Diesel exhaust - Knowledge

1167: 1103: 2335: 4807:"... dds ratios and frequencies of each trigger were used to compute population-attributable fractions (PAFs), which estimate the proportion of cases that could be avoided if a risk factor were removed. PAFs depend not only on the risk factor strength at the individual level but also on its frequency in the community. ... he exposure prevalence for triggers in the relevant control time window ranged from 0.04% for cocaine use to 100% for air pollution. ... Taking into account the OR and the prevalences of exposure, the highest PAF was estimated for traffic exposure (7.4%) ... 5528: 1047: 3081: 2215: 2593: 2857: 2799: 1059: 108: 1195:

different array of pollutants than spark-driven engines, differences that are sometimes qualitative (what pollutants are there, and what are not), but more often quantitative (how much of particular pollutants or pollutant classes are present in each). For instance, diesel engines produce one-twenty-eighth the carbon monoxide that gasoline engines do, as they burn their fuel in excess air even at full load.

2727: 1530: 2387: 36: 2963:(unlike regular diesel). Mixing in bio ether (or other fuels such as hydrogen) into conventional diesel also tends to have a beneficial effect on the pollutants that are emitted. In addition to changing the fuel, US engineers have also come up with two other principles and distinct systems to all on-market products that meet the U.S. 2010 emissions criteria, 2698:

especially the case with indirect injection engines, which are less thermally efficient. With electronic injection, the timing and length of the injection sequence can be altered to compensate for this. Older engines with mechanical injection can have mechanical and hydraulic governor control to alter the timing, and multi-phase electrically controlled

1158:) and particulate matter (PM) in the exhaust. So, while diesel fuel contains slightly more carbon (2.68 kg CO₂/litre) than petrol (2.31 kg CO₂/litre), overall CO₂ emissions of a diesel car tend to be lower due to higher efficiency. In use, on average, this equates to around 200 g CO₂/km for petrol and 120 g CO₂/km for diesel. 2959:) tends to be a very effective means to reduce pollutants such as NOx and CO. When running on dimethyl ether (DME) for instance, particulate matter emissions are near-nonexistent, and the use of diesel particulate filters could even be omitted. Also, given that DME can be made from animal, food, and agricultural waste, it can even be 2670:. These local low temperatures occur at the cylinder walls, and at the surface of large droplets of fuel. At these areas where it is relatively cold, the mixture is rich (contrary to the overall mixture which is lean). The rich mixture has less air to burn and some of the fuel turns into a carbon deposit. Modern car engines use a 3063:, the first on the exhaust manifold, with variable geometry and containing the EGR system; and a second a fixed geometry turbocharger. Recirculated exhaust gas and the compressed air from the turbochargers have separate coolers, and air merges before entering the intake manifold, and all subsystems are controlled by a central 2440:. Because of their small size, inhaled particles may easily penetrate deep into the lungs. The polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in the exhaust stimulate nerves in the lungs, causing reflex coughing, wheezing and shortness of breath. The rough surfaces of these particles makes it easy for them to bind with other 1241:. These especially harmful particulate contaminants are at their peak when such engines are run without sufficient oxygen to fully combust the fuel; when a diesel engine runs at idle, enough oxygen is usually present to burn the fuel completely. (The oxygen requirement in non-idling engines is usually satisfied using 3261:

composition can vary markedly with fuel composition, engine type, operating conditions ... combustion of petroleum fuel produces primarily carbon dioxide, water, and nitrogen ... The health risks lie in the small, invisible or poorly visible particles ... carbon (EC) core of diesel soot ... serves as

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from different engine technologies and even different fuels are not necessarily comparable. One study has shown that 95% of the volatile component of diesel nanoparticles is unburned lubricating oil. Long-term effects still need to be further clarified, as well as the effects on susceptible groups of

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After a week-long meeting of international experts, the International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC), which is part of the World Health Organization (WHO), today classified diesel exhaust as probably carcinogenic to humans (Group 1), based on enough evidence that exposure is associated with an

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emissions less than 0.07 g/mile, and in the U.S., by 2010, NOx emissions must be less than 0.03 g/mile. Moreover, in recent years the United States, Europe, and Japan have extended emissions control regulations from covering on-road vehicles to include farm vehicles and locomotives, marine vessels,

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in this test system). Other studies concluded that while in certain specific cases (i.e. low loads, more saturated feedstocks, ...), NOx emissions can be lower than with diesel fuel, in most cases NOx emissions are higher, and the NOx emissions even go up as more biofuel is mixed in. Pure biodiesel

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Emissions from diesel engines contribute to the production of ground-level ozone, which can damage crops, trees, and other vegetation. Diesel exhaust also contributes to the formation of acid rain, which affects soil, lakes, and streams, and can enter the human food chain via water, produce, meat,

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When starting from cold, the engine's combustion efficiency is reduced because the cold engine block draws heat out of the cylinder in the compression stroke. The result is that fuel is not burned fully, resulting in blue and white smoke and lower power outputs until the engine has warmed. This is

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under any conditions differ considerably from spark-ignition engines, because, by design, diesel engine power is directly controlled by the fuel supply, not by control of the air/fuel mixture, as in conventional gasoline engines. As a result of these differences, diesel engines generally produce a

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High doses of di-2-ethylhexyl phthalate (DEHP), dibutyl phthalate (DBP), and benzylbutyl phthalate (BzBP) during the fetal period produced lowered testosterone levels, testicular atrophy, and Sertoli cell abnormalities in the male animals and, at higher doses, ovarian abnormalities in the female

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than air. With the greater soot production, EGR is often combined with a particulate matter (PM) filter in the exhaust. In turbocharged engines, EGR needs a controlled pressure differential across the exhaust manifold and intake manifold, which can be met by such engineering as use of a variable

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in the exhaust system, with commercialized systems being somewhat lower. SCR systems do not necessarily need particulate matter (PM) filters; when SNCR and PM filters are combined, some engines have been shown to be 3-5% more fuel efficient. A disadvantage of the SCR system, in addition to added

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that constitutes a unique challenge with regard to their reduction. While total nitrogen oxides from petrol cars have decreased by around 96% through adoption of exhaust catalytic converters as of 2012, diesel cars still produce nitrogen oxides at a similar level to those bought 15 years earlier

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In March 2012, U.S. government scientists showed that underground miners exposed to high levels of diesel fumes have a threefold increased risk for contracting lung cancer compared with those exposed to low levels. The $ 11.5 million Diesel Exhaust in Miners Study (DEMS) followed 12,315 miners,

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The scientific evidence was reviewed thoroughly by the Working Group and overall it was concluded that there was sufficient evidence in humans for the carcinogenicity of diesel exhaust. The Working Group found that diesel exhaust is a cause of lung cancer (sufficient evidence) and also noted a

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upfront development cost (which can be offset by compliance and improved performance), is the need to refill the reductant, the periodicity of which varies with the miles driven, load factors, and the hours used. The SNCR system is not as efficient at higher revolutions per minute (

1132:. Its composition may vary with the fuel type or rate of consumption, or speed of engine operation (e.g., idling or at speed or under load), and whether the engine is in an on-road vehicle, farm vehicle, locomotive, marine vessel, or stationary generator or other application. 2475:

in PM emitted during hot idling were greater than those from cold idling; reasons for PM reduction in biodiesel emissions were suggested to result from the oxygenated structure of biodiesel fuel, as well as arising from changes in technology (including the use of a

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Diesel exhaust plays a role in climate change. Reducing greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions from diesel engines through improved fuel economy or idle reduction strategies can help address climate change, improve our nation’s energy security, and strengthen our economy.

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geometry turbocharger, which has inlet guide vanes on the turbine to build exhaust backpressure in the exhaust manifold directing exhaust gas to the intake manifold. It also requires additional external piping and valving, and so requires additional maintenance.

3059:, the farm equipment manufacturer, is implementing such a combined SCR-EGR design, in a 9-liter "inline 6" diesel engine that involves both system types, a PM filter and additional oxidation catalyst technologies. The combined system incorporates two 1256:

were introduced in exhaust systems. Even so, diesel exhausts continue to contain an array of inorganic and organic pollutants, in various classes, and in varying concentrations (see below), depending on fuel composition and engine running conditions.

2579:) is still in its infancy, and the nature and extent of negative health impacts from diesel exhaust continues to be discovered, it remains controversial whether the public health impact of diesels is higher than that of petrol-fueled vehicles. 4202:

Jarfelt, Kirsten; Dalgaard, Majken; Hass, Ulla; Borch, Julie; Jacobsen, Helene; Ladefoged, Ole (2016-10-11). "Antiandrogenic effects in male rats perinatally exposed to a mixture of di(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate and di(2-ethylhexyl) adipate".

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Diesel exhaust includes ... acetaldehyde; antimony compounds; arsenic; benzene; beryllium compounds; bis(2-ethylhexyl)phthalate; dioxins and dibenzofurans; formaldehyde; inorganic lead; mercury compounds; nickel; POM (including PAHs); and

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Exposure to diesel exhaust particulates is reasonably anticipated to be a human carcinogen, based on limited evidence of carcinogenicity from studies in humans and supporting evidence from studies in experimental animals and mechanistic

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The types and quantities of nanoparticles can vary according to operating temperatures and pressures, presence of an open flame, fundamental fuel type and fuel mixture, and even atmospheric mixtures. As such, the resulting types of

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Unlike international shipping, that has a Sulfur limit at 3.5% mass/mass outside ECA until 2020, where it reduces to 0,5% outside ECA, diesel for on road use and off-road (heavy equipment) has been limited in all of EU since 2009.

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Sakurai, Hiromu; Tobias, Herbert J.; Park, Kihong; Zarling, Darrick; Docherty, Kenneth S.; Kittelson, David B.; McMurry, Peter H.; Ziemann, Paul J. (2003). "On-line measurements of diesel nanoparticle composition and volatility".

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using diesel-powered equipment in underground mines. Adverse health effects have also been observed in the general population at ambient atmospheric particle concentrations well below the concentrations in occupational settings.

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which collects carbon particles using a "Kaalink" cylindrical device that is retrofitted into a vehicle's exhaust system, after processing to remove heavy metals and carcinogens, the company plans to use the carbon to make ink.

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Tong, H. Y.; Karasek, F. W. (1984-10-01). "Quantitation of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in diesel exhaust particulate matter by high-performance liquid chromatography fractionation and high-resolution gas chromatography".

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emissions, but can negatively impact efficiency and the production of soot particles. The richer mix is achieved by displacing some of the intake air, but is still lean compared to petrol engines, which approach the

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Silverman, D. T.; Samanic, C. M.; Lubin, J. H.; Blair, A. E.; Stewart, P. A.; Vermeulen, R.; Coble, J. B.; Rothman, N.; Schleiff, P. L.; Travis, W. D.; Ziegler, R. G.; Wacholder, S.; Attfield, M. D. (5 March 2012).

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Wärtsilä have tested an engine and compared smoke-output, when using conventional fuel system and common rail fuel system, the result shows improvement on all operation conditions when using the common rail system.

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However, vehicles registered from 2005–2010 emit similar or higher levels of NOx compared with vehicles before 1995. In this respect, NOx emissions from diesel cars have changed little over a period of about 20

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Acute (short-term) exposure ... results in irritation of the eyes, mucous membranes, ... Chronic (long-term) exposure ... has resulted in effects on the peripheral and central nervous systems and the liver and

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The full load limit of a diesel engine in normal service is defined by the "black smoke limit", beyond which point the fuel cannot be completely burned. As the "black smoke limit" is still considerably lean of

2306:, which is a component of the air pollution implicated in human cancer, heart and lung damage, and mental functioning. Moreover, diesel exhaust contains contaminants listed as carcinogenic for humans by the 1170:

A diesel engine that operates below the smoke limit produces a visible exhaust. In modern motor vehicle diesel engines, this condition is generally avoided by burning the fuel in excess air even at full

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Using U.S. EPA's revised draft 1999 Guidelines for Carcinogen Risk Assessment (U.S. EPA, 1999), diesel exhaust (DE) is likely to be carcinogenic to humans by inhalation from environmental exposures.

2666:(or more specifically diesel particulate matter) from their exhaust. The black smoke consists of carbon compounds that have not burned because of local low temperatures where the fuel is not fully 5933:

Department of Labor, Mine Safety and Health Administration. Diesel Particulate Matter Exposure of Underground Metal and Nonmetal Miners: Final Rule, January 19, 2001. Federal Register 66(13):5706.

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which requires all heavy-duty diesel trucks and buses, with a few exceptions, that operate in California to either retrofit or replace engines in order to reduce diesel particulate matter. The US

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and conventional diesel (B20) was reported by Omidvarborna and coworkers, where they conclude PM emissions appeared lower in cases of mixed diesel/biodiesel use, where they were dependent on the

2285:"Diesel and gasoline have been limited to 10 ppm sulfur since 2009 (for on-road vehicles) and 2011 (non-road vehicles). Mandatory specifications also apply to more than a dozen fuel parameters." 2572:

in the general public, as the cause of 7.4% of all attacks. It is impossible to tell how much of this effect is due to the stress of being in traffic and how much is due to exposure to exhaust.

1187:. While the distribution of the individual components of raw (untreated) diesel exhaust varies depending on factors like load, engine type, etc., the adjacent table shows a typical composition. 2705:

Wärtsilä states that there are two ways of forming smoke, on large diesel engines, one being fuel hitting metal and not having time to burn off. The other being, when too much fuel is in the

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is currently seeking to refine understanding of the health effects of traffic pollution. Ambient traffic-related air pollution was associated with decreased cognitive function in older men.

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Silverman, Debra T.; Samanic, Claudine M.; Lubin, Jay H.; Blair, Aaron E.; Stewart, Patricia A.; Vermeulen, Roel; Coble, Joseph B.; Rothman, Nathaniel; Schleiff, Patricia L. (2012-06-06).

1237:, sometimes visible as opaque dark-colored smoke) has traditionally been of greater concern, as it presents different health concerns and is rarely produced in significant quantities by 2271:(MSHA) issued a health standard in January 2001 designed to reduce diesel exhaust exposure in underground metal and nonmetal mines; on September 7, 2005, MSHA published a notice in the 827: 3609: 1226:

to meet the newer standards applicable in many jurisdictions. Auxiliary diesel systems designed to remediate the nitrogen oxide pollutants are described in a separate section below.

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Rossberg, Manfred; Lendle, Wilhelm; Pfleiderer, Gerhard; Tögel, Adolf; Dreher, Eberhard-Ludwig; Langer, Ernst; Rassaerts, Heinz; Kleinschmidt, Peter; Strack, Heinz (2000-01-01).

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a nucleus for condensation of organic compounds from unburned or incompletely burned fuel ... it still appears that nitrated PAHs are the most predominant bacterial mutagens

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Emissions from diesel vehicles have been reported to be significantly more harmful than those from petrol vehicles. Diesel combustion exhaust is a source of atmospheric

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Campbell, Robert M.; Lee, Milton L. (1984-05-01). "Capillary column gas chromatographic determination of nitro polycyclic aromatic compounds in particulate extracts".

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Arlt, Volker M.; Glatt, Hansruedi; Muckel, Eva; Pabel, Ulrike; Sorg, Bernd L.; Seidel, Albrecht; Frank, Heinz; Schmeiser, Heinz H.; Phillips, David H. (2003-07-10).

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Attfield, Michael D.; Schleiff, Patricia L.; Lubin, Jay H.; Blair, Aaron; Stewart, Patricia A.; Vermeulen, Roel; Coble, Joseph B.; Silverman, Debra T. (2012-06-06).

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Exhaust gas recirculation (EGR), on diesel engines, can be used to achieve a richer fuel to air mixture and a lower peak combustion temperature. Both effects reduce

2225: with: a general introduction with citations that covers current international agreements and federal regulations in English-speaking countries. You can help by 6204: 4454:"Activation of 3-nitrobenzanthrone and its metabolites by human acetyltransferases, sulfotransferases and cytochrome P450 expressed in Chinese hamster V79 cells" 5153: 3702:

New diesels produce similar nitrogen oxides to those bought 15 years ago. Typical modern diesel cars emit around 20 times more nitrogen oxides than petrol cars.

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Bruske-Holhfield, I; Mohner, M; Ahrens, W; et al. (1999). "Lung cancer risk in male workers occupationally exposed to diesel motor emissions in Germany".

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Omidvarbornaa, Hamid; Kumara, Ashok; Kim, Dong-Shik (2014). "Characterization of Particulate Matter Emitted from Transit Buses Fueled with B20 in Idle Modes".

6185: 6143: 5154:"Air pollution and lung cancer incidence in 17 European cohorts: prospective analyses from the European Study of Cohorts for Air Pollution Effects (ESCAPE)" 2702:, that stay on for a period after start-up to ensure clean combustion; the plugs are automatically switched to a lower power to prevent their burning out. 1245:.) From the particle emission standpoint, exhaust from diesel vehicles has been reported to be significantly more harmful than those from petrol vehicles. 5549:

Guan, B; Zhan, R; Lin, H; Huang, Z. (2014). "Review of state of the art technologies of selective catalytic reduction of NOx from diesel engine exhaust".

2890: 2690:, it is possible to obtain more power by exceeding it, but the resultant inefficient combustion means that the extra power comes at the price of reduced 2539:

Mortality from diesel soot exposure in 2001 was at least 14,400 out of the German population of 82 million, according to the official report 2352 of the

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However, the lean-burning nature of diesel engines and the high temperatures and pressures of the combustion process result in significant production of

2820: 2694:, high fuel consumption and dense clouds of smoke. This is only done in high performance applications where these disadvantages are of little concern. 3491:

Scheepers, P. T.; Bos, R. P. (1992-01-01). "Combustion of diesel fuel from a toxicological perspective. I. Origin of incomplete combustion products".

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is in its infancy, and health effects from nanoparticles produced by all types of diesel engines are still being uncovered. It is clear, that diesel

5580:"Simultaneous reduction of NOx and smoke from a direct-injection diesel engine with exhaust gas recirculation and diethyl ether | Request PDF" 4340: 1214:

under real-world tests; hence, diesel cars emit around 20 times more nitrogen oxides than petrol cars. Modern on-road diesel engines typically use

2513:, tightness of chest, and irritation of the eyes, nose, and throat. Long-term exposures can lead to chronic, more serious health problems such as 3731:

Much of the problem is down to EU emission standards, which have long allowed diesel engines to emit much more nitrogen dioxide than petrol ones.

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controlling for key carcinogens such as cigarette smoke, radon, and asbestos. This allowed scientists to isolate the effects of diesel fumes.

4145:"The association between semen quality in workers and the concentration of di(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate in polyvinyl chloride pellet plant air" 3092: with: the further sourced content on such things as diesel particulate filters and use of alternate fuels, placed here with citations;: 2375: 5309:

Mitteilungen Institut für Verbrennungskraftmaschinen und Thermodynamik, Publisher: Institut für Verbrennungskraftmaschinen und Thermodynamik

2378:(EPA) established the Clean School Bus USA initiative in an effort to unite private and public organizations in curbing student exposures. 2264: 5123: 2263:

to provide funding for upgrading engines ahead of emissions regulations. In 2008, the California Air Resources Board also implemented the

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Attfield, M. D.; Schleiff, P. L.; Lubin, J. H.; Blair, A.; Stewart, P. A.; Vermeulen, R.; Coble, J. B.; Silverman, D. T. (5 March 2012).

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are severe and pervasive. Although one study found no significant evidence that short-term exposure to diesel exhaust results in adverse

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Acute Inflammatory Responses in the Airways and Peripheral Blood After Short-Term Exposure to Diesel Exhaust in Healthy Human Volunteers

5688: 3007:). SCR is being optimized to have higher efficiency with broader temperatures, to be more durable, and to meet other commercial needs. 6073: 4823: 3744: 3173: 2180: 2166: 2126: 1783: 1769: 1675: 1619: 6212: 4366:"3-Nitrobenzanthrone, a Powerful Bacterial Mutagen and Suspected Human Carcinogen Found in Diesel Exhaust and Airborne Particulates" 2809: 5627:"Effect of hydrogen-diesel fuel co-combustion on exhaust emissions with verification using an in–cylinder gas sampling technique" 4877: 3686: 5793: 3324: 6240: 6168: 6091:

Abschaetzung positiver gesundheitlicher Auswirkungen durch den Einsatz von Partikelfiltern bei Dieselfahrzeugen in Deutschland

4804:: "Taking into account the OR and the prevalences of exposure, the highest PAF was estimated for traffic exposure (7.4%)... " 6250: 5395: 3854: 3833: 3812: 2268: 996: 2425:, DPM can take the form of individual particles or chain aggregates, with most in the invisible sub-micrometer range of 100 6193: 270: 5255: 4413:"3-Nitrobenzanthrone, a potential human cancer hazard in diesel exhaust and urban air pollution: a review of the evidence" 2529:

at age 1 and persistent wheezing at age 3 in the Cincinnati Childhood Allergy and Air Pollution Study birth cohort study.

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accounted for around one quarter of the pollution in the air and a high share of sickness caused by automotive pollution.

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There has been research into ways that troops in deserts can recover drinkable water from their vehicles' exhaust gases.

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For over 10 years, concerns have been raised in the US regarding children's exposure to DPM as they ride diesel-powered

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Omidvarbornaa, Hamid; Kumara, Ashok; Kim, Dong-Shik (2015). "Recent Studies on Soot Modeling for Diesel Combustion".

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animals (Jarfelt et al., 2005; Lovekamp-Swan and Davis, 2003; McKee et al., 2004; NTP-CERHR, 2003a, 2003b, 2006).

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Help add sources such as review articles, monographs, or textbooks. Please also establish the relevance for any

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combustion in air are carbon dioxide, water, and nitrogen. The other components exist primarily from incomplete

5939:"Weight of the Evidence or Wait for the Evidence? Protecting Underground Miners from Diesel Particulate Matter" 5720: 5715:

Bennett, Sean (2004). Medium/Heavy Duty Truck Engines, Fuel & Computerized Management Systems 2nd Edition,

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particles and then intermittently burn them using extra fuel injected directly into the filter. This prevents

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Weight of the Evidence or Wait for the Evidence? Protecting Underground Miners from Diesel Particulate Matter

2979: 1215: 1027: 477: 5807: 5124:"Tox Town - Diesel - Toxic chemicals and environmental health risks where you live and work - Text Version" 3194: 565: 417: 392: 187: 5877: 3566: 4669: 4364:

Enya, Takeji; Suzuki, Hitomi; Watanabe, Tetsushi; Hirayama, Teruhisa; Hisamatsu, Yoshiharu (1997-10-01).

3927: 2971:(EGR). Both are in the exhaust system of diesel engines, and are further designed to promote efficiency. 1836: 1248:

Diesel exhausts, long known for their characteristic smells, changed significantly with the reduction of

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Dual Fuel Kit retrofits a diesel generator set to operate on a mixture of both gas and diesel, with 70%

5419: 1125: 1075: 432: 282: 5808:"Chakr Innovation launches Dual Fuel Kit to provide first Turnkey Solution to DG set ban in Delhi-NCR" 3567:

Krivoshto, Irina N.; Richards, John R.; Albertson, Timothy E. & Derlet, Robert W. (January 2008).

6220: 5735:"Behaviour Study of Particulate Matter and Chemical Composition with Different Combustion Strategies" 5433:

Poppy, Guy M.; Newman, Tracey A.; Farthing, Emily; Lusebrink, Inka; Girling, Robbie D. (2013-10-03).

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Safety and Health Topics: Diesel Exhaust - Partial List of Chemicals Associated with Diesel Exhaust

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Talibi, Midhat; Hellier, Paul; Balachandran, Ramanarayanan; Ladommatos, Nicos (12 September 2014).

4946:"The Diesel Exhaust in Miners Study: A Nested Case-Control Study of Lung Cancer and Diesel Exhaust" 4184: 3346:"The Diesel Exhaust in Miners study: a nested case-control study of lung cancer and diesel exhaust" 3022: 2944: 2886: 2603: 2533: 802: 422: 357: 294: 6245: 6029:"Exposure to diesel exhaust in the trucking industry and possible relationships with lung cancer" 5046: 4861: 2872: 2607: 832: 787: 407: 4043:

Gebel, T. (1997-11-28). "Arsenic and antimony: comparative approach on mechanistic toxicology".

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Abgasgesetzgebung Pkw, leichte Nfz und Lkw – Fortschreibung der Grenzwerte bei Dieselfahrzeugen

5131: 4994: 3462: 3274: 3004: 2559: 2514: 1147:. It contains several substances that are also listed individually as human carcinogens by the 970: 457: 6191:

Impact of Fuel Metal Impurities on the Durability of a Light-Duty Diesel Aftertreatment System

3747:; Tate, J.; Murrells, T.; Stedman, J.; Li, Y.; Grice, S.; Kent A & Tsagatakis, I. (2011). 1102: 5692: 2691: 2569: 1238: 1107: 940: 782: 648: 560: 257: 4768:"Public health importance of triggers of myocardial infarction: comparative risk assessment" 4655: 4510: 3043:

that removes heat before re-entering the engine, and works due to the exhaust gases' higher

2551: 5856:"Recovery and purification of water from the exhaust gases of int ernal combustion engines" 5638: 5498: 5435:"Diesel exhaust rapidly degrades floral odours used by honeybees : Scientific Reports" 5336: 4896:"The Diesel Exhaust in Miners Study: A Cohort Mortality Study With Emphasis on Lung Cancer" 4377: 4052: 3883: 3778: 3403:"The Diesel Exhaust in Miners study: a cohort mortality study with emphasis on lung cancer" 2987: 482: 215: 5532: 5527: 5098: 3742: 8: 6209: 6138: 5562: 3309:. National Toxicology Program, Department of Health and Human Services. October 2, 2014. 3064: 2960: 2745: 2510: 2477: 2445: 2035: 1976: 1926: 1873: 1841: 1801: 1692: 1253: 817: 762: 727: 653: 580: 530: 525: 510: 167: 6179: 5831: 5642: 5531: This article incorporates text from this source, which is available under the 5502: 5487:"The pollutant emissions from diesel-engine vehicles and exhaust aftertreatment systems" 5340: 4381: 4056: 3887: 3869:"The pollutant emissions from diesel-engine vehicles and exhaust aftertreatment systems" 3782: 2882: 2744:

Please expand the section to include this information. Further details may exist on the

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The following are classes of specific chemicals that have been found in diesel exhaust.

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The following are classes of chemical compounds that have been found in diesel exhaust.

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To rapidly reduce particulate matter from heavy-duty diesel engines in California, the

1051: 812: 688: 450: 232: 172: 142: 89: 5855: 5363:"Understanding Diesel Engine Cold Start: Causes, Effects, And Solutions | FuelFlowPro" 5348: 5169: 4874: 4783: 4064: 4015: 2481:(B100) even ends up having 10-30% more NOx emissions compared to regular diesel fuel. 1184: 6077: 6048: 6015: 5968: 5716: 5579: 5516: 5464: 5401: 5391: 5304: 5259: 5237: 5173: 5020: 4975: 4925: 4853: 4787: 4637: 4629: 4586: 4483: 4475: 4434: 4393: 4365: 4316: 4285: 4267: 4228: 4220: 4166: 4161: 4144: 4076: 4068: 3999: 3982: 3905: 3850: 3829: 3808: 3805:

Dieselmotor-Management im Überblick. 2nd edition. Springer Fachmedien, Wiesbaden 2014

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Goswami, Angshuman; Barman, Jyotirmoy; Rajput, Karan; Lakhlani, Hardik N. (2013).

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concluded that traffic exposure is the single most serious preventable trigger of

6216: 6126: 4881: 3981:

Tschanz, Frédéric; Amstutz, Alois; Onder, Christopher H.; Guzzella, Lino (2010).

3585: 3568: 3543: 2136: 1682: 1426: 1403: 745: 705: 575: 540: 472: 412: 340: 277: 177: 5194:

Particulate matter air pollution contributes to lung cancer incidence in Europe.

3291:

positive association (limited evidence) with an increased risk of bladder cancer

1113:

diesel locomotive with their characteristic dense exhaust when starting a train.

5084: 5070: 4942: 4824:"Traffic-related air pollution and cognitive function in a cohort of older men" 3790: 3768: 3663: 3040: 3036: 2948: 2576: 2555: 2547: 2315: 2275:

proposing to postpone the effective date from January 2006 until January 2011.

2106: 2094: 1352: 1206: 1176: 1144: 1063: 867: 767: 722: 715: 710: 467: 162: 6190: 5511: 5486: 5223: 4143:

Huang, Li-Ping; Lee, Ching-Chang; Hsu, Ping-Chi; Shih, Tung-Sheng (Jul 2011).

4118: 3896: 6229: 5954: 5520: 5405: 5305:"Diesel or Petrol ? An environmental comparison hampered by uncertainty" 4718: 4633: 4590: 4479: 4397: 4271: 4224: 4072: 3956: 3512: 3426: 3369: 3044: 2956: 2931: 2687: 2468: 2437: 2303: 1898: 1850: 1230: 1210: 1191: 1121: 1046: 882: 372: 367: 362: 120: 6186:

Diesel Exhaust Particulates: Reasonably Anticipated to Be A Human Carcinogen

6044: 5986:"Case control study of lung cancer and truck driving in the Teamsters union" 4893: 4429: 4412: 6173: 6081: 5972: 5666: 5468: 5241: 5177: 4979: 4929: 4857: 4791: 4487: 4438: 4289: 4232: 4170: 3594: 3444: 3387: 3183: 3060: 2990:, DEF) — into the exhaust of a diesel engine to convert nitrogen oxides (NO 2952: 2663: 2655: 2472: 2347: 2121: 1956: 1945: 1750: 1650: 1555: 1458: 1129: 915: 877: 862: 693: 658: 603: 322: 182: 6182:, U.S. Department of Labor Occupational Safety & Health Administration 6176:, U.S. Department of Labor Occupational Safety & Health Administration 6052: 6019: 6001: 4961: 4911: 4641: 4248:"Mechanisms of phthalate ester toxicity in the female reproductive system" 4080: 3520: 3418: 3361: 3246: 2823:

cited. Unsourced or poorly sourced material may be challenged and removed.

6074:

10.1002/(sici)1097-0274(199910)36:4<405::aid-ajim1>3.3.co;2-n

5889: 5746: 4549:

Report on Carcinogens Background Document for Diesel Exhaust Particulates

3133: 3129: 2935: 2518: 2452: 2402: 2323: 2007: 1242: 1140: 837: 535: 515: 152: 4839: 4625: 4582: 3080: 2214: 3504: 3067:

that optimizes minimization of pollutants released in the exhaust gas.

3056: 2934:

are having to become more efficient and have fewer pollutants in their

2564: 2422: 2371: 2071: 1180: 887: 643: 147: 5734: 5485:

Reşitoğlu, İbrahim Aslan; Altinişik, Kemal; Keskin, Ali (2015-01-01).

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and water. SNCR systems have been prototyped that reduce 90% of the NO

2742:

emissions. They affect smog, ozone, acid rain, and pulmonary problems.

2532:

The NERC-HPA funded Traffic Pollution and Health in London project at

6152: 6119: 5282:"Congress of the International Society on Thrombosis and Haemostasis" 4263: 2983: 2770: 2766: 2494: 2460: 2426: 2355: 1659: 1600: 1544: 955: 910: 872: 822: 757: 663: 127: 97: 6028: 5904:"Apparatus and method of recovering water from engine exhaust gases" 3607: 2856: 2592: 2575:

Since the study of the detrimental health effects of nanoparticles (

1271:

Average Diesel engine exhaust composition (Merker, Teichmann, 2014)

5624: 4557:

Concentration (ng/mg extract) ... Concentration (μg/g of particles)

3611:

Alternative Transportation Fuels: Utilisation in Combustion Engines

3280:. International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC). June 12, 2012 2995: 2986:

such as ammonia or urea — the latter aqueous, where it is known as

2774: 2526: 2506: 2490: 2418: 2351: 1996: 1985: 1882: 1824: 1764: 1707: 1613: 1589: 1540: 1481: 327: 6169:

Diesel exhaust – peer-reviewed studies by Health Effects Institute

3847:

Geschichte des deutschen Verbrennungsmotorenbaus von 1860 bis 1918

3749:

Trends in NOX and NO2 emissions and ambient measurements in the UK

2489:

Exposures have been linked with acute short-term symptoms such as

5047:"How diesel fumes could cause 'flare up' of respiratory symptoms" 3117: 2414: 2410: 2161: 2147: 1864: 1810: 1792: 1778: 1636: 1495: 107: 5878:"Extraction of Liquid Water from the Exhaust of a Diesel Engine" 4995:"No Breathing in the Aisles. Diesel Exhaust Inside School Buses" 3983:"A Real-Time Soot Model for Emission Control of a Diesel Engine" 3867:

Resitoglu, Ibrahim Aslan; Altinisik, Kemal; Keskin, Ali (2015).

2726: 1190:

The physical and chemical conditions that exist inside any such

4822:

Power; Weisskopf; Alexeeff; Coull; Spiro; Schwartz (May 2011).

4766:

Nawrot, TS; Perez, L; Künzli, N; Munters, E; Nemery, B (2011).

3569:"The Toxicity of Diesel Exhaust: Implications for Primary Care" 3493:

International Archives of Occupational and Environmental Health

2675: 2522: 2502: 2464: 2386: 2175: 2082: 2060: 2021: 1910: 1717: 1626: 1249: 1218:(SCR) systems to meet emissions laws, as other methods such as 965: 945: 852: 842: 550: 4341:"Devil in the diesel – Lorries belch out what may be the most" 3751:. London: Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs. 3186:- intentional creation of conspicuous excessive diesel exhaust 1274:

Diesel's first engine exhaust composition (Hartenstein, 1895)

5764: 5762: 5548: 4302: 2441: 2359: 975: 920: 312: 6201:, American Journal of Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine 6059: 5432: 3154:

Carl Moyer Memorial Air Quality Standards Attainment Program

2436:

The main particulate fraction of diesel exhaust consists of

2261:

Carl Moyer Memorial Air Quality Standards Attainment Program

5732: 5302: 4821: 3980: 3096:, no more top-of-the-head content dumping. You can help by 2679: 2456: 2406: 2299: 1971: 1888: 1234: 950: 197: 192: 157: 5759: 4691:"Diesel fumes more damaging to health than petrol engines" 4363: 3400: 3343: 3116:

A new technology being tested in 2016 has been created by

2525:

attributable to traffic was significantly associated with

1277:

Diesel engine exhaust composition (Khair, Majewski, 2006)

5983: 3928:"Measurement of Carbon Monoxide in Diesel Engine Exhaust" 3179:

National Emissions Standards for Hazardous Air Pollutants

3028: 2939: 2739: 2558:

effects, effects that are correlated with an increase in

2354:

workers, occupants of residential homes in vicinity of a

1199: 6026: 5484: 5325: 4765: 4201: 3866: 3687:"Diesel cars emit more nitrogen oxides than petrol cars" 2765:

Experiments in 2013 showed that diesel exhaust impaired

5794:"These Pens Use Ink Made Out Of Recycled Air Pollution" 3608:

Gajendra Babu, M.K.; Subramanian, K.A. (18 June 2013).

2413:

such as ash particulates, metallic abrasion particles,

4719:"Diesel exhausts do cause cancer, says WHO - BBC News" 2448:, thus increasing the hazards of particle inhalation. 1268:

Average Diesel engine exhaust composition (Reif 2014)

5876:

Barros, Sam; Atkinson, William; Piduru, Naag (2015).

4246:

Lovekamp-Swan, Tara; Davis, Barbara J. (2003-02-01).

6139:

NIOSH Mining Safety and Health Topic: Diesel Exhaust

6133:

Emission of different pollutants from diesel engines

5875: 5151: 4451: 3828:. 7th edition. Springer Fachmedien, Wiesbaden 2014, 3573:

The Journal of the American Board of Family Medicine

3468:. International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) 3330:. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 2003-02-28. 3304:"Report on Carcinogens: Diesel Exhaust Particulates" 2682:

at the expense of wasting a small quantity of fuel.

2455:

matter (PM) emissions from transit buses running on

1280:

Diesel engine exhaust composition (various sources)

5303:Int Panis, L; Rabl; De Nocker, L; Torfs, R (2002). 5152:Ole Raaschou-Nielsen; et al. (July 10, 2013). 4670:"EU: Fuels: Diesel and Gasoline | Transport Policy" 3039:ideal. The lower peak temperature is achieved by a 2582: 2405:component of diesel exhaust, which includes diesel 1233:(fine particulate matter) in diesel exhaust (e.g., 4245: 3017:Exhaust gas recirculation § In diesel engines 2381: 5984:Steenland, K; Silverman, DT; Hornung, DW (1990). 5770:"Technology to Reduce Emissions in Large Engines" 4884:North Central Texas Council of Governments, 2008. 4555:. National Toxicology Program. December 3, 1998. 3661: 6227: 5388:Pounder's marine diesel engines and gas turbines 5208:"Diesel Exhaust Exposure, Wheezing and Sneezing" 4875:Health Concerns Associated with Excessive Idling 2974: 2871:, potentially preventing the article from being 2251:Non-road diesel engine § Emission standards 2202:isomer descriptions at each compound's article. 6027:Steenland, K; Silverman, DT; Zaebst, D (1992). 5681: 5601:"Alternative Fuels Data Center: Dimethyl Ether" 4992: 4142: 3716:"Why is killer diesel still poisoning our air?" 2938:. For instance, light duty truck must now have 49:for grammar, style, cohesion, tone, or spelling 4993:Solomon, Gina; Campbell, Todd (January 2001). 4410: 4305:Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry 3764: 3762: 3541: 3227: 3225: 3223: 3221: 3219: 3217: 3215: 3213: 3211: 3209: 2329: 6097:Berlin 2003. Report 2352, especially page 32. 5691:. Dieselforum.org. 2010-01-01. Archived from 5689:"What is SCR? | Diesel Technology Forum" 5073:Journal of Environmental Chemical Engineering 4950:JNCI Journal of the National Cancer Institute 4900:JNCI Journal of the National Cancer Institute 3860: 3797: 1083: 4737: 4735: 4713: 4711: 3949: 3490: 3010: 2552:health detriments of fine particle emissions 2265:2008 California Statewide Truck and Bus Rule 5491:Clean Technologies and Environmental Policy 5145: 4658:. Bay Area Air Quality Management District. 4610: 4568: 4106: 4104: 4102: 4100: 4098: 4096: 4094: 4092: 4090: 3974: 3919: 3824:Günter P. Merker, Rüdiger Teichmann (ed.): 3818: 3759: 3206: 2621:. Unsourced material may be challenged and 2543:(Federal Environmental Agency of Germany). 2390:Heavy truck, with visible particulate soot. 1154:Methods exist to reduce nitrogen oxides (NO 27:Gaseous exhaust produced by a diesel engine 5711: 5709: 3849:(in German), Berlin/Heidelberg: Springer, 3743:Carslaw D., Beevers; S., Westmoreland E.; 3548:. Boca Raton, FL, US: CRC Press. p. 4 3275:"IARC: DIESEL ENGINE EXHAUST CARCINOGENIC" 2891:reliable, independent, third-party sources 1090: 1076: 106: 6009: 5962: 5936: 5650: 5510: 5458: 5231: 5205: 4969: 4919: 4847: 4817: 4815: 4761: 4759: 4732: 4708: 4511:"4-Nitrobiphenyl | C6H5C6H4NO2 - PubChem" 4469: 4428: 4279: 4160: 3998: 3895: 3601: 3584: 3535: 3434: 3377: 3174:List of IARC Group 3 possible carcinogens 3094:significant sentences only with citations 2909:Learn how and when to remove this message 2839:Learn how and when to remove this message 2641:Learn how and when to remove this message 73:Learn how and when to remove this message 6174:Safety and Health Topics: Diesel Exhaust 5631:International Journal of Hydrogen Energy 5296: 4743:"WHO: Diesel Exhaust Causes Lung Cancer" 4307:. Wiley-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA. 4205:Reproductive Toxicology (Elmsford, N.Y.) 4117:. EPA. 2002. p. 113. Archived from 4087: 3771:Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 3655: 3407:Journal of the National Cancer Institute 3350:Journal of the National Cancer Institute 3231: 2885:by replacing them with more appropriate 2385: 2333: 1165: 1101: 6062:American Journal of Industrial Medicine 6033:American Journal of Industrial Medicine 5706: 5544: 5542: 3925: 3456: 3454: 3200: 2943:and stationary generator applications. 2868:too closely associated with the subject 2338:Two diesel particulate matter monitors. 2052:Irritant, damages nerves/liver/kidneys 1252:content of diesel fuel, and again when 14: 6228: 6109:2003. Report 2353, especially page 25. 4812: 4756: 4370:Environmental Science & Technology 3684: 2659:people with cardiopulmonary diseases. 1595:Toxicity similar to arsenic poisoning 6205:Diesel exhaust: what you need to know 5667:"Innovations | Eden Innovations" 5480: 5478: 4688: 4606: 4604: 4602: 4600: 4542: 4540: 4538: 4536: 4534: 4334: 4332: 4042: 3560: 3267: 2716: 2269:Mine Safety and Health Administration 1728: 1120:is the gaseous exhaust produced by a 6194:National Renewable Energy Laboratory 5563:10.1016/j.applthermaleng.2014.02.021 5539: 3713: 3463:"Diesel Engine Exhaust Carcinogenic" 3451: 3074: 2850: 2792: 2720: 2619:adding citations to reliable sources 2586: 2209: 1756:IARC Group 2B (possible) carcinogens 1523: 1143:and has a positive association with 29: 5099:"Effects of Biodiesel on Emissions" 5001:. Natural Resources Defense Council 4508: 3325:"Diesel engine exhaust; CASRN N.A." 3051: 2484: 2346:(DPM) is an occupational hazard to 2293: 1519: 318:Radium and radon in the environment 24: 5927: 5475: 4597: 4531: 4338: 4329: 2288: 25: 6262: 6163:American Journal of Public Health 6113: 5990:American Journal of Public Health 5943:American Journal of Public Health 5918:"Newsroom | Department of Energy" 4828:Environmental Health Perspectives 4252:Environmental Health Perspectives 4014:Board, California Air Resources. 4013: 3169:List of IARC Group 2B carcinogens 3164:List of IARC Group 2A carcinogens 3139: 3070: 2965:selective non-catalytic reduction 2374:to and from school. In 2013, the 2181:IARC Group 3 possible carcinogens 2167:IARC Group 3 possible carcinogens 2127:IARC Group 3 possible carcinogens 1784:IARC Group 3 possible carcinogens 1770:IARC Group 3 possible carcinogens 1676:IARC Group 3 possible carcinogens 1620:IARC Group 3 possible carcinogens 1222:(EGR) cannot adequately reduce NO 6210:Health Effects of Diesel Exhaust 5526: 5206:Bernstein, David I. (Jul 2012). 4162:10.1016/j.fertnstert.2011.04.093 4112:"EPA Report on diesel emissions" 4000:10.3182/20100712-3-DE-2013.00107 3460: 3159:List of IARC Group 1 carcinogens 3079: 2866:may rely excessively on sources 2855: 2797: 2725: 2591: 2583:Variation with engine conditions 2320:List of IARC Group 1 carcinogens 2213: 1698:polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons 1528: 1057: 1045: 34: 5910: 5896: 5869: 5848: 5824: 5800: 5786: 5726: 5659: 5618: 5593: 5572: 5426: 5380: 5355: 5319: 5274: 5248: 5199: 5116: 5091: 5064: 5039: 5013: 4986: 4936: 4887: 4868: 4682: 4662: 4656:"Strategic Incentives Division" 4648: 4562: 4502: 4458:International Journal of Cancer 4445: 4404: 4357: 4296: 4239: 4195: 4177: 4136: 4045:Chemico-Biological Interactions 4036: 4007: 3839: 3736: 3714:Lean, Geoffrey (Jul 19, 2013). 3707: 3678: 3241:. pp. 553, 555, 556, 562. 2546:The study of nanoparticles and 2517:, cardiopulmonary disease, and 2471:modes, and fuel type, and that 2382:Concerns regarding particulates 2376:Environmental Protection Agency 2342:Exposure to diesel exhaust and 138:Atmospheric dispersion modeling 6161:Article by Celeste Monforton. 5796:. IFL Science. 17 August 2016. 5652:10.1016/j.ijhydene.2014.07.039 5256:"Environmental Research Group" 4217:10.1016/j.reprotox.2004.11.005 4016:"The Report on Diesel Exhaust" 3826:Grundlagen Verbrennungsmotoren 3484: 3479:increased risk of lung cancer. 3394: 3337: 3317: 3296: 3232:Lippmann, Morton, ed. (2009). 2511:difficult or labored breathing 2257:California Air Resources Board 1543:format but may read better as 1161: 1007:Least polluted cities by PM2.5 13: 1: 6241:Air pollution control systems 5349:10.1016/S1352-2310(02)01017-8 5170:10.1016/S1470-2045(13)70279-1 4784:10.1016/S0140-6736(10)62296-9 4313:10.1002/14356007.a06_233.pub2 4065:10.1016/s0009-2797(97)00087-2 2980:Selective catalytic reduction 2975:Selective catalytic reduction 2814:secondary or tertiary sources 2397:(DPM), sometimes also called 2205: 1581:Class of chemical contaminant 1216:selective catalytic reduction 478:Electrical resistance heating 6251:History of the diesel engine 6219:- fact sheet by Cal/EPA and 4689:Vidal, John (Jan 27, 2013). 3685:Fuller, Gary (Jul 8, 2012). 3586:10.3122/jabfm.2008.01.070139 3195:Volkswagen emissions scandal 2945:Changing to a different fuel 188:Persistent organic pollutant 112:Air pollution from a factory 7: 5551:Applied Thermal Engineering 5286:www.blackwellpublishing.com 4745:. Medpage Today. 2012-06-12 3664:"What Are Diesel Emissions" 3147: 2788: 2662:Diesel engines can produce 2330:Occupational health effects 1837:bis(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate 1261:Diesel exhaust composition 10: 6267: 5882:SAE Technical Paper Series 5739:SAE Technical Paper Series 5212:Allergy Asthma Immunol Res 5085:10.1016/j.jece.2014.09.020 5079:(4, December): 2335–2342. 5027:. United States Government 4185:"CDC: Phthalates Overview" 3876:Clean Techn Environ Policy 3791:10.1016/j.rser.2015.04.019 3662:Majewski, W. Addy (2012). 3614:. CRC Press. p. 230. 3020: 3014: 2921: 2244: 1126:internal combustion engine 6221:American Lung Association 6144:Diesel Particulate Matter 5512:10.1007/s10098-014-0793-9 5224:10.4168/aair.2012.4.4.178 3926:Grenier, Michael (2005). 3897:10.1007/s10098-014-0793-9 3545:Chemistry of Diesel Fuels 3190:Vehicle emissions control 3011:Exhaust gas recirculation 2969:exhaust gas recirculation 2821:primary research articles 2672:diesel particulate filter 2421:. When released into the 2395:Diesel particulate matter 2344:diesel particulate matter 2312:World Health Organization 2153:IARC Group 2B carcinogens 2027:IARC Group 2B carcinogens 2013:IARC Group 2B carcinogens 1903:"ow to moderate" toxicity 1856:IARC Group 2A carcinogens 1695:organic matter, including 1220:exhaust gas recirculation 733:War and environmental law 353:Health effects from noise 203:Volatile organic compound 6148:www.defendingscience.org 5955:10.2105/ajph.2005.064410 4515:pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov 3987:IFAC Proceedings Volumes 3845:Sass, Friedrich (1962), 3836:., Chapter 7.1, Fig. 7.1 3023:Water injection (engine) 2399:diesel exhaust particles 2200:ortho-, meta-, and para- 1962:IARC Group 1 carcinogens 1870:IARC Group 1 carcinogens 1816:IARC Group 1 carcinogens 1798:IARC Group 1 carcinogens 1607:IARC Group 1 carcinogens 1175:The primary products of 358:Marine mammals and sonar 6045:10.1002/ajim.4700210612 5568:(subscription required) 5329:Atmospheric Environment 4721:. Bbc.co.uk. 2012-06-12 4411:Volker M. Arlt (2005). 4149:Fertility and Sterility 3542:Song, Chunsham (2000). 3235:Environmental Toxicants 2318:), as present in their 2112:IARC Group 1 carcinogen 1552:converting this section 833:Freshwater salinization 753:Agricultural wastewater 6120:Diesel Information Hub 6101:Umweltbundesamt Berlin 5418:: CS1 maint: others ( 3045:specific heat capacity 2736:is missing information 2560:cardiovascular disease 2541:Umweltbundesamt Berlin 2515:cardiovascular disease 2391: 2339: 1687:5.6 ppm or 6500 μg/m³ 1239:spark-ignition engines 1172: 1114: 1052:Environment portal 6002:10.2105/ajph.80.6.670 5937:Monforton, C (2006). 4430:10.1093/mutage/gei057 3247:10.1002/9780470442890 2692:combustion efficiency 2534:King's College London 2389: 2337: 2245:Further information: 2041:Strongly carcinogenic 1938:Strongly carcinogenic 1297:(Volume?) percentage 1169: 1128:, plus any contained 1105: 793:Industrial wastewater 561:Municipal solid waste 483:Soil guideline values 6153:Clean School Bus USA 5890:10.4271/2015-01-2806 5812:news.webindia123.com 5747:10.4271/2013-01-2741 5292:on January 30, 2009. 4614:Analytical Chemistry 4571:Analytical Chemistry 4187:. 7 September 2021. 3201:References and notes 2988:diesel exhaust fluid 2615:improve this section 2467:model, cold and hot 1739:Chemical contaminant 1498:+ solid substances) 1494:Particulate matter ( 1254:catalytic converters 1135:Diesel exhaust is a 1002:Most polluted cities 654:Overhead power lines 5643:2014IJHE...3915088T 5637:(27): 15088–15102. 5503:2015CTEP...17...15R 5341:2003AtmEn..37.1199S 5335:(9–10): 1199–1210. 5158:The Lancet Oncology 5128:toxtown.nlm.nih.gov 4962:10.1093/jnci/djs034 4912:10.1093/jnci/djs035 4840:10.1289/ehp.1002767 4626:10.1021/ac00276a034 4583:10.1021/ac00270a035 4382:1997EnST...31.2772E 4057:1997CBI...107..131G 3957:"Gaseous Emissions" 3888:2015CTEP...17...15R 3783:2015RSERv..48..635O 3419:10.1093/jnci/djs035 3362:10.1093/jnci/djs034 3065:engine control unit 2478:catalytic converter 2431:ultrafine particles 2036:3-nitrobenzanthrone 1997:methyl ethyl ketone 1977:Endocrine disruptor 1927:Endocrine disruptor 1874:endocrine disruptor 1842:Endocrine disruptor 1802:endocrine disruptor 1745:Concentration, ppm 1262: 818:Ocean acidification 728:Unexploded ordnance 649:Advertising clutter 581:Post-consumer waste 526:Foam food container 511:Biodegradable waste 168:Global distillation 6215:2019-12-09 at the 6146:, a case study at 6125:2020-02-24 at the 5439:Scientific Reports 5021:"Clean School Bus" 4880:2014-01-16 at the 3803:Konrad Reif (ed): 3505:10.1007/bf00380904 2928:emission standards 2717:Ecological effects 2707:combustion chamber 2562:, a 2011 study in 2392: 2340: 2322:. In 2014, diesel 1729:Specific chemicals 1554:, if appropriate. 1294:Volume percentage 1291:Volume percentage 1288:Volume percentage 1260: 1173: 1137:Group 1 carcinogen 1115: 1064:Ecology portal 689:Herbicidal warfare 233:Introduced species 173:Indoor air quality 143:Chlorofluorocarbon 53:You can assist by 5451:10.1038/srep02779 5397:978-0-08-094361-9 5262:on April 19, 2013 4778:(9767): 732–740. 4620:(12): 2129–2134. 4471:10.1002/ijc.11143 4390:10.1021/es961067i 4376:(10): 2772–2776. 3855:978-3-662-11843-6 3834:978-3-658-03194-7 3813:978-3-658-06554-6 3114: 3113: 2919: 2918: 2911: 2849: 2848: 2841: 2808:needs additional 2763: 2762: 2674:(DPF) to capture 2651: 2650: 2643: 2459:and a mixture of 2324:exhaust pollution 2247:Emission standard 2243: 2242: 2196:aromatic compound 2188: 2187: 1935:1,8-dinitropyrene 1922:dibutyl phthalate 1726: 1725: 1573: 1572: 1517: 1516: 1453:50–1000 ppm 1421:100–500 ppm 1100: 1099: 1035: 1034: 701:Nuclear holocaust 624:Urban heat island 438:Radioactive waste 223:Biological hazard 133:Air quality index 83: 82: 75: 16:(Redirected from 6258: 6165:, February 2006. 6155:, EPA Initiative 6088:Wichmann, H.-E. 6085: 6056: 6023: 6013: 5980: 5975:. Archived from 5966: 5922: 5921: 5914: 5908: 5907: 5900: 5894: 5893: 5873: 5867: 5866: 5864: 5862: 5852: 5846: 5845: 5843: 5841: 5836: 5828: 5822: 5821: 5819: 5818: 5804: 5798: 5797: 5790: 5784: 5783: 5781: 5780: 5774: 5766: 5757: 5756: 5754: 5753: 5730: 5724: 5713: 5704: 5703: 5701: 5700: 5685: 5679: 5678: 5676: 5674: 5663: 5657: 5656: 5654: 5622: 5616: 5615: 5613: 5611: 5597: 5591: 5590: 5588: 5586: 5576: 5570: 5569: 5566: 5557:(1–2): 395–414. 5546: 5537: 5530: 5524: 5514: 5482: 5473: 5472: 5462: 5430: 5424: 5423: 5417: 5409: 5384: 5378: 5377: 5375: 5374: 5359: 5353: 5352: 5323: 5317: 5316: 5300: 5294: 5293: 5288:. Archived from 5278: 5272: 5271: 5269: 5267: 5258:. Archived from 5252: 5246: 5245: 5235: 5203: 5197: 5196: 5191: 5189: 5184:on July 15, 2013 5180:. Archived from 5149: 5143: 5142: 5140: 5139: 5130:. Archived from 5120: 5114: 5113: 5111: 5109: 5095: 5089: 5088: 5068: 5062: 5061: 5059: 5057: 5043: 5037: 5036: 5034: 5032: 5017: 5011: 5010: 5008: 5006: 4990: 4984: 4983: 4973: 4940: 4934: 4933: 4923: 4891: 4885: 4872: 4866: 4865: 4860:. Archived from 4851: 4819: 4810: 4803: 4763: 4754: 4753: 4751: 4750: 4739: 4730: 4729: 4727: 4726: 4715: 4706: 4705: 4703: 4701: 4686: 4680: 4679: 4677: 4676: 4666: 4660: 4659: 4652: 4646: 4645: 4608: 4595: 4594: 4577:(6): 1026–1030. 4566: 4560: 4559: 4554: 4544: 4529: 4528: 4522: 4521: 4506: 4500: 4499: 4473: 4449: 4443: 4442: 4432: 4408: 4402: 4401: 4361: 4355: 4354: 4352: 4351: 4336: 4327: 4326: 4300: 4294: 4293: 4283: 4264:10.1289/ehp.5658 4243: 4237: 4236: 4199: 4193: 4192: 4181: 4175: 4174: 4164: 4140: 4134: 4133: 4131: 4129: 4123: 4116: 4108: 4085: 4084: 4040: 4034: 4033: 4027: 4026: 4011: 4005: 4004: 4002: 3978: 3972: 3971: 3969: 3967: 3953: 3947: 3946: 3944: 3942: 3932: 3923: 3917: 3916: 3914: 3912: 3899: 3873: 3864: 3858: 3843: 3837: 3822: 3816: 3801: 3795: 3794: 3766: 3757: 3756: 3740: 3734: 3733: 3728: 3726: 3711: 3705: 3704: 3699: 3697: 3682: 3676: 3675: 3673: 3671: 3659: 3653: 3652: 3646: 3642: 3640: 3632: 3630: 3628: 3605: 3599: 3598: 3588: 3564: 3558: 3557: 3555: 3553: 3539: 3533: 3532: 3488: 3482: 3481: 3475: 3473: 3467: 3458: 3449: 3448: 3438: 3398: 3392: 3391: 3381: 3341: 3335: 3334: 3329: 3321: 3315: 3314: 3308: 3300: 3294: 3293: 3287: 3285: 3279: 3271: 3265: 3264: 3240: 3229: 3109: 3106: 3083: 3075: 3052:Combined systems 2982:(SCR) injects a 2914: 2907: 2903: 2900: 2894: 2859: 2851: 2844: 2837: 2833: 2830: 2824: 2801: 2800: 2793: 2771:detect the scent 2758: 2755: 2749: 2729: 2721: 2646: 2639: 2635: 2632: 2626: 2595: 2587: 2499:light-headedness 2485:Specific effects 2433:(UFP) or PM0.1. 2429:, also known as 2294:General concerns 2278:Sulfur content: 2273:Federal Register 2238: 2235: 2217: 2210: 1736: 1735: 1578: 1577: 1568: 1565: 1559: 1550:You can help by 1532: 1531: 1524: 1520:Chemical classes 1437: 1263: 1259: 1092: 1085: 1078: 1062: 1061: 1060: 1050: 1049: 981: 980: 684:Chemical warfare 586:Waste management 546:Industrial waste 521:Electronic waste 506:Advertising mail 488:Phytoremediation 463:Land degradation 403:Depleted uranium 288:Overillumination 238:Invasive species 110: 100: 85: 84: 78: 71: 67: 64: 58: 38: 37: 30: 21: 18:Diesel emissions 6266: 6265: 6261: 6260: 6259: 6257: 6256: 6255: 6226: 6225: 6217:Wayback Machine 6127:Wayback Machine 6116: 6104:Future Diesel. 6095:Umweltbundesamt 5930: 5928:Further reading 5925: 5916: 5915: 5911: 5902: 5901: 5897: 5884:. Vol. 1. 5874: 5870: 5860: 5858: 5854: 5853: 5849: 5839: 5837: 5834: 5832:"Article title" 5830: 5829: 5825: 5816: 5814: 5806: 5805: 5801: 5792: 5791: 5787: 5778: 5776: 5772: 5768: 5767: 5760: 5751: 5749: 5741:. Vol. 1. 5731: 5727: 5714: 5707: 5698: 5696: 5687: 5686: 5682: 5672: 5670: 5665: 5664: 5660: 5623: 5619: 5609: 5607: 5605:afdc.energy.gov 5599: 5598: 5594: 5584: 5582: 5578: 5577: 5573: 5567: 5547: 5540: 5483: 5476: 5431: 5427: 5411: 5410: 5398: 5386: 5385: 5381: 5372: 5370: 5367:fuelflowpro.com 5361: 5360: 5356: 5324: 5320: 5301: 5297: 5280: 5279: 5275: 5265: 5263: 5254: 5253: 5249: 5204: 5200: 5187: 5185: 5150: 5146: 5137: 5135: 5122: 5121: 5117: 5107: 5105: 5097: 5096: 5092: 5069: 5065: 5055: 5053: 5045: 5044: 5040: 5030: 5028: 5019: 5018: 5014: 5004: 5002: 4991: 4987: 4956:(11): 855–868. 4941: 4937: 4906:(11): 869–883. 4892: 4888: 4882:Wayback Machine 4873: 4869: 4820: 4813: 4764: 4757: 4748: 4746: 4741: 4740: 4733: 4724: 4722: 4717: 4716: 4709: 4699: 4697: 4687: 4683: 4674: 4672: 4668: 4667: 4663: 4654: 4653: 4649: 4609: 4598: 4567: 4563: 4552: 4546: 4545: 4532: 4519: 4517: 4507: 4503: 4450: 4446: 4409: 4405: 4362: 4358: 4349: 4347: 4337: 4330: 4323: 4301: 4297: 4244: 4240: 4200: 4196: 4183: 4182: 4178: 4141: 4137: 4127: 4125: 4121: 4114: 4110: 4109: 4088: 4041: 4037: 4024: 4022: 4012: 4008: 3979: 3975: 3965: 3963: 3955: 3954: 3950: 3940: 3938: 3930: 3924: 3920: 3910: 3908: 3871: 3865: 3861: 3844: 3840: 3823: 3819: 3802: 3798: 3767: 3760: 3741: 3737: 3724: 3722: 3712: 3708: 3695: 3693: 3683: 3679: 3669: 3667: 3660: 3656: 3644: 3643: 3634: 3633: 3626: 3624: 3622: 3606: 3602: 3565: 3561: 3551: 3549: 3540: 3536: 3489: 3485: 3471: 3469: 3466:(Press release) 3465: 3459: 3452: 3413:(11): 869–883. 3399: 3395: 3356:(11): 855–868. 3342: 3338: 3327: 3323: 3322: 3318: 3306: 3302: 3301: 3297: 3283: 3281: 3278:(Press release) 3277: 3273: 3272: 3268: 3257: 3238: 3230: 3207: 3203: 3150: 3142: 3110: 3104: 3101: 3090:needs expansion 3084: 3073: 3054: 3032: 3025: 3019: 3013: 3001: 2994:) into gaseous 2993: 2977: 2924: 2915: 2904: 2898: 2895: 2880: 2860: 2845: 2834: 2828: 2825: 2818: 2802: 2798: 2791: 2759: 2753: 2750: 2743: 2730: 2719: 2647: 2636: 2630: 2627: 2612: 2596: 2585: 2487: 2384: 2332: 2296: 2291: 2289:Health concerns 2253: 2239: 2233: 2230: 2223:needs expansion 2208: 2137:propionaldehyde 2049:4-nitrobiphenyl 1731: 1696: 1683:nitrogen oxides 1569: 1563: 1560: 1549: 1533: 1529: 1522: 1513:1–30 mg·m 1436: 1430: 1427:Nitrogen oxides 1404:Carbon monoxide 1382: 1358: 1331: 1307: 1225: 1207:nitrogen oxides 1203: 1164: 1157: 1139:, which causes 1096: 1058: 1056: 1044: 1037: 1036: 936: 928: 927: 901: 893: 892: 828:Pharmaceuticals 808:Nonpoint source 748: 738: 737: 706:Nuclear fallout 679: 669: 668: 639: 629: 628: 619: 609: 608: 599: 591: 590: 576:Packaging waste 541:Hazardous waste 501: 493: 492: 453: 443: 442: 413:Nuclear fallout 408:Nuclear fission 388: 378: 377: 343: 333: 332: 308: 300: 299: 273: 271:Electromagnetic 263: 262: 253: 245: 244: 218: 208: 207: 178:Ozone depletion 123: 113: 98: 79: 68: 62: 59: 52: 39: 35: 28: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 6264: 6254: 6253: 6248: 6246:Diesel engines 6243: 6238: 6224: 6223: 6207: 6202: 6196: 6188: 6183: 6177: 6171: 6166: 6156: 6150: 6141: 6136: 6130: 6115: 6114:External links 6112: 6111: 6110: 6098: 6086: 6068:(4): 405–414. 6057: 6039:(6): 887–890. 6024: 5996:(6): 670–674. 5981: 5979:on 2011-05-25. 5949:(2): 271–276. 5934: 5929: 5926: 5924: 5923: 5909: 5895: 5868: 5847: 5823: 5799: 5785: 5758: 5725: 5705: 5680: 5669:. 28 June 2016 5658: 5617: 5592: 5571: 5538: 5474: 5425: 5396: 5379: 5354: 5318: 5295: 5273: 5247: 5218:(4): 178–183. 5198: 5144: 5115: 5090: 5063: 5038: 5012: 4985: 4935: 4886: 4867: 4864:on 2014-11-21. 4811: 4809: 4808: 4755: 4731: 4707: 4681: 4661: 4647: 4596: 4561: 4530: 4501: 4464:(5): 583–592. 4444: 4423:(6): 399–410. 4403: 4356: 4339:Pearce, Fred. 4328: 4321: 4295: 4258:(2): 139–145. 4238: 4211:(4): 505–515. 4194: 4176: 4135: 4086: 4051:(3): 131–144. 4035: 4020:www.arb.ca.gov 4006: 3973: 3948: 3918: 3859: 3838: 3817: 3796: 3758: 3735: 3706: 3677: 3666:. Ecopoint Inc 3654: 3620: 3600: 3559: 3534: 3499:(3): 149–161. 3483: 3450: 3393: 3336: 3316: 3295: 3266: 3255: 3204: 3202: 3199: 3198: 3197: 3192: 3187: 3181: 3176: 3171: 3166: 3161: 3156: 3149: 3146: 3141: 3140:Water recovery 3138: 3124:In India, the 3112: 3111: 3087: 3085: 3078: 3072: 3071:Other remedies 3069: 3053: 3050: 3041:heat exchanger 3037:stoichiometric 3030: 3015:Main article: 3012: 3009: 2999: 2991: 2976: 2973: 2961:carbon-neutral 2949:dimethyl ether 2932:diesel engines 2923: 2920: 2917: 2916: 2863: 2861: 2854: 2847: 2846: 2805: 2803: 2796: 2790: 2787: 2761: 2760: 2733: 2731: 2724: 2718: 2715: 2688:stoichiometric 2680:carbon buildup 2649: 2648: 2599: 2597: 2590: 2584: 2581: 2577:nanotoxicology 2556:extrapulmonary 2548:nanotoxicology 2486: 2483: 2438:fine particles 2401:(DEP), is the 2383: 2380: 2331: 2328: 2316:United Nations 2304:fine particles 2295: 2292: 2290: 2287: 2241: 2240: 2220: 2218: 2207: 2204: 2186: 2185: 2183: 2178: 2172: 2171: 2169: 2164: 2158: 2157: 2155: 2150: 2144: 2143: 2141: 2139: 2133: 2132: 2129: 2124: 2118: 2117: 2114: 2109: 2107:benzo(a)pyrene 2103: 2102: 2099: 2097: 2095:benzo(e)pyrene 2091: 2090: 2087: 2085: 2079: 2078: 2076: 2074: 2068: 2067: 2065: 2063: 2057: 2056: 2053: 2050: 2046: 2045: 2042: 2039: 2032: 2031: 2029: 2024: 2018: 2017: 2015: 2010: 2004: 2003: 2001: 1999: 1993: 1992: 1990: 1988: 1982: 1981: 1979: 1974: 1967: 1966: 1964: 1959: 1953: 1952: 1950: 1948: 1942: 1941: 1939: 1936: 1932: 1931: 1929: 1924: 1918: 1917: 1915: 1913: 1907: 1906: 1904: 1901: 1895: 1894: 1892: 1885: 1879: 1878: 1876: 1867: 1861: 1860: 1858: 1853: 1847: 1846: 1844: 1839: 1833: 1832: 1830: 1827: 1821: 1820: 1818: 1813: 1807: 1806: 1804: 1795: 1789: 1788: 1786: 1781: 1775: 1774: 1772: 1767: 1761: 1760: 1758: 1753: 1747: 1746: 1743: 1740: 1730: 1727: 1724: 1723: 1721: 1714: 1713: 1711: 1704: 1703: 1701: 1689: 1688: 1685: 1679: 1678: 1673: 1666: 1665: 1663: 1656: 1655: 1653: 1643: 1642: 1640: 1633: 1632: 1630: 1623: 1622: 1617: 1610: 1609: 1604: 1597: 1596: 1593: 1586: 1585: 1582: 1571: 1570: 1536: 1534: 1527: 1521: 1518: 1515: 1514: 1511: 1508: 1505: 1502: 1499: 1491: 1490: 1487: 1484: 1478: 1477: 1474: 1471: 1468: 1465: 1462: 1455: 1454: 1451: 1448: 1445: 1442: 1439: 1432: 1423: 1422: 1419: 1416: 1413: 1410: 1407: 1400: 1399: 1396: 1393: 1390: 1387: 1384: 1380: 1376: 1375: 1372: 1369: 1366: 1363: 1360: 1356: 1353:Carbon dioxide 1349: 1348: 1345: 1342: 1339: 1336: 1333: 1329: 1325: 1324: 1321: 1318: 1315: 1312: 1309: 1305: 1301: 1300: 1298: 1295: 1292: 1289: 1286: 1282: 1281: 1278: 1275: 1272: 1269: 1266: 1231:fine particles 1229:Moreover, the 1223: 1201: 1192:diesel engines 1185:pyro synthesis 1177:petroleum fuel 1163: 1160: 1155: 1145:bladder cancer 1118:Diesel exhaust 1098: 1097: 1095: 1094: 1087: 1080: 1072: 1069: 1068: 1067: 1066: 1054: 1039: 1038: 1033: 1032: 1031: 1030: 1022: 1021: 1017: 1016: 1015: 1014: 1009: 1004: 999: 997:Law by country 994: 986: 985: 979: 978: 973: 968: 963: 958: 953: 948: 943: 937: 934: 933: 930: 929: 926: 925: 924: 923: 918: 908: 902: 899: 898: 895: 894: 891: 890: 885: 880: 875: 870: 868:Surface runoff 865: 860: 855: 850: 845: 840: 835: 830: 825: 820: 815: 810: 805: 800: 795: 790: 785: 780: 775: 770: 768:Eutrophication 765: 760: 755: 749: 744: 743: 740: 739: 736: 735: 730: 725: 723:Scorched earth 720: 719: 718: 716:Nuclear winter 713: 711:Nuclear famine 708: 698: 697: 696: 686: 680: 675: 674: 671: 670: 667: 666: 661: 656: 651: 646: 640: 635: 634: 631: 630: 627: 626: 620: 615: 614: 611: 610: 607: 606: 600: 597: 596: 593: 592: 589: 588: 583: 578: 573: 568: 563: 558: 553: 548: 543: 538: 533: 528: 523: 518: 513: 508: 502: 499: 498: 495: 494: 491: 490: 485: 480: 475: 470: 468:Bioremediation 465: 460: 454: 449: 448: 445: 444: 441: 440: 435: 430: 425: 420: 415: 410: 405: 400: 398:Bioremediation 395: 389: 384: 383: 380: 379: 376: 375: 370: 365: 360: 355: 350: 348:Transportation 344: 339: 338: 335: 334: 331: 330: 325: 320: 315: 309: 306: 305: 302: 301: 298: 297: 295:Radio spectrum 292: 291: 290: 285: 274: 269: 268: 265: 264: 261: 260: 254: 251: 250: 247: 246: 243: 242: 241: 240: 230: 225: 219: 214: 213: 210: 209: 206: 205: 200: 195: 190: 185: 180: 175: 170: 165: 163:Global dimming 160: 155: 150: 145: 140: 135: 130: 124: 119: 118: 115: 114: 111: 103: 102: 94: 93: 81: 80: 42: 40: 33: 26: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 6263: 6252: 6249: 6247: 6244: 6242: 6239: 6237: 6236:Air pollution 6234: 6233: 6231: 6222: 6218: 6214: 6211: 6208: 6206: 6203: 6200: 6197: 6195: 6192: 6189: 6187: 6184: 6181: 6178: 6175: 6172: 6170: 6167: 6164: 6160: 6157: 6154: 6151: 6149: 6145: 6142: 6140: 6137: 6134: 6131: 6128: 6124: 6121: 6118: 6117: 6108: 6107: 6102: 6099: 6096: 6093: 6092: 6087: 6083: 6079: 6075: 6071: 6067: 6063: 6058: 6054: 6050: 6046: 6042: 6038: 6034: 6030: 6025: 6021: 6017: 6012: 6007: 6003: 5999: 5995: 5991: 5987: 5982: 5978: 5974: 5970: 5965: 5960: 5956: 5952: 5948: 5944: 5940: 5935: 5932: 5931: 5919: 5913: 5905: 5899: 5891: 5887: 5883: 5879: 5872: 5857: 5851: 5833: 5827: 5813: 5809: 5803: 5795: 5789: 5771: 5765: 5763: 5748: 5744: 5740: 5736: 5729: 5722: 5718: 5712: 5710: 5695:on 2015-10-08 5694: 5690: 5684: 5668: 5662: 5653: 5648: 5644: 5640: 5636: 5632: 5628: 5621: 5606: 5602: 5596: 5581: 5575: 5564: 5560: 5556: 5552: 5545: 5543: 5536: 5534: 5529: 5522: 5518: 5513: 5508: 5504: 5500: 5496: 5492: 5488: 5481: 5479: 5470: 5466: 5461: 5456: 5452: 5448: 5444: 5440: 5436: 5429: 5421: 5415: 5407: 5403: 5399: 5393: 5389: 5383: 5368: 5364: 5358: 5350: 5346: 5342: 5338: 5334: 5330: 5322: 5314: 5310: 5306: 5299: 5291: 5287: 5283: 5277: 5261: 5257: 5251: 5243: 5239: 5234: 5229: 5225: 5221: 5217: 5213: 5209: 5202: 5195: 5183: 5179: 5175: 5171: 5167: 5164:(9): 813–22. 5163: 5159: 5155: 5148: 5134:on 2017-02-04 5133: 5129: 5125: 5119: 5104: 5103:dieselnet.com 5100: 5094: 5086: 5082: 5078: 5074: 5067: 5052: 5048: 5042: 5026: 5022: 5016: 5000: 4996: 4989: 4981: 4977: 4972: 4967: 4963: 4959: 4955: 4951: 4947: 4939: 4931: 4927: 4922: 4917: 4913: 4909: 4905: 4901: 4897: 4890: 4883: 4879: 4876: 4871: 4863: 4859: 4855: 4850: 4845: 4841: 4837: 4833: 4829: 4825: 4818: 4816: 4806: 4805: 4801: 4797: 4793: 4789: 4785: 4781: 4777: 4773: 4769: 4762: 4760: 4744: 4738: 4736: 4720: 4714: 4712: 4696: 4692: 4685: 4671: 4665: 4657: 4651: 4643: 4639: 4635: 4631: 4627: 4623: 4619: 4615: 4607: 4605: 4603: 4601: 4592: 4588: 4584: 4580: 4576: 4572: 4565: 4558: 4551: 4550: 4543: 4541: 4539: 4537: 4535: 4527: 4516: 4512: 4505: 4497: 4493: 4489: 4485: 4481: 4477: 4472: 4467: 4463: 4459: 4455: 4448: 4440: 4436: 4431: 4426: 4422: 4418: 4414: 4407: 4399: 4395: 4391: 4387: 4383: 4379: 4375: 4371: 4367: 4360: 4346: 4345:New Scientist 4342: 4335: 4333: 4324: 4322:9783527306732 4318: 4314: 4310: 4306: 4299: 4291: 4287: 4282: 4277: 4273: 4269: 4265: 4261: 4257: 4253: 4249: 4242: 4234: 4230: 4226: 4222: 4218: 4214: 4210: 4206: 4198: 4191: 4186: 4180: 4172: 4168: 4163: 4158: 4154: 4150: 4146: 4139: 4124:on 2014-09-10 4120: 4113: 4107: 4105: 4103: 4101: 4099: 4097: 4095: 4093: 4091: 4082: 4078: 4074: 4070: 4066: 4062: 4058: 4054: 4050: 4046: 4039: 4032: 4021: 4017: 4010: 4001: 3996: 3992: 3988: 3984: 3977: 3962: 3958: 3952: 3936: 3929: 3922: 3907: 3903: 3898: 3893: 3889: 3885: 3881: 3877: 3870: 3863: 3856: 3852: 3848: 3842: 3835: 3831: 3827: 3821: 3814: 3810: 3806: 3800: 3792: 3788: 3784: 3780: 3776: 3772: 3765: 3763: 3755: 3750: 3746: 3739: 3732: 3721: 3720:The Telegraph 3717: 3710: 3703: 3692: 3688: 3681: 3665: 3658: 3650: 3638: 3623: 3621:9781439872819 3617: 3613: 3612: 3604: 3596: 3592: 3587: 3582: 3578: 3574: 3570: 3563: 3547: 3546: 3538: 3530: 3526: 3522: 3518: 3514: 3510: 3506: 3502: 3498: 3494: 3487: 3480: 3464: 3457: 3455: 3446: 3442: 3437: 3432: 3428: 3424: 3420: 3416: 3412: 3408: 3404: 3397: 3389: 3385: 3380: 3375: 3371: 3367: 3363: 3359: 3355: 3351: 3347: 3340: 3333: 3326: 3320: 3313: 3305: 3299: 3292: 3276: 3270: 3263: 3258: 3256:9780470442890 3252: 3248: 3244: 3237: 3236: 3228: 3226: 3224: 3222: 3220: 3218: 3216: 3214: 3212: 3210: 3205: 3196: 3193: 3191: 3188: 3185: 3182: 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