3596:). Such behaviour would probably have been the result of counter-attacks in the context of competition over nutritious food with other carnivores and would probably have evolved from something akin to the opportunistic hunting sometimes exhibited by chimpanzees. The switch to predation in groups might have triggered a cascade of evolutionary changes which changed the course of human evolution. Cooperative behaviours such as opportunistic hunting in groups, predator defense and confrontational scavenging would have been critical for survival which means that a fundamental transition in psychology gradually transpired. With the typical "competitive cooperation" behaviour exhibited by most primates no longer being favored through natural selection and social tendencies taking its place, hunting, and other activities, would have become true collaborative efforts. Because counter-attack behaviour is typically exhibited in males of modern primates, social hunting in archaic humans is believed to have been a primarily male activity. Females likely conducted other types of foraging, gathering food which did not require hunting (i.e. fruits, nuts, eggs etc.).
3220:
3362:
2532:
notably in that the margins of KNM ER 3883's brow ridges are very thickened and protrude outwards but slightly downwards rather than upwards. Both skulls can be distinguished from the skull of
Turkana Boy, which possesses only slightly substantial thickenings of the superior orbital margins, lacking the more vertical thickening of KNM ER 3883 and the aggressive protrusion of KNM ER 3733. In addition to this, the facial structure of Turkana Boy is narrower and longer than that of the other skulls, with a higher nasal aperture and likely a flatter profile of the upper face. It is possible that these differences can be accounted for through Turkana Boy being a subadult, 7 to 12 years old. Furthermore, KNM ER 3733 is presumed to have been the skull of a female (whereas Turkana Boy is traditionally interpreted as male), which means that sexual dimorphism may account for some of the differences.
3178:
3705:
the popular press, and frequently cited in academia, is that large and impressive hand axes might have been emblems used for attracting mates, with makers of large axes showing strength, coordination and determination, qualities that may have been regarded as attractive. Palaeoanthropologists April Nowell and
Melanie Lee Chang noted in 2009 that though this theory is "both intriguing and emotionally appealing", there is little evidence for it and it is untestable. They considered it more probable that variations in hand axe morphology over the course of hundreds of thousands of years was the result of various different factors rather than a single, overarching factor in sexual selection.
3025:
2449:
3131:
2723:
150:
3697:
Acheulean tools was likely early hominins learning the ability to strike large flakes, up to 30 cm (1 ft) or more in length, from larger boulders, from which they could manufacture new tools such as hand axes. Though "hand axe" implies that all hand axes were used for chopping and were hand-held, they came in a variety of different shapes and size and probably served several different functions. Carefully shaped and symmetric examples may have been hurled at prey akin to modern
1591:
7614:
2433:
2419:
7638:
3686:
3506:
3642:
2458:
2249:
2258:
118:
7626:
2665:" skull from Olduvai Gorge is dated to about 1.2 to 1.1 million years ago and there are also skulls from Buia (near the coast of Eritrea, dated to ~1 million years old), the Bouri Formation in Ethiopia (dated to between 1 million and 780,000 years old) and a fragmentary skull from Olorgesailie in Kenya (dated to between 970,000 and 900,000 years ago). The Olduvai skull is similar to Asian
3286:. Sexual dimorphism is difficult to measure in extinct species since the sex of fossils is usually not determinable. Historically, scientists have typically measured differences between the extreme ends (in terms of size and morphology) of the fossil material attributed to a species and assumed that the resulting ratio applies to the mean difference between male and female individuals.
2797:, had left Africa before 1 million years ago, the assumption historically having been that they first migrated out of Africa around 1.9 to 1.7 million years ago. Discoveries in Georgia and China push the latest possible date further back, before 2 million years ago, also casting doubt on the idea that
3678:
probably used mostly as hammers to crack bones for marrow, appears to not have mattered much, the hand axes of the
Acheulean culture demonstrate an intent to produce narrow and sharp objects, typically in teardrop, oval or triangular shapes. Once in place, the Acheulean industry remained unchanged throughout
3257:
typically ranged in weight from 52â63 kg (115â139 lbs). It is possible that the increased body size was the result of life in an open savannah environment, where increased size gives the ability to exploit broader diets in larger foraging areas, increases mobility and also gives the ability
3206:
skulls, which combine large and outwardly projecting faces with brow ridges, receding foreheads, large teeth and projecting nasal bones. Though
Turkana Boy would have been no more than 12 years old when he died, their stature is more similar to that of a modern 15-year-old and the brain is comparable
3042:
come from the
Turkana Boy fossil. Unlike the australopithecines, Turkana Boy's arms were not longer relative to their legs than the arms of living people and the cone-shaped torso of their ancestors had evolved into a more barrel-shaped chest over narrow hips, another similarity to modern humans. The
2531:
by a number of characteristics, including that the brow ridges project forward as well as upward and arc separately over each orbit and the braincase being quite tall compared to its width, with its side walls curving. KNM ER 3733 can be distinguished from KNM ER 3883 by a number of features as well,
3772:
in Zambia. The site Gesher Benot Yaâaqov in Israel, dated to about 700,000 years ago, preserves widely accepted evidence of fire usage through burnt materials and burnt flint microartefacts being preserved at numerous levels. From around 400,000 years ago and onwards, traces of fire become even more
3677:
that mark the
Acheulean culture, and by 1.6â1.4 million years ago, the new tool industry was widely established in East Africa. Acheulean tools differ from Oldowan tools in that the core forms of the tools were clearly deliberate. Whereas the shape of the core forms in Oldowan tools, which were
3616:
group composition comes from a series of sites outside of Ileret in Kenya, where 97 footprints made around 1.5 million years ago by a group of at least 20 individuals have been preserved. Based on the size of the footprints, one of the trackways appears to have been a group entirely composed of
2610:
outside of Africa have been inferred based on the geographical distribution of their descendants and tools matching those in East Africa, fossils of the species are mainly from East Africa in the time range of 1.8 to 1.7 million years ago. Most fossils have been recovered from around the shores
3704:
There are preserved hand axes that are too unwieldy and large to be used for any apparent practical purpose. The use of these larger hand axes, and for some discovered collections of hundreds of hand axes without obvious signs of use, is speculative and conjectural. An idea that has been popular in
3572:
size (as there is a known relationship between neocortex size and group size in modern non-human primates), would have ranged from about 70â85 individuals. With the additional factor of bipedalism, which is energetically cheaper than quadrupedalism, the maximum ecologically tolerable group size may
2321:
The question is made more difficult since it regards how much intraspecific variation can be exhibited in a single species before it needs to be split into more, a question that in and of itself does not have a clear-cut answer. A 2008 analysis by anthropologist Karen L. Baab, examining fossils of
3423:
would have needed to eat either vastly more food than australopithecines, or would have needed to eat food of superior quality. If they ate the same type of foods as the australopithecines, feeding time would then have had to be dramatically increased in proportion to the extra calories required,
3492:
would thus likely have consumed large quantities of meat, vastly more than their ancestors, but would also have had to make use of a variety of other food sources, such as seeds, honey, nuts, invertebrates, nutritious tubers, bulbs and other underground plant storage organs. The relatively small
3306:
would have been capable of birthing children with a maximum prenatal (pre-birth) brain size of 315 cc, about 30â50 % of adult brain size. This value falls intermediately between that of chimpanzees (~40 %) and modern humans (28%). Further conclusions about the growth and development in
3101:
was clearly adapted for long-distance travel and noted for inhabiting lower altitudes (and open, hot savannah environments) than their ancestors. Australopithecines typically inhabited colder and higher altitudes 1,000â1,600 m (3,300â5,200 ft), where nighttime temperatures would have gotten
2195:
represent the fossils of a more or less cohesive subset of closely related archaic humans. The question is instead whether these fossils represent a radiation of different species or the radiation of a single, highly variable and diverse, species over the course of almost two million years. This
3527:
lived on the
African savannah, which during the Pleistocene was home to a considerably more formidable community of carnivorans than the present savannah. Hominins could probably only have adapted to life on the savannah if effective anti-predator defense behaviours had already evolved. Defense
3113:
from gorillas about 3 million years ago, and speciation of human from gorilla pubic lice was potentially only possible because human ancestors had lost most of their body hair by this early date. It is also possible that the loss of body hair occurred at a significantly later date. Genetic
3190:
would have been their nose, which would have been similar to that of modern humans in projecting forwards and having nostrils oriented downwards. This external nose may have also been an adaptation towards a warmer climate, since the noses of modern humans are usually cooler than their central
3696:
The oldest
Acheulean assemblages also preserve core forms similar to those in Oldowan tools, but there are no known true intermediate forms between the two, suggesting that the appearance of Acheulean tools was an abrupt and sudden development. The most significant development that led to the
1733:, 'workman') roughly translates to "working man" or "workman". Groves and MazĂĄk also included many of the Koobi Fora fossils, such as KNM ER 803 (a partial skeleton and some isolated teeth) in their designation of the species, but did not provide any comparison with the Asian fossil record of
3462:. Modern humans can not sufficiently metabolize protein to meet more than 50% of their energy needs and modern humans who heavily rely on animal-based products in their diet mostly rely on fat to sustain the rest of their energy requirements. Multiple reasons make a fully meat-based diet in
3744:
to control fire, concrete evidence is somewhat lacking in the fossil record, perhaps partly due to the difficulty for actual evidence of fire usage to be preserved. Two of the earliest sites commonly claimed to preserve evidence of fire usage are FxJj20 at Koobi Fora and GnJi 1/6E near
2962:) in particular did, and then expanded back into Africa, has occasionally resurfaced. Various fossil discoveries have been used to support it through the years, including a massive set of jaws from Indonesia which were perceived to be similar to those of australopithecines and dubbed
3537:, individuals form large, multi-male, groups wherein multiple males can effectively work together to fend off and counter-attack predators, occasionally with the use of stones or sticks, and protect the rest of the group. It is possible that similar behaviour was exhibited in early
2535:
The differences between
Turkana Boy's skull and KNM ER 3733 and KNM ER 3883, as well as the differences in dentition between Turkana Boy and KNM ER 992 have been interpreted by some, such as paleoanthropologist Jeffrey H. Schwartz, as suggesting that Turkana Boy and the rest of the
3701:, more casually made examples may simply have served as portable sources for sharp flakes and some could have been used for scraping or chopping wood. Additionally, hand axes are effective butchering tools and were possibly also used for dismembering carcasses of large animals.
2813:
was truly uniquely capable of expanding outside Africa; australopithecines had likely colonised savannah grasslands throughout Africa by 3 million years ago and there are no clear reasons as to why they would not have been able to expand into the grasslands of Asia before
2804:
The main reason for leaving Africa is likely to have been an increasing population periodically outgrowing their resource base, with splintering groups moving to establishing themselves in neighboring, empty territories over time. The physiology and improved technology of
3340:(an extended childhood and a long period of dependency on your parents) evolved at a later stage in human evolution, possibly in the last common ancestor of Neanderthals and modern humans. The faster development rate might also indicate that the expected lifespan of
3085:(the primary means through which modern humans prevent their brains and bodies from overheating) would not have been as efficient. Though sweating is the generally accepted explanation for hairlessness, other proposed explanations include a reduction of
3191:
bodies, condensing moisture that would otherwise have been exhaled and lost during periods of increased activity. The face of
Turkana Boy would have been longer from top to bottom than that of modern humans, with the jaws projecting farther outwards (
3065:
fossil, would only have been about 1 m (3 ft 3 in) tall at her death, Turkana Boy was about 1.62 m (5 ft 4 in) tall and would probably have reached 1.82 m (6 ft) or more if he had survived to adulthood. Adult
571:, relatively small jaws and teeth (indicating a major change in diet) as well as body proportions and inferred lifestyles more similar to modern humans than to earlier and contemporary hominins. With these features in mind, some researchers view
2358:
s.l. was either a single but variable species, several subspecies divided by time and geography or several geographically dispersed but closely related species. In 2015, paleoanthropologists David Strait, Frederick Grine and John Fleagle listed
3281:
differed no more in size than sexes in modern humans do, but a 2003 study by palaeoanthropologists Philip L. Reno, Richard S. Meindl, Melanie A. McCollum and C. Owen Lovejoy suggested that the same was also true for the significantly earlier
3532:
living in large groups, possessing stone (and presumably wooden) tools and effective counter-attack behaviour having been established. In modern primates that spend significant amounts of time on the savannah, such as chimpanzees and
2306:, which somewhat obscures the differences between the two. There are subtle, potentially significant, differences between the East African and East Asian fossils. Among these are the somewhat higher-domed and thinner-walled skulls of
2657:; notably, Turkana Boy is dated to about 1.56 million years ago. A handful of even younger African skulls make the case for long-term anatomical continuity, though it is unclear if they can appropriately be formally regarded as
2519:
from Koobi Fora, but did not necessarily match with cranial material, such as KNM ER 3733 and KNM ER 3883 (since neither preserves the jaw), nor with the mandible preserved in Turkana Boy, which has markedly different dentition.
3393:, compared to its ancestors, would have brought with it increased dietary and energy needs. In 2002, palaeoanthropologists Leslie C. Aiello and Jonathan C. K. Wells stated that the average resting metabolic requirements of
3608:
pair bonds. Since sexual selection from females probably favored males that could hunt, the emerging social behaviour resulting from these new behaviours would have been carried over and amplified through the generations.
3165:
skulls considered, the brain volume of the species mostly varied between 600 and 910 cc, with some small examples only having a volume of 508â580 cc. Since their brain was smaller than that of modern humans, the skull of
2544:
either, which he believed was in need of significant revision. In 2000, French palaeoanthropologist Valéry Zeitoun suggested that KNM ER 3733 and KNM ER 3883 should be referred to two separate species, which she dubbed
3415:
likely ate significantly more animal fat than their predecessors. This would have allowed more energy to be diverted to brain growth, increasing brain size while maintaining the energy requirements of earlier species.
3185:
The brain case was long and low, and Turkana Boy's forehead was flat and receding, merging at an angle with the brow ridge above their eyes. A noticeable difference between Turkana Boy and the australopithecines and
3809:
vertebrae and the spine found falls within the range of modern human spines, suggesting that the individual would have been capable of speech. Meyer and colleagues concluded that speech was probably possible within
3047:(shin bone) of Turkana Boy is relatively longer than the same bone in modern humans, potentially meaning that there was more bend in the knee when walking. The slim and long build of Turkana Boy may be explained by
3599:
With hunting being a social activity, individuals probably shared the meat with one another, which would have strengthened the bonds both between the hunters themselves and between the hunters and the rest of the
3727:
were the earliest humans to master the control of fire, which they may have used for cooking purposes. Cooking renders both meat and plant foods more digestible, which might have been important since the guts of
493:
consider there to be too little difference between the two to separate them into distinct species. Proponents of keeping the two species as distinct cite morphological differences between the African fossils and
3118:, which produces dark skin, dates back to about 1.2 million years ago. This could indicate the evolution of hairlessness around this time, as a lack of body hair would have left the skin exposed to harmful
3617:
males, possibly a specialised task group, such as a border patrol or a hunting or foraging party. If this assessment is correct, this would further suggest a male-female division of responsibilities. In modern
2945:
fossils in the 19th century and considered the fossils of Java Man, at the time undeniably the earliest known hominin fossils, as proof of the hypothesis. Though the discovery of australopithecines and earlier
3621:
societies who target large prey items, male parties are typically dispatched to bring down these high-risk animals, and, due to the low success rate, female parties tend to focus on more predictable foods.
5649:
Hatala, Kevin G.; Roach, Neil T.; Ostrofsky, Kelly R.; Wunderlich, Roshna E.; Dingwall, Heather L.; Villmoare, Brian A.; Green, David J.; Harris, John W. K.; Braun, David R.; Richmond, Brian G. (2016).
3335:
was similar to that of modern humans but that the postnatal (post-birth) growth and development was intermediate between that of chimpanzees and modern humans. The faster development rate suggests that
3753:
of baked clay, associated with stone tools and faunal remains. Though it is difficult to exclude a natural origin for the fire residue evidenced, the sites remain strong candidates for early fire use.
2495:" was a "considerable improvement" as there were many autapomorphies distinguishing the material of the two continents from one another. Tattersall believes it to be appropriate to use the designation
3789:, and their respiratory muscles, may not have been developed enough to produce or control speech. In 2001, anthropologists Bruce Latimer and James Ohman concluded that Turkana Boy was afflicted by
3470:(the primary prey available) are relatively low in fat and that high meat diets demand increased intake of water, which would have been difficult in an open and hot environment. Modern African
3411:
than in earlier hominins. This is because the earlier ape (and australopithecine) gut was large and energy-expensive since it needed to synthesize fat through fermenting plant matter, whereas
3109:. Though skin impressions are unknown in any extinct hominin, it is possible that human ancestors were already losing their body hair around 3 million years ago. Human ancestors acquired
464:
in Kenya. There are later African fossils, some younger than 1 million years ago, that indicate long-term anatomical continuity, though it is unclear if they can be formally regarded as
3756:
Several sites, preserving more widely accepted evidence of fire usage, have been dated to 1 million years ago or younger, postdating the emergence and last generally accepted record of
3003:
first evolved in Asia before expanding back into Africa was substantially weakened by the dating of the DNH 134 skull as approximately 2 million years old, predating all other known
2499:
only for eastern Asian fossils, disregarding its previous use as the name for an adaptive grade of human fossils from throughout Africa and Eurasia. Though Tattersall concluded that the
3749:, both in Kenya and both dated as up to 1.5 million years old. The evidence at FxJj20 consists of burned sediments and heat-altered stone tools, whereas GnJi 1/6E preserves large
3604:
group. Females likely shared what they had foraged with the rest of the group as well. This development could have led to the development of male-female friendships into opportunistic
3432:
are reduced in size compared to those of the australopithecines, suggesting a shift in diet away from fibrous and difficult-to-chew foods. Regardless of energy needs, the small gut of
2910:
in the small volume of its braincase (600 cc), the form of the middle and upper face and the lack of an external nose. The mixture of skulls at Dmanisi suggests that the definition of
3443:
consumed meat in higher proportions than the earlier australopithecines. Meat was probably acquired through a combination of ambushes, active hunting and confrontational scavenging.
3051:
living in hot and arid, seasonal environments. Through thinning of the body, body volume decreases faster than skin area and greater skin area means more effective heat dissipation.
1740:
A nearly complete fossil, interpreted as a young male (though the sex is actually undetermined), was discovered at the western shore of Lake Turkana in 1984 by Kenyan archaeologist
2863:
specimens (including Java Man) is not entirely certain, but they are all likely to be 1.5 million years old or younger. Ubeidiya is also the oldest firmly confirmed site of
1807:, by a number of features that align them, and their inferred lifestyle, more closely to modern humans than to earlier and contemporary hominins. As compared to their relatives,
3497:, in comparison to its larger-jawed ancestors, means that the meat and high quality plant food consumed would likely have required the use of tools to process before eating.
3451:, but must also have been able to defend themselves and the carcasses of their prey from the variety of contemporary African predators. It is possible that a drop in African
1635:, originally assigned to contain archaic human fossils in Asia, came to encompass a wide range of fossils covering a large span of time (almost the entire temporal range of
456:
mainly covers the period of 1.7 to 1.4 million years ago, though a broader time range is possible. Though fossils are known from across East and Southern Africa, most
1827:, indicating a major change in diet. In 1999, palaeoanthropologists Bernard Wood and Mark Collard argued that the conventional criteria for assigning species to the genus
3682:'s existence and later times, with tools produced near its end about 250,000 years ago not being significantly different from tools produced 1.65 million years ago.
3553:
cannot be determined with any certainty. Groups were probably large, it is possible groups were above the upper range of known group sizes among chimpanzees and baboons (
2922:
or that two separate species of archaic humans left Africa early on. In addition to the Dmanisi fossils, stone tools manufactured by hominins have been discovered on the
2590:
in its long limbs, height and modern body proportions. Though a large number of Pleistocene tools have been found in East Africa, it can not be fully ascertained that
1629:
was the end result of gradual modifications within a single lineage of hominin evolution. As the perceived transitional form between early hominins and modern humans,
2179:
was immediately dismissed by Leakey and Walker and many influential researchers, such as palaeoanthropologist G. Philip Rightmire, who wrote an extensive treatise on
2507:, he also found there to be considerable diversity within this clade; the KNM ER 992 mandible accorded well with other fossil mandibles from the region, such as
6591:
Zhu, Zhaoyu; Dennell, Robin; Huang, Weiwen; Wu, Yi; Qiu, Shifan; Yang, Shixia; Rao, Zhiguo; Hou, Yamei; Xie, Jiubing; Han, Jiangwei; Ouyang, Tingping (2018).
5949:
Pagel, Mark; Bodmer, Walter (2004). "The Evolution of Human Hairlessness: Cultural Adaptations and the Ectoparasite Hypothesis". In Wasser, Solomon P. (ed.).
3428:
could use for resting, socialising and travelling. Though this would have been possible, it is considered unlikely, especially since the jaws and teeth of
3149:. Turkana Boy's brain was almost fully grown at the time of his death, but its volume (at 880 cc) was only about 130 cc greater than the maximum found in
6407:
6358:
3219:
585:
lived on the savannah in Africa, a unique environment with challenges that would have resulted in the need for many new and distinct behaviours. Earlier
9037:
3482:
peoples, also use cultural means to recover the maximum amount of fat from the carcasses of their prey, a method that would not have been available to
3361:
3199:, they were still significantly larger than those of modern humans. Since the jaw slanted sharply backwards, it is probable that they were chinless.
7483:
7676:
3258:
to hunt larger prey. The increased body mass also means that parents would have been able to carry their children to an older age and larger mass.
2508:
9610:
9434:
9175:
8771:
7511:
3895:
2516:
3723:
migrated into open savannah environments, encounters with natural fires must have become more frequent and significant. It is possible that
2890:-like traits, the Dmanisi skulls possess a wide assortment of other traits, some of which are similar to traits in earlier hominins such as
9390:
8899:
3211:
would thus have been cognitively limited, though the invention of new tools prove that they were more intelligent than their predecessors.
6059:
Rogers, Alan R.; Iltis, David; Wooding, Stephen (2004). "Genetic Variation at the MC1R Locus and the Time since Loss of Human Body Hair".
5796:
7359:
9222:
8673:
3669:, though quickly learnt to strike much larger stone flakes than their predecessors and contemporaries. By 1.65 million years ago,
2717:
1643:
has led some to question what exactly defines the species and what it should encompass. Some researchers, such as palaeoanthropologist
1416:
2933:
evolved in Asia from earlier ancestors that had migrated there from Africa, and then expanded back into Europe, where it gave rise to
2781:
first appeared in Europe and Asia, since Early Pleistocene fossil hominins are scarce on both continents, and that it would have been
6747:
6707:
3944:
1286:
5204:
Bonde, Niels (2012). "Hominid Diversity and 'Ancestor' Myths". In Schilhab, Theresa; Stjernfelt, Frederik; Deacon, Terrence (eds.).
9597:
7599:
7443:
6757:
1306:
675:
6294:
Simpson, Scott W.; Quade, Jay; Levin, Naomi E.; Butler, Robert; Dupont-Nivet, Guillaume; Everett, Melanie; Semaw, Sileshi (2008).
6211:
452:
man", a reference to the more advanced tools used by the species in comparison to those of their ancestors. The fossil range of
9661:
7501:
6752:
6656:
3560:
100 individuals or more). In 1993, palaeoanthropologists Leslie C. Aiello and R. I. M. Dunbar estimated that the group size of
1266:
6509:
Wang, Weijie; Crompton, Robin H.; Carey, Tanya S.; GĂŒnther, Michael M.; Li, Yu; Savage, Russell; Sellers, Williams I. (2004).
3455:
species variety around 1.5 million years ago can be ascribed to competition with opportunistic and carnivorous hominins.
7506:
7384:
6762:
6426:
6381:
6049:
5968:
5812:
5785:
5213:
3825:
in Turkana Boy, and, in contrast to the 2001 and 2006 studies, considered the specimen to be representative of the species.
7669:
1744:. The fossils were described by Leakey and Walker, alongside paleoanthropologists Frank Brown and John Harris, in 1985 as
7463:
7572:
5835:
3797:, and thus would not have been representative of the rest of his species in this respect. In 2006, when anthropologist
3070:
are believed to have ranged in size from about 1.45 to 1.85 m (4 ft 9 in to 6 ft 1 in) tall.
1768:
by paleoanthropologist Bernard Wood in 1992, and is today, alongside other fossils in Africa previously designated as
8800:
7706:
7438:
3915:
2809:
might have allowed them to travel to and colonise territories that no one had ever occupied before. It is unclear if
2630:
Palaeocave System in South Africa, dated to 2.04 to 1.95 million years ago. The skull is also the oldest known
9007:
8894:
7630:
3177:
1246:
5930:
5768:
Janssen, Marco A.; Sept, Jeanne M.; Griffith, Cameron S. (2007). "Hominids Foraging in a Complex Landscape: Could
3273:
and australopithecines, it is unclear whether australopithecines were significantly more sexually diamorphic than
1748:(nicknamed "Turkana Boy"). They interpreted the fossil, consisting of a nearly complete skeleton, as representing
1682:, noting that their brain volumes (848 and 803 cc respectively) compared well to the far younger type specimen of
9419:
8810:
7848:
7662:
7582:
7478:
3839:
3805:
s.l. specimen from Dmanisi, Georgia, dated to 1.78 million years old. The fossil preserves the oldest known
3714:
2926:
in China and dated to 2.12 million years old, meaning that hominins must have left Africa before that time.
1456:
630:
9666:
9651:
7577:
6878:
6648:
6432:
6387:
9032:
8562:
7822:
6700:
7890:
2821:
The general assumption is that hominins migrated out of the continent either across the southern end of the
2567:
2298:, such as large forward-projecting jaws, large brow ridges and a receding forehead. Many of the features of
9027:
8567:
8040:
7448:
7325:
7211:
3821:
In 2013 and 2014, anthropologist Regula Schiess and colleagues concluded that there was no evidence of any
3785:
of Turkana Boy would have been narrower than that of modern humans, which means that the nervous system of
3448:
1737:
in their diagnosis, inadvertently causing some of the later taxonomic confusion in regards to the species.
1659:
896:
668:
7716:
5168:
3024:
2789:") that expanded, as well as the particular manner in which they did, remains conjecture. The presence of
2704:, it might have persisted in Africa until around 600,000 years ago, when brain size increased rapidly and
7993:
7642:
7546:
7364:
6885:
6739:
5070:
Aiello, Leslie C.; Dunbar, R. I. M. (1993). "Neocortex Size, Group Size, and the Evolution of Language".
1760:
found and constitutes an important fossil in establishing the differences and similarities between early
645:
3407:
implies a relatively small gut, which means that energy needs might not necessarily have been higher in
2540:
material does not represent the same taxon. Schwartz also noted none of the fossils seemed to represent
9295:
9096:
7404:
7335:
6871:
6864:
6857:
5487:"Bipedality and hair loss in human evolution revisited: The impact of altitude and activity scheduling"
3399:
3157:
becomes much less significant than what could be presumed when the larger body size of Turkana Boy and
1873:
1349:
1083:
1075:
1067:
2871:) outside Africa, the tools recovered there closely resembling older tools discovered in East Africa.
9101:
8916:
7587:
7379:
6177:
Schiess, Regula; HĂ€usler, Martin (2013). "No skeletal dysplasia in the Nariokotome boy KNM-WT 15000 (
5776:
Meet Their Calories Requirements?". In Takahashi, Shingo; Sallach, David; Rouchier, Juliette (eds.).
3549:
might have been male-bonded as well. Because of the scarcity of fossil material, group size in early
3171:
3105:
Alternatively and despite this, the loss of body hair could have occurred significantly earlier than
2848:
1187:
7369:
6324:
5921:
1815:, notably relatively long legs which would have made them obligately bipedal. The teeth and jaws of
9290:
8382:
7927:
7618:
6921:
6693:
3077:
might also have been the earliest human species to have nearly hairless and naked skin. If instead
2829:, but there are no fossil hominins known from either region in the Early Pleistocene. The earliest
2171:
Since its description as a separate species in 1975, the classification of the fossils referred to
589:
probably used counter-attack tactics, like modern primates, to keep predators away. By the time of
8454:
8449:
6679:
9565:
9407:
9317:
8489:
8256:
8075:
8008:
7740:
7556:
7493:
7453:
7340:
6899:
3115:
3058:
2646:
1623:. In early palaeoanthropology and well into the twentieth century, it was generally assumed that
1157:
661:
149:
6039:
1651:
since it contains an "unwieldly" number of fossils with "substantially differing morphologies".
1372:
9628:
9615:
9527:
9495:
9369:
8975:
8866:
8854:
8550:
8291:
8130:
7767:
7701:
7685:
7551:
7526:
7521:
7414:
7330:
6892:
6319:
1890:
1116:
518:
itself does not represent a cohesive species. Regardless of their most correct classification,
6663:
3253:. Whereas australopithecines typically ranged in weight from 29â48 kg (64â106 lbs),
2918:) might most appropriately be expanded to contain fossils that would otherwise be assigned to
2634:
s.l. specimen overall, showing clear similarities to KNM ER 3733, and demonstrates that early
510:. Additionally, morphological differences between the specimens commonly seen as constituting
9656:
9623:
9234:
9170:
9044:
8737:
8663:
8437:
8432:
8370:
8309:
8246:
8194:
8187:
7733:
6935:
5908:
3907:
2886:
might have expanded out of Africa as early as 1.7â1.9 million years ago. In addition to
2744:
2640:
2076:
888:
285:
8619:
5120:
2580:
are obscured by the fact that the species marks a radical departure from earlier species of
1662:
described a series of hominin fossils from Kenyan fossil localities on the eastern shore of
9584:
9500:
9451:
9446:
9429:
9424:
9402:
9192:
8906:
8759:
8651:
8555:
8348:
8033:
7832:
7775:
7516:
7419:
7320:
7281:
7226:
7131:
6835:
6828:
6604:
6563:
6311:
6104:
5998:
5950:
5862:
5667:
5541:
5449:
5394:
5297:
5240:
5034:
5022:
3834:
3814:
very early on and that Turkana Boy probably suffered from some congenital defect, possibly
3545:
and chimpanzees, and the tendency towards male bonding in modern foragers, groups of early
3237:
possessed a significantly larger body mass in comparison to earlier hominins such as early
2236:
2059:
1525:
1326:
1173:
1042:
1027:
335:
8003:
6551:
6251:
6089:
5229:
and the Emergence of a New Hominin Lineage in the Middle Pleistocene (ca. 400 kyr) Levant"
3195:). Though the jaws and teeth were smaller than those of the average australopithecine and
8:
9490:
9155:
8960:
8793:
8326:
8199:
8080:
8055:
6928:
5979:
3605:
610:
6608:
6567:
6315:
6108:
6002:
5866:
5671:
5545:
5453:
5398:
5301:
5244:
5038:
9441:
9344:
9246:
9059:
8241:
7971:
7937:
7473:
7315:
7191:
6628:
6345:
6282:
6165:
6127:
6076:
5756:
5688:
5651:
5632:
5607:
5594:
5565:
5511:
5486:
5473:
5420:
5321:
5263:
5224:
5087:
5058:
3822:
3790:
3228:
3145:
Differences to modern humans would have been readily apparent in the face and skull of
1436:
317:
144:
6295:
6181:) – a reassessment of congenital pathologies of the vertebral column".
6090:"Avoidance of overheating and selection for both hair loss and bipedality in hominins"
6021:
5706:
5361:
5334:
1710:
1503:
308:
9483:
9473:
9463:
9412:
9069:
8987:
8281:
8266:
8251:
8231:
8122:
8101:
7912:
7755:
7637:
7592:
7458:
7399:
7389:
7160:
7124:
6978:
6772:
6620:
6579:
6538:
6497:
6473:
6452:
6422:
6377:
6337:
6274:
6238:
6198:
6169:
6132:
6080:
6045:
6026:
5964:
5896:
5875:
5846:
5831:
5823:
5808:
5781:
5760:
5748:
5693:
5637:
5557:
5516:
5465:
5424:
5412:
5366:
5313:
5268:
5209:
5192:
5155:
5100:
5091:
5050:
3963:
3911:
3327:
than of modern humans. Both the Gona pelvis and the Mojokerto child suggest that the
3262:
2662:
2395:
2351:
1840:
1620:
554:
424:
410:
355:
6632:
6592:
6349:
6286:
5978:
Reno, Philip L.; Meindl, Richard S.; McCollum, Melanie A.; Lovejoy, C. Owen (2003).
5598:
9478:
9385:
9128:
8911:
8711:
8631:
8587:
8387:
8209:
8060:
8020:
7468:
7221:
7038:
7000:
6847:
6612:
6593:"Hominin occupation of the Chinese Loess Plateau since about 2.1 million years ago"
6571:
6530:
6489:
6369:
6329:
6266:
6230:
6190:
6157:
6122:
6112:
6068:
6016:
6006:
5956:
5738:
5730:
5683:
5675:
5627:
5619:
5586:
5569:
5549:
5506:
5498:
5477:
5457:
5402:
5356:
5346:
5325:
5305:
5258:
5248:
5184:
5145:
5116:
5079:
5062:
5042:
4648:
4646:
3953:
3903:
3403:, 30% higher in males and 54% higher in females. However, the torso proportions of
3243:
3090:
2837:
from Georgia (dated to 1.77â1.85 million years old, representing either early
2586:
2346:, and even well within the range expected for a single subspecies when compared to
2196:
long-running debate remains unresolved, with researchers typically using the terms
1947:
1803:
1108:
1057:
8970:
8926:
2938:
2553:(type specimen KNM ER 3883), but these designations have found little acceptance.
567:. Among these features are their larger body mass, relatively long legs, obligate
9359:
9329:
9091:
9019:
8997:
8955:
8850:
8820:
8685:
8680:
8331:
8214:
7785:
7275:
7248:
7146:
7104:
6716:
6534:
6493:
6373:
6270:
6234:
5960:
5502:
5253:
5188:
3815:
3761:
3618:
3593:
3592:
was probably the first primate to move into the niche of social carnivore (i. e.
3471:
3328:
3312:
3202:
The overall structure of Turkana Boy's skull and face is also reflected in other
2979:
in 2003, which preserved primitive foot and wrist anatomy reminiscent of that of
2669:
in its massive brow ridge, but the others only show minor differences to earlier
2401:
2230:
2028:
1141:
910:
866:
594:
6672:
6575:
5901:: behaviors suggested by a modern spinal cord from Dmanisi, but not Nariokotome"
4643:
2991:
hominins in Asia, though there are no known comparable foot or wrist bones from
9468:
9395:
9217:
9182:
9113:
9002:
8874:
8582:
8167:
8157:
7978:
7959:
7095:
6799:
6785:
6724:
3573:
have been even larger. Aiello's and Dunbar's group size estimate in regards to
3534:
3299:
2898:), which means that hominins might have spread out of Africa even earlier than
2843:
2834:
2765:
was seen as the hominin that first left Africa to colonise Europe and Asia. If
2448:
1655:
1644:
962:
949:
879:
853:
502:
evolution being more complex than what is implied by subsuming species such as
402:
6616:
5529:
5433:
5379:
3436:
also suggests a more easily digested diet composed of food of higher quality.
3323:
brain, which suggests a brain growth trajectory more similar to that of other
2894:, and the site notably lacks preserved hand axes (otherwise characteristic of
2487:, in 2013, Ian Tattersall concluded that referring to the African material as
9645:
9550:
9354:
9339:
9285:
9263:
9160:
9148:
9064:
8933:
8815:
8776:
8764:
8752:
8464:
8375:
8304:
8045:
7988:
7966:
7875:
7807:
7802:
7780:
6806:
4813:
3769:
2923:
2512:
2342:, but fell well within the variation expected for a species when compared to
2202:
1752:. Turkana Boy was the first discovered comprehensively preserved specimen of
1726:
1481:
602:
539:
469:
68:
7895:
6333:
6117:
6011:
5734:
5351:
4606:
4604:
3265:
has often been cited historically as one of the radical differences between
3153:, about 500 cc below the average of modern humans. The 130 cc increase from
3130:
2878:
in Asia are the aforementioned Dmanisi skulls, which share many traits with
2722:
449:
9273:
9229:
9210:
9165:
8965:
8889:
8646:
8641:
8597:
8224:
8106:
8070:
8050:
7902:
7880:
7792:
7269:
7257:
7199:
7073:
7021:
6986:
6911:
6818:
6624:
6583:
6542:
6510:
6501:
6341:
6278:
6242:
6202:
6136:
6030:
5931:"The Case Against Sexual Selection as an Explanation of Handaxe Morphology"
5752:
5697:
5641:
5623:
5561:
5520:
5469:
5416:
5370:
5281:
5272:
5196:
5159:
5054:
5018:
3967:
3746:
3475:
3337:
3249:
3119:
3028:
2964:
2753:
2735:
2466:
2276:
2102:
2004:
1930:
1797:
1745:
1741:
1706:
1663:
1631:
1625:
1590:
1557:
1131:
1098:
1012:
936:
923:
563:
461:
419:
343:
331:
304:
9322:
5317:
4703:
4633:
4631:
3097:
were sufficiently mobile to make hair loss an advantageous trait, whereas
2220:) to refer to fossils of other species that may or may not be included in
9576:
9559:
9312:
9302:
9258:
9253:
9205:
9143:
9106:
9079:
8980:
8950:
8825:
8747:
8668:
8656:
8417:
8402:
8392:
8363:
8321:
8236:
8204:
8152:
8085:
7922:
7797:
7654:
7153:
7080:
7052:
7045:
6993:
5828:
The Human Past: World Prehistory & the Development of Human Societies
5743:
5590:
4601:
4094:
4092:
3782:
3224:
3192:
3134:
2573:
2438:
2424:
2385:
2271:
1671:
1667:
1616:
1460:
1203:
827:
543:
476:
may have persisted to as late as 600,000 years ago, when new lineages of
125:
43:
30:
6210:
Schiess, Regula; Böni, Thomas; RĂŒhli, Frank J.; HĂ€usler, Martin (2014).
5577:
Giles, James (2010). "Naked Love: The Evolution of Human Hairlessness".
5553:
5461:
2594:
originated there without further fossil discoveries. It is assumed that
9602:
9456:
9349:
9307:
9123:
9086:
9049:
8945:
8532:
8444:
8271:
8172:
8145:
8065:
7863:
7817:
7728:
7696:
7138:
7059:
6194:
5652:"Footprints reveal direct evidence of group behavior and locomotion in
5150:
5129:
4628:
4104:
3958:
3939:
3798:
3765:
3479:
3373:
3110:
3086:
2339:
2334:
was greater than expected for a single species when compared to modern
2311:
2281:
2216:
1695:
1675:
1595:
568:
398:
211:
133:
88:
53:
5679:
4323:
4321:
4089:
4077:
3102:
significantly colder and insulating body hair may have been required.
9364:
9133:
9118:
8716:
8701:
8626:
8609:
8527:
8412:
8353:
8343:
8338:
8261:
8140:
8028:
7954:
7721:
7711:
7205:
7110:
5309:
5223:
Ben-Dor, Miki; Gopher, Avi; Hershkovitz, Israel; Barkai, Ran (2011).
5046:
4995:
4542:
4152:
4150:
3794:
3685:
3650:
3636:
3569:
3452:
3324:
2864:
2851:
in Israel (about 1.4 to 1 million years old) and the fossils of
2777:
instead. Very little concrete information is known on when and which
2432:
2418:
2347:
1541:
1218:
618:
241:
231:
161:
93:
37:
9521:
6519:
to modern humans, with implications for the evolution of bipedalism"
6511:"Comparison of inverse-dynamics musculo-skeletal models of AL 288-1
5407:
4691:
3057:
individuals were significantly taller than their ancestors. Whereas
2527:
is the KNM ER 3733 skull, which is sharply distinguished from Asian
9544:
9138:
9074:
8921:
8879:
8614:
8522:
8397:
8219:
8182:
8162:
7066:
7031:
7008:
6729:
6457:: A Review of the Evidence and a New Model of Adaptive Versatility"
6161:
6144:
Sandgathe, Dennis M.; Berna, Francesco (2017). "Fire and the Genus
6072:
5083:
4971:
4387:
4385:
4383:
4318:
4308:
4306:
4304:
4169:
4167:
4165:
3690:
3674:
3646:
3641:
3505:
3467:
3082:
2852:
2627:
2302:
are clearly more primitive versions of features later expressed in
1714:
1687:
1599:
1392:
840:
814:
622:
535:
251:
181:
83:
78:
63:
58:
48:
6685:
5280:
Brown, Frank; Harris, John; Leakey, Richard; Walker, Alan (1985).
4742:
4147:
3732:
were reduced in size compared to those of their ancestors. Though
593:, this behaviour had probably resulted in the development of true
9200:
8992:
8938:
8884:
8706:
8512:
8422:
8276:
8177:
8135:
7998:
7917:
7870:
7858:
7216:
6792:
4922:
4920:
3940:"The evolution of the human trophic level during the Pleistocene"
3662:
3181:
Homo ergaster reconstruction, American Museum of Natural History.
2969:
2822:
2623:
2457:
2343:
2248:
2187:. Overall, there is no doubt that the group of fossils composing
997:
989:
975:
799:
394:
201:
98:
73:
9589:
5608:"The discovery of fire by humans: a long and convoluted process"
4530:
4380:
4301:
4162:
3389:
It is frequently assumed that the larger body and brain size of
2257:
2183:
in 1990, continued to prefer a more inclusive and comprehensive
1811:
had body proportions more similar to later members of the genus
117:
9268:
8805:
8783:
8636:
8572:
8517:
7907:
7885:
7853:
7827:
6451:
Ungar, Peter S.; Grine, Frederick E.; Teaford, Mark F. (2008).
5847:"The African Emergence and Early Asian Dispersals of the Genus
4518:
3750:
3698:
3542:
3510:
2859:, more than five thousand miles away). The dating of key Asian
1791:
is easily distinguished from earlier and more basal species of
1691:
406:
221:
191:
171:
5895:
Meyer, Marc R.; Vekua, Abesalom; Lordkipanidze, David (2006).
5648:
5222:
4917:
4819:
4803:
4801:
4788:
4786:
4761:
4759:
4757:
4709:
9334:
9054:
8788:
8742:
8604:
8459:
8407:
7983:
7949:
7291:
7182:
7172:
6668:; Origins â Exploring the Fossil Record â Bradshaw Foundation
6478:: Inferences from anti-predator responses in extant primates"
5431:
4983:
4732:
4730:
4681:
4679:
4677:
4675:
4673:
4652:
4591:
4589:
4587:
4125:
4123:
4121:
4119:
3851:
3380:
in the image) compared to jaws of other members of the genus
3044:
2903:
2793:
fossils in East Asia means that a human species, most likely
2335:
137:
3294:
The dimensions of a 1.8 million years old adult female
417:
constitutes a species of its own or should be subsumed into
9280:
9241:
8721:
8577:
8507:
8427:
8299:
7812:
6950:
5530:"An Asian perspective on early human dispersal from Africa"
4959:
4798:
4783:
4771:
4754:
4715:
4243:
4241:
4239:
3458:
On its own, meat might not have been able to fully sustain
3382:
3277:
or modern humans. Skeletal evidence suggests that sexes in
2826:
2354:
exhibited in gorillas and orangutans). Baab concluded that
1611:
478:
261:
5169:"The taxonomic implications of cranial shape variation in
4727:
4670:
4616:
4584:
4494:
4409:
4116:
1639:). Since the late twentieth century, the diversity within
8592:
8358:
8316:
6359:"Analyzing Hominin Hominin Phylogeny: Cladistic Approach"
5977:
4881:
4869:
4857:
4610:
4559:
4557:
4457:
4455:
4453:
4451:
4277:
4135:
4055:
4053:
4051:
4015:
4013:
3894:
Wood, Bernard; Doherty, Dandy; Boyle, Eve (29 May 2020).
3365:
3319:, which had a brain at about 72â84% the size of an adult
2972:
1574:
6508:
4236:
4110:
3998:
3588:, where they are likely to have developed even further.
617:
also marks the appearance of more advanced tools of the
522:
exhibit primitive versions of traits later expressed in
6660:; Milne Publishing â The History of Our Tribe: Hominini
6357:
Strait, David; Grine, Frederick; Fleagle, John (2015).
6293:
6209:
5894:
5704:
5279:
5001:
4977:
4937:
4935:
4637:
4370:
4368:
4366:
4338:
4336:
4327:
4265:
4253:
4098:
4083:
3875:
3673:
had created the extensively flaked artefacts and early
575:
as being the earliest true representative of the genus
4847:
4845:
4843:
4830:
4828:
4658:
4574:
4572:
4554:
4484:
4482:
4480:
4478:
4476:
4474:
4472:
4470:
4448:
4438:
4436:
4421:
4353:
4351:
4190:
4188:
4186:
4184:
4182:
4048:
4038:
4036:
4034:
4032:
4030:
4028:
4010:
3986:
3974:
3863:
1831:
were flawed and that early and basal species, such as
5805:
Evolutionary History of the Robust Australopithecines
5778:
Advancing Social Simulation: The First World Congress
3938:
Ben-Dor, Miki; Sirtoli, Raphael; Barkai, Ran (2021).
3665:
culture of tools from australopithecines and earlier
3315:, a ~1.4â1.5 million year old ~1-year old Asian
3207:
to that of a modern 1-year-old. By modern standards,
2929:
An alternative hypothesis historically has been that
2503:
material represents the fossils of a single clade of
1843:. In their view, the true earliest representative of
605:. Further behaviours that might first have arisen in
5432:
Coqueugniot, H.; Hublin, J.-J.; et al. (2004).
4947:
4932:
4905:
4893:
4506:
4397:
4363:
4333:
4289:
4200:
4065:
3937:
3073:
Because of being adapted to a hot and arid climate,
2680:
in Asia, as well as later hominins in Europe (i. e.
2405:, were less widely recognised or more poorly known.
5767:
5484:
4840:
4825:
4748:
4569:
4524:
4467:
4433:
4348:
4224:
4212:
4179:
4025:
3093:. It is doubtful if australopithecines and earlier
2408:
2363:as one of the seven "widely recognized" species of
1839:, might appropriately be reclassified as ancestral
640:
609:include male-female divisions of foraging and true
427:. Proponents of synonymisation typically designate
7195:(archaic homo sapiens, anatomically modern humans)
6356:
6058:
5952:Evolutionary Theory and Processes: Modern Horizons
5797:"Variation, Sexual Dimorphism and the Taxonomy of
5335:"Older age becomes common late in human evolution"
4548:
4156:
3773:numerous in sites across Africa, Europe and Asia.
3214:
2995:which makes comparisons impossible. The idea that
2867:tools (one of the tool industries associated with
2572:Although frequently assumed to have originated in
1717:specimen of a distinct species, which they dubbed
1686:(950 cc). Another significant fossil was a fossil
1666:. The most notable finds were two partial skulls;
526:and are thus likely the direct ancestors of later
6590:
6450:
5099:Aiello, Leslie C.; Wells, Jonathan C. K. (2002).
4697:
4391:
3528:against predators would likely have come through
2700:is thought to have been ancestral to these later
2568:Human evolution § H. ergaster and H. erectus
2165:Cladogram per Strait, Grine & Fleagle (2015)
9643:
5527:
4312:
4173:
3893:
3740:is frequently assumed to have been the earliest
3509:Diagram of fossil trackways from two sites near
3500:
3466:unlikely, the most prominent being that African
3348:was lower than that of later and modern humans.
3038:The only well-preserved post-cranial remains of
2954:itself did not originate in Asia, the idea that
2475:Comparing various African fossils attributed to
2330:, found that the intraspecific variation within
2326:subspecies, and including fossils attributed to
6472:Willems, Erik P.; van Schaik, Carel P. (2017).
6088:Ruxton, Graeme D.; Wilkinson, David M. (2011).
6087:
5485:DĂĄvid-Barrett, TamĂĄs; Dunbar, R. I. M. (2016).
4536:
3580:Social and counter-attack behaviour of earlier
2561:
2483:to Asian fossils, notably the type specimen of
6417:. In Henke, Winfried; Tattersall, Ian (eds.).
6364:. In Henke, Winfried; Tattersall, Ian (eds.).
6176:
6143:
4989:
4926:
16:Extinct species or subspecies of archaic human
7670:
6701:
6471:
5844:
4807:
4765:
4721:
4415:
3170:immediately narrowed behind the eye sockets (
1764:and modern humans. Turkana Boy was placed in
1694:and described by Leakey with the designation
1678:. Leakey and Walker assigned these skulls to
669:
629:might also have been the earliest hominin to
557:as well as earlier and more basal species of
6044:(Revised ed.). Dorling Kindersley Ltd.
5873:
5069:
4965:
4792:
4777:
3900:Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Anthropology
3447:must not only have possessed the ability of
3114:analysis suggests that high activity in the
460:fossils have been found along the shores of
423:is an ongoing and unresolved dispute within
7180:
6549:
5948:
5928:
5794:
5101:"Energetics and the Evolution of the Genus
5098:
5017:
4887:
4875:
4863:
4736:
4685:
4622:
4595:
4500:
4141:
4129:
3857:
3419:If they had increased energy requirements,
2692:) are all probably lineages descended from
7684:
7677:
7663:
6708:
6694:
6405:
6212:"Revisiting scoliosis in the KNM-WT 15000
5929:Nowell, April; Chang, Melanie Lee (2009).
5795:Kimbel, William H.; White, Tim D. (2017).
5332:
4664:
4271:
4259:
4247:
4019:
4004:
3992:
3980:
3931:
3881:
3869:
3760:. These sites include cave sites, such as
3541:. Based on the male-bonded systems within
2906:(Dmanisi skull 3) in particular resembles
2718:Early expansions of hominins out of Africa
2711:
1819:are also relatively smaller than those of
676:
662:
116:
6323:
6183:American Journal of Physical Anthropology
6126:
6116:
6020:
6010:
5742:
5705:Herries, Andy I. R.; et al. (2020).
5687:
5631:
5510:
5406:
5360:
5350:
5262:
5252:
5149:
3957:
3945:American Journal of Physical Anthropology
3768:in South Africa, and open sites, such as
3397:would have been 39% higher than those of
3289:
625:. Though undisputed evidence is missing,
7600:Human evolutionary developmental biology
6249:
5874:Latimer, Bruce; Ohman, James C. (2001).
4283:
3684:
3640:
3504:
3360:
3218:
3176:
3129:
3023:
2721:
2350:(though this is partly due to the great
1589:
6037:
5605:
5528:Dennell, Robin; Roebroeks, Wil (2005).
5438:and implications for cognitive ability"
5377:
5333:Caspari, Rachel; Lee, Sang-Hee (2004).
5286:skeleton from west Lake Turkana, Kenya"
5121:10.1146/annurev.anthro.31.040402.085403
4953:
4941:
4911:
4899:
4461:
4427:
4059:
3081:had an ape-like covering of body hair,
3019:
2801:was the first hominin to leave Africa.
2556:
1772:, commonly seen as a representative of
621:industry, including the earliest known
9644:
5845:Larick, Roy; Ciochon, Russell (1996).
3908:10.1093/acrefore/9780190854584.013.194
3474:who rely heavily on meat, such as the
3356:
2638:coexisted with other hominins such as
1570:
9526:
9525:
8848:
8487:
7753:
7658:
7385:Evolutionary models of human drug use
6689:
6550:Wood, Bernard; Collard, Mark (1999).
6148:: An Introduction to Supplement 16".
5984:was similar to that of modern humans"
5824:"Hominin dispersals in the Old World"
5821:
5576:
5380:"The mystery ape of Pleistocene Asia"
5203:
5127:
5010:
4978:Meyer, Vekua & Lordkipanidze 2006
4851:
4834:
4578:
4563:
4512:
4488:
4442:
4403:
4374:
4357:
4342:
4295:
4206:
4194:
4071:
4042:
2393:, noting that other species, such as
1619:is one of the most disputed areas of
654:
8849:
7625:
5166:
5025:(1949). "A New Type of Fossil Man".
4230:
4218:
3031:("Turkana Boy"), a 7 to 12 year old
2653:There are also younger specimens of
1654:In the 1970s, palaeoanthropologists
1513:
1491:
1469:
1445:
1425:
1405:
1381:
1361:
1338:
1315:
1295:
1275:
1255:
1235:
643:
498:fossils from Asia, as well as early
6715:
5225:"Man the Fat Hunter: The Demise of
1585:
597:behaviour, a first among primates.
530:populations in Asia. Additionally,
13:
3630:
3227:by Adrie and Alfons Kennis at the
128:, a 1.6 million year old skull of
14:
9678:
8801:Megalithic architectural elements
6641:
5138:Yearbook of Physical Anthropology
4749:Janssen, Sept & Griffith 2007
3125:
2968:(now believed to be an unrelated
2266:Reconstructions of the skulls of
1783:
8488:
7636:
7624:
7613:
7612:
6252:"Taxonomy of the Dmanisi Crania"
5803:. In Grine, Frederick E. (ed.).
4549:Rogers, Iltis & Wooding 2004
4157:Strait, Grine & Fleagle 2015
2987:again led to suggestions of pre-
2937:. This view was notably held by
2874:The earliest fossil evidence of
2598:evolved from earlier species of
2549:(type specimen KNM ER 3733) and
2456:
2447:
2431:
2417:
2409:Variation in the fossil material
2256:
2247:
1609:The systematics and taxonomy of
148:
41:
9420:Evolutionary origin of religion
4698:Ungar, Grine & Teaford 2008
4525:DĂĄvid-Barrett & Dunbar 2016
3840:List of human evolution fossils
3715:Control of fire by early humans
3215:Body mass and sexual dimorphism
2833:fossils outside Africa are the
1705:In 1975, palaeoanthropologists
3887:
3376:in the top-right, labelled as
1234:
538:in Europe and Africa, such as
1:
9662:Fossil taxa described in 1975
9033:Art of the Middle Paleolithic
8563:British megalith architecture
6461:Annual Review of Anthropology
6419:Handbook of Paleoanthropology
6366:Handbook of Paleoanthropology
6250:Schwartz, Jeffrey H. (2000).
5109:Annual Review of Anthropology
3845:
3625:
3554:
3501:Social structure and dynamics
2614:The oldest known specimen of
2210:fossils in Asia and the term
1713:designated KNM ER 992 as the
549:Several features distinguish
534:is likely ancestral to later
9028:Art of the Upper Paleolithic
8568:Nordic megalith architecture
6535:10.1016/j.jhevol.2004.08.007
6494:10.1016/j.jhevol.2017.05.003
6474:"The social organization of
6374:10.1007/978-3-642-39979-4_58
6271:10.1126/science.289.5476.55b
6235:10.1016/j.jhevol.2013.12.009
6156:(Supplement 16): S165âS175.
5961:10.1007/978-94-017-0443-4_17
5612:Philosophical Transactions B
5503:10.1016/j.jhevol.2016.02.006
5254:10.1371/journal.pone.0028689
5206:The Symbolic Species Evolved
5189:10.1016/j.jhevol.2007.11.003
4313:Dennell & Roebroeks 2005
4174:Dennell & Roebroeks 2005
3689:Drawing of a hand holding a
3612:The only direct evidence of
2562:Evolution and temporal range
2523:The most "iconic" fossil of
2310:, and the even more massive
7:
7643:Evolutionary biology Portal
6576:10.1126/science.284.5411.65
6300:Pelvis from Gona, Ethiopia"
4537:Ruxton & Wilkinson 2011
3828:
3801:and colleagues described a
3776:
3584:probably carried over into
2882:in Africa, suggesting that
2773:, this role would apply to
2626:, a skull recovered in the
1702:of indeterminate species".
1571:
793:
636:
10:
9683:
9176:British Isles and Brittany
9097:Gwion Gwion rock paintings
6523:Journal of Human Evolution
6513:Australopithecus afarensis
6482:Journal of Human Evolution
6368:(2nd ed.). Springer.
6223:Journal of Human Evolution
6041:Evolution: The Human Story
5982:Australopithecus afarensis
5884:Journal of Human Evolution
5826:. In Chris, Scarre (ed.).
5606:Gowlett, J. A. J. (2016).
5491:Journal of Human Evolution
5177:Journal of Human Evolution
4990:Schiess & HĂ€usler 2013
4927:Sandgathe & Berna 2017
3712:
3634:
3400:Australopithecus afarensis
3351:
3284:Australopithecus afarensis
3014:
2715:
2611:of Lake Turkana in Kenya.
2565:
2294:shares many features with
9534:
9378:
9191:
9018:
8865:
8861:
8844:
8730:
8694:
8543:
8500:
8496:
8483:
8290:
8121:
8094:
8019:
7945:
7936:
7841:
7766:
7762:
7754:
7749:
7692:
7608:
7588:Evolutionary anthropology
7565:
7539:
7492:
7430:
7349:
7308:
7301:
7247:
7171:
7094:
7019:
6973:
6966:
6949:
6909:
6845:
6816:
6780:
6771:
6738:
6723:
6680:Human origins family tree
6617:10.1038/s41586-018-0299-4
5897:"Language and empathy in
5378:Ciochon, Russell (2009).
4808:Willems & Schaik 2017
4766:Willems & Schaik 2017
4722:Willems & Schaik 2017
4416:Larick & Ciochon 1996
3896:"Hominin Taxic Diversity"
3649:as commonly found in the
3302:, Ethiopia suggests that
3172:post-orbital constriction
2726:Successive dispersals of
2099:
2073:
2056:
2049:
2042:
2025:
2018:
2001:
1994:
1977:
1970:
1944:
1927:
1920:
1913:
1887:
1870:
1863:
1647:in 2013, have questioned
323:
316:
291:
284:
145:Scientific classification
143:
124:
115:
23:
6406:Tattersall, Ian (2013).
5128:AntĂłn, Susan C. (2003).
4966:Latimer & Ohman 2001
4793:Aiello & Dunbar 1993
4778:Aiello & Dunbar 1993
3577:was 91â116 individuals.
3161:is considered. With all
2606:. Though populations of
686:
489:should be subsumed into
350:(Groves and MazĂĄk, 1975)
36:2.04/1.95â1.4/0.87
9408:Evolutionary musicology
8811:Oldest extant buildings
8738:Archaeological features
8257:Prepared-core technique
7494:Origin of modern humans
6652:; The Australian Museum
6412:and Its Contemporaries"
6334:10.1126/science.1163592
6118:10.1073/pnas.1113915108
6038:Roberts, Alice (2018).
6012:10.1073/pnas.1133180100
5830:. Thames & Hudson.
5822:Klein, Richard (2005).
5774:Australopithecus boisei
5735:10.1126/science.aaw7293
5434:"Early brain growth in
5352:10.1073/pnas.0402857101
5167:Baab, Karen L. (2008).
4888:Nowell & Chang 2009
4876:Nowell & Chang 2009
4864:Nowell & Chang 2009
4737:Aiello & Wells 2002
4686:Aiello & Wells 2002
4653:Coqueugniot et al. 2004
4623:Kimbel & White 2017
4596:Aiello & Wells 2002
4501:Pagel & Bodmer 2004
4142:Wood & Collard 1999
4130:Aiello & Wells 2002
3858:Broom & Talbot 1949
3708:
3116:melanocortin 1 receptor
2847:), three incisors from
2712:Expansion out of Africa
2647:Australopithecus sediba
1780:as a distinct species.
1725:being derived from the
1615:in the Early to Middle
1558:P a r a n t h r o p u s
1417:Dispersal beyond Africa
448:roughly translates to "
9370:Unchambered long cairn
9218:Mound Builders culture
8551:Neolithic architecture
7686:Prehistoric technology
5980:"Sexual dimorphism in
5916:Cite journal requires
5624:10.1098/rstb.2015.0164
5618:(20150164): 20150164.
4665:Caspari & Lee 2004
3693:
3654:
3521:
3513:, Kenya attributed to
3386:
3311:can be drawn from the
3290:Growth and development
3231:
3182:
3142:
3035:
2941:, who first described
2758:
1606:
689:−10 —
631:master control of fire
132:discovered in 1975 at
29:Temporal range: Early
9667:Homo ergaster fossils
9652:Early species of Homo
9624:Paleobiology Database
9045:List of Stone Age art
8247:Microblade technology
8195:Langdale axe industry
7793:Ard / plough
7502:Recent African origin
6740:Last common ancestors
6682:; DNA Learning Center
3688:
3644:
3508:
3364:
3222:
3180:
3133:
3027:
2950:in Africa meant that
2745:Homo neanderthalensis
2725:
2641:Paranthropus robustus
2618:s.l. in Africa (i.e.
2566:Further information:
2491:rather than "African
2290:For obvious reasons,
2175:has been in dispute.
1776:by those who support
1593:
779:−1 —
769:−2 —
759:−3 —
749:−4 —
739:−5 —
729:−6 —
719:−7 —
709:−8 —
699:−9 —
441:Homo erectus ergaster
327:Telanthropus capensis
9452:Prehistoric medicine
9447:Prehistoric counting
9430:Prehistoric religion
9425:Paleolithic religion
9403:Behavioral modernity
8760:Causewayed enclosure
8652:Abri de la Madeleine
7776:Neolithic Revolution
7517:Behavioral modernity
7507:Multiregional origin
7287:archaic Homo sapiens
7282:Homo heidelbergensis
7227:Red Deer Cave people
6676:; eFossils Resources
6150:Current Anthropology
6061:Current Anthropology
5876:"Axial dysplasia in
5707:"Contemporaneity of
5591:10.1162/BIOT_a_00062
5130:"Natural history of
5072:Current Anthropology
3835:List of fossil sites
3493:chewing capacity of
3020:Build and appearance
2975:). The discovery of
2557:Evolutionary history
1373:Earliest stone tools
9491:Prehistoric warfare
8237:Magdalenian culture
8200:Levallois technique
8131:Earliest toolmaking
7154:H. neanderthalensis
7074:H. e. tautavelensis
6609:2018Natur.559..608Z
6568:1999Sci...284...65.
6316:2008Sci...322.1089S
6310:(5904): 1089â1092.
6109:2011PNAS..10820965R
6103:(52): 20965â20969.
6003:2003PNAS..100.9404R
5867:1996AmSci..84..538L
5672:2016NatSR...628766H
5554:10.1038/nature04259
5546:2005Natur.438.1099D
5540:(7071): 1099â1104.
5462:10.1038/nature02852
5454:2004Natur.431..299C
5399:2009Natur.459..910C
5345:(30): 10895â10900.
5302:1985Natur.316..788B
5245:2011PLoSO...628689B
5039:1949Natur.164..322B
5002:Schiess et al. 2014
4710:Ben-Dor et al. 2011
4700:, pp. 208â228.
4655:, pp. 299â302.
4638:Simpson et al. 2008
4551:, pp. 105â108.
4328:Herries et al. 2020
3357:Diet and energetics
2686:H. neanderthalensis
2386:H. neanderthalensis
2314:and faces of Asian
2077:H. neanderthalensis
514:might suggest that
9442:Origin of language
9435:Spiritual drug use
9345:Rectangular dolmen
9247:Dartmoor kistvaens
9060:Carved stone balls
8772:Circular enclosure
8731:Other architecture
8674:Alp pile dwellings
8262:Solutrean industry
8173:Gravettian culture
7823:Secondary products
7341:Self-domestication
7132:H. heidelbergensis
7081:H. e. yuanmouensis
7046:H. e. lantianensis
6773:Australopithecines
6195:10.1002/ajpa.22211
5855:American Scientist
5729:(6486): eaaw7293.
5660:Scientific Reports
5151:10.1002/ajpa.10399
5011:Cited bibliography
4820:Hatala et al. 2016
3959:10.1002/ajpa.24247
3860:, p. 322-323.
3823:congenital defects
3791:skeletal dysplasia
3694:
3655:
3522:
3439:It is likely that
3424:reducing the time
3387:
3232:
3229:Neanderthal Museum
3223:Reconstruction of
3183:
3143:
3036:
2857:H. erectus erectus
2759:
2706:H. heidelbergensis
2682:H. heidelbergensis
2381:H. heidelbergensis
2237:H. heidelbergensis
2060:H. heidelbergensis
1841:australopithecines
1621:palaeoanthropology
1607:
1174:H. heidelbergensis
555:australopithecines
485:Those who believe
425:palaeoanthropology
9639:
9638:
9528:Taxon identifiers
9519:
9518:
9515:
9514:
9511:
9510:
9464:Prehistoric music
9413:music archaeology
9070:Cup and ring mark
8895:Clothing/textiles
8840:
8839:
8836:
8835:
8479:
8478:
8475:
8474:
8282:Yubetsu technique
8267:Striking platform
8232:Lithic technology
8117:
8116:
8102:Game drive system
8021:Projectile points
7913:Mortar and pestle
7652:
7651:
7593:Paleoanthropology
7535:
7534:
7512:Archaic admixture
7390:Stoned ape theory
7326:Endurance running
7243:
7242:
7239:
7238:
7235:
7234:
7090:
7089:
7053:H. e. nankinensis
7009:H. tsaichangensis
6945:
6944:
6603:(7715): 608â612.
6552:"The Human Genus"
6515:and KNM-WT 15000
6428:978-3-642-39978-7
6383:978-3-642-39979-4
6051:978-0-2413-0431-0
5997:(16): 9404â9409.
5970:978-90-481-6457-8
5938:PaleoAnthropology
5814:978-0-202-36137-6
5787:978-4-431-73150-4
5680:10.1038/srep28766
5579:Biological Theory
5448:(7006): 299â302.
5393:(7249): 910â911.
5296:(6031): 788â792.
5215:978-94-007-2336-8
5033:(4164): 322â323.
4566:, pp. 87â88.
4286:, pp. 55â56.
4099:Brown et al. 1985
4084:Brown et al. 1985
3449:endurance running
3263:sexual dimorphism
2769:is distinct from
2663:Olduvai Hominid 9
2576:, the origins of
2352:sexual dimorphism
2280:(right, based on
2169:
2168:
2159:
2158:
2150:
2149:
2141:
2140:
2132:
2131:
2123:
2122:
2114:
2113:
2088:
2087:
1959:
1958:
1902:
1901:
1583:
1582:
1575:million years ago
1534:
1533:
1512:
1511:
1490:
1489:
1482:Earliest rock art
1468:
1467:
1444:
1443:
1437:Earliest language
1424:
1423:
1404:
1403:
1380:
1379:
1360:
1359:
1350:Earliest sign of
1337:
1336:
1327:Earliest sign of
1314:
1313:
1294:
1293:
1274:
1273:
1254:
1253:
897:Ou. macedoniensis
482:arose in Africa.
411:Early Pleistocene
386:
385:
380:
371:
362:
356:Homo louisleakeyi
351:
339:
9674:
9632:
9631:
9619:
9618:
9606:
9605:
9593:
9592:
9580:
9579:
9570:
9569:
9568:
9555:
9554:
9553:
9523:
9522:
9479:Divje Babe flute
9386:Archaeoastronomy
9129:Petrosomatoglyph
8863:
8862:
8846:
8845:
8695:Water management
8498:
8497:
8485:
8484:
8388:Denticulate tool
8210:Lithic reduction
7943:
7942:
7764:
7763:
7751:
7750:
7679:
7672:
7665:
7656:
7655:
7640:
7628:
7627:
7616:
7615:
7552:Human prehistory
7527:Recent evolution
7522:Early migrations
7464:Thermoregulation
7365:Expensive tissue
7336:Sexual selection
7306:
7305:
7178:
7177:
7060:H. e. pekinensis
6971:
6970:
6964:
6963:
6879:A. bahrelghazali
6848:Australopithecus
6778:
6777:
6748:Chimpanzeeâhuman
6736:
6735:
6710:
6703:
6696:
6687:
6686:
6636:
6587:
6546:
6505:
6468:
6447:
6445:
6443:
6437:
6431:. Archived from
6416:
6402:
6400:
6398:
6392:
6386:. Archived from
6363:
6353:
6327:
6290:
6256:
6246:
6220:
6206:
6173:
6140:
6130:
6120:
6094:
6084:
6055:
6034:
6024:
6014:
5988:
5974:
5945:
5935:
5925:
5919:
5914:
5912:
5904:
5891:
5870:
5841:
5818:
5799:Australopithecus
5791:
5764:
5746:
5719:in South Africa"
5709:Australopithecus
5701:
5691:
5666:(28766): 28766.
5645:
5635:
5602:
5573:
5524:
5514:
5481:
5428:
5410:
5384:
5374:
5364:
5354:
5329:
5310:10.1038/316788a0
5276:
5266:
5256:
5219:
5200:
5163:
5153:
5124:
5095:
5066:
5047:10.1038/164322a0
5005:
4999:
4993:
4987:
4981:
4975:
4969:
4963:
4957:
4951:
4945:
4939:
4930:
4924:
4915:
4909:
4903:
4897:
4891:
4885:
4879:
4873:
4867:
4861:
4855:
4849:
4838:
4832:
4823:
4817:
4811:
4805:
4796:
4790:
4781:
4775:
4769:
4763:
4752:
4746:
4740:
4734:
4725:
4719:
4713:
4707:
4701:
4695:
4689:
4683:
4668:
4662:
4656:
4650:
4641:
4635:
4626:
4620:
4614:
4611:Reno et al. 2003
4608:
4599:
4593:
4582:
4576:
4567:
4561:
4552:
4546:
4540:
4539:, p. 20967.
4534:
4528:
4522:
4516:
4510:
4504:
4498:
4492:
4486:
4465:
4459:
4446:
4440:
4431:
4425:
4419:
4413:
4407:
4401:
4395:
4389:
4378:
4372:
4361:
4355:
4346:
4340:
4331:
4325:
4316:
4310:
4299:
4293:
4287:
4281:
4275:
4269:
4263:
4257:
4251:
4245:
4234:
4228:
4222:
4216:
4210:
4204:
4198:
4192:
4177:
4171:
4160:
4154:
4145:
4139:
4133:
4127:
4114:
4111:Wang et al. 2004
4108:
4102:
4096:
4087:
4081:
4075:
4069:
4063:
4057:
4046:
4040:
4023:
4017:
4008:
4002:
3996:
3990:
3984:
3978:
3972:
3971:
3961:
3935:
3929:
3928:
3926:
3924:
3891:
3885:
3879:
3873:
3867:
3861:
3855:
3559:
3556:
3535:savannah baboons
3472:hunter-gatherers
3244:Australopithecus
3091:sexual selection
3063:Australopithecus
2985:Australopithecus
2841:or a new taxon,
2751:
2742:
2729:
2661:specimens; the "
2587:Australopithecus
2460:
2451:
2435:
2421:
2270:(left, based on
2260:
2251:
2052:
2051:
2045:
2044:
2021:
2020:
1997:
1996:
1973:
1972:
1923:
1922:
1916:
1915:
1866:
1865:
1859:
1858:
1854:
1853:
1586:Research history
1563:
1561:
1560:
1546:
1544:
1528:
1519:
1514:
1506:
1504:Earliest clothes
1497:
1492:
1484:
1475:
1470:
1451:
1446:
1431:
1426:
1411:
1406:
1393:Earliest sign of
1387:
1382:
1367:
1362:
1352:Australopithecus
1344:
1339:
1321:
1316:
1307:Earliest bipedal
1301:
1296:
1287:Chimpanzee split
1281:
1276:
1261:
1256:
1241:
1236:
1222:
1221:
1207:
1206:
1190:
1176:
1162:
1134:
1121:
1101:
1088:
1060:
1058:Australopithecus
1047:
1032:
1015:
1002:
978:
965:
952:
939:
926:
913:
901:
882:
869:
856:
844:
830:
817:
804:
802:
790:
785:
780:
775:
770:
765:
760:
755:
750:
745:
740:
735:
730:
725:
720:
715:
710:
705:
700:
695:
690:
678:
671:
664:
658:
648:
647:Hominin timeline
641:
468:specimens. As a
378:
369:
360:
349:
330:
300:
296:
277:H. ergaster
153:
152:
120:
110:
40:
21:
20:
9682:
9681:
9677:
9676:
9675:
9673:
9672:
9671:
9642:
9641:
9640:
9635:
9627:
9622:
9614:
9609:
9601:
9596:
9588:
9583:
9575:
9573:
9564:
9563:
9558:
9549:
9548:
9543:
9530:
9520:
9507:
9374:
9360:Stone box grave
9330:Megalithic tomb
9235:Cotswold-Severn
9187:
9092:Guardian stones
9020:Prehistoric art
9014:
8857:
8832:
8821:Timber trackway
8726:
8690:
8686:Wattle and daub
8539:
8518:Standing stones
8492:
8471:
8286:
8113:
8090:
8015:
7932:
7842:Food processing
7837:
7786:New World crops
7758:
7745:
7688:
7683:
7653:
7648:
7604:
7561:
7547:Human evolution
7531:
7488:
7432:
7426:
7405:Cooperative eye
7350:Specific models
7345:
7297:
7276:Homo antecessor
7231:
7167:
7161:H. rhodesiensis
7125:H. floresiensis
7086:
7067:H. e. soloensis
7039:H. e. georgicus
7015:
6979:H. gautengensis
6954:
6952:
6941:
6905:
6841:
6812:
6767:
6758:Orangutanâhuman
6727:
6719:
6717:Human evolution
6714:
6644:
6639:
6562:(5411): 65â71.
6453:"Diet in Early
6441:
6439:
6438:on 12 June 2020
6435:
6429:
6414:
6396:
6394:
6393:on 12 June 2020
6390:
6384:
6361:
6325:10.1.1.710.7337
6265:(5476): 55â56.
6254:
6218:
6092:
6052:
5986:
5971:
5933:
5917:
5915:
5906:
5905:
5838:
5815:
5788:
5408:10.1038/459910a
5382:
5216:
5013:
5008:
5000:
4996:
4988:
4984:
4976:
4972:
4964:
4960:
4952:
4948:
4940:
4933:
4929:, p. S168.
4925:
4918:
4910:
4906:
4898:
4894:
4886:
4882:
4874:
4870:
4862:
4858:
4850:
4841:
4833:
4826:
4822:, pp. 1â7.
4818:
4814:
4806:
4799:
4791:
4784:
4776:
4772:
4764:
4755:
4747:
4743:
4735:
4728:
4720:
4716:
4708:
4704:
4696:
4692:
4684:
4671:
4663:
4659:
4651:
4644:
4640:, p. 1090.
4636:
4629:
4621:
4617:
4613:, p. 9404.
4609:
4602:
4594:
4585:
4577:
4570:
4562:
4555:
4547:
4543:
4535:
4531:
4523:
4519:
4511:
4507:
4499:
4495:
4487:
4468:
4460:
4449:
4441:
4434:
4426:
4422:
4414:
4410:
4402:
4398:
4392:Zhu et al. 2018
4390:
4381:
4373:
4364:
4356:
4349:
4341:
4334:
4326:
4319:
4315:, p. 1099.
4311:
4302:
4294:
4290:
4282:
4278:
4272:Tattersall 2013
4270:
4266:
4260:Tattersall 2013
4258:
4254:
4248:Tattersall 2013
4246:
4237:
4229:
4225:
4217:
4213:
4205:
4201:
4193:
4180:
4176:, p. 1100.
4172:
4163:
4159:, p. 2006.
4155:
4148:
4140:
4136:
4128:
4117:
4109:
4105:
4097:
4090:
4082:
4078:
4070:
4066:
4058:
4049:
4041:
4026:
4020:Tattersall 2013
4018:
4011:
4007:, pp. 3â4.
4005:Tattersall 2013
4003:
3999:
3993:Tattersall 2013
3991:
3987:
3981:Tattersall 2013
3979:
3975:
3936:
3932:
3922:
3920:
3918:
3892:
3888:
3882:Tattersall 2013
3880:
3876:
3870:Tattersall 2013
3868:
3864:
3856:
3852:
3848:
3831:
3816:spinal stenosis
3779:
3717:
3711:
3639:
3633:
3631:Tool production
3628:
3619:hunter-gatherer
3594:hunter-gatherer
3557:
3503:
3359:
3354:
3329:prenatal growth
3313:Mojokerto child
3292:
3261:Though reduced
3217:
3128:
3022:
3017:
2977:H. floresiensis
2761:Traditionally,
2749:
2740:
2727:
2720:
2714:
2570:
2564:
2559:
2473:
2472:
2471:
2470:
2469:("Turkana Boy")
2463:
2462:
2461:
2453:
2452:
2443:
2442:
2441:
2436:
2428:
2427:
2422:
2411:
2396:H. floresiensis
2288:
2287:
2286:
2285:
2263:
2262:
2261:
2253:
2252:
2160:
2151:
2142:
2133:
2124:
2115:
2089:
1960:
1903:
1786:
1711:Vratislav MazĂĄk
1588:
1579:
1578:
1566:
1565:
1564:
1556:
1555:
1553:
1549:
1548:
1547:
1542:H o m i n i d s
1540:
1538:
1530:
1529:
1524:
1517:
1508:
1507:
1502:
1495:
1486:
1485:
1480:
1473:
1464:
1463:
1449:
1440:
1439:
1429:
1420:
1419:
1409:
1400:
1399:
1394:
1385:
1376:
1375:
1365:
1356:
1355:
1342:
1333:
1332:
1319:
1310:
1309:
1299:
1290:
1289:
1279:
1270:
1269:
1259:
1250:
1249:
1239:
1232:
1231:
1230:
1225:
1224:
1223:
1217:
1216:
1212:
1210:
1209:
1208:
1202:
1201:
1197:
1195:
1194:
1193:
1186:
1180:
1179:
1178:
1172:
1167:
1165:
1164:
1163:
1154:
1146:
1138:
1137:
1130:
1124:
1123:
1122:
1113:
1105:
1104:
1097:
1091:
1090:
1089:
1080:
1072:
1064:
1063:
1056:
1050:
1049:
1048:
1039:
1035:
1034:
1033:
1024:
1020:
1019:
1018:
1011:
1005:
1004:
1003:
994:
986:
982:
981:
980:
974:
969:
968:
967:
961:
956:
955:
954:
948:
943:
942:
941:
935:
930:
929:
928:
922:
917:
916:
915:
911:Chororapithecus
909:
904:
903:
902:
893:
885:
884:
878:
873:
872:
871:
867:Samburupithecus
865:
860:
859:
858:
852:
847:
846:
845:
838:
834:
833:
832:
826:
821:
820:
819:
813:
808:
807:
806:
800:
798:
791:
788:
786:
783:
781:
778:
776:
773:
771:
768:
766:
763:
761:
758:
756:
753:
751:
748:
746:
743:
741:
738:
736:
733:
731:
728:
726:
723:
721:
718:
716:
713:
711:
708:
706:
703:
701:
698:
696:
693:
691:
688:
682:
656:
650:
646:
639:
595:hunter-gatherer
381:
377:
372:
368:
366:Homo kenyaensis
363:
359:
352:
348:
340:
329:
312:
302:
294:
293:
280:
147:
111:
109:
108:
107:
106:
101:
96:
91:
86:
81:
76:
71:
66:
61:
56:
51:
46:
35:
34:
27:
17:
12:
11:
5:
9680:
9670:
9669:
9664:
9659:
9654:
9637:
9636:
9634:
9633:
9620:
9607:
9594:
9581:
9571:
9556:
9540:
9538:
9532:
9531:
9517:
9516:
9513:
9512:
9509:
9508:
9506:
9505:
9504:
9503:
9493:
9488:
9487:
9486:
9481:
9476:
9471:
9469:Alligator drum
9461:
9460:
9459:
9449:
9444:
9439:
9438:
9437:
9432:
9427:
9417:
9416:
9415:
9405:
9400:
9399:
9398:
9396:lunar calendar
9393:
9382:
9380:
9379:Other cultural
9376:
9375:
9373:
9372:
9367:
9362:
9357:
9352:
9347:
9342:
9337:
9332:
9327:
9326:
9325:
9320:
9310:
9305:
9300:
9299:
9298:
9293:
9283:
9278:
9277:
9276:
9266:
9261:
9256:
9251:
9250:
9249:
9239:
9238:
9237:
9227:
9226:
9225:
9215:
9214:
9213:
9208:
9197:
9195:
9189:
9188:
9186:
9185:
9183:Venus figurine
9180:
9179:
9178:
9173:
9163:
9158:
9153:
9152:
9151:
9146:
9136:
9131:
9126:
9121:
9116:
9114:Megalithic art
9111:
9110:
9109:
9104:
9094:
9089:
9084:
9083:
9082:
9072:
9067:
9065:Cave paintings
9062:
9057:
9052:
9047:
9042:
9041:
9040:
9030:
9024:
9022:
9016:
9015:
9013:
9012:
9011:
9010:
9005:
8995:
8990:
8985:
8984:
8983:
8978:
8973:
8968:
8963:
8958:
8948:
8943:
8942:
8941:
8931:
8930:
8929:
8924:
8914:
8909:
8904:
8903:
8902:
8892:
8887:
8882:
8877:
8871:
8869:
8867:Material goods
8859:
8858:
8842:
8841:
8838:
8837:
8834:
8833:
8831:
8830:
8829:
8828:
8818:
8813:
8808:
8803:
8798:
8797:
8796:
8786:
8781:
8780:
8779:
8769:
8768:
8767:
8757:
8756:
8755:
8745:
8740:
8734:
8732:
8728:
8727:
8725:
8724:
8719:
8714:
8709:
8704:
8698:
8696:
8692:
8691:
8689:
8688:
8683:
8678:
8677:
8676:
8666:
8661:
8660:
8659:
8654:
8649:
8639:
8634:
8629:
8624:
8623:
8622:
8612:
8607:
8602:
8601:
8600:
8590:
8585:
8583:Cliff dwelling
8580:
8575:
8570:
8565:
8560:
8559:
8558:
8547:
8545:
8541:
8540:
8538:
8537:
8536:
8535:
8530:
8525:
8515:
8510:
8504:
8502:
8494:
8493:
8481:
8480:
8477:
8476:
8473:
8472:
8470:
8469:
8468:
8467:
8457:
8452:
8447:
8442:
8441:
8440:
8430:
8425:
8420:
8415:
8410:
8405:
8400:
8395:
8390:
8385:
8380:
8379:
8378:
8368:
8367:
8366:
8361:
8351:
8346:
8341:
8336:
8335:
8334:
8324:
8319:
8314:
8313:
8312:
8302:
8296:
8294:
8288:
8287:
8285:
8284:
8279:
8274:
8269:
8264:
8259:
8254:
8249:
8244:
8239:
8234:
8229:
8228:
8227:
8222:
8217:
8207:
8202:
8197:
8192:
8191:
8190:
8180:
8175:
8170:
8168:Fire hardening
8165:
8160:
8158:Clovis culture
8155:
8150:
8149:
8148:
8143:
8138:
8127:
8125:
8119:
8118:
8115:
8114:
8112:
8111:
8110:
8109:
8098:
8096:
8092:
8091:
8089:
8088:
8083:
8081:Manis Mastodon
8078:
8073:
8068:
8063:
8058:
8053:
8048:
8043:
8038:
8037:
8036:
8025:
8023:
8017:
8016:
8014:
8013:
8012:
8011:
8006:
8001:
7996:
7991:
7981:
7976:
7975:
7974:
7964:
7963:
7962:
7960:throwing stick
7952:
7946:
7940:
7934:
7933:
7931:
7930:
7925:
7920:
7915:
7910:
7905:
7900:
7899:
7898:
7893:
7883:
7878:
7873:
7868:
7867:
7866:
7856:
7851:
7845:
7843:
7839:
7838:
7836:
7835:
7830:
7825:
7820:
7815:
7810:
7805:
7800:
7795:
7790:
7789:
7788:
7783:
7772:
7770:
7760:
7759:
7747:
7746:
7744:
7743:
7738:
7737:
7736:
7726:
7725:
7724:
7719:
7714:
7709:
7704:
7693:
7690:
7689:
7682:
7681:
7674:
7667:
7659:
7650:
7649:
7647:
7646:
7634:
7622:
7609:
7606:
7605:
7603:
7602:
7597:
7596:
7595:
7585:
7580:
7575:
7569:
7567:
7563:
7562:
7560:
7559:
7557:Human timeline
7554:
7549:
7543:
7541:
7537:
7536:
7533:
7532:
7530:
7529:
7524:
7519:
7514:
7509:
7504:
7498:
7496:
7490:
7489:
7487:
7486:
7481:
7476:
7471:
7466:
7461:
7456:
7451:
7446:
7441:
7435:
7433:
7428:
7427:
7425:
7424:
7423:
7422:
7417:
7409:
7408:
7407:
7402:
7394:
7393:
7392:
7387:
7382:
7380:Drunken monkey
7374:
7373:
7372:
7367:
7362:
7353:
7351:
7347:
7346:
7344:
7343:
7338:
7333:
7328:
7323:
7318:
7312:
7310:
7309:General models
7303:
7299:
7298:
7296:
7295:
7253:
7251:
7245:
7244:
7241:
7240:
7237:
7236:
7233:
7232:
7230:
7229:
7224:
7219:
7214:
7209:
7202:
7197:
7188:
7186:
7175:
7169:
7168:
7166:
7165:
7157:
7150:
7143:
7135:
7128:
7121:
7113:
7108:
7100:
7098:
7096:Archaic humans
7092:
7091:
7088:
7087:
7085:
7084:
7077:
7070:
7063:
7056:
7049:
7042:
7035:
7027:
7025:
7017:
7016:
7014:
7013:
7005:
7001:H. rudolfensis
6997:
6990:
6983:
6974:
6968:
6961:
6947:
6946:
6943:
6942:
6940:
6939:
6932:
6925:
6922:P. aethiopicus
6917:
6915:
6907:
6906:
6904:
6903:
6896:
6889:
6882:
6875:
6868:
6861:
6853:
6851:
6843:
6842:
6840:
6839:
6832:
6824:
6822:
6814:
6813:
6811:
6810:
6803:
6800:Sahelanthropus
6796:
6789:
6786:Nakalipithecus
6781:
6775:
6769:
6768:
6766:
6765:
6760:
6755:
6750:
6744:
6742:
6733:
6721:
6720:
6713:
6712:
6705:
6698:
6690:
6684:
6683:
6677:
6669:
6661:
6653:
6643:
6642:External links
6640:
6638:
6637:
6588:
6547:
6529:(6): 453â478.
6506:
6469:
6448:
6427:
6403:
6382:
6354:
6291:
6247:
6207:
6189:(3): 365â374.
6174:
6162:10.1086/691424
6141:
6085:
6073:10.1086/381006
6067:(1): 105â108.
6056:
6050:
6035:
5975:
5969:
5946:
5926:
5918:|journal=
5892:
5871:
5861:(6): 538â551.
5842:
5837:978-0500285312
5836:
5819:
5813:
5792:
5786:
5765:
5702:
5646:
5603:
5585:(4): 326â336.
5574:
5525:
5482:
5429:
5375:
5330:
5277:
5239:(12): e28689.
5220:
5214:
5201:
5183:(6): 827â847.
5164:
5125:
5096:
5084:10.1086/204160
5078:(2): 184â193.
5067:
5014:
5012:
5009:
5007:
5006:
4994:
4992:, p. 365.
4982:
4970:
4968:, p. A12.
4958:
4946:
4931:
4916:
4904:
4892:
4880:
4868:
4856:
4839:
4824:
4812:
4797:
4795:, p. 188.
4782:
4780:, p. 184.
4770:
4753:
4751:, p. 308.
4741:
4739:, p. 327.
4726:
4714:
4702:
4690:
4688:, p. 326.
4669:
4657:
4642:
4627:
4625:, p. 176.
4615:
4600:
4598:, p. 325.
4583:
4568:
4553:
4541:
4529:
4517:
4515:, p. 326.
4505:
4503:, p. 329.
4493:
4466:
4464:, p. 117.
4447:
4432:
4430:, p. 910.
4420:
4408:
4406:, p. 103.
4396:
4394:, p. 608.
4379:
4377:, p. 101.
4362:
4347:
4345:, p. 104.
4332:
4317:
4300:
4298:, p. 171.
4288:
4276:
4264:
4252:
4235:
4233:, p. 842.
4223:
4221:, p. 841.
4211:
4209:, p. 154.
4199:
4178:
4161:
4146:
4134:
4132:, p. 324.
4115:
4113:, p. 453.
4103:
4101:, p. 789.
4088:
4086:, p. 788.
4076:
4074:, p. 127.
4064:
4062:, p. 116.
4047:
4024:
4009:
3997:
3985:
3973:
3930:
3916:
3886:
3874:
3862:
3849:
3847:
3844:
3843:
3842:
3837:
3830:
3827:
3778:
3775:
3710:
3707:
3661:inherited the
3632:
3629:
3627:
3624:
3566:H. rudolfensis
3502:
3499:
3358:
3355:
3353:
3350:
3291:
3288:
3216:
3213:
3127:
3126:Skull and face
3124:
3021:
3018:
3016:
3013:
2835:Dmanisi skulls
2713:
2710:
2688:) and Africa (
2563:
2560:
2558:
2555:
2465:
2464:
2455:
2454:
2446:
2445:
2444:
2437:
2430:
2429:
2423:
2416:
2415:
2414:
2413:
2412:
2410:
2407:
2373:H. rudolfensis
2265:
2264:
2255:
2254:
2246:
2245:
2244:
2243:
2242:
2206:) to refer to
2167:
2166:
2162:
2161:
2157:
2156:
2153:
2152:
2148:
2147:
2144:
2143:
2139:
2138:
2135:
2134:
2130:
2129:
2126:
2125:
2121:
2120:
2117:
2116:
2112:
2111:
2108:
2107:
2098:
2095:
2094:
2091:
2090:
2086:
2085:
2082:
2081:
2072:
2069:
2068:
2065:
2064:
2055:
2050:
2048:
2043:
2041:
2038:
2037:
2034:
2033:
2024:
2019:
2017:
2014:
2013:
2010:
2009:
2000:
1995:
1993:
1990:
1989:
1986:
1985:
1976:
1971:
1969:
1966:
1965:
1962:
1961:
1957:
1956:
1953:
1952:
1948:H. rudolfensis
1943:
1940:
1939:
1936:
1935:
1926:
1921:
1919:
1914:
1912:
1909:
1908:
1905:
1904:
1900:
1899:
1896:
1895:
1886:
1883:
1882:
1879:
1878:
1869:
1864:
1862:
1857:
1837:H. rudolfensis
1825:H. rudolfensis
1804:H. rudolfensis
1785:
1784:Classification
1782:
1656:Richard Leakey
1645:Ian Tattersall
1587:
1584:
1581:
1580:
1572:
1568:
1567:
1552:
1551:
1550:
1537:
1536:
1535:
1532:
1531:
1523:
1522:
1520:
1510:
1509:
1501:
1500:
1498:
1488:
1487:
1479:
1478:
1476:
1466:
1465:
1455:
1454:
1452:
1442:
1441:
1435:
1434:
1432:
1422:
1421:
1415:
1414:
1412:
1402:
1401:
1391:
1390:
1388:
1378:
1377:
1371:
1370:
1368:
1358:
1357:
1348:
1347:
1345:
1335:
1334:
1325:
1324:
1322:
1312:
1311:
1305:
1304:
1302:
1292:
1291:
1285:
1284:
1282:
1272:
1271:
1265:
1264:
1262:
1252:
1251:
1245:
1244:
1242:
1233:
1228:
1227:
1226:
1215:
1214:
1213:
1211:
1200:
1199:
1198:
1196:
1183:
1182:
1181:
1170:
1169:
1168:
1166:
1127:
1126:
1125:
1109:H. rudolfensis
1094:
1093:
1092:
1053:
1052:
1051:
1038:
1037:
1036:
1023:
1022:
1021:
1008:
1007:
1006:
985:
984:
983:
972:
971:
970:
963:Graecopithecus
959:
958:
957:
950:Sahelanthropus
946:
945:
944:
933:
932:
931:
920:
919:
918:
907:
906:
905:
880:Ouranopithecus
876:
875:
874:
863:
862:
861:
854:Nakalipithecus
850:
849:
848:
837:
836:
835:
824:
823:
822:
811:
810:
809:
796:
795:
794:
792:
789:0 —
787:
782:
777:
772:
767:
762:
757:
752:
747:
742:
737:
732:
727:
722:
717:
712:
707:
702:
697:
692:
687:
684:
683:
681:
680:
673:
666:
655:
652:
651:
644:
638:
635:
403:archaic humans
393:is an extinct
384:
383:
375:Homo okotensis
321:
320:
314:
313:
303:
289:
288:
282:
281:
273:
271:
267:
266:
259:
255:
254:
249:
245:
244:
239:
235:
234:
229:
225:
224:
219:
215:
214:
209:
205:
204:
199:
195:
194:
189:
185:
184:
179:
175:
174:
169:
165:
164:
159:
155:
154:
141:
140:
122:
121:
113:
112:
104:
103:
102:
97:
92:
87:
82:
77:
72:
67:
62:
57:
52:
47:
42:
28:
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
9679:
9668:
9665:
9663:
9660:
9658:
9655:
9653:
9650:
9649:
9647:
9630:
9625:
9621:
9617:
9612:
9608:
9604:
9599:
9595:
9591:
9586:
9582:
9578:
9572:
9567:
9566:Homo ergaster
9561:
9557:
9552:
9546:
9542:
9541:
9539:
9537:
9536:Homo ergaster
9533:
9529:
9524:
9502:
9499:
9498:
9497:
9494:
9492:
9489:
9485:
9482:
9480:
9477:
9475:
9472:
9470:
9467:
9466:
9465:
9462:
9458:
9455:
9454:
9453:
9450:
9448:
9445:
9443:
9440:
9436:
9433:
9431:
9428:
9426:
9423:
9422:
9421:
9418:
9414:
9411:
9410:
9409:
9406:
9404:
9401:
9397:
9394:
9392:
9389:
9388:
9387:
9384:
9383:
9381:
9377:
9371:
9368:
9366:
9363:
9361:
9358:
9356:
9355:Simple dolmen
9353:
9351:
9348:
9346:
9343:
9341:
9340:Passage grave
9338:
9336:
9333:
9331:
9328:
9324:
9321:
9319:
9316:
9315:
9314:
9311:
9309:
9306:
9304:
9301:
9297:
9294:
9292:
9289:
9288:
9287:
9286:Gallery grave
9284:
9282:
9279:
9275:
9272:
9271:
9270:
9267:
9265:
9262:
9260:
9257:
9255:
9252:
9248:
9245:
9244:
9243:
9240:
9236:
9233:
9232:
9231:
9228:
9224:
9221:
9220:
9219:
9216:
9212:
9209:
9207:
9204:
9203:
9202:
9201:Burial mounds
9199:
9198:
9196:
9194:
9190:
9184:
9181:
9177:
9174:
9172:
9169:
9168:
9167:
9164:
9162:
9161:Statue menhir
9159:
9157:
9154:
9150:
9149:Stone carving
9147:
9145:
9142:
9141:
9140:
9137:
9135:
9132:
9130:
9127:
9125:
9122:
9120:
9117:
9115:
9112:
9108:
9105:
9103:
9100:
9099:
9098:
9095:
9093:
9090:
9088:
9085:
9081:
9078:
9077:
9076:
9073:
9071:
9068:
9066:
9063:
9061:
9058:
9056:
9053:
9051:
9048:
9046:
9043:
9039:
9036:
9035:
9034:
9031:
9029:
9026:
9025:
9023:
9021:
9017:
9009:
9006:
9004:
9001:
9000:
8999:
8996:
8994:
8991:
8989:
8988:Sewing needle
8986:
8982:
8979:
8977:
8974:
8972:
8969:
8967:
8964:
8962:
8959:
8957:
8954:
8953:
8952:
8949:
8947:
8944:
8940:
8937:
8936:
8935:
8932:
8928:
8925:
8923:
8920:
8919:
8918:
8915:
8913:
8910:
8908:
8905:
8901:
8898:
8897:
8896:
8893:
8891:
8888:
8886:
8883:
8881:
8878:
8876:
8873:
8872:
8870:
8868:
8864:
8860:
8856:
8852:
8847:
8843:
8827:
8824:
8823:
8822:
8819:
8817:
8816:Timber circle
8814:
8812:
8809:
8807:
8804:
8802:
8799:
8795:
8792:
8791:
8790:
8787:
8785:
8782:
8778:
8775:
8774:
8773:
8770:
8766:
8765:Tor enclosure
8763:
8762:
8761:
8758:
8754:
8753:fulacht fiadh
8751:
8750:
8749:
8746:
8744:
8741:
8739:
8736:
8735:
8733:
8729:
8723:
8720:
8718:
8715:
8713:
8710:
8708:
8705:
8703:
8700:
8699:
8697:
8693:
8687:
8684:
8682:
8679:
8675:
8672:
8671:
8670:
8667:
8665:
8662:
8658:
8655:
8653:
8650:
8648:
8645:
8644:
8643:
8640:
8638:
8635:
8633:
8630:
8628:
8625:
8621:
8618:
8617:
8616:
8613:
8611:
8608:
8606:
8603:
8599:
8596:
8595:
8594:
8591:
8589:
8586:
8584:
8581:
8579:
8576:
8574:
8571:
8569:
8566:
8564:
8561:
8557:
8554:
8553:
8552:
8549:
8548:
8546:
8542:
8534:
8531:
8529:
8526:
8524:
8521:
8520:
8519:
8516:
8514:
8511:
8509:
8506:
8505:
8503:
8499:
8495:
8491:
8486:
8482:
8466:
8463:
8462:
8461:
8458:
8456:
8453:
8451:
8448:
8446:
8443:
8439:
8436:
8435:
8434:
8431:
8429:
8426:
8424:
8421:
8419:
8416:
8414:
8411:
8409:
8406:
8404:
8401:
8399:
8396:
8394:
8391:
8389:
8386:
8384:
8381:
8377:
8374:
8373:
8372:
8369:
8365:
8362:
8360:
8357:
8356:
8355:
8352:
8350:
8347:
8345:
8342:
8340:
8337:
8333:
8330:
8329:
8328:
8325:
8323:
8320:
8318:
8315:
8311:
8308:
8307:
8306:
8303:
8301:
8298:
8297:
8295:
8293:
8289:
8283:
8280:
8278:
8275:
8273:
8270:
8268:
8265:
8263:
8260:
8258:
8255:
8253:
8250:
8248:
8245:
8243:
8240:
8238:
8235:
8233:
8230:
8226:
8223:
8221:
8218:
8216:
8213:
8212:
8211:
8208:
8206:
8203:
8201:
8198:
8196:
8193:
8189:
8186:
8185:
8184:
8181:
8179:
8176:
8174:
8171:
8169:
8166:
8164:
8161:
8159:
8156:
8154:
8151:
8147:
8144:
8142:
8139:
8137:
8134:
8133:
8132:
8129:
8128:
8126:
8124:
8120:
8108:
8105:
8104:
8103:
8100:
8099:
8097:
8093:
8087:
8084:
8082:
8079:
8077:
8074:
8072:
8069:
8067:
8064:
8062:
8059:
8057:
8054:
8052:
8049:
8047:
8044:
8042:
8039:
8035:
8032:
8031:
8030:
8027:
8026:
8024:
8022:
8018:
8010:
8007:
8005:
8002:
8000:
7997:
7995:
7992:
7990:
7989:spear-thrower
7987:
7986:
7985:
7982:
7980:
7977:
7973:
7970:
7969:
7968:
7967:Bow and arrow
7965:
7961:
7958:
7957:
7956:
7953:
7951:
7948:
7947:
7944:
7941:
7939:
7935:
7929:
7926:
7924:
7921:
7919:
7916:
7914:
7911:
7909:
7906:
7904:
7901:
7897:
7894:
7892:
7889:
7888:
7887:
7884:
7882:
7879:
7877:
7876:Grinding slab
7874:
7872:
7869:
7865:
7862:
7861:
7860:
7857:
7855:
7852:
7850:
7847:
7846:
7844:
7840:
7834:
7831:
7829:
7826:
7824:
7821:
7819:
7816:
7814:
7811:
7809:
7808:Domestication
7806:
7804:
7803:Digging stick
7801:
7799:
7796:
7794:
7791:
7787:
7784:
7782:
7781:Founder crops
7779:
7778:
7777:
7774:
7773:
7771:
7769:
7765:
7761:
7757:
7752:
7748:
7742:
7739:
7735:
7732:
7731:
7730:
7727:
7723:
7722:New Stone Age
7720:
7718:
7715:
7713:
7710:
7708:
7705:
7703:
7700:
7699:
7698:
7695:
7694:
7691:
7687:
7680:
7675:
7673:
7668:
7666:
7661:
7660:
7657:
7645:
7644:
7639:
7635:
7633:
7632:
7623:
7621:
7620:
7611:
7610:
7607:
7601:
7598:
7594:
7591:
7590:
7589:
7586:
7584:
7581:
7579:
7576:
7574:
7571:
7570:
7568:
7564:
7558:
7555:
7553:
7550:
7548:
7545:
7544:
7542:
7538:
7528:
7525:
7523:
7520:
7518:
7515:
7513:
7510:
7508:
7505:
7503:
7500:
7499:
7497:
7495:
7491:
7485:
7482:
7480:
7477:
7475:
7472:
7470:
7467:
7465:
7462:
7460:
7457:
7455:
7452:
7450:
7447:
7445:
7442:
7440:
7437:
7436:
7434:
7429:
7421:
7418:
7416:
7413:
7412:
7411:Life history
7410:
7406:
7403:
7401:
7398:
7397:
7395:
7391:
7388:
7386:
7383:
7381:
7378:
7377:
7375:
7371:
7368:
7366:
7363:
7361:
7358:
7357:
7355:
7354:
7352:
7348:
7342:
7339:
7337:
7334:
7332:
7329:
7327:
7324:
7322:
7319:
7317:
7314:
7313:
7311:
7307:
7304:
7300:
7294:
7293:
7288:
7284:
7283:
7278:
7277:
7272:
7271:
7266:
7265:
7264:Homo ergaster
7260:
7259:
7255:
7254:
7252:
7250:
7246:
7228:
7225:
7223:
7220:
7218:
7215:
7213:
7210:
7208:
7207:
7203:
7201:
7198:
7196:
7194:
7193:H. s. sapiens
7190:
7189:
7187:
7185:
7184:
7179:
7176:
7174:
7173:Modern humans
7170:
7163:
7162:
7158:
7156:
7155:
7151:
7149:
7148:
7147:H. luzonensis
7144:
7141:
7140:
7136:
7134:
7133:
7129:
7127:
7126:
7122:
7119:
7118:
7114:
7112:
7109:
7107:
7106:
7105:H. antecessor
7102:
7101:
7099:
7097:
7093:
7083:
7082:
7078:
7076:
7075:
7071:
7069:
7068:
7064:
7062:
7061:
7057:
7055:
7054:
7050:
7048:
7047:
7043:
7041:
7040:
7036:
7034:
7033:
7032:H. e. erectus
7029:
7028:
7026:
7024:
7023:
7018:
7011:
7010:
7006:
7003:
7002:
6998:
6996:
6995:
6991:
6989:
6988:
6984:
6981:
6980:
6976:
6975:
6972:
6969:
6965:
6962:
6960:
6958:
6948:
6938:
6937:
6933:
6931:
6930:
6926:
6924:
6923:
6919:
6918:
6916:
6914:
6913:
6908:
6902:
6901:
6897:
6895:
6894:
6890:
6888:
6887:
6886:A. deyiremeda
6883:
6881:
6880:
6876:
6874:
6873:
6869:
6867:
6866:
6862:
6860:
6859:
6855:
6854:
6852:
6850:
6849:
6844:
6838:
6837:
6833:
6831:
6830:
6826:
6825:
6823:
6821:
6820:
6815:
6809:
6808:
6807:Kenyanthropus
6804:
6802:
6801:
6797:
6795:
6794:
6790:
6788:
6787:
6783:
6782:
6779:
6776:
6774:
6770:
6764:
6761:
6759:
6756:
6754:
6753:Gorillaâhuman
6751:
6749:
6746:
6745:
6743:
6741:
6737:
6734:
6731:
6726:
6722:
6718:
6711:
6706:
6704:
6699:
6697:
6692:
6691:
6688:
6681:
6678:
6675:
6674:
6673:Homo ergaster
6670:
6667:
6666:
6665:Homo ergaster
6662:
6659:
6658:
6657:Homo ergaster
6654:
6651:
6650:
6649:Homo ergaster
6646:
6645:
6634:
6630:
6626:
6622:
6618:
6614:
6610:
6606:
6602:
6598:
6594:
6589:
6585:
6581:
6577:
6573:
6569:
6565:
6561:
6557:
6553:
6548:
6544:
6540:
6536:
6532:
6528:
6524:
6520:
6518:
6517:Homo ergaster
6514:
6507:
6503:
6499:
6495:
6491:
6487:
6483:
6479:
6477:
6476:Homo ergaster
6470:
6467:(1): 208â228.
6466:
6462:
6458:
6456:
6449:
6434:
6430:
6424:
6420:
6413:
6411:
6410:Homo ergaster
6404:
6389:
6385:
6379:
6375:
6371:
6367:
6360:
6355:
6351:
6347:
6343:
6339:
6335:
6331:
6326:
6321:
6317:
6313:
6309:
6305:
6301:
6299:
6292:
6288:
6284:
6280:
6276:
6272:
6268:
6264:
6260:
6253:
6248:
6244:
6240:
6236:
6232:
6228:
6224:
6217:
6215:
6208:
6204:
6200:
6196:
6192:
6188:
6184:
6180:
6175:
6171:
6167:
6163:
6159:
6155:
6151:
6147:
6142:
6138:
6134:
6129:
6124:
6119:
6114:
6110:
6106:
6102:
6098:
6091:
6086:
6082:
6078:
6074:
6070:
6066:
6062:
6057:
6053:
6047:
6043:
6042:
6036:
6032:
6028:
6023:
6018:
6013:
6008:
6004:
6000:
5996:
5992:
5985:
5983:
5976:
5972:
5966:
5962:
5958:
5954:
5953:
5947:
5943:
5939:
5932:
5927:
5923:
5910:
5902:
5900:
5893:
5889:
5885:
5881:
5879:
5872:
5868:
5864:
5860:
5856:
5852:
5850:
5843:
5839:
5833:
5829:
5825:
5820:
5816:
5810:
5807:. Routledge.
5806:
5802:
5800:
5793:
5789:
5783:
5779:
5775:
5771:
5770:Homo ergaster
5766:
5762:
5758:
5754:
5750:
5745:
5744:11568/1040368
5740:
5736:
5732:
5728:
5724:
5720:
5718:
5714:
5710:
5703:
5699:
5695:
5690:
5685:
5681:
5677:
5673:
5669:
5665:
5661:
5657:
5655:
5647:
5643:
5639:
5634:
5629:
5625:
5621:
5617:
5613:
5609:
5604:
5600:
5596:
5592:
5588:
5584:
5580:
5575:
5571:
5567:
5563:
5559:
5555:
5551:
5547:
5543:
5539:
5535:
5531:
5526:
5522:
5518:
5513:
5508:
5504:
5500:
5496:
5492:
5488:
5483:
5479:
5475:
5471:
5467:
5463:
5459:
5455:
5451:
5447:
5443:
5439:
5437:
5430:
5426:
5422:
5418:
5414:
5409:
5404:
5400:
5396:
5392:
5388:
5381:
5376:
5372:
5368:
5363:
5358:
5353:
5348:
5344:
5340:
5336:
5331:
5327:
5323:
5319:
5315:
5311:
5307:
5303:
5299:
5295:
5291:
5287:
5285:
5278:
5274:
5270:
5265:
5260:
5255:
5250:
5246:
5242:
5238:
5234:
5230:
5228:
5221:
5217:
5211:
5207:
5202:
5198:
5194:
5190:
5186:
5182:
5178:
5174:
5172:
5165:
5161:
5157:
5152:
5147:
5143:
5139:
5135:
5133:
5126:
5122:
5118:
5114:
5110:
5106:
5104:
5097:
5093:
5089:
5085:
5081:
5077:
5073:
5068:
5064:
5060:
5056:
5052:
5048:
5044:
5040:
5036:
5032:
5028:
5024:
5023:Talbot, J. T.
5020:
5016:
5015:
5004:, p. 48.
5003:
4998:
4991:
4986:
4979:
4974:
4967:
4962:
4955:
4950:
4943:
4938:
4936:
4928:
4923:
4921:
4913:
4908:
4901:
4896:
4890:, p. 84.
4889:
4884:
4878:, p. 83.
4877:
4872:
4866:, p. 77.
4865:
4860:
4854:, p. 95.
4853:
4848:
4846:
4844:
4837:, p. 94.
4836:
4831:
4829:
4821:
4816:
4810:, p. 19.
4809:
4804:
4802:
4794:
4789:
4787:
4779:
4774:
4768:, p. 17.
4767:
4762:
4760:
4758:
4750:
4745:
4738:
4733:
4731:
4724:, p. 12.
4723:
4718:
4711:
4706:
4699:
4694:
4687:
4682:
4680:
4678:
4676:
4674:
4666:
4661:
4654:
4649:
4647:
4639:
4634:
4632:
4624:
4619:
4612:
4607:
4605:
4597:
4592:
4590:
4588:
4581:, p. 89.
4580:
4575:
4573:
4565:
4560:
4558:
4550:
4545:
4538:
4533:
4526:
4521:
4514:
4509:
4502:
4497:
4491:, p. 88.
4490:
4485:
4483:
4481:
4479:
4477:
4475:
4473:
4471:
4463:
4458:
4456:
4454:
4452:
4445:, p. 87.
4444:
4439:
4437:
4429:
4424:
4417:
4412:
4405:
4400:
4393:
4388:
4386:
4384:
4376:
4371:
4369:
4367:
4360:, p. 93.
4359:
4354:
4352:
4344:
4339:
4337:
4329:
4324:
4322:
4314:
4309:
4307:
4305:
4297:
4292:
4285:
4284:Schwartz 2000
4280:
4273:
4268:
4261:
4256:
4250:, p. 15.
4249:
4244:
4242:
4240:
4232:
4227:
4220:
4215:
4208:
4203:
4197:, p. 92.
4196:
4191:
4189:
4187:
4185:
4183:
4175:
4170:
4168:
4166:
4158:
4153:
4151:
4144:, p. 65.
4143:
4138:
4131:
4126:
4124:
4122:
4120:
4112:
4107:
4100:
4095:
4093:
4085:
4080:
4073:
4068:
4061:
4056:
4054:
4052:
4045:, p. 85.
4044:
4039:
4037:
4035:
4033:
4031:
4029:
4021:
4016:
4014:
4006:
4001:
3994:
3989:
3982:
3977:
3969:
3965:
3960:
3955:
3951:
3947:
3946:
3941:
3934:
3919:
3917:9780190854584
3913:
3909:
3905:
3901:
3897:
3890:
3884:, p. 14.
3883:
3878:
3871:
3866:
3859:
3854:
3850:
3841:
3838:
3836:
3833:
3832:
3826:
3824:
3819:
3817:
3813:
3808:
3804:
3800:
3796:
3792:
3788:
3784:
3774:
3771:
3770:Kalambo Falls
3767:
3763:
3759:
3754:
3752:
3748:
3743:
3739:
3735:
3731:
3726:
3722:
3716:
3706:
3702:
3700:
3692:
3687:
3683:
3681:
3676:
3672:
3668:
3664:
3660:
3652:
3648:
3643:
3638:
3623:
3620:
3615:
3610:
3607:
3603:
3597:
3595:
3591:
3587:
3583:
3578:
3576:
3571:
3567:
3563:
3552:
3548:
3544:
3540:
3536:
3531:
3526:
3520:
3516:
3515:Homo ergaster
3512:
3507:
3498:
3496:
3491:
3487:
3485:
3481:
3477:
3473:
3469:
3465:
3461:
3456:
3454:
3450:
3446:
3442:
3437:
3435:
3431:
3427:
3422:
3417:
3414:
3410:
3406:
3402:
3401:
3396:
3392:
3385:
3384:
3379:
3375:
3371:
3370:Homo ergaster
3367:
3363:
3349:
3347:
3343:
3339:
3334:
3330:
3326:
3322:
3318:
3314:
3310:
3305:
3301:
3297:
3287:
3285:
3280:
3276:
3272:
3268:
3264:
3259:
3256:
3252:
3251:
3246:
3245:
3240:
3236:
3230:
3226:
3221:
3212:
3210:
3205:
3200:
3198:
3194:
3189:
3179:
3175:
3173:
3169:
3164:
3160:
3156:
3152:
3148:
3140:
3139:Homo ergaster
3136:
3132:
3123:
3121:
3117:
3112:
3108:
3103:
3100:
3096:
3092:
3088:
3084:
3080:
3076:
3071:
3069:
3064:
3060:
3056:
3052:
3050:
3046:
3041:
3034:
3033:Homo ergaster
3030:
3026:
3012:
3010:
3006:
3002:
2998:
2994:
2990:
2986:
2982:
2978:
2974:
2971:
2967:
2966:
2961:
2957:
2953:
2949:
2944:
2940:
2939:EugĂšne Dubois
2936:
2932:
2927:
2925:
2924:Loess Plateau
2921:
2917:
2913:
2909:
2905:
2901:
2897:
2893:
2889:
2885:
2881:
2877:
2872:
2870:
2866:
2862:
2858:
2854:
2850:
2846:
2845:
2840:
2836:
2832:
2828:
2825:or along the
2824:
2819:
2817:
2812:
2808:
2802:
2800:
2796:
2792:
2788:
2784:
2780:
2776:
2772:
2768:
2764:
2756:
2755:
2747:
2746:
2738:
2737:
2732:
2731:Homo ergaster
2724:
2719:
2709:
2707:
2703:
2699:
2695:
2691:
2687:
2683:
2679:
2674:
2672:
2668:
2664:
2660:
2656:
2651:
2649:
2648:
2643:
2642:
2637:
2633:
2629:
2625:
2621:
2617:
2612:
2609:
2605:
2601:
2597:
2593:
2589:
2588:
2583:
2579:
2575:
2569:
2554:
2552:
2548:
2547:H. kenyaensis
2543:
2539:
2533:
2530:
2526:
2521:
2518:
2514:
2510:
2506:
2502:
2498:
2494:
2490:
2486:
2482:
2478:
2468:
2459:
2450:
2440:
2434:
2426:
2420:
2406:
2404:
2403:
2402:H. antecessor
2398:
2397:
2392:
2388:
2387:
2382:
2378:
2374:
2370:
2366:
2362:
2357:
2353:
2349:
2345:
2341:
2337:
2333:
2329:
2325:
2319:
2317:
2313:
2309:
2305:
2301:
2297:
2293:
2283:
2279:
2278:
2273:
2269:
2268:Homo ergaster
2259:
2250:
2241:
2239:
2238:
2233:
2232:
2231:H. antecessor
2227:
2223:
2219:
2218:
2213:
2209:
2205:
2204:
2203:sensu stricto
2199:
2194:
2190:
2186:
2182:
2178:
2174:
2164:
2163:
2155:
2154:
2146:
2145:
2137:
2136:
2128:
2127:
2119:
2118:
2110:
2109:
2106:
2105:
2104:
2097:
2096:
2093:
2092:
2084:
2083:
2080:
2079:
2078:
2071:
2070:
2067:
2066:
2063:
2062:
2061:
2054:
2053:
2047:
2046:
2040:
2039:
2036:
2035:
2032:
2031:
2030:
2029:H. antecessor
2023:
2022:
2016:
2015:
2012:
2011:
2008:
2007:
2006:
1999:
1998:
1992:
1991:
1988:
1987:
1984:
1983:
1982:
1975:
1974:
1968:
1967:
1964:
1963:
1955:
1954:
1951:
1950:
1949:
1942:
1941:
1938:
1937:
1934:
1933:
1932:
1925:
1924:
1918:
1917:
1911:
1910:
1907:
1906:
1898:
1897:
1894:
1893:
1892:
1885:
1884:
1881:
1880:
1877:
1876:
1875:
1874:Au. africanus
1868:
1867:
1861:
1860:
1856:
1855:
1852:
1850:
1846:
1842:
1838:
1834:
1830:
1826:
1822:
1818:
1814:
1810:
1806:
1805:
1800:
1799:
1794:
1790:
1781:
1779:
1775:
1771:
1767:
1763:
1759:
1755:
1751:
1747:
1743:
1738:
1736:
1732:
1728:
1727:Ancient Greek
1724:
1720:
1719:Homo ergaster
1716:
1712:
1708:
1703:
1701:
1697:
1693:
1690:recovered at
1689:
1685:
1681:
1677:
1673:
1669:
1665:
1661:
1657:
1652:
1650:
1646:
1642:
1638:
1634:
1633:
1628:
1627:
1622:
1618:
1614:
1613:
1605:
1604:Homo ergaster
1601:
1597:
1592:
1576:
1569:
1562:
1559:
1545:
1543:
1527:
1526:Modern humans
1521:
1516:
1515:
1505:
1499:
1494:
1493:
1483:
1477:
1472:
1471:
1462:
1458:
1457:Earliest fire
1453:
1448:
1447:
1438:
1433:
1428:
1427:
1418:
1413:
1408:
1407:
1398:
1397:
1389:
1384:
1383:
1374:
1369:
1364:
1363:
1354:
1353:
1346:
1341:
1340:
1331:
1330:
1323:
1318:
1317:
1308:
1303:
1298:
1297:
1288:
1283:
1278:
1277:
1268:
1267:Gorilla split
1263:
1258:
1257:
1248:
1243:
1238:
1237:
1220:
1205:
1192:
1191:
1189:
1177:
1175:
1161:
1159:
1153:
1151:
1145:
1143:
1142:H. antecessor
1136:
1135:
1133:
1120:
1118:
1112:
1110:
1103:
1102:
1100:
1087:
1085:
1084:Au. anamensis
1079:
1077:
1076:Au. afarensis
1071:
1069:
1068:Au. africanus
1062:
1061:
1059:
1046:
1044:
1031:
1029:
1017:
1016:
1014:
1001:
999:
998:O. tugenensis
993:
991:
979:
977:
966:
964:
953:
951:
940:
938:
927:
925:
914:
912:
900:
898:
892:
890:
883:
881:
870:
868:
857:
855:
843:
842:
831:
829:
818:
816:
805:
803:
685:
679:
674:
672:
667:
665:
660:
659:
653:
649:
642:
634:
632:
628:
624:
620:
616:
612:
608:
604:
603:apex predator
600:
596:
592:
588:
584:
580:
578:
574:
570:
566:
565:
560:
556:
552:
547:
545:
541:
540:modern humans
537:
533:
529:
525:
521:
517:
513:
509:
505:
501:
497:
492:
488:
483:
481:
480:
475:
471:
470:chronospecies
467:
463:
459:
455:
451:
447:
446:Homo ergaster
443:
442:
437:
436:
430:
426:
422:
421:
416:
412:
408:
405:who lived in
404:
400:
396:
392:
391:
390:Homo ergaster
382:
379:Zeitoun, 2000
376:
370:Zeitoun, 2000
367:
361:Kretzoi, 1984
358:
357:
347:
345:
337:
333:
328:
322:
319:
315:
310:
306:
301:
299:
298:Homo ergaster
290:
287:
286:Binomial name
283:
279:
278:
272:
269:
268:
265:
264:
260:
257:
256:
253:
250:
247:
246:
243:
240:
237:
236:
233:
230:
227:
226:
223:
220:
217:
216:
213:
210:
207:
206:
203:
200:
197:
196:
193:
190:
187:
186:
183:
180:
177:
176:
173:
170:
167:
166:
163:
160:
157:
156:
151:
146:
142:
139:
135:
131:
130:Homo ergaster
127:
123:
119:
114:
100:
95:
90:
85:
80:
75:
70:
65:
60:
55:
50:
45:
39:
32:
26:
25:Homo ergaster
22:
19:
9657:Homo erectus
9535:
9296:wedge-shaped
9281:Funeral pyre
9274:Great dolmen
9230:Chamber tomb
9211:Round barrow
9166:Stone circle
9038:Blombos Cave
8966:Grooved ware
8890:Chalcolithic
8794:Thornborough
8712:Flush toilet
8647:Blombos Cave
8642:Rock shelter
8598:Quiggly hole
8490:Architecture
8465:illustration
8107:Buffalo jump
7928:Storage pits
7891:AĆıklı HöyĂŒk
7881:Ground stone
7717:Subdivisions
7641:
7629:
7617:
7484:Gender roles
7479:Intelligence
7292:Homo sapiens
7290:
7286:
7280:
7274:
7270:Homo erectus
7268:
7263:
7262:
7258:Homo habilis
7256:
7217:Manot people
7206:H. s. idaltu
7204:
7200:Jebel Irhoud
7192:
7183:Homo sapiens
7181:
7159:
7152:
7145:
7137:
7130:
7123:
7116:
7115:
7103:
7079:
7072:
7065:
7058:
7051:
7044:
7037:
7030:
7022:Homo erectus
7020:
7007:
6999:
6992:
6985:
6977:
6967:Proto-humans
6956:
6953:proto-humans
6934:
6927:
6920:
6912:Paranthropus
6910:
6898:
6891:
6884:
6877:
6872:A. anamensis
6870:
6865:A. africanus
6863:
6858:A. afarensis
6856:
6846:
6834:
6827:
6819:Ardipithecus
6817:
6805:
6798:
6791:
6784:
6763:Gibbonâhuman
6671:
6664:
6655:
6647:
6600:
6596:
6559:
6555:
6526:
6522:
6516:
6512:
6485:
6481:
6475:
6464:
6460:
6454:
6440:. Retrieved
6433:the original
6421:. Springer.
6418:
6409:
6395:. Retrieved
6388:the original
6365:
6307:
6303:
6298:Homo erectus
6297:
6262:
6258:
6226:
6222:
6214:Homo erectus
6213:
6186:
6182:
6179:Homo erectus
6178:
6153:
6149:
6145:
6100:
6096:
6064:
6060:
6040:
5994:
5990:
5981:
5955:. Springer.
5951:
5941:
5937:
5909:cite journal
5899:Homo erectus
5898:
5887:
5883:
5878:Homo erectus
5877:
5858:
5854:
5848:
5827:
5804:
5798:
5780:. Springer.
5777:
5773:
5769:
5726:
5722:
5717:Homo erectus
5716:
5715:, and early
5713:Paranthropus
5712:
5708:
5663:
5659:
5654:Homo erectus
5653:
5615:
5611:
5582:
5578:
5537:
5533:
5494:
5490:
5445:
5441:
5436:Homo erectus
5435:
5390:
5386:
5342:
5338:
5293:
5289:
5284:Homo erectus
5283:
5236:
5232:
5227:Homo erectus
5226:
5208:. Springer.
5205:
5180:
5176:
5171:Homo erectus
5170:
5141:
5137:
5132:Homo erectus
5131:
5112:
5108:
5102:
5075:
5071:
5030:
5026:
4997:
4985:
4973:
4961:
4956:, p. 5.
4954:Gowlett 2016
4949:
4944:, p. 4.
4942:Gowlett 2016
4914:, p. 3.
4912:Gowlett 2016
4907:
4902:, p. 2.
4900:Gowlett 2016
4895:
4883:
4871:
4859:
4815:
4773:
4744:
4717:
4705:
4693:
4660:
4618:
4544:
4532:
4520:
4508:
4496:
4462:Roberts 2018
4428:Ciochon 2009
4423:
4418:, p. 1.
4411:
4399:
4291:
4279:
4274:, p. 9.
4267:
4262:, p. 8.
4255:
4226:
4214:
4202:
4137:
4106:
4079:
4067:
4060:Roberts 2018
4022:, p. 4.
4000:
3995:, p. 2.
3988:
3983:, p. 1.
3976:
3949:
3943:
3933:
3921:. Retrieved
3899:
3889:
3877:
3872:, p. 5.
3865:
3853:
3820:
3811:
3806:
3802:
3786:
3780:
3757:
3755:
3747:Lake Baringo
3741:
3737:
3733:
3729:
3724:
3720:
3718:
3703:
3695:
3679:
3670:
3666:
3658:
3656:
3645:A cordiform
3613:
3611:
3601:
3598:
3589:
3585:
3581:
3579:
3574:
3565:
3561:
3550:
3546:
3538:
3529:
3524:
3523:
3519:Homo erectus
3518:
3514:
3494:
3489:
3488:
3483:
3463:
3459:
3457:
3444:
3440:
3438:
3433:
3429:
3425:
3420:
3418:
3412:
3408:
3404:
3398:
3394:
3390:
3388:
3381:
3378:Homo erectus
3377:
3369:
3345:
3341:
3338:altriciality
3332:
3320:
3316:
3308:
3303:
3298:pelvis from
3295:
3293:
3283:
3278:
3274:
3270:
3269:and earlier
3266:
3260:
3254:
3250:Paranthropus
3248:
3242:
3238:
3234:
3233:
3208:
3203:
3201:
3196:
3187:
3184:
3167:
3162:
3158:
3154:
3150:
3146:
3144:
3138:
3120:UV radiation
3106:
3104:
3098:
3094:
3078:
3074:
3072:
3067:
3062:
3054:
3053:
3048:
3039:
3037:
3032:
3029:KNM-WT 15000
3008:
3004:
3000:
2996:
2992:
2988:
2984:
2980:
2976:
2965:Meganthropus
2963:
2959:
2955:
2951:
2947:
2942:
2934:
2930:
2928:
2919:
2915:
2911:
2907:
2902:. The skull
2899:
2895:
2891:
2887:
2883:
2879:
2875:
2873:
2868:
2860:
2856:
2844:H. georgicus
2842:
2838:
2830:
2820:
2815:
2810:
2806:
2803:
2798:
2794:
2790:
2786:
2782:
2778:
2774:
2770:
2766:
2762:
2760:
2754:Homo sapiens
2752:
2748:(ochre) and
2743:
2736:Homo erectus
2734:
2730:
2705:
2701:
2697:
2694:H. ergaster.
2693:
2689:
2685:
2681:
2677:
2675:
2670:
2666:
2658:
2654:
2652:
2645:
2639:
2635:
2631:
2619:
2615:
2613:
2607:
2603:
2599:
2595:
2591:
2585:
2581:
2577:
2571:
2551:H. okotensis
2550:
2546:
2541:
2537:
2534:
2528:
2524:
2522:
2504:
2500:
2496:
2492:
2488:
2484:
2480:
2476:
2474:
2467:KNM-WT 15000
2400:
2394:
2390:
2384:
2380:
2376:
2372:
2368:
2367:, alongside
2364:
2360:
2355:
2331:
2327:
2323:
2320:
2315:
2307:
2303:
2299:
2295:
2291:
2289:
2277:Homo erectus
2275:
2274:) and later
2267:
2235:
2229:
2225:
2221:
2215:
2211:
2207:
2201:
2197:
2192:
2188:
2184:
2180:
2176:
2172:
2170:
2101:
2100:
2075:
2074:
2058:
2057:
2027:
2026:
2003:
2002:
1980:
1979:
1978:
1946:
1945:
1929:
1928:
1889:
1888:
1872:
1871:
1848:
1844:
1836:
1832:
1828:
1824:
1820:
1816:
1812:
1808:
1802:
1796:
1792:
1788:
1787:
1777:
1773:
1769:
1765:
1761:
1757:
1753:
1749:
1746:KNM-WT 15000
1742:Kamoya Kimeu
1739:
1734:
1730:
1722:
1721:. The name (
1718:
1707:Colin Groves
1704:
1699:
1698:in 1972 as "
1683:
1679:
1664:Lake Turkana
1653:
1648:
1640:
1636:
1630:
1626:Homo sapiens
1624:
1610:
1608:
1603:
1602:specimen of
1554:
1539:
1395:
1351:
1329:Ardipithecus
1328:
1247:Earlier apes
1204:Neanderthals
1188:Homo sapiens
1185:
1184:
1171:
1155:
1149:
1147:
1139:
1129:
1128:
1114:
1106:
1096:
1095:
1081:
1073:
1065:
1055:
1054:
1040:
1025:
1013:Ardipithecus
1010:
1009:
995:
987:
973:
960:
947:
937:Sivapithecus
934:
924:Oreopithecus
921:
908:
894:
886:
877:
864:
851:
839:
825:
812:
797:
626:
614:
613:pair bonds.
606:
598:
590:
586:
582:
581:
576:
572:
562:
558:
550:
548:
544:Neanderthals
531:
527:
523:
519:
515:
511:
507:
503:
499:
495:
490:
486:
484:
477:
473:
465:
462:Lake Turkana
457:
453:
445:
444:". The name
440:
439:
435:Homo erectus
434:
432:
428:
418:
414:
389:
388:
387:
374:
365:
354:
344:Homo erectus
342:
326:
324:
297:
292:
276:
275:
262:
218:Infraorder:
129:
24:
18:
9560:Wikispecies
9318:unchambered
9313:Long barrow
9303:Grave goods
9259:Court cairn
9254:Clava cairn
9206:Bowl barrow
9144:Rock cupule
9087:Golden hats
9080:Hill figure
8981:Unstan ware
8961:Cord-marked
8826:Sweet Track
8748:Burnt mound
8669:Stilt house
8657:Sibudu Cave
8450:Tally stick
8418:Quern-stone
8403:Hammerstone
8393:Fire plough
8364:Pesse canoe
8322:Bannerstone
8292:Other tools
8205:Lithic core
8153:Aurignacian
8041:Bare Island
7923:Quern-stone
7415:Grandmother
7370:Shore-based
7331:Aquatic ape
7222:Tam Pa Ling
7117:H. ergaster
6936:P. robustus
5144:: 126â170.
5115:: 323â338.
3787:H. ergaster
3783:spinal cord
3758:H. ergaster
3734:H. ergaster
3730:H. ergaster
3725:H. ergaster
3680:H. ergaster
3671:H. ergaster
3659:H. ergaster
3614:H. ergaster
3602:H. ergaster
3590:H. ergaster
3586:H. ergaster
3575:H. ergaster
3568:, based on
3530:H. ergaster
3525:H. ergaster
3495:H. ergaster
3490:H. ergaster
3484:H. ergaster
3464:H. ergaster
3460:H. ergaster
3445:H. ergaster
3441:H. ergaster
3434:H. ergaster
3430:H. ergaster
3426:H. ergaster
3421:H. ergaster
3413:H. ergaster
3409:H. ergaster
3405:H. ergaster
3395:H. ergaster
3391:H. ergaster
3342:H. ergaster
3333:H. ergaster
3304:H. ergaster
3296:H. ergaster
3279:H. ergaster
3275:H. ergaster
3267:H. ergaster
3255:H. ergaster
3235:H. ergaster
3225:Turkana boy
3209:H. ergaster
3204:H. ergaster
3193:prognathism
3168:H. ergaster
3163:H. ergaster
3159:H. ergaster
3147:H. ergaster
3137:, a famous
3135:KNM ER 3733
3107:H. ergaster
3099:H. ergaster
3079:H. ergaster
3075:H. ergaster
3068:H. ergaster
3061:, a famous
3055:H. ergaster
3049:H. ergaster
3040:H. ergaster
3005:H. ergaster
2997:H. ergaster
2960:H. ergaster
2912:H. ergaster
2900:H. ergaster
2896:H. ergaster
2888:H. ergaster
2884:H. ergaster
2880:H. ergaster
2869:H. ergaster
2839:H. ergaster
2827:Nile Valley
2816:H. ergaster
2811:H. ergaster
2807:H. ergaster
2799:H. ergaster
2795:H. ergaster
2785:(or "early
2783:H. ergaster
2775:H. ergaster
2767:H. ergaster
2698:H. ergaster
2671:H. ergaster
2659:H. ergaster
2655:H. ergaster
2636:H. ergaster
2620:H. ergaster
2608:H. ergaster
2602:, probably
2596:H. ergaster
2592:H. ergaster
2578:H. ergaster
2574:East Africa
2538:H. ergaster
2525:H. ergaster
2517:KNM ER 3724
2501:H. ergaster
2489:H. ergaster
2481:H. ergaster
2439:KNM ER 3883
2425:KNM ER 3733
2361:H. ergaster
2340:chimpanzees
2328:H. ergaster
2312:brow ridges
2308:H. ergaster
2300:H. ergaster
2292:H. ergaster
2272:KNM ER 3733
2226:H. ergaster
2193:H. ergaster
2177:H. ergaster
2173:H. ergaster
1981:H. ergaster
1849:H. ergaster
1817:H. ergaster
1809:H. ergaster
1789:H. ergaster
1778:H. ergaster
1774:H. ergaster
1766:H. ergaster
1754:H. ergaster
1674:, found at
1672:KNM ER 3883
1668:KNM ER 3733
1660:Alan Walker
1617:Pleistocene
1594:Replica of
1150:H. ergaster
1043:Ar. ramidus
1028:Ar. kadabba
990:O. praegens
828:Pleistocene
657:This box:
627:H. ergaster
615:H. ergaster
607:H. ergaster
599:H. ergaster
591:H. ergaster
583:H. ergaster
573:H. ergaster
551:H. ergaster
532:H. ergaster
520:H. ergaster
516:H. ergaster
512:H. ergaster
504:H. ergaster
487:H. ergaster
474:H. ergaster
466:H. ergaster
458:H. ergaster
454:H. ergaster
429:H. ergaster
415:H. ergaster
238:Subfamily:
222:Simiiformes
126:KNM-ER 3733
31:Pleistocene
9646:Categories
9457:trepanning
9350:Ring cairn
9308:Jar burial
9291:transepted
9223:U.S. sites
9124:Petroglyph
9050:Bird stone
9008:wine press
8681:Stone roof
8664:Roundhouse
8556:long house
8533:Stonehenge
8501:Ceremonial
8445:Stone tool
8272:Tool stone
8242:Metallurgy
8146:Mousterian
8123:Toolmaking
8061:Cumberland
8034:Transverse
8004:Schöningen
7896:Qesem cave
7864:Earth oven
7818:Irrigation
7729:Technology
7697:Prehistory
7454:Skin color
7439:Bipedalism
7400:Killer ape
7212:Cro-Magnon
7111:Denisovans
6987:H. habilis
6951:Humans and
6836:A. ramidus
6829:A. kadabba
6296:"A Female
4852:Klein 2005
4835:Klein 2005
4579:Klein 2005
4564:Klein 2005
4513:Giles 2010
4489:Klein 2005
4443:Klein 2005
4404:Klein 2005
4375:Klein 2005
4358:Klein 2005
4343:Klein 2005
4296:Bonde 2012
4207:AntĂłn 2003
4195:Klein 2005
4072:AntĂłn 2003
4043:Klein 2005
3846:References
3803:H. erectus
3799:Marc Meyer
3766:Swartkrans
3762:Wonderwerk
3738:H. erectus
3713:See also:
3635:See also:
3626:Technology
3606:monogamous
3562:H. habilis
3453:carnivoran
3374:KNM ER 992
3346:H. erectus
3325:great apes
3321:H. erectus
3317:H. erectus
3197:H. habilis
3188:H. habilis
3155:H. habilis
3151:H. habilis
3111:pubic lice
3009:H. erectus
3001:H. erectus
2993:H. erectus
2981:H. habilis
2956:H. erectus
2943:H. erectus
2935:H. sapiens
2920:H. habilis
2916:H. erectus
2908:H. habilis
2892:H. habilis
2861:H. erectus
2791:H. erectus
2787:H. erectus
2771:H. erectus
2763:H. erectus
2739:(yellow),
2716:See also:
2690:H. sapiens
2678:H. erectus
2667:H. erectus
2632:H. erectus
2616:H. erectus
2604:H. habilis
2542:H. erectus
2529:H. erectus
2497:H. erectus
2493:H. erectus
2485:H. erectus
2477:H. erectus
2391:H. sapiens
2377:H. erectus
2369:H. habilis
2356:H. erectus
2348:orangutans
2332:H. erectus
2324:H. erectus
2316:H. erectus
2304:H. erectus
2296:H. erectus
2282:Peking Man
2224:, such as
2222:H. erectus
2217:sensu lato
2212:H. erectus
2208:H. erectus
2198:H. erectus
2189:H. erectus
2185:H. erectus
2181:H. erectus
2103:H. sapiens
2005:H. erectus
1931:H. habilis
1833:H. habilis
1821:H. habilis
1798:H. habilis
1795:, notably
1770:H. erectus
1750:H. erectus
1735:H. erectus
1729:áŒÏγαÏÏÎźÏ,
1696:KNM ER 992
1684:H. erectus
1680:H. erectus
1676:Koobi Fora
1649:H. erectus
1641:H. erectus
1632:H. erectus
1596:KNM ER 992
1219:Denisovans
1158:Au. sediba
1132:H. erectus
1099:H. habilis
889:Ou. turkae
611:monogamous
569:bipedalism
564:H. habilis
561:, such as
528:H. erectus
524:H. erectus
508:H. erectus
496:H. erectus
491:H. erectus
420:H. erectus
413:. Whether
399:subspecies
212:Haplorhini
208:Suborder:
134:Koobi Fora
9501:symbolism
9365:Tor cairn
9323:GrĂžnsalen
9264:Cremation
9156:Sculpture
9134:Pictogram
9119:Petroform
8939:amber use
8907:Cosmetics
8717:Reservoir
8702:Check dam
8632:Pueblitos
8627:Pit-house
8610:Longhouse
8544:Dwellings
8413:Microlith
8344:Bow drill
8339:Bone tool
8332:prismatic
8141:Acheulean
8056:Cresswell
8029:Arrowhead
7955:Boomerang
7871:Granaries
7833:Terracing
7712:Stone Age
7573:Theorists
7540:Timelines
7420:Patriarch
7396:Behavior
7321:Gathering
7249:Ancestors
6994:H. naledi
6929:P. boisei
6900:A. sediba
6488:: 11â21.
6320:CiteSeerX
6229:: 48â59.
6216:skeleton"
6170:164992270
6081:224795768
5761:214763272
5497:: 72â82.
5425:205047272
5092:144347664
5019:Broom, R.
4231:Baab 2008
4219:Baab 2008
3952:: 27â56.
3795:scoliosis
3675:hand axes
3653:(replica)
3651:Acheulean
3637:Acheulean
3570:neocortex
3468:ungulates
3089:load and
3011:fossils.
2865:Acheulean
2708:emerged.
1891:Au. garhi
1117:Au. garhi
623:hand axes
619:Acheulean
270:Species:
242:Homininae
232:Hominidae
168:Kingdom:
162:Eukaryota
9616:10031853
9574:BioLib:
9545:Wikidata
9139:Rock art
9102:painting
9075:Geoglyph
8900:timeline
8880:Beadwork
8620:Mehrgarh
8615:Mudbrick
8523:megalith
8398:Fire-saw
8220:debitage
8215:analysis
8183:Hand axe
8163:Cupstone
7741:Glossary
7702:Timeline
7619:Category
7474:Language
7444:Skeleton
7139:H. longi
6893:A. garhi
6730:Hominins
6725:Taxonomy
6633:49670311
6625:29995848
6584:10102822
6543:15566947
6502:28688456
6350:22191315
6342:19008443
6287:23195350
6279:10928927
6243:24491377
6203:23283736
6137:22160694
6031:12878734
5944:: 77â88.
5753:32241925
5698:27403790
5642:27216521
5599:84164968
5562:16371999
5521:27178459
5470:15372030
5417:19536242
5371:15252198
5273:22174868
5233:PLOS ONE
5197:18191986
5160:14666536
5055:18137042
3968:33675083
3923:19 April
3829:See also
3777:Language
3699:discuses
3691:hand axe
3647:hand axe
3087:parasite
3083:sweating
2853:Java Man
2849:Ubeidiya
2696:Because
2673:skulls.
2628:Drimolen
2344:gorillas
2322:various
1731:ergastážr
1723:ergaster
1715:holotype
1688:mandible
1600:holotype
841:Hominini
815:Pliocene
637:Taxonomy
536:hominins
433:African
346:ergaster
336:Robinson
318:Synonyms
252:Hominini
228:Family:
202:Primates
192:Mammalia
182:Chordata
178:Phylum:
172:Animalia
158:Domain:
9603:4827625
9590:4454121
9551:Q105777
9496:Symbols
9107:pigment
8993:Weaving
8956:Cardium
8951:Pottery
8946:Mirrors
8934:Jewelry
8875:Baskets
8855:culture
8707:Cistern
8513:Pyramid
8455:Weapons
8433:Scraper
8423:Racloir
8383:Cleaver
8371:Chopper
8277:Uniface
8188:Grooves
8178:Hafting
8136:Oldowan
8095:Systems
8046:Cascade
8009:woomera
7999:harpoon
7972:history
7938:Hunting
7918:Pottery
7859:Cooking
7768:Farming
7734:history
7707:Outline
7631:Commons
7583:Fossils
7449:Muscles
7360:Cooking
7316:Hunting
6793:Orrorin
6605:Bibcode
6564:Bibcode
6556:Science
6312:Bibcode
6304:Science
6259:Science
6128:3248486
6105:Bibcode
5999:Bibcode
5863:Bibcode
5723:Science
5689:4941528
5668:Bibcode
5633:4874402
5570:4405913
5542:Bibcode
5512:4874949
5478:4428043
5450:Bibcode
5395:Bibcode
5326:4311887
5318:3929141
5298:Bibcode
5282:"Early
5264:3235142
5241:Bibcode
5063:4106457
5035:Bibcode
3663:Oldowan
3558:
3543:bonobos
3352:Culture
3015:Anatomy
2989:erectus
2970:hominid
2823:Red Sea
2624:DNH 134
2513:Olduvai
1758:erectus
1518:←
1496:←
1474:←
1461:cooking
1450:←
1430:←
1410:←
1386:←
1366:←
1343:←
1320:←
1300:←
1280:←
1260:←
1240:←
976:Orrorin
801:Miocene
784:–
774:–
764:–
754:–
744:–
734:–
724:–
714:–
704:–
694:–
601:was an
450:working
409:in the
395:species
295:†
274:†
258:Genus:
248:Tribe:
198:Order:
188:Class:
105:↓
9474:flutes
9269:Dolmen
9193:Burial
9003:winery
8976:Linear
8806:Midden
8784:Cursus
8777:Goseck
8637:Pueblo
8588:Dugout
8573:Burdei
8252:Mining
8076:Lamoka
8071:Folsom
8051:Clovis
7908:Metate
7886:Hearth
7854:Basket
7828:Sickle
7566:Others
7469:Speech
7431:Topics
7376:Drugs
7302:Models
6631:
6623:
6597:Nature
6582:
6541:
6500:
6442:23 May
6425:
6397:23 May
6380:
6348:
6340:
6322:
6285:
6277:
6241:
6201:
6168:
6135:
6125:
6079:
6048:
6029:
6022:170931
6019:
5967:
5890:: A12.
5834:
5811:
5784:
5759:
5751:
5696:
5686:
5640:
5630:
5597:
5568:
5560:
5534:Nature
5519:
5509:
5476:
5468:
5442:Nature
5423:
5415:
5387:Nature
5369:
5362:503716
5359:
5324:
5316:
5290:Nature
5271:
5261:
5212:
5195:
5158:
5090:
5061:
5053:
5027:Nature
3966:
3914:
3751:clasts
3657:Early
3511:Ileret
3307:early
2757:(red).
2750:
2741:
2728:
2336:humans
2214:s.l. (
2200:s.s. (
1692:Ileret
1598:, the
1229:
438:" or "
407:Africa
338:, 1949
311:, 1975
305:Groves
9629:83083
9611:IRMNG
9577:32387
9391:sites
9335:Mummy
9055:Cairn
8971:JĆmon
8922:shoes
8917:Hides
8789:Henge
8743:Broch
8605:Jacal
8460:Wheel
8408:Knife
8354:Canoe
8349:Burin
8327:Blade
8225:flake
8086:Plano
7994:baton
7984:Spear
7950:Arrow
7903:Manos
7756:Tools
7578:Books
7356:Diet
6629:S2CID
6436:(PDF)
6415:(PDF)
6391:(PDF)
6362:(PDF)
6346:S2CID
6283:S2CID
6255:(PDF)
6219:(PDF)
6166:S2CID
6093:(PDF)
6077:S2CID
5987:(PDF)
5934:(PDF)
5757:S2CID
5595:S2CID
5566:S2CID
5474:S2CID
5421:S2CID
5383:(PDF)
5322:S2CID
5088:S2CID
5059:S2CID
3476:Hadza
3141:skull
3045:tibia
2904:D2700
2622:) is
2511:from
2509:OH 22
553:from
506:into
332:Broom
309:MazĂĄk
138:Kenya
9598:GBIF
9484:gudi
9242:Cist
9171:list
8998:Wine
8927:Ătzi
8912:Glue
8885:Beds
8853:and
8851:Arts
8722:Well
8578:Cave
8508:Kiva
8438:side
8428:Rope
8376:tool
8310:bone
8300:Adze
8066:Eden
7979:Nets
7849:Fire
7813:Goad
7798:Celt
7459:Hair
7279:) â
6957:Homo
6621:PMID
6580:PMID
6539:PMID
6498:PMID
6455:Homo
6444:2020
6423:ISBN
6399:2020
6378:ISBN
6338:PMID
6275:PMID
6239:PMID
6199:PMID
6146:Homo
6133:PMID
6097:PNAS
6046:ISBN
6027:PMID
5991:PNAS
5965:ISBN
5942:2009
5922:help
5849:Homo
5832:ISBN
5809:ISBN
5782:ISBN
5772:and
5749:PMID
5694:PMID
5638:PMID
5558:PMID
5517:PMID
5466:PMID
5413:PMID
5367:PMID
5339:PNAS
5314:PMID
5269:PMID
5210:ISBN
5193:PMID
5156:PMID
5103:Homo
5051:PMID
3964:PMID
3925:2021
3912:ISBN
3812:Homo
3807:Homo
3793:and
3781:The
3764:and
3742:Homo
3721:Homo
3709:Fire
3667:Homo
3582:Homo
3564:and
3551:Homo
3547:Homo
3539:Homo
3478:and
3383:Homo
3344:and
3309:Homo
3300:Gona
3271:Homo
3247:and
3239:Homo
3095:Homo
3059:Lucy
2983:and
2958:(or
2952:Homo
2948:Homo
2931:Homo
2914:(or
2876:Homo
2831:Homo
2779:Homo
2702:Homo
2684:and
2676:The
2644:and
2600:Homo
2584:and
2582:Homo
2515:and
2505:Homo
2399:and
2389:and
2365:Homo
2338:and
2234:and
2191:and
1847:was
1845:Homo
1835:and
1829:Homo
1823:and
1813:Homo
1801:and
1793:Homo
1762:Homo
1709:and
1700:Homo
1670:and
1658:and
1637:Homo
1612:Homo
1396:Homo
677:edit
670:talk
663:view
587:Homo
577:Homo
559:Homo
542:and
500:Homo
479:Homo
431:as "
334:and
307:and
263:Homo
44:Preê
9585:EoL
8593:Hut
8528:row
8359:Oar
8317:Axe
8305:Awl
7273:(â
7164:(?)
7142:(?)
7120:(?)
7012:(?)
7004:(?)
6982:(?)
6613:doi
6601:559
6572:doi
6560:284
6531:doi
6490:doi
6486:109
6370:doi
6330:doi
6308:322
6267:doi
6263:289
6231:doi
6191:doi
6187:150
6158:doi
6123:PMC
6113:doi
6101:108
6069:doi
6017:PMC
6007:doi
5995:100
5957:doi
5739:hdl
5731:doi
5727:368
5684:PMC
5676:doi
5628:PMC
5620:doi
5616:371
5587:doi
5550:doi
5538:438
5507:PMC
5499:doi
5458:doi
5446:431
5403:doi
5391:459
5357:PMC
5347:doi
5343:101
5306:doi
5294:316
5259:PMC
5249:doi
5185:doi
5146:doi
5117:doi
5080:doi
5043:doi
5031:164
3954:doi
3950:175
3904:doi
3719:As
3480:San
3368:of
3366:Jaw
3331:of
3174:).
2973:ape
2479:or
401:of
397:or
9648::
9626::
9613::
9600::
9587::
9562::
9547::
7289:â
7285:â
7267:/
7261:â
6627:.
6619:.
6611:.
6599:.
6595:.
6578:.
6570:.
6558:.
6554:.
6537:.
6527:47
6525:.
6521:.
6496:.
6484:.
6480:.
6465:35
6463:.
6459:.
6376:.
6344:.
6336:.
6328:.
6318:.
6306:.
6302:.
6281:.
6273:.
6261:.
6257:.
6237:.
6227:67
6225:.
6221:.
6197:.
6185:.
6164:.
6154:58
6152:.
6131:.
6121:.
6111:.
6099:.
6095:.
6075:.
6065:45
6063:.
6025:.
6015:.
6005:.
5993:.
5989:.
5963:.
5940:.
5936:.
5913::
5911:}}
5907:{{
5888:40
5886:.
5882:.
5859:84
5857:.
5853:.
5755:.
5747:.
5737:.
5725:.
5721:.
5711:,
5692:.
5682:.
5674:.
5662:.
5658:.
5636:.
5626:.
5614:.
5610:.
5593:.
5581:.
5564:.
5556:.
5548:.
5536:.
5532:.
5515:.
5505:.
5495:94
5493:.
5489:.
5472:.
5464:.
5456:.
5444:.
5440:.
5419:.
5411:.
5401:.
5389:.
5385:.
5365:.
5355:.
5341:.
5337:.
5320:.
5312:.
5304:.
5292:.
5288:.
5267:.
5257:.
5247:.
5235:.
5231:.
5191:.
5181:54
5179:.
5175:.
5154:.
5142:46
5140:.
5136:.
5113:31
5111:.
5107:.
5086:.
5076:34
5074:.
5057:.
5049:.
5041:.
5029:.
5021:;
4934:^
4919:^
4842:^
4827:^
4800:^
4785:^
4756:^
4729:^
4672:^
4645:^
4630:^
4603:^
4586:^
4571:^
4556:^
4469:^
4450:^
4435:^
4382:^
4365:^
4350:^
4335:^
4320:^
4303:^
4238:^
4181:^
4164:^
4149:^
4118:^
4091:^
4050:^
4027:^
4012:^
3962:.
3948:.
3942:.
3910:.
3902:.
3898:.
3818:.
3555:c.
3486:.
3241:,
3122:.
2818:.
2650:.
2383:,
2379:,
2375:,
2371:,
2318:.
2240:.
2228:,
1851:.
1459:/
633:.
579:.
546:.
472:,
373:â
364:â
341:â
325:â
136:,
94:Pg
38:Ma
33:,
7678:e
7671:t
7664:v
6959:)
6955:(
6732:)
6728:(
6709:e
6702:t
6695:v
6635:.
6615::
6607::
6586:.
6574::
6566::
6545:.
6533::
6504:.
6492::
6446:.
6408:"
6401:.
6372::
6352:.
6332::
6314::
6289:.
6269::
6245:.
6233::
6205:.
6193::
6172:.
6160::
6139:.
6115::
6107::
6083:.
6071::
6054:.
6033:.
6009::
6001::
5973:.
5959::
5924:)
5920:(
5903:.
5880:"
5869:.
5865::
5851:"
5840:.
5817:.
5801:"
5790:.
5763:.
5741::
5733::
5700:.
5678::
5670::
5664:6
5656:"
5644:.
5622::
5601:.
5589::
5583:5
5572:.
5552::
5544::
5523:.
5501::
5480:.
5460::
5452::
5427:.
5405::
5397::
5373:.
5349::
5328:.
5308::
5300::
5275:.
5251::
5243::
5237:6
5218:.
5199:.
5187::
5173:"
5162:.
5148::
5134:"
5123:.
5119::
5105:"
5094:.
5082::
5065:.
5045::
5037::
4980:.
4712:.
4667:.
4527:.
4330:.
3970:.
3956::
3927:.
3906::
3736:/
3517:/
3372:(
3007:/
2999:/
2855:(
2733:/
2284:)
1756:/
1577:)
1573:(
1160:)
1156:(
1152:)
1148:(
1144:)
1140:(
1119:)
1115:(
1111:)
1107:(
1086:)
1082:(
1078:)
1074:(
1070:)
1066:(
1045:)
1041:(
1030:)
1026:(
1000:)
996:(
992:)
988:(
899:)
895:(
891:)
887:(
353:â
99:N
89:K
84:J
79:T
74:P
69:C
64:D
59:S
54:O
49:ê
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.
