 3
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
7691:
7681:
7680:
7675:
7670:
7665:
7648:
7647:
7644:
7643:
7640:
7639:
7637:
7636:
7635:
7634:
7624:
7619:
7618:
7617:
7612:
7607:
7602:
7600:Alligator drum
7592:
7591:
7590:
7580:
7575:
7570:
7569:
7568:
7563:
7558:
7548:
7547:
7546:
7536:
7531:
7530:
7529:
7527:lunar calendar
7524:
7513:
7511:
7510:Other cultural
7507:
7506:
7504:
7503:
7498:
7493:
7488:
7483:
7478:
7473:
7468:
7463:
7458:
7457:
7456:
7451:
7441:
7436:
7431:
7430:
7429:
7424:
7414:
7409:
7408:
7407:
7397:
7392:
7387:
7382:
7381:
7380:
7370:
7369:
7368:
7358:
7357:
7356:
7346:
7345:
7344:
7339:
7328:
7326:
7320:
7319:
7317:
7316:
7314:Venus figurine
7311:
7310:
7309:
7304:
7294:
7289:
7284:
7283:
7282:
7277:
7267:
7262:
7257:
7252:
7247:
7245:Megalithic art
7242:
7241:
7240:
7235:
7225:
7220:
7215:
7214:
7213:
7203:
7198:
7196:Cave paintings
7193:
7188:
7183:
7178:
7173:
7172:
7171:
7161:
7155:
7153:
7147:
7146:
7144:
7143:
7142:
7141:
7136:
7126:
7121:
7116:
7115:
7114:
7109:
7104:
7099:
7094:
7089:
7079:
7074:
7073:
7072:
7062:
7061:
7060:
7055:
7045:
7040:
7035:
7034:
7033:
7023:
7018:
7013:
7008:
7002:
7000:
6998:Material goods
6990:
6989:
6973:
6972:
6969:
6968:
6965:
6964:
6962:
6961:
6960:
6959:
6949:
6944:
6939:
6934:
6929:
6928:
6927:
6917:
6912:
6911:
6910:
6900:
6899:
6898:
6888:
6887:
6886:
6876:
6871:
6865:
6863:
6859:
6858:
6856:
6855:
6850:
6845:
6840:
6835:
6829:
6827:
6823:
6822:
6820:
6819:
6814:
6809:
6808:
6807:
6797:
6792:
6791:
6790:
6785:
6780:
6770:
6765:
6760:
6755:
6754:
6753:
6743:
6738:
6733:
6732:
6731:
6721:
6716:
6714:Cliff dwelling
6711:
6706:
6701:
6696:
6691:
6690:
6689:
6678:
6676:
6672:
6671:
6669:
6668:
6667:
6666:
6661:
6656:
6646:
6641:
6635:
6633:
6625:
6624:
6612:
6611:
6608:
6607:
6604:
6603:
6601:
6600:
6599:
6598:
6588:
6583:
6578:
6573:
6572:
6571:
6561:
6556:
6551:
6546:
6541:
6536:
6531:
6526:
6521:
6516:
6511:
6510:
6509:
6499:
6498:
6497:
6492:
6482:
6477:
6472:
6467:
6466:
6465:
6455:
6450:
6445:
6444:
6443:
6433:
6427:
6425:
6419:
6418:
6416:
6415:
6410:
6405:
6400:
6395:
6390:
6385:
6380:
6375:
6370:
6365:
6360:
6359:
6358:
6353:
6348:
6338:
6333:
6328:
6323:
6322:
6321:
6311:
6306:
6301:
6299:Fire hardening
6296:
6291:
6289:Clovis culture
6286:
6281:
6280:
6279:
6274:
6269:
6258:
6256:
6250:
6249:
6246:
6245:
6243:
6242:
6241:
6240:
6229:
6227:
6223:
6222:
6220:
6219:
6214:
6212:Manis Mastodon
6209:
6204:
6199:
6194:
6189:
6184:
6179:
6174:
6169:
6168:
6167:
6156:
6154:
6148:
6147:
6145:
6144:
6143:
6142:
6137:
6132:
6127:
6122:
6112:
6107:
6106:
6105:
6095:
6094:
6093:
6091:throwing stick
6083:
6077:
6071:
6065:
6064:
6062:
6061:
6056:
6051:
6046:
6041:
6036:
6031:
6030:
6029:
6024:
6014:
6009:
6004:
5999:
5998:
5997:
5987:
5982:
5976:
5974:
5970:
5969:
5967:
5966:
5961:
5956:
5951:
5946:
5941:
5936:
5931:
5926:
5921:
5920:
5919:
5914:
5903:
5901:
5891:
5890:
5878:
5877:
5875:
5874:
5869:
5868:
5867:
5857:
5856:
5855:
5850:
5845:
5840:
5835:
5824:
5821:
5820:
5813:
5812:
5805:
5798:
5790:
5781:
5780:
5778:
5777:
5765:
5753:
5740:
5737:
5736:
5734:
5733:
5728:
5727:
5726:
5716:
5711:
5706:
5700:
5698:
5694:
5693:
5691:
5690:
5688:Human timeline
5685:
5680:
5674:
5672:
5668:
5667:
5664:
5663:
5661:
5660:
5655:
5650:
5645:
5640:
5635:
5629:
5627:
5621:
5620:
5618:
5617:
5612:
5607:
5602:
5597:
5592:
5587:
5582:
5577:
5572:
5566:
5564:
5559:
5558:
5556:
5555:
5554:
5553:
5548:
5540:
5539:
5538:
5533:
5525:
5524:
5523:
5518:
5513:
5511:Drunken monkey
5505:
5504:
5503:
5498:
5493:
5484:
5482:
5478:
5477:
5475:
5474:
5469:
5464:
5459:
5454:
5449:
5443:
5441:
5440:General models
5434:
5430:
5429:
5427:
5426:
5384:
5382:
5376:
5375:
5372:
5371:
5368:
5367:
5364:
5363:
5361:
5360:
5355:
5350:
5345:
5340:
5333:
5328:
5319:
5317:
5306:
5300:
5299:
5297:
5296:
5288:
5281:
5274:
5266:
5259:
5252:
5244:
5239:
5231:
5229:
5227:Archaic humans
5223:
5222:
5219:
5218:
5216:
5215:
5208:
5201:
5194:
5187:
5180:
5173:
5166:
5158:
5156:
5148:
5147:
5145:
5144:
5136:
5132:H. rudolfensis
5128:
5121:
5114:
5105:
5099:
5092:
5078:
5077:
5074:
5073:
5071:
5070:
5063:
5056:
5053:P. aethiopicus
5048:
5046:
5038:
5037:
5035:
5034:
5027:
5020:
5013:
5006:
4999:
4992:
4984:
4982:
4974:
4973:
4971:
4970:
4963:
4955:
4953:
4945:
4944:
4942:
4941:
4934:
4931:Sahelanthropus
4927:
4920:
4917:Nakalipithecus
4912:
4906:
4900:
4899:
4897:
4896:
4891:
4886:
4881:
4875:
4873:
4864:
4852:
4851:
4844:
4843:
4836:
4829:
4821:
4815:
4814:
4806:
4802:Homo georgicus
4798:
4790:
4789:External links
4787:
4786:
4785:
4770:
4754:
4751:
4749:
4748:
4695:
4646:
4628:(4): 375–378.
4609:
4589:
4536:
4503:
4454:
4436:(2): 145–162.
4425:
4419:
4404:
4369:
4351:(6): 904–908.
4336:
4318:(2): 115–141.
4303:
4285:(6): 492–504.
4270:
4252:(5): 571–596.
4237:
4219:(2): 249–273.
4204:
4177:
4171:
4148:
4095:
4050:
4015:
3974:
3956:(3): 263–266.
3938:
3907:
3862:
3844:(4): 443–451.
3829:
3819:(4): 243–253.
3804:
3786:(6): 785–802.
3771:
3751:
3710:
3661:
3651:(5): 445–481.
3636:
3618:
3616:
3613:
3611:
3610:
3608:, p. 593.
3593:
3591:, p. 797.
3581:
3569:
3567:, p. 795.
3557:
3538:
3536:, p. 793.
3526:
3509:
3507:, p. 377.
3497:
3495:, p. 309.
3482:
3480:, p. 503.
3470:
3458:
3446:
3444:, p. 327.
3429:
3417:
3415:, p. 798.
3405:
3393:
3391:, p. 449.
3378:
3376:, p. 608.
3366:
3354:
3342:
3330:
3318:
3306:
3294:
3292:, p. 330.
3282:
3280:, p. 329.
3270:
3258:
3256:, p. 269.
3246:
3244:, p. 908.
3234:
3232:, p. 907.
3222:
3210:
3198:
3196:, p. 140.
3183:
3181:, p. 130.
3171:
3156:
3154:, p. 263.
3144:
3142:, p. 245.
3132:
3130:, p. 790.
3120:
3108:
3093:
3091:, p. 145.
3081:
3079:, p. 478.
3069:
3067:, p. 510.
3057:
3045:
3033:
3021:
2994:
2992:, p. 718.
2982:
2970:
2958:
2946:
2934:
2922:
2907:
2895:
2876:
2874:, p. 244.
2857:
2855:, p. 308.
2838:
2836:, p. 307.
2823:
2821:, p. 306.
2808:
2796:
2794:, p. 162.
2779:
2767:
2750:
2748:, p. 160.
2735:
2723:
2706:
2704:, p. 159.
2687:
2672:
2670:, p. 326.
2653:
2638:
2636:, p. 305.
2626:
2624:, p. 161.
2605:
2574:
2539:
2518:
2516:, p. 492.
2505:
2503:
2500:
2475:
2472:
2387:
2384:
2382:
2379:
2350:in France and
2292:Palaeotraginae
2212:Equus stenonis
2206:Ursus etruscus
2175:Villafranchian
2026:
2025:
2016:
2015:
2007:
2006:
2005:
1996:
1995:
1987:
1986:
1985:
1984:
1983:
1981:
1978:
1819:H. rudolfensis
1781:
1778:
1727:sagittal keels
1684:(800–1000 cc).
1652:
1651:
1642:
1641:
1633:
1632:
1631:
1622:
1621:
1613:
1612:
1611:
1610:
1609:
1607:
1604:
1602:
1599:
1587:fact that the
1553:palaeomagnetic
1484:
1481:
1309:H. rudolfensis
1293:H. e. ergaster
1242:
1239:
1074:Homo georgicus
1038:H. rudolfensis
1019:Homo georgicus
960:
957:
807:
804:
789:
788:Classification
786:
783:
782:
777:
768:
759:
754:
745:
737:
736:
728:
720:
711:
706:
699:
691:
690:
678:
673:
668:
663:
654:
646:
645:
640:
631:
622:
617:
610:
602:
601:
593:
588:
583:
578:
571:
563:
562:
559:
556:
553:
550:
547:
511:axial skeleton
459:
456:
404:, not earlier
388:Abesalom Vekua
353:
350:
305:
304:
298:
297:
290:
289:
283:
282:
281:
248:archaeological
216:
213:
211:
208:
206:
203:
178:than to later
106:Homo georgicus
26:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
7690:
7679:
7676:
7674:
7671:
7669:
7666:
7664:
7661:
7660:
7658:
7633:
7630:
7629:
7628:
7625:
7623:
7620:
7616:
7613:
7611:
7608:
7606:
7603:
7601:
7598:
7597:
7596:
7593:
7589:
7586:
7585:
7584:
7581:
7579:
7576:
7574:
7571:
7567:
7564:
7562:
7559:
7557:
7554:
7553:
7552:
7549:
7545:
7542:
7541:
7540:
7537:
7535:
7532:
7528:
7525:
7523:
7520:
7519:
7518:
7515:
7514:
7512:
7508:
7502:
7499:
7497:
7494:
7492:
7489:
7487:
7486:Simple dolmen
7484:
7482:
7479:
7477:
7474:
7472:
7471:Passage grave
7469:
7467:
7464:
7462:
7459:
7455:
7452:
7450:
7447:
7446:
7445:
7442:
7440:
7437:
7435:
7432:
7428:
7425:
7423:
7420:
7419:
7418:
7417:Gallery grave
7415:
7413:
7410:
7406:
7403:
7402:
7401:
7398:
7396:
7393:
7391:
7388:
7386:
7383:
7379:
7376:
7375:
7374:
7371:
7367:
7364:
7363:
7362:
7359:
7355:
7352:
7351:
7350:
7347:
7343:
7340:
7338:
7335:
7334:
7333:
7332:Burial mounds
7330:
7329:
7327:
7325:
7321:
7315:
7312:
7308:
7305:
7303:
7300:
7299:
7298:
7295:
7293:
7292:Statue menhir
7290:
7288:
7285:
7281:
7280:Stone carving
7278:
7276:
7273:
7272:
7271:
7268:
7266:
7263:
7261:
7258:
7256:
7253:
7251:
7248:
7246:
7243:
7239:
7236:
7234:
7231:
7230:
7229:
7226:
7224:
7221:
7219:
7216:
7212:
7209:
7208:
7207:
7204:
7202:
7199:
7197:
7194:
7192:
7189:
7187:
7184:
7182:
7179:
7177:
7174:
7170:
7167:
7166:
7165:
7162:
7160:
7157:
7156:
7154:
7152:
7148:
7140:
7137:
7135:
7132:
7131:
7130:
7127:
7125:
7122:
7120:
7119:Sewing needle
7117:
7113:
7110:
7108:
7105:
7103:
7100:
7098:
7095:
7093:
7090:
7088:
7085:
7084:
7083:
7080:
7078:
7075:
7071:
7068:
7067:
7066:
7063:
7059:
7056:
7054:
7051:
7050:
7049:
7046:
7044:
7041:
7039:
7036:
7032:
7029:
7028:
7027:
7024:
7022:
7019:
7017:
7014:
7012:
7009:
7007:
7004:
7003:
7001:
6999:
6995:
6991:
6987:
6983:
6978:
6974:
6958:
6955:
6954:
6953:
6950:
6948:
6947:Timber circle
6945:
6943:
6940:
6938:
6935:
6933:
6930:
6926:
6923:
6922:
6921:
6918:
6916:
6913:
6909:
6906:
6905:
6904:
6901:
6897:
6896:Tor enclosure
6894:
6893:
6892:
6889:
6885:
6884:fulacht fiadh
6882:
6881:
6880:
6877:
6875:
6872:
6870:
6867:
6866:
6864:
6860:
6854:
6851:
6849:
6846:
6844:
6841:
6839:
6836:
6834:
6831:
6830:
6828:
6824:
6818:
6815:
6813:
6810:
6806:
6803:
6802:
6801:
6798:
6796:
6793:
6789:
6786:
6784:
6781:
6779:
6776:
6775:
6774:
6771:
6769:
6766:
6764:
6761:
6759:
6756:
6752:
6749:
6748:
6747:
6744:
6742:
6739:
6737:
6734:
6730:
6727:
6726:
6725:
6722:
6720:
6717:
6715:
6712:
6710:
6707:
6705:
6702:
6700:
6697:
6695:
6692:
6688:
6685:
6684:
6683:
6680:
6679:
6677:
6673:
6665:
6662:
6660:
6657:
6655:
6652:
6651:
6650:
6647:
6645:
6642:
6640:
6637:
6636:
6634:
6630:
6626:
6622:
6617:
6613:
6597:
6594:
6593:
6592:
6589:
6587:
6584:
6582:
6579:
6577:
6574:
6570:
6567:
6566:
6565:
6562:
6560:
6557:
6555:
6552:
6550:
6547:
6545:
6542:
6540:
6537:
6535:
6532:
6530:
6527:
6525:
6522:
6520:
6517:
6515:
6512:
6508:
6505:
6504:
6503:
6500:
6496:
6493:
6491:
6488:
6487:
6486:
6483:
6481:
6478:
6476:
6473:
6471:
6468:
6464:
6461:
6460:
6459:
6456:
6454:
6451:
6449:
6446:
6442:
6439:
6438:
6437:
6434:
6432:
6429:
6428:
6426:
6424:
6420:
6414:
6411:
6409:
6406:
6404:
6401:
6399:
6396:
6394:
6391:
6389:
6386:
6384:
6381:
6379:
6376:
6374:
6371:
6369:
6366:
6364:
6361:
6357:
6354:
6352:
6349:
6347:
6344:
6343:
6342:
6339:
6337:
6334:
6332:
6329:
6327:
6324:
6320:
6317:
6316:
6315:
6312:
6310:
6307:
6305:
6302:
6300:
6297:
6295:
6292:
6290:
6287:
6285:
6282:
6278:
6275:
6273:
6270:
6268:
6265:
6264:
6263:
6260:
6259:
6257:
6255:
6251:
6239:
6236:
6235:
6234:
6231:
6230:
6228:
6224:
6218:
6215:
6213:
6210:
6208:
6205:
6203:
6200:
6198:
6195:
6193:
6190:
6188:
6185:
6183:
6180:
6178:
6175:
6173:
6170:
6166:
6163:
6162:
6161:
6158:
6157:
6155:
6153:
6149:
6141:
6138:
6136:
6133:
6131:
6128:
6126:
6123:
6121:
6120:spear-thrower
6118:
6117:
6116:
6113:
6111:
6108:
6104:
6101:
6100:
6099:
6098:Bow and arrow
6096:
6092:
6089:
6088:
6087:
6084:
6082:
6079:
6078:
6075:
6072:
6070:
6066:
6060:
6057:
6055:
6052:
6050:
6047:
6045:
6042:
6040:
6037:
6035:
6032:
6028:
6025:
6023:
6020:
6019:
6018:
6015:
6013:
6010:
6008:
6007:Grinding slab
6005:
6003:
6000:
5996:
5993:
5992:
5991:
5988:
5986:
5983:
5981:
5978:
5977:
5975:
5971:
5965:
5962:
5960:
5957:
5955:
5952:
5950:
5947:
5945:
5942:
5940:
5939:Domestication
5937:
5935:
5934:Digging stick
5932:
5930:
5927:
5925:
5922:
5918:
5915:
5913:
5912:Founder crops
5910:
5909:
5908:
5905:
5904:
5902:
5900:
5896:
5892:
5888:
5883:
5879:
5873:
5870:
5866:
5863:
5862:
5861:
5858:
5854:
5853:New Stone Age
5851:
5849:
5846:
5844:
5841:
5839:
5836:
5834:
5831:
5830:
5829:
5826:
5825:
5822:
5818:
5811:
5806:
5804:
5799:
5797:
5792:
5791:
5788:
5776:
5775:
5770:
5766:
5764:
5763:
5754:
5752:
5751:
5742:
5741:
5738:
5732:
5729:
5725:
5722:
5721:
5720:
5717:
5715:
5712:
5710:
5707:
5705:
5702:
5701:
5699:
5695:
5689:
5686:
5684:
5681:
5679:
5676:
5675:
5673:
5669:
5659:
5656:
5654:
5651:
5649:
5646:
5644:
5641:
5639:
5636:
5634:
5631:
5630:
5628:
5626:
5622:
5616:
5613:
5611:
5608:
5606:
5603:
5601:
5598:
5596:
5593:
5591:
5588:
5586:
5583:
5581:
5578:
5576:
5573:
5571:
5568:
5567:
5565:
5560:
5552:
5549:
5547:
5544:
5543:
5542:Life history
5541:
5537:
5534:
5532:
5529:
5528:
5526:
5522:
5519:
5517:
5514:
5512:
5509:
5508:
5506:
5502:
5499:
5497:
5494:
5492:
5489:
5488:
5486:
5485:
5483:
5479:
5473:
5470:
5468:
5465:
5463:
5460:
5458:
5455:
5453:
5450:
5448:
5445:
5444:
5442:
5438:
5435:
5431:
5425:
5424:
5419:
5415:
5414:
5409:
5408:
5403:
5402:
5397:
5396:
5395:Homo ergaster
5391:
5390:
5386:
5385:
5383:
5381:
5377:
5359:
5356:
5354:
5351:
5349:
5346:
5344:
5341:
5339:
5338:
5334:
5332:
5329:
5327:
5325:
5324:H. s. sapiens
5321:
5320:
5318:
5316:
5315:
5310:
5307:
5305:
5304:Modern humans
5301:
5294:
5293:
5289:
5287:
5286:
5282:
5280:
5279:
5278:H. luzonensis
5275:
5272:
5271:
5267:
5265:
5264:
5260:
5258:
5257:
5253:
5250:
5249:
5245:
5243:
5240:
5238:
5237:
5236:H. antecessor
5233:
5232:
5230:
5228:
5224:
5214:
5213:
5209:
5207:
5206:
5202:
5200:
5199:
5195:
5193:
5192:
5188:
5186:
5185:
5181:
5179:
5178:
5174:
5172:
5171:
5167:
5165:
5164:
5163:H. e. erectus
5160:
5159:
5157:
5155:
5154:
5149:
5142:
5141:
5137:
5134:
5133:
5129:
5127:
5126:
5122:
5120:
5119:
5115:
5112:
5111:
5107:
5106:
5103:
5100:
5096:
5093:
5091:
5089:
5079:
5069:
5068:
5064:
5062:
5061:
5057:
5055:
5054:
5050:
5049:
5047:
5045:
5044:
5039:
5033:
5032:
5028:
5026:
5025:
5021:
5019:
5018:
5017:A. deyiremeda
5014:
5012:
5011:
5007:
5005:
5004:
5000:
4998:
4997:
4993:
4991:
4990:
4986:
4985:
4983:
4981:
4980:
4975:
4969:
4968:
4964:
4962:
4961:
4957:
4956:
4954:
4952:
4951:
4946:
4940:
4939:
4938:Kenyanthropus
4935:
4933:
4932:
4928:
4926:
4925:
4921:
4919:
4918:
4914:
4913:
4910:
4907:
4905:
4901:
4895:
4892:
4890:
4887:
4885:
4884:Gorilla–human
4882:
4880:
4877:
4876:
4874:
4872:
4868:
4865:
4862:
4857:
4853:
4849:
4842:
4837:
4835:
4830:
4828:
4823:
4822:
4819:
4812:
4811:
4807:
4804:
4803:
4799:
4796:
4793:
4792:
4783:
4779:
4775:
4771:
4769:, pp. 21–203.
4768:
4765:
4761:
4757:
4756:
4745:
4741:
4737:
4733:
4729:
4725:
4721:
4717:
4713:
4709:
4705:
4703:
4696:
4692:
4688:
4684:
4680:
4676:
4672:
4668:
4664:
4660:
4656:
4652:
4647:
4643:
4639:
4635:
4631:
4627:
4623:
4619:
4617:
4610:
4607:(2): 158–164.
4606:
4602:
4595:
4590:
4586:
4582:
4578:
4574:
4570:
4566:
4562:
4558:
4554:
4550:
4546:
4544:
4537:
4533:
4529:
4525:
4521:
4517:
4513:
4509:
4504:
4500:
4496:
4492:
4488:
4484:
4480:
4476:
4472:
4468:
4464:
4460:
4455:
4451:
4447:
4443:
4439:
4435:
4431:
4426:
4422:
4416:
4412:
4411:
4405:
4401:
4397:
4392:
4387:
4383:
4379:
4375:
4370:
4366:
4362:
4358:
4354:
4350:
4346:
4342:
4337:
4333:
4329:
4325:
4321:
4317:
4313:
4309:
4304:
4300:
4296:
4292:
4288:
4284:
4280:
4276:
4271:
4267:
4263:
4259:
4255:
4251:
4247:
4243:
4238:
4234:
4230:
4226:
4222:
4218:
4214:
4210:
4205:
4200:
4195:
4191:
4187:
4183:
4178:
4174:
4168:
4164:
4163:
4158:
4156:
4149:
4145:
4141:
4137:
4133:
4129:
4125:
4121:
4117:
4113:
4109:
4105:
4103:
4096:
4092:
4088:
4084:
4080:
4076:
4072:
4068:
4064:
4060:
4058:
4051:
4047:
4043:
4038:
4033:
4029:
4025:
4021:
4016:
4012:
4008:
4004:
4000:
3996:
3992:
3988:
3984:
3980:
3975:
3971:
3967:
3963:
3959:
3955:
3951:
3944:
3939:
3934:
3929:
3925:
3921:
3917:
3915:
3908:
3904:
3900:
3895:
3890:
3885:
3880:
3876:
3872:
3868:
3863:
3859:
3855:
3851:
3847:
3843:
3839:
3835:
3830:
3826:
3822:
3818:
3814:
3810:
3805:
3801:
3797:
3793:
3789:
3785:
3781:
3777:
3772:
3768:
3764:
3757:
3752:
3748:
3744:
3740:
3736:
3732:
3728:
3724:
3720:
3716:
3711:
3707:
3703:
3699:
3695:
3691:
3687:
3683:
3679:
3675:
3671:
3667:
3662:
3658:
3654:
3650:
3646:
3642:
3637:
3633:
3629:
3625:
3620:
3619:
3607:
3602:
3600:
3598:
3590:
3585:
3578:
3573:
3566:
3561:
3555:, p. 22.
3554:
3549:
3547:
3545:
3543:
3535:
3530:
3524:, p. 24.
3523:
3518:
3516:
3514:
3506:
3501:
3494:
3489:
3487:
3479:
3474:
3468:, p. 61.
3467:
3462:
3456:, p. 52.
3455:
3450:
3443:
3438:
3436:
3434:
3427:, p. 70.
3426:
3421:
3414:
3409:
3402:
3397:
3390:
3385:
3383:
3375:
3370:
3363:
3358:
3352:, p. 75.
3351:
3346:
3340:, p. 74.
3339:
3334:
3328:, p. 62.
3327:
3322:
3315:
3310:
3303:
3298:
3291:
3286:
3279:
3274:
3268:, p. 38.
3267:
3266:Macaluso 2010
3262:
3255:
3250:
3243:
3238:
3231:
3226:
3220:, p. 45.
3219:
3214:
3207:
3202:
3195:
3190:
3188:
3180:
3175:
3168:
3163:
3161:
3153:
3148:
3141:
3136:
3129:
3124:
3117:
3112:
3105:
3100:
3098:
3090:
3085:
3078:
3073:
3066:
3061:
3054:
3049:
3042:
3037:
3030:
3025:
3019:, p. 51.
3018:
3013:
3011:
3009:
3007:
3005:
3003:
3001:
2999:
2991:
2986:
2979:
2974:
2967:
2962:
2955:
2950:
2944:, p. 86.
2943:
2938:
2931:
2926:
2920:, p. 88.
2919:
2914:
2912:
2904:
2899:
2893:, p. 54.
2892:
2887:
2885:
2883:
2881:
2873:
2868:
2866:
2864:
2862:
2854:
2849:
2847:
2845:
2843:
2835:
2830:
2828:
2820:
2815:
2813:
2806:, p. 15.
2805:
2800:
2793:
2788:
2786:
2784:
2777:, p. 75.
2776:
2771:
2765:, p. 43.
2764:
2759:
2757:
2755:
2747:
2742:
2740:
2732:
2727:
2720:
2715:
2713:
2711:
2703:
2698:
2696:
2694:
2692:
2685:, p. 48.
2684:
2679:
2677:
2669:
2664:
2662:
2660:
2658:
2650:
2645:
2643:
2635:
2630:
2623:
2618:
2616:
2614:
2612:
2610:
2603:, p. 49.
2602:
2597:
2595:
2593:
2591:
2589:
2587:
2585:
2583:
2581:
2579:
2572:, p. 74.
2571:
2566:
2564:
2562:
2560:
2558:
2556:
2554:
2552:
2550:
2548:
2546:
2544:
2537:, p. 50.
2536:
2531:
2529:
2527:
2525:
2523:
2515:
2510:
2506:
2499:
2498:
2495:
2490:
2486:
2482:
2481:
2471:
2470:
2467:
2463:
2458:
2457:
2454:
2451:
2447:
2443:
2439:
2435:
2431:
2428:
2424:
2420:
2411:
2407:
2403:
2398:
2393:
2378:
2377:
2374:
2371:
2365:
2364:
2360:
2357:
2353:
2349:
2345:
2341:
2340:
2335:
2334:
2329:
2325:
2320:
2319:
2316:
2313:
2309:
2305:
2301:
2297:
2294:
2293:
2288:
2284:
2283:
2278:
2277:
2272:
2271:
2267:
2262:
2261:
2256:
2252:
2248:
2247:
2242:
2241:
2236:
2232:
2231:
2226:
2225:
2220:
2219:
2214:
2213:
2208:
2207:
2202:
2201:
2196:
2192:
2191:
2186:
2185:
2180:
2176:
2172:
2169:
2165:
2161:
2157:
2153:
2149:
2146:
2143:
2136:
2131:
2127:
2126:
2123:
2120:
2117:
2113:
2109:
2103:
2102:
2099:
2095:
2092:
2088:
2084:
2079:
2075:
2074:
2070:
2061:
2060:
2055:
2054:
2050:
2046:
2045:
2040:
2039:
2034:
2030:
2020:
2011:
2000:
1991:
1980:Palaeoecology
1977:
1976:
1973:
1968:
1965:
1960:
1956:
1952:
1948:
1945:Overall, the
1943:
1942:
1939:
1935:
1931:
1927:
1923:
1919:
1915:
1911:
1907:
1903:
1899:
1895:
1891:
1886:
1885:
1882:
1878:
1874:
1871:
1867:
1866:
1861:
1857:
1853:
1849:
1845:
1841:
1837:
1832:
1831:
1828:
1824:
1820:
1816:
1811:
1807:
1803:
1799:
1795:
1791:
1787:
1777:
1776:
1771:
1770:
1767:
1763:
1759:
1755:
1752:
1748:
1745:
1740:
1739:
1736:
1732:
1728:
1724:
1720:
1716:
1713:
1709:
1706:
1702:
1698:
1694:
1690:
1686:
1683:
1679:
1668:
1664:
1661:
1646:
1637:
1626:
1617:
1598:
1597:
1594:
1590:
1584:
1583:
1579:
1575:
1570:
1569:
1566:
1565:
1560:
1557:
1554:
1549:
1545:
1541:
1539:
1538:Loess Plateau
1535:
1533:tool culture.
1532:
1523:
1522:
1514:
1513:
1505:
1504:
1499:
1498:
1497:Homo ergaster
1489:
1480:
1479:
1476:
1472:
1468:
1464:
1460:
1456:
1452:
1448:
1445:
1441:
1437:
1433:
1429:
1425:
1421:
1417:
1413:
1409:
1404:
1400:
1399:
1394:
1389:
1388:
1385:
1381:
1377:
1373:
1368:
1364:
1355:
1354:
1348:
1344:
1343:
1340:
1336:
1332:
1328:
1324:
1318:
1317:
1314:
1310:
1306:
1302:
1298:
1294:
1290:
1286:
1282:
1278:
1274:
1270:
1265:
1261:
1256:
1247:
1238:
1237:
1233:
1230:
1226:
1222:
1218:
1212:
1211:
1208:
1204:
1203:Olduvai Gorge
1200:
1196:
1192:
1188:
1184:
1181:
1177:
1172:
1169:
1165:
1156:
1155:
1150:
1149:
1144:
1143:
1137:
1133:
1132:
1129:
1125:
1121:
1118:
1114:
1111:
1107:
1106:plesiomorphic
1103:
1099:
1095:
1091:
1089:questionable.
1087:
1084:
1075:
1070:
1066:
1065:
1062:
1058:
1054:
1050:
1047:
1046:Homo ergaster
1043:
1039:
1035:
1031:
1027:
1023:
1020:
1016:
1013:
1009:
1005:
1004:
998:
995:
991:
986:
985:
982:
978:
970:
965:
956:
955:
952:
948:
944:
941:
937:
933:
929:
925:
922:
918:
914:
910:
906:
902:
898:
894:
890:
886:
885:cranial vault
882:
878:
874:
870:
861:
857:
856:
853:
850:
846:
842:
838:
835:
831:
828:
824:
817:
812:
803:
802:
799:
795:
781:
778:
776:
772:
767:
763:
758:
751:
750:
746:
743:
739:
738:
735:
732:
729:
727:
724:
719:
715:
710:
703:
700:
697:
693:
692:
689:
686:
683:
679:
677:
672:
667:
660:
659:
655:
652:
648:
647:
644:
641:
639:
635:
630:
626:
621:
614:
611:
608:
604:
603:
600:
597:
594:
592:
587:
582:
575:
572:
569:
565:
564:
544:
538:
537:
534:
529:
528:
522:
521:
518:
515:
512:
509:
506:
503:
500:
496:
492:
491:
488:
485:
481:
478:
475:
472:
464:
455:
454:
451:
447:
446:
441:
437:
434:
431:
426:
421:
420:
417:
413:
412:
407:
403:
402:
397:
393:
389:
384:
383:
380:
371:
367:
363:
358:
349:
348:
345:
341:
337:
334:
330:
329:Late Pliocene
326:
317:
313:
308:
287:
280:
279:
276:
272:
268:
264:
261:
257:
253:
249:
245:
241:
237:
233:
226:
221:
202:
200:
196:
192:
187:
185:
181:
177:
176:
171:
167:
163:
159:
158:
153:
149:
141:
136:
132:
130:
129:
124:
123:
118:
117:
112:
108:
107:
102:
101:
96:
95:
88:
86:
81:
80:
75:
71:
68:
64:
61:
57:
53:
50:
47:
39:
34:
30:
19:
7663:Homo erectus
7427:wedge-shaped
7412:Funeral pyre
7405:Great dolmen
7361:Chamber tomb
7342:Round barrow
7297:Stone circle
7169:Blombos Cave
7097:Grooved ware
7021:Chalcolithic
6925:Thornborough
6843:Flush toilet
6778:Blombos Cave
6773:Rock shelter
6729:Quiggly hole
6621:Architecture
6596:illustration
6238:Buffalo jump
6059:Storage pits
6022:Aşıklı Höyük
6012:Ground stone
5848:Subdivisions
5772:
5760:
5748:
5615:Gender roles
5610:Intelligence
5423:Homo sapiens
5421:
5417:
5411:
5405:
5401:Homo erectus
5399:
5393:
5389:Homo habilis
5387:
5348:Manot people
5337:H. s. idaltu
5335:
5331:Jebel Irhoud
5323:
5314:Homo sapiens
5312:
5290:
5283:
5276:
5268:
5261:
5254:
5246:
5234:
5210:
5203:
5196:
5189:
5182:
5175:
5169:
5168:
5161:
5153:Homo erectus
5151:
5138:
5130:
5123:
5116:
5108:
5098:Proto-humans
5087:
5084:proto-humans
5065:
5058:
5051:
5043:Paranthropus
5041:
5029:
5022:
5015:
5008:
5003:A. anamensis
5001:
4996:A. africanus
4994:
4989:A. afarensis
4987:
4977:
4965:
4958:
4950:Ardipithecus
4948:
4936:
4929:
4922:
4915:
4894:Gibbon–human
4808:
4800:
4773:
4766:
4763:
4711:
4707:
4701:
4658:
4654:
4625:
4621:
4615:
4604:
4600:
4552:
4548:
4542:
4518:(1): 36–49.
4515:
4511:
4466:
4462:
4458:
4433:
4429:
4409:
4381:
4377:
4348:
4344:
4315:
4311:
4282:
4278:
4249:
4245:
4216:
4212:
4192:(1): 31–40.
4189:
4185:
4161:
4154:
4111:
4107:
4101:
4066:
4062:
4056:
4027:
4023:
3986:
3982:
3953:
3949:
3923:
3919:
3914:Homo erectus
3913:
3912:"Dating the
3874:
3870:
3841:
3837:
3816:
3812:
3783:
3779:
3766:
3762:
3722:
3718:
3673:
3669:
3648:
3644:
3631:
3627:
3584:
3572:
3560:
3529:
3500:
3473:
3461:
3449:
3420:
3408:
3396:
3369:
3357:
3345:
3333:
3321:
3309:
3297:
3285:
3273:
3261:
3249:
3237:
3225:
3213:
3201:
3174:
3147:
3135:
3123:
3111:
3084:
3072:
3060:
3053:Roberts 2018
3048:
3036:
3024:
2985:
2973:
2961:
2949:
2937:
2925:
2898:
2799:
2770:
2726:
2651:, p. 1.
2629:
2509:
2497:
2489:
2485:
2483:
2480:
2479:cooperation.
2477:
2469:
2462:
2459:
2456:
2430:
2423:lithic cores
2415:
2376:
2373:
2366:
2363:
2359:
2355:
2343:
2337:
2331:
2324:Boraginaceae
2321:
2318:
2315:
2311:
2307:
2303:
2299:
2296:
2290:
2280:
2274:
2269:
2265:
2258:
2254:
2250:
2244:
2243:, the hyena
2240:Arvernoceros
2238:
2228:
2222:
2216:
2210:
2204:
2198:
2188:
2182:
2171:
2145:
2142:
2140:
2125:
2122:
2119:
2104:
2101:
2094:
2090:
2086:
2078:
2076:
2073:
2069:
2067:
2057:
2051:
2042:
2036:
1975:
1967:
1959:facet joints
1950:
1944:
1941:
1937:
1933:
1929:
1925:
1887:
1884:
1880:
1876:
1873:
1869:
1863:
1859:
1847:
1843:
1839:
1833:
1830:
1826:
1822:
1818:
1814:
1809:
1805:
1801:
1798:KNM WT 15000
1793:
1789:
1785:
1783:
1775:
1772:
1769:
1765:
1761:
1758:
1754:
1750:
1747:
1743:
1741:
1738:
1722:
1718:
1715:
1711:
1708:
1700:
1696:
1692:
1685:
1681:
1677:
1666:
1663:
1660:
1658:
1596:
1585:
1582:
1578:
1571:
1568:
1562:
1559:
1556:
1544:
1542:
1534:
1527:
1521:Homo sapiens
1519:
1515:(ochre) and
1510:
1503:Homo erectus
1501:
1495:
1478:
1474:
1470:
1466:
1462:
1454:
1450:
1447:
1443:
1439:
1435:
1431:
1427:
1423:
1419:
1415:
1411:
1408:H. georgicus
1407:
1403:
1396:
1392:
1390:
1387:
1375:
1366:
1363:H. georgicus
1362:
1359:
1351:
1342:
1339:H. georgicus
1338:
1334:
1330:
1326:
1322:
1319:
1316:
1312:
1308:
1304:
1300:
1296:
1292:
1288:
1280:
1276:
1272:
1268:
1264:
1255:
1252:
1236:
1232:
1228:
1224:
1220:
1216:
1213:
1210:
1199:Olorgesailie
1190:
1186:
1183:
1179:
1171:
1168:H. georgicus
1167:
1163:
1160:
1152:
1146:
1140:
1131:
1128:H. georgicus
1127:
1123:
1120:
1117:H. georgicus
1116:
1113:
1109:
1101:
1097:
1093:
1090:
1086:
1082:
1079:
1073:
1064:
1057:H. georgicus
1056:
1052:
1049:
1045:
1041:
1037:
1033:
1030:H. georgicus
1029:
1022:
1018:
1015:
1011:
1007:
1001:
997:
987:
984:
980:
976:
974:
954:
950:
946:
943:
939:
935:
931:
927:
924:
908:
904:
900:
896:
892:
888:
872:
868:
866:
855:
851:
847:sp. indet. (
844:
840:
837:
833:
830:
826:
822:
820:
801:
798:H. georgicus
797:
793:
791:
780:
775:
771:
766:
762:
757:
747:
734:
731:
726:
723:
718:
714:
709:
701:
688:
685:
682:canine teeth
676:
671:
666:
656:
643:
638:
634:
629:
625:
620:
612:
599:
596:
591:
586:
581:
573:
536:
532:
525:
523:
520:
517:
514:
508:
505:
502:
495:
493:
490:
487:
484:
480:
477:
474:
471:
469:
453:
449:
443:
439:
436:
433:
422:
419:
415:
411:Homo erectus
409:
399:
385:
382:
375:
370:John R. Bass
347:
336:
321:
314:in southern
310:Location of
278:
263:
230:
188:
179:
173:
169:
161:
155:
151:
147:
145:
127:
126:
121:
120:
116:Homo erectus
114:
105:
104:
98:
92:
89:
77:
70:
55:
51:
49:
45:
43:
29:
7449:unchambered
7444:Long barrow
7434:Grave goods
7390:Court cairn
7385:Clava cairn
7337:Bowl barrow
7275:Rock cupule
7218:Golden hats
7211:Hill figure
7112:Unstan ware
7092:Cord-marked
6957:Sweet Track
6879:Burnt mound
6800:Stilt house
6788:Sibudu Cave
6581:Tally stick
6549:Quern-stone
6534:Hammerstone
6524:Fire plough
6495:Pesse canoe
6453:Bannerstone
6423:Other tools
6336:Lithic core
6284:Aurignacian
6172:Bare Island
6054:Quern-stone
5546:Grandmother
5501:Shore-based
5462:Aquatic ape
5353:Tam Pa Ling
5248:H. ergaster
5067:P. robustus
2775:AgustĂ 2018
2570:AgustĂ 2018
2448:as well as
2419:flake tools
2352:Zhoukoudian
2312:Pliocrocuta
2304:Homotherium
2300:Megantereon
2168:fallow deer
2135:hackberries
2087:H. ergaster
2083:East Africa
2059:Megantereon
2053:Homotherium
2044:Pliocrocuta
1877:H. ergaster
1848:H. ergaster
1840:H. ergaster
1827:H. ergaster
1802:H. ergaster
1693:H. ergaster
1682:H. ergaster
1581:themselves.
1440:H. ergaster
1269:H. ergaster
1176:chimpanzees
981:H. ergaster
967:Replica of
909:H. ergaster
889:H. ergaster
873:H. ergaster
869:H. ergaster
841:H. ergaster
827:H. ergaster
555:Discovered
445:H. ergaster
396:Leo Gabunia
244:Middle Ages
201:tradition.
186:and faces.
184:brow ridges
56:Dmanisi man
36:Replica of
7657:Categories
7588:trepanning
7481:Ring cairn
7439:Jar burial
7422:transepted
7354:U.S. sites
7255:Petroglyph
7181:Bird stone
7139:wine press
6812:Stone roof
6795:Roundhouse
6687:long house
6664:Stonehenge
6632:Ceremonial
6576:Stone tool
6403:Tool stone
6373:Metallurgy
6277:Mousterian
6254:Toolmaking
6192:Cumberland
6165:Transverse
6135:Schöningen
6027:Qesem cave
5995:Earth oven
5949:Irrigation
5860:Technology
5828:Prehistory
5585:Skin color
5570:Bipedalism
5531:Killer ape
5343:Cro-Magnon
5242:Denisovans
5118:H. habilis
5082:Humans and
4967:A. ramidus
4960:A. kadabba
4795:Dmanisi.ge
2502:References
2450:silicified
2390:See also:
2386:Technology
2287:Giraffidae
2249:, rodents
2091:H. erectus
1951:H. erectus
1881:H. erectus
1844:H. habilis
1815:H. habilis
1806:H. erectus
1792:and later
1766:H. erectus
1723:H. habilis
1701:H. habilis
1697:H. erectus
1678:H. erectus
1667:H. habilis
1506:(yellow),
1475:H. habilis
1471:H. erectus
1467:H. erectus
1463:H. habilis
1459:anagenetic
1455:H. habilis
1451:H. erectus
1444:H. erectus
1436:H. habilis
1428:H. erectus
1424:H. habilis
1416:H. habilis
1412:H. erectus
1393:H. sapiens
1331:H. sapiens
1305:H. habilis
1303:, such as
1289:H. erectus
1277:H. erectus
1273:H. erectus
1229:H. habilis
1225:H. erectus
1221:H. habilis
1191:H. erectus
1187:H. erectus
1148:H. habilis
1110:H. erectus
1102:H. habilis
1098:H. erectus
1094:H. habilis
1083:H. erectus
1061:great apes
1053:H. erectus
1034:H. habilis
1012:H. erectus
1006:and early
977:H. habilis
951:H. sapiens
947:H. erectus
934:("ex. gr.
907:, but not
905:H. erectus
901:H. erectus
897:H. erectus
893:H. erectus
877:brow ridge
834:H. erectus
823:H. erectus
794:H. erectus
558:Published
450:H. erectus
440:H. erectus
252:promontory
180:H. erectus
175:H. habilis
148:H. erectus
100:H. erectus
7632:symbolism
7496:Tor cairn
7454:Grønsalen
7395:Cremation
7287:Sculpture
7265:Pictogram
7250:Petroform
7070:amber use
7038:Cosmetics
6848:Reservoir
6833:Check dam
6763:Pueblitos
6758:Pit-house
6741:Longhouse
6675:Dwellings
6544:Microlith
6475:Bow drill
6470:Bone tool
6463:prismatic
6272:Acheulean
6187:Cresswell
6160:Arrowhead
6086:Boomerang
6002:Granaries
5964:Terracing
5843:Stone Age
5704:Theorists
5671:Timelines
5551:Patriarch
5527:Behavior
5452:Gathering
5380:Ancestors
5125:H. naledi
5060:P. boisei
5031:A. sediba
4744:206554612
4384:: 50–79.
2466:manuports
2410:Acheulean
2276:Soergelia
2270:borbonica
2260:Kowalskia
2156:tortoises
2118:fossils).
1922:laterally
1735:upper jaw
1531:Acheulean
1142:H. naledi
816:mandibles
516:and feet.
260:Pinazauri
256:Mashavera
142:, Georgia
7270:Rock art
7233:painting
7206:Geoglyph
7031:timeline
7011:Beadwork
6751:Mehrgarh
6746:Mudbrick
6654:megalith
6529:Fire-saw
6351:debitage
6346:analysis
6314:Hand axe
6294:Cupstone
5872:Glossary
5833:Timeline
5750:Category
5605:Language
5575:Skeleton
5270:H. longi
5024:A. garhi
4861:Hominins
4856:Taxonomy
4736:24763573
4691:49670311
4683:29995848
4642:18350586
4585:32726786
4577:12098694
4532:16563468
4499:36578190
4491:24763572
4400:28317556
4365:18394678
4332:16271745
4299:20447679
4266:21277002
4233:18486183
4144:20435482
4136:24136960
4091:17882214
4046:17031841
4011:52800194
4003:15815618
3970:15503340
3926:: 8–18.
3903:21646521
3800:10835262
3769:: 13–27.
3747:10807567
3634:: 71–77.
3152:Lee 2005
2442:magmatic
2438:volcanic
2434:knapping
2427:choppers
2348:Tautavel
2328:beetroot
2308:Panthera
2235:Cervidae
2152:hamsters
1964:medially
1914:supinely
1910:dorsally
1890:proximal
1757:species.
1729:, large
1721:such as
1372:premolar
1254:fossils.
940:ergaster
936:ergaster
932:ergaster
930:ex. gr.
852:ergaster
379:mandible
205:Taxonomy
63:hominins
7627:Symbols
7238:pigment
7124:Weaving
7087:Cardium
7082:Pottery
7077:Mirrors
7065:Jewelry
7006:Baskets
6986:culture
6838:Cistern
6644:Pyramid
6586:Weapons
6564:Scraper
6554:Racloir
6514:Cleaver
6502:Chopper
6408:Uniface
6319:Grooves
6309:Hafting
6267:Oldowan
6226:Systems
6177:Cascade
6140:woomera
6130:harpoon
6103:history
6069:Hunting
6049:Pottery
5990:Cooking
5899:Farming
5865:history
5838:Outline
5762:Commons
5714:Fossils
5580:Muscles
5491:Cooking
5447:Hunting
4924:Orrorin
4716:Bibcode
4708:Science
4663:Bibcode
4557:Bibcode
4549:Science
4471:Bibcode
4463:Science
4450:9786330
4116:Bibcode
4108:Science
4071:Bibcode
3894:3127884
3846:Bibcode
3727:Bibcode
3719:Science
3706:4242943
3698:7845461
3678:Bibcode
2406:Dmanisi
2402:Oldowan
2392:Oldowan
2381:Culture
2356:Ephedra
2339:Ephedra
2266:Gazella
2164:jackals
2148:lizards
2108:ostrich
2031:in the
2029:Dmanisi
1906:scapula
1898:humerus
1836:humerus
1674:
1601:Anatomy
1564:Mimomys
1402:humans.
1327:Gorilla
1076:in 2002
372:in 2010
366:Dmanisi
344:Cologne
331:to the
316:Georgia
312:Dmanisi
299:Dmanisi
273:of the
262:rivers.
240:Tbilisi
236:Georgia
232:Dmanisi
227:in 2007
225:Dmanisi
199:Oldowan
166:insular
140:Dmanisi
74:Eurasia
67:Dmanisi
7605:flutes
7400:Dolmen
7324:Burial
7134:winery
7107:Linear
6937:Midden
6915:Cursus
6908:Goseck
6768:Pueblo
6719:Dugout
6704:Burdei
6383:Mining
6207:Lamoka
6202:Folsom
6182:Clovis
6039:Metate
6017:Hearth
5985:Basket
5959:Sickle
5697:Others
5600:Speech
5562:Topics
5507:Drugs
5433:Models
4780:
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4689:
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2344:Celtis
2333:Celtis
2193:(both
2072:years.
1972:pelvis
1894:distal
1731:orbits
1524:(red).
1517:
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1493:
1426:or to
1380:botany
1260:bonobo
1235:clear.
1219:- and
1195:Ileret
756:546 cc
708:625 cc
665:600 cc
619:650 cc
580:775 cc
577:D2280
561:Notes
546:Image
7522:sites
7466:Mummy
7186:Cairn
7102:JĹŤmon
7053:shoes
7048:Hides
6920:Henge
6874:Broch
6736:Jacal
6591:Wheel
6539:Knife
6485:Canoe
6480:Burin
6458:Blade
6356:flake
6217:Plano
6125:baton
6115:Spear
6081:Arrow
6034:Manos
5887:Tools
5709:Books
5487:Diet
4740:S2CID
4687:S2CID
4597:(PDF)
4581:S2CID
4495:S2CID
4140:S2CID
4007:S2CID
3946:(PDF)
3763:ERAUL
3759:(PDF)
3702:S2CID
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2160:hares
1947:spine
1902:torso
1856:tibia
1852:femur
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1207:Bouri
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725:/2006
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7615:gudi
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7302:list
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7043:Glue
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6982:Arts
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6709:Cave
6639:Kiva
6569:side
6559:Rope
6507:tool
6441:bone
6431:Adze
6197:Eden
6110:Nets
5980:Fire
5944:Goad
5929:Celt
5590:Hair
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5088:Homo
4778:ISBN
4732:PMID
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4328:PMID
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4042:PMID
4028:288A
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6490:Oar
6448:Axe
6436:Awl
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