Type 1 diabetes - Knowledge

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production, hyperglycemia and weight loss in the experimental animal. The animal models prepared in this way are suitable for research into blood sugar-lowering drugs and therapies (e.g. for testing new insulin preparations). They are also the most commonly used genetically induced T1D model is the so-called AKITA mouse (originally C57BL/6NSIc mouse). The development of diabetes in AKITA mice is caused by a spontaneous point mutation in the Ins2 gene, which is responsible for the correct composition of insulin in the endoplasmic reticulum. Decreased insulin production is then associated with hyperglycemia, polydipsia and polyuria. If severe diabetes develops within 3–4 weeks, AKITA mice survive no longer than 12 weeks without treatment intervention. The description of the etiology of the disease shows that, unlike spontaneous models, the early stages of the disease are not accompanied by insulitis. AKITA mice are used to test drugs targeting endoplasmic reticulum stress reduction, to test islet transplants, and to study diabetes-related complications such as nephropathy, sympathetic autonomic neuropathy, and vascular disease. for testing transplantation therapies. Their advantage is mainly the low cost, the disadvantage is the cytotoxicity of the chemical compounds.

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system destroys beta cells, and islet-derived insulin will continue to be replaced by therapeutic exogenous insulin. Simultaneously, there is measurable alpha cell hypertrophy and hyperplasia in the early stage of the disease, leading to expanded alpha cell mass. This, together with failing beta cell insulin secretion, begins to account for rising glucagon levels that contribute to hyperglycemia. Some researchers believe glucagon dysregulation to be the primary cause of early stage hyperglycemia. Leading hypotheses for the cause of postprandial hyperglucagonemia suggest that exogenous insulin therapy is inadequate to replace the lost intraislet signalling to alpha cells previously mediated by beta cell-derived pulsatile insulin secretion. Under this working hypothesis intensive insulin therapy has attempted to mimic natural insulin secretion profiles in exogenous insulin infusion therapies. In young people with type 1 diabetes, unexplained deaths could be due to nighttime hypoglycemia triggering abnormal heart rhythms or cardiac autonomic neuropathy, damage to nerves that control the function of the heart.

1262:"With diabetes, blood vessels supplying the penis's erectile tissue can get hard and narrow, preventing the adequate blood supply needed for a firm erection. The nerve damage caused by poor blood glucose control can also cause ejaculate to go into the bladder instead of through the penis during ejaculation, called retrograde ejaculation. When this happens, semen leaves the body in the urine." Another cause of erectile dysfunction is reactive oxygen species created as a result of the disease. Antioxidants can be used to help combat this. Sexual problems are common in women who have diabetes, including reduced sensation in the genitals, dryness, difficulty/inability to orgasm, pain during sex, and decreased libido. Diabetes sometimes decreases estrogen levels in females, which can affect vaginal lubrication. Less is known about the correlation between diabetes and sexual dysfunction in females than in males. 1616:. Like diabetic humans, NOD mice develop islet autoantibodies and inflammation in the islet, followed by reduced insulin production and hyperglycemia. Some features of human diabetes are exaggerated in NOD mice, namely the mice have more severe islet inflammation than humans, and have a much more pronounced sex bias, with females developing diabetes far more frequently than males. In NOD mice the onset of insulitis occurs at 3–4 weeks of age. The islets of Langerhans are infiltrated by CD4+, CD8+ T lymphocytes, NK cells, B lymphocytes, dendritic cells, macrophages and neutrophils, similar to the disease process in humans. In addition to sex, breeding conditions, gut microbiome composition or diet also influence the onset of T1D. 1168:. Some feel lightheaded, sleepy, or weak. Severe hypoglycemia can develop rapidly, causing confusion, coordination problems, loss of consciousness, and seizure. On average, people with type 1 diabetes experience a hypoglycemia event that requires assistance of another 16–20 times in 100 person-years, and an event leading to unconsciousness or seizure 2–8 times per 100 person-years. The American Diabetes Association recommends treating hypoglycemia by the "15–15 rule": eat 15 grams of carbohydrates, then wait 15 minutes before checking blood sugar; repeat until blood sugar is at least 70 mg/dL. Severe hypoglycemia that impairs someone's ability to eat is typically treated with 862:

hours after exercise (called the "lag effect"). Conversely, high-intensity exercise can result in a shortage of insulin, and consequent hyperglycemia. The risk of hypoglycemia can be managed by beginning exercise when blood sugar is relatively high (above 100 mg/dL), ingesting carbohydrates during or shortly after exercise, and reducing the amount of injected insulin within two hours of the planned exercise. Similarly, the risk of exercise-induced hyperglycemia can be managed by avoiding exercise when insulin levels are very low, when blood sugar is extremely high (above 350 mg/dL), or when one feels unwell.

775:, a device with a sensor under the skin that constantly measures glucose levels and communicates those levels to an external device. Continuous glucose monitoring is associated with better blood sugar control than capillary blood testing alone; however, continuous glucose monitoring tends to be substantially more expensive. Healthcare providers can also monitor someone's hemoglobin A1C levels which reflect the average blood sugar over the last three months. The American Diabetes Association recommends a goal of keeping hemoglobin A1C levels under 7% for most adults and 7.5% for children. 481:—the only cells in the body that produce insulin—and the consequent progressive insulin deficiency. Without insulin, the body is unable to respond effectively to increases in blood sugar. Due to this, people with diabetes have persistent hyperglycemia. In 70–90% of cases, β-cells are destroyed by one's own immune system, for reasons that are not entirely clear. The best-studied components of this autoimmune response are β-cell-targeted antibodies that begin to develop in the months or years before symptoms arise. Typically someone will first develop antibodies against 1624:

advantage of the model is the progression of the prediabetic phase, which is very similar to human disease, with infiltration of islet by immune cells about a week before hyperglycemia is observed. This model is suitable for intervention studies or for the search for predictive biomarkers. It is also possible to observe individual phases of pancreatic infiltration by immune cells. The advantage of congenic LEW mice is also the good viability after the manifestation of T1D (compared to NOD mice and BB rats).

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macrophages, and NK cells, with the difference from the human course of insulitis being that CD4 + T lymphocytes are markedly reduced and CD8 + T lymphocytes are almost absent. The aforementioned lymphopenia is the major drawback of this model. The disease is characterized by hyperglycemia, hypoinsulinemia, weight loss, ketonuria, and the need for insulin therapy for survival. BB Rats are used to study the genetic aspects of T1D and are also used for interventional studies and diabetic nephropathy studies.

53: 421: 858:, the type of food with the greatest impact on blood sugar. In general, people with type 1 diabetes are advised to follow an individualized eating plan rather than a pre-decided one. There are camps for children to teach them how and when to use or monitor their insulin without parental help. As psychological stress may have a negative effect on diabetes, a number of measures have been recommended including: exercising, taking up a new hobby, or joining a charity, among others. 1060:. This accounts for the lack of glucagon stimulation and epinephrine release that would normally stimulate and enhance glucose release and production from the liver, rescuing the diabetic from severe hypoglycemia, coma, and death. Numerous hypotheses have been produced in the search for a cellular mechanism of hypoglycemic unawareness, and a consensus has yet to be reached. The major hypotheses are summarized in the following table: 557:, with some studies finding slight associations with type 1 diabetes, and others finding none. Large human studies have searched for, but not yet found an association between type 1 diabetes and various other viral infections, including infections of the mother during pregnancy. Conversely, some have postulated that reduced exposure to pathogens in the developed world increases the risk of autoimmune diseases, often called the 1651:

the disease, in particular the mechanisms by which environmental factors contribute to or protect against the occurrence of type 1 DM. Among the most commonly used are Coxsackie virus, lymphocytic choriomeningitis virus, encephalomyocarditis virus, and Kilham rat virus. Examples of virus-induced animals include NOD mice infected with coxsackie B4 that developed type 1 DM within two weeks.

3330: 1180:, where the blood sugar threshold at which they experience symptoms of hypoglycemia decreases, increasing their risk of severe hypoglycemic events. Rates of severe hypoglycemia have generally declined due to the advent of rapid-acting and long-acting insulin products in the 1990s and early 2000s; however, acute hypoglycemia still causes 4–10% of type 1 diabetes-related deaths. 546:; however, other large human studies have found no such association. Many potential environmental triggers have been investigated in large human studies and found to be unassociated with type 1 diabetes risk including duration of breastfeeding, time of introduction of cow milk into the diet, vitamin D consumption, blood levels of active vitamin D, and maternal intake of 1145:, which in islets is primarily produced by beta cells. Progressive autoimmune beta cell destruction, therefore, causes both the activation of pruning factors and the loss of protective factors to the islet sympathetic nerves. This unique form of neuropathy is a hallmark of type 1 diabetes, and plays a part in the loss of glucagon rescue of severe hypoglycemia. 501:. People with more of these antibodies, and who develop them earlier in life, are at higher risk for developing symptomatic type 1 diabetes. The trigger for the development of these antibodies remains unclear. A number of explanatory theories have been put forward, and the cause may involve genetic susceptibility, a diabetogenic trigger, and/or exposure to an 795:, or by steady infusion of low insulin levels by an insulin pump. The exact dose of insulin appropriate for each injection depends on the content of the meal/snack, and the individual person's sensitivity to insulin, and is therefore typically calculated by the individual with diabetes or a family member by hand or assistive device (calculator, chart, 905:

additional donors into the portal vein. Like with whole pancreas transplantation, islet transplantation requires lifelong immunosuppression and depends on the limited supply of donor organs; it is therefore similarly limited to people with severe poorly controlled diabetes and those who have had or are scheduled for a kidney transplant.

1234:, but in most cases there are no digestive symptoms or are mistakenly attributed to poor control of diabetes, gastroparesis or diabetic neuropathy. In most cases, celiac disease is diagnosed after onset of type 1 diabetes. The association of celiac disease with type 1 diabetes increases the risk of complications, such as 1192:. People with type 1 diabetes experience diabetic ketoacidosis 1–5 times per 100 person-years, the majority of which result in hospitalization. 13–19% of type 1 diabetes-related deaths are caused by ketoacidosis, making ketoacidosis the leading cause of death in people with type 1 diabetes less than 58 years old. 529:. Many aspects of environment and life history are associated with slight increases in type 1 diabetes risk, however the connection between each risk and diabetes often remains unclear. Type 1 diabetes risk is slightly higher for children whose mothers are obese or older than 35, or for children born by 1441:

Type 1 diabetes makes up an estimated 10–15% of all diabetes cases or 11–22 million cases worldwide. Symptoms can begin at any age, but onset is most common in children, with diagnoses slightly more common in 5 to 7 year olds, and much more common around the age of puberty. In contrast to

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Regular exercise is important for maintaining general health, though the effect of exercise on blood sugar can be challenging to predict. Exogenous insulin can drive down blood sugar, leaving those with diabetes at risk of hypoglycemia during and immediately after exercise, then again seven to eleven

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Several trials have attempted dietary interventions with the hope of reducing the autoimmunity that leads to type 1 diabetes. Trials that withheld cow's milk or gave infants formula free of bovine insulin decreased the development of β-cell-targeted antibodies, but did not prevent the development of

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The other persistent risk is diabetic ketoacidosis – a state where lack of insulin results in cells burning fat rather than sugar, producing toxic ketones as a byproduct. Ketoacidosis symptoms can develop rapidly, with frequent urination, excessive thirst, nausea, vomiting, and severe abdominal pain

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In addition, autoimmune diabetes is characterized by a loss of islet specific sympathetic innervation. This loss constitutes an 80–90% reduction of islet sympathetic nerve endings, happens early in the progression of the disease, and is persistent through the life of the patient. It is linked to the

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Autonomic inputs to alpha cells are much more important for glucagon stimulation in the moderate to severe ranges of hypoglycemia, yet the autonomic response is blunted in a number of ways. Recurrent hypoglycemia leads to metabolic adjustments in the glucose sensing areas of the brain, shifting the

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Onset of type 1 diabetes is followed by an increase in glucagon secretion after meals. Increases have been measured up to 37% during the first year of diagnosis, while C-peptide levels (indicative of islet-derived insulin), decline by up to 45%. Insulin production will continue to fall as the immune

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in people with diabetes is often a result of physical factors such as nerve damage and poor circulation, and psychological factors such as stress and/or depression caused by the demands of the disease. The most common sexual issues in males with diabetes are problems with erections and ejaculation:

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Type 1 diabetes is partially caused by genetics, and family members of type 1 diabetics have a higher risk of developing the disease themselves. In the general population, the risk of developing type 1 diabetes is around 1 in 250. For someone whose parent has type 1 diabetes, the risk rises to

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are associated with slightly increased type 1 diabetes risk. Some dietary habits have also been associated with type 1 diabetes risk, namely consumption of cow's milk and dietary sugar intake. Animal studies and some large human studies have found small associations between type 1 diabetes risk and

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in the blood and urine. Untreated ketoacidosis can rapidly progress to loss of consciousness, coma, and death. The percentage of children whose type 1 diabetes begins with an episode of diabetic ketoacidosis varies widely by geography, as low as 15% in parts of Europe and North America, and as high

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Viral infections play a role in the development of a number of autoimmune diseases, including human type 1 diabetes. However, the mechanisms by which viruses are involved in the induction of type 1 DM are not fully understood. Virus-induced models are used to study the etiology and pathogenesis of

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In Australia, about one million people have been diagnosed with diabetes and of this figure 130,000 people have been diagnosed with type 1 diabetes. Australia ranks 6th-highest in the world with children under 14 years of age. Between 2000 and 2013, 31,895 new cases were established, with 2,323 in

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In the United States, type 1 and 2 diabetes affected about 208,000 youths under the age of 20 in 2015. Over 18,000 youths are diagnosed with Type 1 diabetes every year. Every year about 234,051 Americans die due to diabetes (type I or II) or diabetes-related complications, with 69,071 having it as

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are necessary multiple times per day, adjusting dosages to account for food intake, blood glucose levels and physical activity. The goal of treatment is to maintain blood sugar in a normal range—80–130 mg/dL before a meal; <180 mg/dL after—as often as possible. To achieve this, people

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Type 1 diabetes makes up an estimated 5–10% of all diabetes cases. The number of people affected globally is unknown, although it is estimated that about 80,000 children develop the disease each year. Within the United States the number of people affected is estimated at one to three million.

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or "artificial pancreas" that could sense glucose levels and inject appropriate insulin without conscious input from the user. Current "hybrid closed-loop systems" use a continuous glucose monitor to sense blood sugar levels, and a subcutaneous insulin pump to deliver insulin; however, due to the

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Rates vary widely by country and region. Incidence is highest in Scandinavia, at 30–60 new cases per 100,000 children per year, intermediate in the U.S. and Southern Europe at 10–20 cases per 100,000 per year, and lowest in China, much of Asia, and South America at 1–3 cases per 100,000 per year.

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LEW-1AR1 / -iddm rats are derived from congenital Lewis rats and represent a rarer spontaneous model for T1D. These rats develop diabetes at about 8–9 weeks of age with no sex differences unlike NOD mice. In LEW mice, diabetes presents with hyperglycemia, glycosuria, ketonuria, and polyuria. The

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can be used to generate beta cells but previously these cells did not function as well as normal beta cells. In 2014 more mature beta cells were produced which released insulin in response to blood sugar when transplanted into mice. Before these techniques can be used in humans, more evidence of

1250:. The reason is bladder dysfunction is more common in people with diabetes than people without diabetes due to diabetes nephropathy. When present, nephropathy can cause a decrease in bladder sensation, which in turn, can cause increased residual urine, a risk factor for urinary tract infections. 1012:

Partial ablation of beta-cell function is enough to cause diabetes; at diagnosis, people with type 1 diabetes often still have detectable beta-cell function. Once insulin therapy is started, many people experience a resurgence in beta-cell function, and can go some time with little-to-no insulin

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from which they implant onto the recipient's liver. In nearly half of recipients, the islet transplant continues to work well enough that they still do not need exogenous insulin five years after transplantation. If a transplant fails, recipients can receive subsequent injections of islets from

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Type 1 diabetes was described as an autoimmune disease in the 1970s, based on observations that autoantibodies against islets were discovered in diabetics with other autoimmune deficiencies. It was also shown in the 1980s that immunosuppressive therapies could slow disease progression, further

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Glucagon secretion is normally increased upon falling glucose levels, but normal glucagon response to hypoglycemia is blunted in type 1 diabetics. Beta cell glucose sensing and subsequent suppression of administered insulin secretion is absent, leading to islet hyperinsulinemia which inhibits

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The goal of insulin therapy is to mimic normal pancreatic insulin secretion: low levels of insulin constantly present to support basic metabolism, plus the two-phase secretion of additional insulin in response to high blood sugar, then an extended phase of continued insulin secretion. This is

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Type 1 and 2 diabetes was estimated to cause $ 10.5 billion in annual medical costs ($ 875 per month per diabetic) and an additional $ 4.4 billion in indirect costs ($ 366 per month per person with diabetes) in the U.S. In the United States $ 245 billion every year is attributed to diabetes.

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are commonly used to induce diabetes and destroy β-cells in mouse/rat animal models. In both cases, it is a cytotoxic analog of glucose that passes GLUT2 transport and accumulates in β-cells, causing their destruction. The chemically induced destruction of β-cells leads to decreased insulin

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The BioBreeding Diabetes-Prone (BB) rat is another widely used spontaneous experimental model for T1D. The onset of diabetes occurs, in up to 90% of individuals (regardless of sex) at 8–16 weeks of age. During insulitis, the pancreatic islets are infiltrated by T lymphocytes, B lymphocytes,

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treatment – called the "honeymoon phase". This eventually fades as beta-cells continue to be destroyed, and insulin treatment is required again. Beta-cell destruction is not always complete, as 30–80% of type 1 diabetics produce small amounts of insulin years or decades after diagnosis.

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Since the 1950s, the incidence of type 1 diabetes has been gradually increasing across the world by an average 3–4% per year. The increase is more pronounced in countries that began with a lower incidence of type 1 diabetes. A single 2023 study suggested a relationship between

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normally decreases during hypoglycemia, disinhibiting signals for sympathetic tone. Recurrent episodes of hypoglycemia result in increased basal GABA which fails to decrease normally during subsequent hypoglycemia. Inhibitory tone remains and sympathetic tone is not increased.

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Coeliac disease in T1DM is asymptomatic ...Clinical manifestations of coeliac disease, such as abdominal pain, gas, bloating, diarrhoea and weight loss can be present in patients with T1DM, but are often attributed to poor control of diabetes, gastroparesis or diabetic

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which secrete glucagon, exacerbating excursions away from euglycemia in both directions; overproduction of glucagon after meals causes sharper hyperglycemia, and failure to stimulate glucagon upon hypoglycemia prevents a glucagon-mediated rescue of glucose levels.

1227:, which is estimated to shorten the life of the average type 1 diabetic by 8–13 years. Cardiovascular disease as well as neuropathy may have an autoimmune basis, as well. Women with type 1 DM have a 40% higher risk of death as compared to men with type 1 DM. 561:. Various studies of hygiene-related factors—including household crowding, daycare attendance, population density, childhood vaccinations, antihelminth medication, and antibiotic usage during early life or pregnancy—show no association with type 1 diabetes. 3695:

Paolisso G, Sgambato S, Torella R, Varricchio M, Scheen A, D'Onofrio F, et al. (June 1988). "Pulsatile insulin delivery is more efficient than continuous infusion in modulating islet cell function in normal subjects and patients with type 1 diabetes".

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delay between insulin injection and its action, current systems require the user to initiate insulin before taking meals. Several improvements to these systems are currently undergoing clinical trials in humans, including a dual-hormone system that injects

1001:. As some beta cells die, they may release cellular components that amplify the immune response, exacerbating inflammation and cell death. Pancreases from people with type 1 diabetes also have signs of beta cell apoptosis, linked to activation of the 1159:

The most pressing complication of type 1 diabetes are the always present risks of poor blood sugar control: severe hypoglycemia and diabetic ketoacidosis. Hypoglycemia – typically blood sugar below 70 mg/dL – triggers the release of

890:, or who struggle to perform regular insulin therapy and experience repeated severe side effects of poor blood sugar control. Most pancreas transplants are done simultaneously with a kidney transplant, with both organs from the same 1596:

of disease are used to understand the pathogenesis and etiology of type 1 diabetes. Currently available models of T1D can be divided into spontaneously autoimmune, chemically induced, virus induced and genetically induced.

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treatment suggested that cyclosporine could improve insulin secretion in those recently diagnosed with type 1 diabetes; however, people who stopped taking cyclosporine rapidly stopped making insulin, and cyclosporine's

943:. Abnormalities in the pancreas or the beta cells themselves may also contribute to beta-cell destruction. The pancreases of people with type 1 diabetes tend to be smaller, lighter, and have abnormal blood vessels, 720:, the beta cell cytoplasm, or insulin, each of which are targeted by antibodies in around 80% of type 1 diabetics. Some healthcare providers also have access to tests for antibodies targeting the beta cell proteins 767:. The American Diabetes Association recommends testing blood glucose around 6–10 times per day: before each meal, before exercise, at bedtime, occasionally after a meal, and any time someone feels the symptoms of 428:

Type 1 diabetes begins suddenly and can develop at any age, with a peak in onsets in childhood and adolescence but also significant numbers of onsets in adulthood. Adult onsets are often initially misdiagnosed as

6835: 6820: 1483:, who in a 1902 paper noted inflammation around the pancreatic islet of a child who had died of diabetes. The connection between this inflammation and diabetes onset was further developed through the 1920s by 696:

defines diabetes as blood sugar levels at or above 7.0 mmol/L (126 mg/dL) after fasting for at least eight hours, or a glucose level at or above 11.1 mmol/L (200 mg/dL) two hours after an

464:, characterized by persistent fatigue, dry or flushed skin, abdominal pain, nausea or vomiting, confusion, trouble breathing, and a fruity breath odor. Blood and urine tests reveal unusually high glucose and 1522:

Funding for research into type 1 diabetes originates from government, industry (e.g., pharmaceutical companies), and charitable organizations. Government funding in the United States is distributed via the

3777:"Loss of the decrement in intraislet insulin plausibly explains loss of the glucagon response to hypoglycemia in insulin-deficient diabetes: documentation of the intraislet insulin hypothesis in humans" 3075:

Low‐carbohydrate diets are of interest for improving glycaemic outcomes in the management of Type 1 diabetes. There is limited evidence to support their routine use in the management of Type 1 diabetes.

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and mortality. This association can be explained by shared genetic factors, and inflammation or nutritional deficiencies caused by untreated celiac disease, even if type 1 diabetes is diagnosed first.

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Individuals diagnosed with diabetes have 2.3 times the health care costs as individuals who do not have diabetes. One in ten health care dollars are spent on individuals with type 1 and 2 diabetes.

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Rezania A, Bruin JE, Arora P, Rubin A, Batushansky I, Asadi A, et al. (November 2014). "Reversal of diabetes with insulin-producing cells derived in vitro from human pluripotent stem cells".

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There is no way to prevent type 1 diabetes; however, the development of diabetes symptoms can be delayed in some people who are at high risk of developing the disease. In 2022 the FDA approved an

7514: 826:, which replaces the beta-cell hormone amylin. Addition of pramlintide to mealtime insulin injections reduces the boost in blood sugar after a meal, improving blood sugar control. Occasionally, 2124: 1377:

to delay the progression of type 1 diabetes in those older than eight who have already developed diabetes-related autoantibodies and problems with blood sugar control. In that population, the

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Besides insulin, the major way type 1 diabetics control their blood sugar is by learning how various foods impact their blood sugar levels. This is primarily done by tracking their intake of

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Huxley RR, Peters SA, Mishra GD, Woodward M (March 2015). "Risk of all-cause mortality and vascular events in women versus men with type 1 diabetes: a systematic review and meta-analysis".

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to lower glucose concentration. This is known as hypoglycemic unawareness. Subsequent hypoglycemia is met with impairment in sending of counter regulatory signals to the islets and

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Seckold R, Fisher E, de Bock M, King BR, Smart CE (March 2019). "The ups and downs of low-carbohydrate diets in the management of Type 1 diabetes: a review of clinical outcomes".

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autoimmune aspect of type 1 diabetics and fails to occur in type 2 diabetics. Early in the autoimmune event, the axon pruning is activated in islet sympathetic nerves. Increased

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Chen HS, Su LT, Lin SZ, Sung FC, Ko MC, Li CY (January 2012). "Increased risk of urinary tract calculi among patients with diabetes mellitus – a population-based cohort study".

1539:(JDRF), founded by parents of children with type 1 diabetes, is the world's largest provider of charity-based funding for type 1 diabetes research. Other charities include the 919:

Type 1 diabetes is a result of the destruction of pancreatic beta cells, although what triggers that destruction remains unclear. People with type 1 diabetes tend to have more

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A longstanding hypothesis for an environmental trigger is that some viral infection early in life contributes to type 1 diabetes development. Much of this work has focused on

1421:– have been the subject of research, but none have provided lasting protection from development of type 1 diabetes. There have also been clinical trials attempting to induce 7507: 4897: 1425:

by vaccination with insulin, GAD65, and various short peptides targeted by immune cells during type 1 diabetes; none have yet delayed or prevented development of disease.

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10–15 minutes before each meal or snacks, and as-needed to correct hyperglycemia. In addition, constant low levels of insulin are achieved with one or two daily doses of

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strain that spontaneously develops type 1 diabetes in 30–100% of female mice depending on housing conditions. Diabetes in NOD mice is caused by several genes, primarily

457:, irritability, and reduced scholastic performance. Adults with type 1 diabetes tend to have more varied symptoms, which come on over months, rather than days or weeks. 5766:

Lenzen S (October 2017). "Animal models of human type 1 diabetes for evaluating combination therapies and successful translation to the patient with type 1 diabetes".

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Rates of disease vary widely, with approximately one new case per 100,000 per year in East Asia and Latin America and around 30 new cases per 100,000 per year in

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1–9%. If a sibling has type 1 diabetes, the risk is 6–7%. If someone's identical twin has type 1 diabetes, they have a 30–70% risk of developing it themselves.

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The cause of type 1 diabetes is unknown, but it is believed to involve a combination of genetic and environmental factors. The underlying mechanism involves an

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Altered glucose transport and enhanced metabolic efficiency upon recurring hypoglycemia relieves oxidative stress that would activate sympathetic response.

2977: 1164:, and can cause people to feel shaky, anxious, or irritable. People with hypoglycemia may also experience hunger, nausea, sweats, chills, dizziness, and a 2234: 1025:, which acts in antagonism with insulin to regulate blood sugar and metabolism. Progressive beta cell destruction leads to dysfunction in the neighboring 372:

and exercise are important parts of management. If left untreated, diabetes can cause many complications. Complications of relatively rapid onset include

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triggers pancreas inflammation in 5 to 10% of those who take it, sometimes causing lasting β-cell damage. Similarly, up to 5% of those who take the anti-

1275:(PCOS). The reason may be that the ovaries are exposed to high insulin concentrations since women with type 1 diabetes can have frequent hyperglycemia. 894:. The transplanted pancreas continues to function for at least five years in around three quarters of recipients, allowing them to stop taking insulin. 5062:

Bottazzo GF, Florin-Christensen A, Doniach D (November 1974). "Islet-cell antibodies in diabetes mellitus with autoimmune polyendocrine deficiencies".

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additionally recommends a diagnosis of diabetes for anyone with symptoms of hyperglycemia and blood sugar at any time at or above 11.1 mmol/L, or

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Delli AJ, Lernmark A (2016). "Type 1 (insulin-dependent) diabetes mellitus: etiology, pathogenesis, prediction, and prevention". In Jameson JL (ed.).

3607:"Postprandial suppression of glucagon secretion depends on intact pulsatile insulin secretion: further evidence for the intraislet insulin hypothesis" 2116: 808: 1141:(p75), which acts to prune off axons. Axons are normally protected from pruning by activation of tropomyosin receptor kinase A (Trk A) receptors by 8208: 7163: 4953: 4766: 1445:

In 2006, type 1 diabetes affected 440,000 children under 14 years of age and was the primary cause of diabetes in those less than 15 years of age.

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Radenković M, Stojanović M, Prostran M (March 2016). "Experimental diabetes induced by alloxan and streptozotocin: The current state of the art".

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can cause blood sugar imbalances in women who have diabetes. Dosage changes can help address that, at the risk of side effects and complications.

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Dayan CM, Korah M, Tatovic D, Bundy BN, Herold KC (October 2019). "Changing the landscape for type 1 diabetes: the first step to prevention".

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Salpea P, Cosentino C, Igoillo-Esteve M (2020). "A Review of Mouse Models of Monogenic Diabetes and ER Stress Signaling". In King AJ (ed.).

799:, etc.). People unable to manage these intensive insulin regimens are sometimes prescribed alternate plans relying on mixtures of rapid- or 1852: 4986: 1969: 4725: 3266: 3264: 1930: 1102:

Decreased reliance on glucose, supplementation of lactate from astrocytes, or ketones meet metabolic demands and reduce stress to brain.

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Ramli R, Reddy M, Oliver N (July 2019). "Artificial Pancreas: Current Progress and Future Outlook in the Treatment of Type 1 Diabetes".

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Katsarou A, Gudbjörnsdottir S, Rawshani A, Dabelea D, Bonifacio E, Anderson BJ, et al. (March 2017). "Type 1 diabetes mellitus".

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Chen D, Thayer TC, Wen L, Wong FS (2020). "Mouse Models of Autoimmune Diabetes: The Nonobese Diabetic (NOD) Mouse". In King AJ (ed.).

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Chang JH, Gurley SB (2012). "Assessment of Diabetic Nephropathy in the Akita Mouse". In Hans-Georg J, Hadi AH, Schürmann A (eds.).

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About 12 percent of people with type 1 diabetes have clinical depression. About 6 percent of people with type 1 diabetes also have

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now recommends closed-loop insulin systems as an option for all women with type 1 diabetes who are pregnant or planning pregnancy.

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Once a diagnosis of diabetes is established, type 1 diabetes is distinguished from other types by a blood test for the presence of

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function, which may exacerbate autoimmunity. Destruction of beta cells results in inflammation of the islet of Langerhans, called

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The mainstay of type 1 diabetes treatment is the regular injection of insulin to manage hyperglycemia. Injections of insulin via

4908: 911:(Lantidra) allogeneic (donor) pancreatic islet cellular therapy was approved for medical use in the United States in June 2023. 654:

experience β-cell destruction and diabetes. Several other drugs cause diabetes by reversibly reducing insulin secretion, namely

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King AJ, Estil Les E, Montanya E (2020). "Use of Streptozotocin in Rodent Models of Islet Transplantation". In King AJ (ed.).

3648:"Beta-cell-mediated signaling predominates over direct alpha-cell signaling in the regulation of glucagon secretion in humans" 759:

with diabetes often monitor their blood glucose levels at home. Around 83% of type 1 diabetics monitor their blood glucose by

433:. The major sign of type 1 diabetes is very high blood sugar, which typically manifests in children as a few days to weeks of 6746: 6355: 6188: 6000: 5951: 5910: 5861: 5642: 5591: 5449: 2711: 2270: 2228: 1536: 2923: 7562: 7040: 6985: 6179:

Brownlee M, Aiello LP, Sun JK, Cooper ME, Feldman EL, Plutzky J, et al. (2020). "Complications of Diabetes Mellitus".

6784: 3401: 3399: 3397: 3395: 3382: 3380: 3378: 3376: 3374: 3349: 3347: 3345: 3343: 1457:

2013, a rate of 10–13 cases per 100,00 people each year. Aboriginals and Torres Strait Islander people are less affected.

900:

have become increasingly common. Pancreatic islets are isolated from a donor pancreas, then injected into the recipient's

7481: 6850: 3166: 1508: 639:

Some medicines can reduce insulin production or damage β cells, resulting in disease that resembles type 1 diabetes. The

315:, and slow wound healing. Symptoms typically develop over a short period of time, often a matter of weeks if not months. 3288: 1307:

affects 2–8% of people with type 1 diabetes, and is more common in those who were younger at diabetes diagnosis, and in

7587: 6955: 4035:"Human Type 1 Diabetes Is Characterized by an Early, Marked, Sustained, and Islet-Selective Loss of Sympathetic Nerves" 3392: 3371: 3340: 3122: 2086: 807:

insulin, which are administered at fixed times along with meals of pre-planned times and carbohydrate composition. The

4176: 2665: 2663: 2661: 8281: 8059: 7435: 7085: 2383: 1572: 1342: 1126: 3222: 615:, and are common in people of European descent. A pattern associated with reduced risk of type 1 diabetes is called 7918: 7311: 5983:

Christoffersson G, Flodström-Tullberg M (2020). "Mouse Models of Virus-Induced Type 1 Diabetes". In King AJ (ed.).

4496:

James R, Hijaz A (October 2014). "Lower urinary tract symptoms in women with diabetes mellitus: a current review".

4414:

See JA, Kaukinen K, Makharia GK, Gibson PR, Murray JA (October 2015). "Practical insights into gluten-free diets".

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Lenzen S, Arndt T, Elsner M, Wedekind D, Jörns A (2020). "Rat Models of Human Type 1 Diabetes". In King AJ (ed.).

5365: 8100: 7962: 3736:"Intraislet hyperinsulinemia prevents the glucagon response to hypoglycemia despite an intact autonomic response" 3509:"Too much glucagon, too little insulin: time course of pancreatic islet dysfunction in new-onset type 1 diabetes" 3234: 3010: 2675: 624: 8054: 4131: 3986:"Early sympathetic islet neuropathy in autoimmune diabetes: lessons learned and opportunities for investigation" 3145: 1397:

and increased risk of cancer prevented people from using it long-term. Several other immunosuppressive agents –

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that target various components of the beta cell. The most commonly available tests detect antibodies against

702: 4813: 4811: 4151: 4149: 2839: 2189: 8328: 8237: 7241: 7168: 3313: 2897:"Overview | Diabetes in pregnancy: management from preconception to the postnatal period | Guidance | NICE" 2781: 2779: 2777: 2775: 2451: 1378: 959: 815: 779:

accomplished by combining different insulin preparations that act with differing speeds and durations. The

377: 3883:"Defective counterregulation and hypoglycemia unawareness in diabetes: mechanisms and emerging treatments" 2519: 2502: 2416: 2414: 2412: 728:; these antibodies are present in around 58% and 80% of type 1 diabetics respectively. Some also test for 8139: 7942: 7528: 7153: 7078: 7073: 4808: 4715: 4713: 4635:

Escobar-Morreale HF, Roldán B, Barrio R, Alonso M, Sancho J, de la Calle H, et al. (November 2000).

4146: 1272: 1204:

throughout the body. This damage tends to manifest particularly in the eyes, nerves, and kidneys causing

717: 698: 627:

have identified dozens of other genes associated with type 1 diabetes risk, mostly genes involved in the

4678:"Clinical review: Hyperandrogenism and polycystic ovary syndrome in women with type 1 diabetes mellitus" 2772: 1794:"Long-term and recent trends in survival and life expectancy for people with type 1 diabetes in Finland" 8333: 8170: 7848: 7663: 7385: 7214: 7021: 4637:"High prevalence of the polycystic ovary syndrome and hirsutism in women with type 1 diabetes mellitus" 2409: 1053: 897: 874:

of the pancreas or isolated islet cells to restore insulin production and alleviate diabetic symptoms.

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type 1 diabetes. Similarly, trials that gave high-risk individuals injected insulin, oral insulin, or

927:

that specifically target islet antigens than those without type 1 diabetes, suggesting a role for the

8200: 8023: 7288: 7236: 7133: 2703: 1581: 1154: 886:. The American Diabetes Association recommends pancreas transplant only in people who also require a 879: 693: 4926: 3418:

Farhy LS, McCall AL (July 2015). "Glucagon – the new 'insulin' in the pathophysiology of diabetes".

2879: 2877: 2875: 2873: 2871: 2869: 1479:

The connection between diabetes and pancreatic damage was first described by the German pathologist

8114: 7883: 7869: 7471: 7209: 7016: 6861: 5475: 5473: 5471: 5469: 4781: 4744: 3022: 2602: 2600: 2598: 2596: 1462: 760: 5045: 5043: 2583: 2581: 2579: 2577: 2575: 2039:"Type 1 diabetes through the life span: a position statement of the American Diabetes Association" 1465:

and the incidence of type 1 diabetes in children; confirmatory studies have not appeared to date.

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Aanstoot HJ, Anderson BJ, Daneman D, Danne T, Donaghue K, Kaufman F, et al. (October 2007).

2866: 1844: 1406: 1385: 1265: 1247: 1130: 1114: 998: 804: 800: 792: 788: 732:, a byproduct of insulin synthesis. Very low C-peptide levels are suggestive of type 1 diabetes. 721: 148: 6617:

Shapiro AM, Pokrywczynska M, Ricordi C (May 2017). "Clinical pancreatic islet transplantation".

5466: 5268:

Pagliuca FW, Millman JR, Gürtler M, Segel M, Van Dervort A, Ryu JH, et al. (October 2014).

4364:"Systematic review with meta-analysis: associations between coeliac disease and type 1 diabetes" 4324:

Roy T, Lloyd CE (October 2012). "Epidemiology of depression and diabetes: a systematic review".

4250:"Autoantibodies to autonomic nerves associated with cardiac and peripheral autonomic neuropathy" 2922:

Lee TT, Collett C, Bergford S, Hartnell S, Scott EM, Lindsay RS, et al. (26 October 2023).

2593: 8118: 7158: 7128: 7118: 7033: 7004: 6948: 5040: 4828: 4826: 2572: 1961: 1735:

Livingstone SJ, Levin D, Looker HC, Lindsay RS, Wild SH, Joss N, et al. (6 January 2015).

1224: 928: 747: 381: 157: 6901: 4209:"Increased monocytic activity and biomarkers of inflammation in patients with type 1 diabetes" 1922: 7306: 7301: 7095: 6763: 6198:

Butler AE, Misselbrook D (August 2020). "Distinguishing between type 1 and type 2 diabetes".

5938:. Methods in Molecular Biology. Vol. 2128. New York, NY: Springer US. pp. 135–147. 4617: 4546: 2971: 2260: 1335:. Conversely, complex autoimmune syndromes caused by mutations in the immunity-related genes 1296: 1169: 963: 871: 461: 385: 373: 153: 5987:. Methods in Molecular Biology. Vol. 2128. New York, NY: Springer US. pp. 93–105. 4823: 1442:

most autoimmune diseases, type 1 diabetes is slightly more common in males than in females.

846:

to people with type 1 diabetes, although fewer than 5% of type 1 diabetics use these drugs.

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levels in the body prior to treatment. The common symptoms of this elevated blood sugar are

8276: 8271: 8255: 8165: 8095: 7952: 7864: 7707: 7557: 7466: 7425: 7358: 7348: 7343: 7231: 6998: 5848:. Methods in Molecular Biology. Vol. 2128. New York, NY: Springer US. pp. 55–67. 5727:"The LEW.1AR1/Ztm-iddm rat: a new model of spontaneous insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus" 5629:. Methods in Molecular Biology. Vol. 2128. New York, NY: Springer US. pp. 69–85. 5578:. Methods in Molecular Biology. Vol. 2128. New York, NY: Springer US. pp. 87–92. 3834: 1681: 1613: 1480: 1332: 1320: 1312: 1213: 1205: 1086:

units for metabolism, counteracting the central nervous system perception of hypoglycemia.

948: 883: 578: 522: 393: 7983: 6797: 3251: 3249: 2473: 2471: 2469: 8: 7476: 7461: 7390: 7375: 7370: 7353: 7338: 7323: 7266: 7261: 7226: 7193: 7123: 6839: 5897:. Methods in Molecular Biology. Vol. 933. Totowa, NJ: Humana Press. pp. 17–29. 3558:"Glucagonocentric restructuring of diabetes: a pathophysiologic and therapeutic makeover" 3359: 1488: 1474: 1284: 1209: 1142: 875: 741: 706: 389: 335: 8298: 5099:"Type 1 diabetes: translating mechanistic observations into effective clinical outcomes" 5016: 4225: 4208: 3838: 3623: 3606: 2399: 2397: 2319: 2294: 1712: 1685: 1669: 1021:

Onset of autoimmune diabetes is accompanied by impaired ability to regulate the hormone

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Diabetes is typically diagnosed by a blood test showing unusually high blood sugar. The

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Lenzen S, Tiedge M, Elsner M, Lortz S, Weiss H, Jörns A, et al. (September 2001).

5702: 5675: 5656: 5602: 5551: 5526: 5419: 5342: 5294: 5269: 5245: 5220: 5123: 5098: 5029: 4876: 4604: 4577: 4521: 4439: 4393: 4059: 4034: 4010: 3985: 3958: 3931: 3907: 3882: 3855: 3822: 3672: 3647: 3582: 3557: 3533: 3508: 3489: 3443: 3246: 3206: 3189: 3104: 3066: 2617: 2615: 2466: 2171: 2063: 2038: 1885: 1769: 1736: 1548: 1300: 1258: 1200:

In addition to the acute complications of diabetes, long-term hyperglycemia results in

1185: 780: 725: 558: 547: 510: 446: 272: 128: 6462: 6382: 6285: 5542: 5075: 4337: 4302: 4207:

Devaraj S, Glaser N, Griffen S, Wang-Polagruto J, Miguelino E, Jialal I (March 2006).

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teplizumab can delay the development of type 1 diabetes symptoms by around two years.

1216:

respectively. In the eyes, prolonged high blood sugar causes the blood vessels in the

8005: 8000: 7800: 7789: 7593: 7536: 7246: 7183: 7113: 7068: 6941: 6872: 6742: 6717: 6667: 6634: 6605: 6554: 6519: 6476: 6425: 6396: 6351: 6326: 6301: 6289: 6264: 6252: 6227: 6215: 6184: 6171: 6159: 6125: 6113: 6063: 6049: 6018: 6006: 5996: 5969: 5957: 5947: 5916: 5906: 5879: 5867: 5857: 5826: 5783: 5748: 5707: 5660: 5648: 5638: 5607: 5587: 5556: 5455: 5445: 5423: 5411: 5346: 5334: 5299: 5250: 5128: 5079: 5033: 5021: 4880: 4868: 4863: 4846: 4699: 4658: 4609: 4513: 4478: 4431: 4385: 4341: 4306: 4271: 4230: 4166: 4164: 4064: 4015: 3963: 3912: 3860: 3846: 3798: 3757: 3713: 3677: 3628: 3587: 3538: 3481: 3435: 3211: 3058: 2951: 2943: 2829: 2827: 2825: 2823: 2761: 2707: 2561: 2556: 2539: 2394: 2324: 2266: 2224: 2163: 2068: 2008: 1823: 1815: 1774: 1756: 1717: 1699: 1388:

have been trialled with the aim of preventing beta cell destruction. Large trials of

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is rare, due in part to the few available donor organs, and to the need for lifelong

659: 530: 396:. Furthermore, since insulin lowers blood sugar levels, complications may arise from 312: 206: 116: 6646: 6437: 6338: 5795: 5674:

Al-Awar A, Kupai K, Veszelka M, Szűcs G, Attieh Z, Murlasits Z, et al. (2016).

5353: 4525: 4443: 4397: 3493: 3447: 3108: 3070: 2808: 2612: 2175: 763:: pricking the finger to draw a drop of blood, and determining blood glucose with a 8049: 7900: 7895: 7836: 7763: 7738: 7620: 7221: 6734: 6707: 6699: 6626: 6595: 6587: 6576:"Pancreatic Islet Transplantation in Humans: Recent Progress and Future Directions" 6566: 6544: 6509: 6501: 6466: 6458: 6417: 6386: 6378: 6318: 6281: 6244: 6207: 6151: 6103: 6053: 6045: 5988: 5939: 5898: 5849: 5818: 5775: 5738: 5697: 5687: 5630: 5597: 5579: 5546: 5538: 5401: 5393: 5326: 5289: 5281: 5240: 5232: 5118: 5110: 5071: 5011: 5003: 4858: 4689: 4648: 4599: 4589: 4505: 4474: 4470: 4423: 4375: 4333: 4298: 4261: 4220: 4054: 4046: 4005: 3997: 3953: 3943: 3902: 3894: 3850: 3842: 3788: 3747: 3705: 3667: 3659: 3618: 3577: 3569: 3528: 3520: 3477: 3473: 3427: 3201: 3096: 3050: 2999: 2992:"Closed-loop insulin systems are effective for pregnant women with type 1 diabetes" 2935: 2924:"Automated Insulin Delivery in Women with Pregnancy Complicated by Type 1 Diabetes" 2751: 2551: 2483: 2366: 2364: 2314: 2306: 2155: 2058: 2050: 2000: 1991:

Torpy JM, Lynm C, Glass RM (September 2007). "JAMA patient page. Type 1 diabetes".

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is usually given by injection just under the skin but can also be delivered by an

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Dean PG, Kukla A, Stegall MD, Kudva YC (April 2017). "Pancreas transplantation".

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Knip M, Veijola R, Virtanen SM, Hyöty H, Vaarala O, Akerblom HK (December 2005).

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Zheng Y, Permanyer I, Canudas-Romo V, Aburto JM, Nigri A, Plana-Ripoll O (2023).

1292: 1287:, particularly thyroid problems – around 20% of people with type 1 diabetes have 1201: 967: 952: 951:

organization. In addition, beta cells from people with type 1 diabetes sometimes

839: 534: 430: 361: 342: 244: 5992: 5902: 5853: 5822: 5634: 5583: 4578:"Efficacy of ellagic acid and sildenafil in diabetes-induced sexual dysfunction" 4033:

Mundinger TO, Mei Q, Foulis AK, Fligner CL, Hull RL, Taborsky GJ (August 2016).

2361: 1737:"Estimated life expectancy in a Scottish cohort with type 1 diabetes, 2008-2010" 939:. These inflamed islets tend to contain CD8+ T-cells and – to a lesser extent – 533:. Similarly, a child's weight gain in the first year of life, total weight, and 307:, weight loss, and other serious complications. Additional symptoms may include 8074: 8028: 7821: 7380: 7253: 6703: 6655: 6133:

Atkinson MA, Mcgill DE, Dassau E, Laffel L (2020). "Type 1 diabetes mellitus".

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Goswami SK, Vishwanath M, Gangadarappa SK, Razdan R, Inamdar MN (August 2014).

3003: 1633: 1484: 1394: 1304: 1288: 1231: 1189: 1057: 713: 674: 640: 198: 6877: 6781: 5459: 4509: 4427: 4266: 4249: 4001: 3932:"Mechanisms of hypoglycemia unawareness and implications in diabetic patients" 3898: 3793: 3776: 3752: 3735: 3100: 958:

molecules (responsible for signaling to the immune system) and have increased

8322: 8249: 7841: 7615: 7606: 7397: 7318: 7296: 4987:"Type 1 Diabetes Incidence and Risk in Children With a Diagnosis of COVID-19" 4594: 3334: 2947: 2004: 1819: 1760: 1703: 1605: 1495:

supporting the idea that type 1 diabetes is an autoimmune disorder. The name

1410: 1352: 1176:

into the bloodstream. People with repeated bouts of hypoglycemia can develop

843: 764: 662: 628: 543: 412:. It typically begins in children and young adults but can begin at any age. 369: 308: 292: 280: 121: 6829: 6630: 4653: 4636: 3308:"FDA Approves First Cellular Therapy to Treat Patients with Type 1 Diabetes" 2696:

Definition and Diagnosis of Diabetes Mellitus and Intermediate Hyperglycemia

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People with type 1 diabetes are at an increased risk for developing several

420: 8144: 7934: 7816: 7805: 7627: 7402: 7143: 7138: 6721: 6671: 6638: 6609: 6558: 6523: 6480: 6429: 6400: 6330: 6293: 6256: 6219: 6163: 6117: 6067: 6010: 5961: 5920: 5871: 5830: 5787: 5752: 5711: 5692: 5652: 5611: 5560: 5415: 5406: 5338: 5303: 5254: 5132: 5025: 5007: 4872: 4703: 4662: 4613: 4517: 4482: 4435: 4389: 4345: 4310: 4275: 4234: 4121: 4119: 4117: 4115: 4113: 4111: 4068: 4019: 3967: 3916: 3864: 3802: 3761: 3709: 3681: 3632: 3591: 3542: 3485: 3439: 3215: 3062: 2955: 2798: 2796: 2794: 2765: 2648: 2646: 2644: 2642: 2565: 2431: 2429: 2328: 2167: 2072: 2012: 1827: 1778: 1721: 1593: 1430: 1402: 1389: 1308: 1110: 1002: 940: 920: 855: 768: 755: 574: 526: 397: 365: 346: 212: 52: 6591: 6248: 5743: 5726: 5083: 4985:

Weiss A, Donnachie E, Beyerlein A, Ziegler AG, Bonifacio E (22 May 2023).

4924: 3948: 3717: 2939: 1604:(NOD) mouse is the most widely studied model of type 1 diabetes. It is an 985:. Necroptosis can be triggered by activated T cells – which secrete toxic 7831: 7811: 7795: 7445: 7173: 7011: 6896: 6421: 4694: 4677: 1544: 1370: 1235: 1165: 1161: 974: 955: 901: 891: 823: 651: 554: 450: 405: 284: 192: 141: 6764:

National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases (NIDDK)

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Yosten GL (February 2018). "Alpha cell dysfunction in type 1 diabetes".

3188:

Robertson RP, Davis C, Larsen J, Stratta R, Sutherland DE (April 2006).

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The mechanism by which the beta cells actually die likely involves both

7691: 7105: 6549: 6532: 6505: 3087:

Ly TT (2015). "Technology and type 1 diabetes: Closed-loop therapies".

2896: 2344:"Many Cases of Adult-Onset T1D Are Diagnosed After Age 30, Study Finds" 1792:

Arffman M, Hakkarainen P, Keskimäki I, Oksanen T, Sund R (April 2023).

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in addition to insulin, and an implantable device that injects insulin

1564: 1398: 1374: 1026: 982: 908: 796: 678: 666: 643: 573:

About half of the disease's heritability is due to variations in three

442: 438: 323: 319: 304: 300: 223: 137: 46:

Diabetes mellitus type 1, insulin-dependent diabetes, juvenile diabetes

6812: 6407: 6322: 6211: 6108: 6087: 5779: 5236: 4380: 4363: 4050: 3663: 3524: 3054: 2814: 2756: 2735: 2525: 2513: 2496: 2054: 7696: 7148: 6907: 6729:

Wolsdorf JI, Garvey KC (2016). "Management of Diabetes in Children".

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Meier JJ, Kjems LL, Veldhuis JD, Lefèbvre P, Butler PC (April 2006).

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in beta cell destruction. Type 1 diabetics also tend to have reduced

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have been studied in an attempt to understand what triggers β-cell

454: 434: 331: 327: 296: 133: 7522: 4634: 4206: 1791: 441:(increased thirst), and weight loss. Children may also experience 7754: 7644: 6686:

von Scholten BJ, Kreiner FF, Gough SC, von Herrath M (May 2021).

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Boughton CK, Hovorka R (August 2020). "The artificial pancreas".

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This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the

2848: 751: 620: 612: 608: 604: 502: 482: 357: 356:

There is no known way to prevent type 1 diabetes. Treatment with

288: 276: 185: 6855: 4247: 1667: 8123: 7580: 7577: 7574: 7571: 7568: 7565: 7061: 7058: 7055: 7052: 7049: 7046: 6824: 2292: 1217: 924: 819: 655: 539: 494: 465: 409: 6447:"Type 1 diabetes-early life origins and changing epidemiology" 5169: 4984: 4541: 4539: 4537: 4535: 4248:

Granberg V, Ejskjaer N, Peakman M, Sundkvist G (August 2005).

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was used earlier as it often first is diagnosed in childhood.

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Cashen K, Petersen T (August 2019). "Diabetic Ketoacidosis".

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Women with type 1 diabetes show a higher than normal rate of

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new proteins, any of which could contribute to their demise.

944: 603:

associated with increased risk of type 1 diabetes are called

490: 486: 7737: 5808: 5270:"Generation of functional human pancreatic β cells in vitro" 4844: 3929: 2540:"Environmental triggers and determinants of type 1 diabetes" 7430: 6933: 6616: 5676:"Experimental Diabetes Mellitus in Different Animal Models" 5267: 5097:

Herold KC, Vignali DA, Cooke A, Bluestone JA (April 2013).

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There has also been substantial effort to develop a fully

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Chiang JL, Kirkman MS, Laffel LM, Peters AL (July 2014).

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Elfström P, Sundström J, Ludvigsson JF (November 2014).

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Current Opinion in Clinical Nutrition and Metabolic Care

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People with type 1 diabetes also have increased risk of

509:

destruction but no sign of autoimmunity; this is called

6178: 5724: 4182: 3190:"Pancreas and islet transplantation in type 1 diabetes" 2684:, "A common medication that decreases insulin release". 2293:

Fang M, Wang D, Echouffo-Tcheugui JB, Selvin E (2023).

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Monitoring blood sugar, injected insulin, managing diet

6271: 5316: 5221:"Current status of regeneration of pancreatic β-cells" 4817: 4675: 2295:"Age at Diagnosis in U.S. Adults With Type 1 Diabetes" 709:(hemoglobin A1C) levels at or above 48 mmol/mol. 6308: 5933: 4927:"Incidence of type 1 diabetes in Australia 2000–2013" 4352: 3887:

Endocrinology and Metabolism Clinics of North America

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Reno CM, Litvin M, Clark AL, Fisher SJ (March 2013).

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Overview of the most significant symptoms of diabetes

283:. Insulin is a hormone required for the cells to use 100: 6802: 6487: 5811:

Journal of Pharmacological and Toxicological Methods

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The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism

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The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism

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The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism

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Type 1 diabetes can typically be distinguished from

94: 88: 76: 4925:Australian Institute of Health and Welfare (2015). 2750:(Suppl 1). American Diabetes Association: S15–S33. 2223:. World Health Organization. 2016. pp. 26–27. 1184:all common. More severe ketoacidosis can result in 1052:threshold for counter regulatory activation of the 1042: 85: 6688:"Current and future therapies for type 1 diabetes" 6444: 6365:DiMeglio LA, Evans-Molina C, Oram RA (June 2018). 4409: 4407: 2633: 2621: 2606: 2587: 1384:In addition to anti-CD3 antibodies, several other 771:. Around 17% of people with type 1 diabetes use a 6197: 5573: 4416:Nature Reviews. Gastroenterology & Hepatology 3983: 3979: 3977: 3930:Martín-Timón I, Del Cañizo-Gómez FJ (July 2015). 3506: 3183: 3181: 2785: 1311:. Type 1 diabetics are also at increased risk of 8320: 8209:Transfusion-associated graft-versus-host disease 7164:Metabolic Score for Insulin Resistance (METS-IR) 6798:ADA's Standards of Medical Care in Diabetes 2019 6573: 5442:Animal models of diabetes: methods and protocols 5383: 3555: 3282: 3270: 2976:: CS1 maint: bot: original URL status unknown ( 809:National Institute of Health and Care Excellence 505:. The remaining 10–30% of type 1 diabetics have 477:Type 1 diabetes is caused by the destruction of 6141: 6034:"The use of animal models in diabetes research" 5524: 5374:, "Regulatory Approval of Closed-Loop Systems". 5371: 5359: 4404: 3820: 3816: 3814: 3812: 3734:Banarer S, McGregor VP, Cryer PE (April 2002). 3729: 3727: 3645: 3300: 2958:. 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February 2014. 1892:. November 2016. 1602:nonobese diabetic 1582:intraperitoneally 1559:Organ replacement 1497:juvenile diabetes 1333:Addison's disease 1325:pernicious anemia 1186:labored breathing 1133:that result from 1122: 1121: 1034:Hyperglucagonemia 933:regulatory T cell 888:kidney transplant 531:caesarean section 269:juvenile diabetes 258: 257: 207:Diagnostic method 32:Medical condition 16:(Redirected from 8341: 8299:Sjögren syndrome 8228: 8227: 8130: 8129: 8035: 8034: 7931: 7930: 7910: 7909: 7770: 7769: 7739:Hypersensitivity 7732: 7725: 7718: 7709: 7708: 7621:Oxyhyperglycemia 7517: 7510: 7503: 7494: 7493: 7222:Diet in diabetes 6958: 6951: 6944: 6935: 6934: 6804: 6803: 6752: 6725: 6715: 6698:(5): 1037–1048. 6682: 6680: 6678: 6650: 6613: 6603: 6570: 6552: 6537:Pediatr Diabetes 6527: 6517: 6484: 6474: 6441: 6404: 6394: 6361: 6342: 6305: 6268: 6231: 6194: 6175: 6138: 6129: 6111: 6072: 6071: 6061: 6029: 6023: 6022: 5980: 5974: 5973: 5931: 5925: 5924: 5890: 5884: 5883: 5841: 5835: 5834: 5806: 5800: 5799: 5763: 5757: 5756: 5746: 5737:(9): 1189–1196. 5722: 5716: 5715: 5705: 5695: 5671: 5665: 5664: 5622: 5616: 5615: 5605: 5571: 5565: 5564: 5554: 5522: 5505: 5504: 5502: 5500: 5489: 5483: 5477: 5464: 5463: 5440:King AJ (2020). 5437: 5428: 5427: 5409: 5381: 5375: 5369: 5363: 5357: 5351: 5350: 5331:10.1038/nbt.3033 5314: 5308: 5307: 5297: 5265: 5259: 5258: 5248: 5216: 5207: 5206: 5191: 5185: 5184: 5182: 5180: 5166: 5160: 5159: 5143: 5137: 5136: 5126: 5094: 5088: 5087: 5059: 5053: 5047: 5038: 5037: 5019: 4991: 4982: 4976: 4975: 4973: 4971: 4965: 4958: 4949: 4943: 4942: 4940: 4938: 4922: 4916: 4915: 4913: 4907:. Archived from 4902: 4894: 4885: 4884: 4866: 4842: 4836: 4830: 4821: 4815: 4806: 4800: 4794: 4788: 4779: 4778: 4776: 4774: 4763: 4757: 4756: 4754: 4752: 4741: 4735: 4729: 4723: 4717: 4708: 4707: 4697: 4688:(4): 1209–1216. 4673: 4667: 4666: 4656: 4632: 4626: 4625: 4607: 4597: 4573: 4567: 4566: 4564: 4562: 4543: 4530: 4529: 4493: 4487: 4486: 4458: 4452: 4451: 4411: 4402: 4401: 4383: 4359: 4350: 4349: 4332:(Suppl): S8–21. 4321: 4315: 4314: 4286: 4280: 4279: 4269: 4260:(8): 1959–1964. 4245: 4239: 4238: 4228: 4204: 4198: 4192: 4186: 4180: 4174: 4168: 4159: 4153: 4144: 4138: 4129: 4123: 4106: 4105: 4103: 4101: 4090: 4073: 4072: 4062: 4045:(8): 2322–2330. 4030: 4024: 4023: 4013: 3981: 3972: 3971: 3961: 3951: 3927: 3921: 3920: 3910: 3878: 3869: 3868: 3858: 3818: 3807: 3806: 3796: 3772: 3766: 3765: 3755: 3731: 3722: 3721: 3704:(6): 1220–1226. 3692: 3686: 3685: 3675: 3643: 3637: 3636: 3626: 3617:(4): 1051–1056. 3602: 3596: 3595: 3585: 3574:10.1172/JCI60016 3553: 3547: 3546: 3536: 3519:(7): 1403–1404. 3504: 3498: 3497: 3461: 3452: 3451: 3415: 3409: 3403: 3390: 3384: 3369: 3363: 3357: 3351: 3338: 3332: 3331: 3327: 3325: 3323: 3304: 3298: 3292: 3286: 3280: 3274: 3268: 3259: 3253: 3244: 3241:Dean et al. 2017 3238: 3232: 3229:Dean et al. 2017 3226: 3220: 3219: 3209: 3185: 3176: 3170: 3164: 3158: 3143: 3142: 3140: 3138: 3119: 3113: 3112: 3084: 3078: 3077: 3038: 3032: 3026: 3020: 3014: 3008: 3007: 2988: 2982: 2981: 2975: 2967: 2965: 2963: 2919: 2913: 2912: 2910: 2908: 2893: 2887: 2881: 2864: 2858: 2852: 2846: 2837: 2831: 2818: 2812: 2806: 2800: 2789: 2783: 2770: 2769: 2759: 2731: 2725: 2724: 2722: 2720: 2701: 2691: 2685: 2679: 2673: 2667: 2656: 2650: 2637: 2631: 2625: 2619: 2610: 2604: 2591: 2585: 2570: 2569: 2559: 2535: 2529: 2523: 2517: 2511: 2500: 2494: 2481: 2475: 2464: 2463: 2461: 2459: 2448: 2439: 2433: 2424: 2418: 2407: 2401: 2392: 2391: 2390:. 18 April 2016. 2380: 2374: 2368: 2359: 2358: 2356: 2354: 2339: 2333: 2332: 2322: 2311:10.7326/M23-1707 2290: 2281: 2280: 2256: 2250: 2249: 2247: 2245: 2239: 2222: 2212: 2206: 2205: 2203: 2201: 2186: 2180: 2179: 2143: 2137: 2136: 2134: 2132: 2113: 2107: 2106: 2104: 2102: 2083: 2077: 2076: 2066: 2049:(7): 2034–2054. 2034: 2017: 2016: 1988: 1982: 1981: 1979: 1977: 1958: 1943: 1942: 1940: 1938: 1919: 1906: 1905: 1903: 1901: 1882: 1865: 1864: 1862: 1860: 1841: 1832: 1831: 1813: 1789: 1783: 1782: 1772: 1732: 1726: 1725: 1715: 1697: 1665: 1423:immune tolerance 1063: 1062: 962:and issues with 781:standard of care 305:increased hunger 301:increased thirst 293:high blood sugar 197:Family history, 138:increased thirst 107: 106: 103: 102: 99: 96: 93: 90: 87: 84: 81: 78: 55: 35: 34: 21: 8349: 8348: 8344: 8343: 8342: 8340: 8339: 8338: 8319: 8318: 8317: 8308: 8260: 8223: 8213: 8195: 8191:Type 1 diabetes 8161:Coeliac disease 8149: 8121: 8105: 8079: 8045:Arthus reaction 8026: 8010: 7996:Graves' disease 7977: 7973:Rheumatic fever 7922: 7890: 7874: 7853: 7780:Allergic asthma 7761: 7745: 7736: 7706: 7701: 7675: 7659:Hyperinsulinism 7639: 7633:Whipple's triad 7600: 7531: 7523:Disease of the 7521: 7491: 7486: 7450: 7421:T1International 7413: 7412:Advocacy & 7407: 7283: 7232:Insulin therapy 7188: 7100: 6967: 6962: 6932: 6927: 6926: 6883: 6882: 6815: 6789:Wayback Machine 6771:Wayback Machine 6760: 6755: 6749: 6676: 6674: 6358: 6191: 6081: 6076: 6075: 6030: 6026: 6003: 5981: 5977: 5954: 5932: 5928: 5913: 5891: 5887: 5864: 5842: 5838: 5807: 5803: 5764: 5760: 5723: 5719: 5672: 5668: 5645: 5623: 5619: 5594: 5572: 5568: 5523: 5508: 5498: 5496: 5491: 5490: 5486: 5478: 5467: 5452: 5438: 5431: 5382: 5378: 5370: 5366: 5358: 5354: 5315: 5311: 5266: 5262: 5217: 5210: 5193: 5192: 5188: 5178: 5176: 5168: 5167: 5163: 5144: 5140: 5115:10.1038/nri3422 5095: 5091: 5060: 5056: 5048: 5041: 4989: 4983: 4979: 4969: 4967: 4963: 4956: 4952:Shaw J (2012). 4950: 4946: 4936: 4934: 4923: 4919: 4911: 4900: 4896: 4895: 4888: 4843: 4839: 4831: 4824: 4816: 4809: 4801: 4797: 4789: 4782: 4772: 4770: 4765: 4764: 4760: 4750: 4748: 4743: 4742: 4738: 4730: 4726: 4718: 4711: 4674: 4670: 4633: 4629: 4574: 4570: 4560: 4558: 4545: 4544: 4533: 4494: 4490: 4459: 4455: 4422:(10): 580–591. 4412: 4405: 4360: 4353: 4322: 4318: 4287: 4283: 4246: 4242: 4205: 4201: 4197:, p. 2456. 4193: 4189: 4181: 4177: 4169: 4162: 4154: 4147: 4139: 4132: 4128:, p. 2455. 4124: 4109: 4099: 4097: 4092: 4091: 4076: 4031: 4027: 3982: 3975: 3928: 3924: 3879: 3872: 3819: 3810: 3773: 3769: 3732: 3725: 3693: 3689: 3644: 3640: 3603: 3599: 3554: 3550: 3505: 3501: 3462: 3455: 3416: 3412: 3404: 3393: 3385: 3372: 3364: 3360: 3352: 3341: 3329: 3321: 3319: 3306: 3305: 3301: 3293: 3289: 3281: 3277: 3269: 3262: 3254: 3247: 3239: 3235: 3227: 3223: 3186: 3179: 3171: 3167: 3159: 3146: 3136: 3134: 3121: 3120: 3116: 3085: 3081: 3039: 3035: 3027: 3023: 3015: 3011: 2990: 2989: 2985: 2969: 2968: 2961: 2959: 2920: 2916: 2906: 2904: 2901:www.nice.org.uk 2895: 2894: 2890: 2882: 2867: 2859: 2855: 2847: 2840: 2832: 2821: 2813: 2809: 2805:, p. 2453. 2801: 2792: 2784: 2773: 2732: 2728: 2718: 2716: 2714: 2699: 2693: 2692: 2688: 2680: 2676: 2668: 2659: 2655:, p. 2450. 2651: 2640: 2632: 2628: 2624:, "Infections". 2620: 2613: 2605: 2594: 2586: 2573: 2536: 2532: 2524: 2520: 2512: 2503: 2495: 2484: 2476: 2467: 2457: 2455: 2450: 2449: 2442: 2438:, p. 2449. 2434: 2427: 2419: 2410: 2402: 2395: 2382: 2381: 2377: 2369: 2362: 2352: 2350: 2340: 2336: 2291: 2284: 2273: 2257: 2253: 2243: 2241: 2237: 2231: 2220: 2214: 2213: 2209: 2199: 2197: 2188: 2187: 2183: 2144: 2140: 2130: 2128: 2115: 2114: 2110: 2100: 2098: 2085: 2084: 2080: 2035: 2020: 1989: 1985: 1975: 1973: 1968:. August 2014. 1960: 1959: 1946: 1936: 1934: 1921: 1920: 1909: 1899: 1897: 1884: 1883: 1868: 1858: 1856: 1843: 1842: 1835: 1790: 1786: 1733: 1729: 1680:(9): e0290962. 1666: 1662: 1657: 1648: 1646:Virally induced 1643: 1630: 1590: 1561: 1520: 1511: 1505: 1477: 1471: 1439: 1395:kidney toxicity 1367: 1303:respectiveley. 1301:Graves' disease 1293:hyperthyroidism 1281: 1256: 1244: 1198: 1157: 1151: 1045: 1036: 1019: 917: 868: 852: 842:are prescribed 840:SGLT2 inhibitor 750:using either a 744: 738: 690: 637: 567: 519: 485:or the protein 475: 418: 398:low blood sugar 362:Insulin therapy 261:Type 1 diabetes 245:life expectancy 111: 75: 71: 38:Type 1 diabetes 33: 28: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 8347: 8337: 8336: 8331: 8314: 8313: 8310: 8309: 8307: 8306: 8301: 8296: 8295: 8294: 8289: 8279: 8274: 8268: 8266: 8262: 8261: 8259: 8258: 8253: 8247: 8246: 8245: 8234: 8232: 8225: 8219: 8218: 8215: 8214: 8212: 8211: 8205: 8203: 8197: 8196: 8194: 8193: 8188: 8183: 8178: 8173: 8168: 8163: 8157: 8155: 8151: 8150: 8148: 8147: 8142: 8136: 8134: 8127: 8111: 8110: 8107: 8106: 8104: 8103: 8098: 8093: 8087: 8085: 8081: 8080: 8078: 8077: 8075:Serum sickness 8072: 8067: 8062: 8057: 8052: 8047: 8041: 8039: 8032: 8029:Immune complex 8020: 8019: 8016: 8015: 8012: 8011: 8009: 8008: 8003: 7998: 7992: 7990: 7979: 7978: 7976: 7975: 7970: 7965: 7960: 7955: 7950: 7945: 7939: 7937: 7928: 7924: 7923: 7921: 7916: 7914: 7907: 7906: 7905: 7904: 7903: 7898: 7880: 7879: 7876: 7875: 7873: 7872: 7867: 7861: 7859: 7855: 7854: 7852: 7851: 7846: 7845: 7844: 7839: 7834: 7829: 7824: 7819: 7814: 7803: 7798: 7793: 7787: 7782: 7776: 7774: 7767: 7747: 7746: 7735: 7734: 7727: 7720: 7712: 7703: 7702: 7700: 7699: 7694: 7689: 7683: 7681: 7677: 7676: 7674: 7673: 7668: 7667: 7666: 7656: 7650: 7648: 7641: 7640: 7638: 7637: 7636: 7635: 7625: 7624: 7623: 7612: 7610: 7602: 7601: 7599: 7598: 7597: 7596: 7585: 7584: 7583: 7560: 7555: 7550: 7541: 7539: 7533: 7532: 7520: 7519: 7512: 7505: 7497: 7488: 7487: 7485: 7484: 7479: 7474: 7469: 7464: 7458: 7456: 7452: 7451: 7449: 7448: 7443: 7438: 7433: 7428: 7423: 7417: 7415: 7409: 7408: 7406: 7405: 7400: 7395: 7394: 7393: 7388: 7383: 7381:Diabetic bulla 7378: 7368: 7367: 7366: 7361: 7356: 7351: 7346: 7341: 7333: 7332: 7331: 7326: 7316: 7315: 7314: 7309: 7304: 7297:Diabetic comas 7293: 7291: 7285: 7284: 7282: 7281: 7280: 7279: 7271: 7270: 7269: 7264: 7256: 7254:Diabetic shoes 7251: 7250: 7249: 7244: 7239: 7229: 7224: 7219: 7218: 7217: 7212: 7204: 7198: 7196: 7190: 7189: 7187: 7186: 7181: 7176: 7171: 7166: 7161: 7156: 7151: 7146: 7141: 7136: 7131: 7126: 7121: 7116: 7110: 7108: 7102: 7101: 7099: 7098: 7093: 7088: 7083: 7082: 7081: 7076: 7066: 7065: 7064: 7037: 7031: 7026: 7025: 7024: 7019: 7009: 7008: 7007: 6995: 6989: 6982: 6981:(SAID cluster) 6975: 6973: 6969: 6968: 6961: 6960: 6953: 6946: 6938: 6929: 6928: 6925: 6924: 6915: 6904: 6892: 6891: 6889: 6885: 6884: 6881: 6880: 6869: 6858: 6847: 6832: 6816: 6811: 6810: 6808: 6807:Classification 6801: 6800: 6795: 6779: 6774: 6759: 6758:External links 6756: 6754: 6753: 6747: 6726: 6683: 6666:(3): 154–156. 6651: 6625:(5): 268–277. 6614: 6586:(2): 631–668. 6571: 6528: 6500:(3): 346–353. 6485: 6457:(3): 226–238. 6442: 6405: 6362: 6356: 6343: 6306: 6269: 6243:(8): 412–420. 6232: 6195: 6189: 6176: 6150:(4): 336–342. 6139: 6130: 6082: 6080: 6077: 6074: 6073: 6044:(3): 877–894. 6024: 6001: 5975: 5952: 5926: 5911: 5885: 5862: 5836: 5801: 5758: 5717: 5666: 5643: 5617: 5592: 5566: 5506: 5484: 5465: 5450: 5429: 5376: 5364: 5352: 5309: 5280:(2): 428–439. 5260: 5231:(2): 131–141. 5208: 5186: 5161: 5138: 5109:(4): 243–256. 5089: 5054: 5039: 4977: 4944: 4917: 4886: 4837: 4835:, "Diagnosis". 4822: 4807: 4795: 4780: 4758: 4736: 4724: 4709: 4668: 4627: 4568: 4551:Diabetes.co.uk 4531: 4488: 4453: 4403: 4351: 4316: 4297:(3): 198–206. 4281: 4240: 4219:(3): 774–779. 4199: 4187: 4175: 4160: 4145: 4130: 4107: 4074: 4025: 3973: 3942:(7): 912–926. 3922: 3870: 3808: 3787:(3): 757–764. 3767: 3746:(4): 958–965. 3723: 3687: 3638: 3597: 3548: 3499: 3453: 3426:(4): 407–414. 3410: 3391: 3370: 3368:, "Diagnosis". 3358: 3339: 3299: 3287: 3275: 3260: 3245: 3233: 3221: 3177: 3165: 3144: 3114: 3095:(2): 170–176. 3079: 3049:(3): 326–334. 3033: 3021: 3009: 2983: 2914: 2888: 2865: 2853: 2838: 2819: 2807: 2790: 2771: 2726: 2712: 2686: 2674: 2657: 2638: 2626: 2611: 2592: 2571: 2530: 2518: 2501: 2482: 2465: 2440: 2425: 2408: 2393: 2388:Diabetes Daily 2375: 2360: 2334: 2299:Ann Intern Med 2282: 2271: 2251: 2229: 2207: 2181: 2138: 2108: 2078: 2018: 1983: 1944: 1907: 1866: 1833: 1784: 1727: 1659: 1658: 1656: 1653: 1647: 1644: 1642: 1639: 1629: 1626: 1589: 1588:Disease models 1586: 1560: 1557: 1519: 1516: 1504: 1501: 1485:Shields Warren 1481:Martin Schmidt 1473:Main article: 1470: 1467: 1438: 1435: 1419:IL2 receptor α 1366: 1363: 1305:Celiac disease 1289:hypothyroidism 1280: 1277: 1255: 1252: 1243: 1240: 1232:celiac disease 1197: 1194: 1190:cerebral edema 1166:fast heartbeat 1150: 1147: 1120: 1119: 1108: 1104: 1103: 1100: 1096: 1095: 1092: 1088: 1087: 1072: 1068: 1067: 1058:adrenal cortex 1044: 1041: 1035: 1032: 1018: 1015: 916: 913: 867: 864: 851: 848: 737: 734: 714:autoantibodies 689: 686: 675:L-asparaginase 641:antiviral drug 636: 633: 566: 563: 518: 515: 474: 471: 417: 414: 386:kidney failure 347:autoantibodies 256: 255: 252: 248: 247: 241: 235: 234: 231: 227: 226: 221: 217: 216: 213:autoantibodies 209: 203: 202: 199:celiac disease 195: 189: 188: 182: 178: 177: 174: 170: 169: 166: 162: 161: 151: 145: 144: 131: 125: 124: 119: 113: 112: 110: 109: 68: 66: 62: 61: 57: 56: 48: 47: 44: 40: 39: 31: 26: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 8346: 8335: 8332: 8330: 8327: 8326: 8324: 8305: 8302: 8300: 8297: 8293: 8290: 8288: 8285: 8284: 8283: 8280: 8278: 8275: 8273: 8270: 8269: 8267: 8263: 8257: 8254: 8251: 8250:Latex allergy 8248: 8244: 8241: 8240: 8239: 8236: 8235: 8233: 8229: 8226: 8220: 8210: 8207: 8206: 8204: 8202: 8198: 8192: 8189: 8187: 8184: 8182: 8179: 8177: 8174: 8172: 8169: 8167: 8164: 8162: 8159: 8158: 8156: 8152: 8146: 8143: 8141: 8138: 8137: 8135: 8131: 8128: 8125: 8120: 8119:cell-mediated 8116: 8112: 8102: 8099: 8097: 8094: 8092: 8089: 8088: 8086: 8082: 8076: 8073: 8071: 8068: 8066: 8063: 8061: 8058: 8056: 8053: 8051: 8050:Farmer's lung 8048: 8046: 8043: 8042: 8040: 8036: 8033: 8030: 8025: 8021: 8007: 8004: 8002: 7999: 7997: 7994: 7993: 7991: 7989: 7985: 7980: 7974: 7971: 7969: 7966: 7964: 7961: 7959: 7956: 7954: 7951: 7949: 7946: 7944: 7941: 7940: 7938: 7936: 7932: 7929: 7925: 7920: 7917: 7915: 7911: 7908: 7902: 7899: 7897: 7894: 7893: 7892: 7891: 7889: 7885: 7881: 7871: 7868: 7866: 7863: 7862: 7860: 7856: 7850: 7847: 7843: 7840: 7838: 7835: 7833: 7830: 7828: 7825: 7823: 7820: 7818: 7815: 7813: 7809: 7808: 7807: 7804: 7802: 7799: 7797: 7794: 7791: 7788: 7786: 7783: 7781: 7778: 7777: 7775: 7771: 7768: 7765: 7760: 7756: 7752: 7748: 7744: 7740: 7733: 7728: 7726: 7721: 7719: 7714: 7713: 7710: 7698: 7695: 7693: 7690: 7688: 7685: 7684: 7682: 7678: 7672: 7669: 7665: 7662: 7661: 7660: 7657: 7655: 7652: 7651: 7649: 7646: 7642: 7634: 7631: 7630: 7629: 7626: 7622: 7619: 7618: 7617: 7616:Hyperglycemia 7614: 7613: 7611: 7608: 7607:blood glucose 7603: 7595: 7591: 7590: 7589: 7588:Complications 7586: 7582: 7579: 7576: 7573: 7570: 7567: 7564: 7561: 7559: 7556: 7554: 7551: 7549: 7546: 7545: 7543: 7542: 7540: 7538: 7534: 7530: 7526: 7518: 7513: 7511: 7506: 7504: 7499: 7498: 7495: 7483: 7480: 7478: 7475: 7473: 7470: 7468: 7465: 7463: 7460: 7459: 7457: 7453: 7447: 7444: 7442: 7439: 7437: 7434: 7432: 7429: 7427: 7424: 7422: 7419: 7418: 7416: 7414:Organizations 7410: 7404: 7401: 7399: 7398:Hyperglycemia 7396: 7392: 7389: 7387: 7384: 7382: 7379: 7377: 7374: 7373: 7372: 7369: 7365: 7362: 7360: 7357: 7355: 7352: 7350: 7347: 7345: 7342: 7340: 7339:Blood vessels 7337: 7336: 7334: 7330: 7327: 7325: 7322: 7321: 7320: 7319:Diabetic foot 7317: 7313: 7310: 7308: 7305: 7303: 7300: 7299: 7298: 7295: 7294: 7292: 7290: 7289:Complications 7286: 7278: 7275: 7274: 7272: 7268: 7265: 7263: 7260: 7259: 7257: 7255: 7252: 7248: 7245: 7243: 7240: 7238: 7235: 7234: 7233: 7230: 7228: 7225: 7223: 7220: 7216: 7213: 7211: 7208: 7207: 7205: 7203: 7200: 7199: 7197: 7195: 7191: 7185: 7182: 7180: 7177: 7175: 7172: 7170: 7167: 7165: 7162: 7160: 7157: 7155: 7152: 7150: 7147: 7145: 7142: 7140: 7137: 7135: 7132: 7130: 7127: 7125: 7122: 7120: 7117: 7115: 7112: 7111: 7109: 7107: 7103: 7097: 7094: 7092: 7089: 7087: 7084: 7080: 7077: 7075: 7072: 7071: 7070: 7067: 7063: 7060: 7057: 7054: 7051: 7048: 7045: 7044: 7042: 7038: 7035: 7032: 7030: 7027: 7023: 7020: 7018: 7015: 7014: 7013: 7010: 7006: 7003: 7002: 7000: 6996: 6993: 6990: 6987: 6983: 6980: 6977: 6976: 6974: 6970: 6966: 6959: 6954: 6952: 6947: 6945: 6940: 6939: 6936: 6923: 6919: 6916: 6914: 6910: 6909: 6905: 6903: 6899: 6898: 6894: 6893: 6890: 6886: 6879: 6875: 6874: 6870: 6868: 6864: 6863: 6859: 6857: 6853: 6852: 6848: 6846: 6842: 6841: 6837: 6833: 6831: 6827: 6826: 6822: 6818: 6817: 6814: 6809: 6805: 6799: 6796: 6794: 6790: 6786: 6783: 6780: 6778: 6775: 6772: 6768: 6765: 6762: 6761: 6750: 6744: 6740: 6736: 6732: 6727: 6723: 6719: 6714: 6709: 6705: 6701: 6697: 6693: 6689: 6684: 6673: 6669: 6665: 6661: 6657: 6652: 6648: 6644: 6640: 6636: 6632: 6628: 6624: 6620: 6615: 6611: 6607: 6602: 6597: 6593: 6589: 6585: 6581: 6577: 6572: 6568: 6564: 6560: 6556: 6551: 6546: 6542: 6538: 6534: 6529: 6525: 6521: 6516: 6511: 6507: 6503: 6499: 6495: 6491: 6486: 6482: 6478: 6473: 6468: 6464: 6460: 6456: 6452: 6448: 6443: 6439: 6435: 6431: 6427: 6423: 6419: 6415: 6411: 6406: 6402: 6398: 6393: 6388: 6384: 6380: 6376: 6372: 6368: 6363: 6359: 6353: 6349: 6344: 6340: 6336: 6332: 6328: 6324: 6320: 6316: 6312: 6307: 6303: 6299: 6295: 6291: 6287: 6283: 6279: 6275: 6270: 6266: 6262: 6258: 6254: 6250: 6246: 6242: 6238: 6233: 6229: 6225: 6221: 6217: 6213: 6209: 6205: 6201: 6196: 6192: 6186: 6182: 6177: 6173: 6169: 6165: 6161: 6157: 6153: 6149: 6145: 6140: 6136: 6131: 6127: 6123: 6119: 6115: 6110: 6105: 6101: 6097: 6096:Diabetes Care 6093: 6091: 6084: 6083: 6069: 6065: 6060: 6055: 6051: 6047: 6043: 6039: 6035: 6028: 6020: 6016: 6012: 6008: 6004: 5998: 5994: 5990: 5986: 5979: 5971: 5967: 5963: 5959: 5955: 5949: 5945: 5941: 5937: 5930: 5922: 5918: 5914: 5908: 5904: 5900: 5896: 5889: 5881: 5877: 5873: 5869: 5865: 5859: 5855: 5851: 5847: 5840: 5832: 5828: 5824: 5820: 5816: 5812: 5805: 5797: 5793: 5789: 5785: 5781: 5777: 5773: 5769: 5762: 5754: 5750: 5745: 5740: 5736: 5732: 5728: 5721: 5713: 5709: 5704: 5699: 5694: 5689: 5685: 5681: 5677: 5670: 5662: 5658: 5654: 5650: 5646: 5640: 5636: 5632: 5628: 5621: 5613: 5609: 5604: 5599: 5595: 5589: 5585: 5581: 5577: 5570: 5562: 5558: 5553: 5548: 5544: 5540: 5536: 5532: 5528: 5521: 5519: 5517: 5515: 5513: 5511: 5494: 5488: 5481: 5476: 5474: 5472: 5470: 5461: 5457: 5453: 5447: 5443: 5436: 5434: 5425: 5421: 5417: 5413: 5408: 5407:10044/1/71348 5403: 5399: 5395: 5391: 5387: 5380: 5373: 5368: 5361: 5356: 5348: 5344: 5340: 5336: 5332: 5328: 5324: 5320: 5313: 5305: 5301: 5296: 5291: 5287: 5283: 5279: 5275: 5271: 5264: 5256: 5252: 5247: 5242: 5238: 5234: 5230: 5226: 5222: 5215: 5213: 5204: 5200: 5196: 5190: 5175: 5171: 5165: 5157: 5153: 5149: 5142: 5134: 5130: 5125: 5120: 5116: 5112: 5108: 5104: 5100: 5093: 5085: 5081: 5077: 5073: 5069: 5065: 5058: 5051: 5046: 5044: 5035: 5031: 5027: 5023: 5018: 5013: 5009: 5005: 5001: 4997: 4996: 4988: 4981: 4962: 4955: 4948: 4932: 4928: 4921: 4910: 4906: 4899: 4893: 4891: 4882: 4878: 4874: 4870: 4865: 4860: 4856: 4852: 4848: 4841: 4834: 4829: 4827: 4819: 4814: 4812: 4804: 4799: 4792: 4787: 4785: 4768: 4762: 4746: 4740: 4733: 4728: 4721: 4716: 4714: 4705: 4701: 4696: 4691: 4687: 4683: 4679: 4672: 4664: 4660: 4655: 4650: 4646: 4642: 4638: 4631: 4623: 4619: 4615: 4611: 4606: 4601: 4596: 4591: 4587: 4583: 4579: 4572: 4556: 4552: 4548: 4542: 4540: 4538: 4536: 4527: 4523: 4519: 4515: 4511: 4507: 4503: 4499: 4492: 4484: 4480: 4476: 4472: 4468: 4464: 4457: 4450: 4445: 4441: 4437: 4433: 4429: 4425: 4421: 4417: 4410: 4408: 4399: 4395: 4391: 4387: 4382: 4377: 4373: 4369: 4365: 4358: 4356: 4347: 4343: 4339: 4335: 4331: 4327: 4320: 4312: 4308: 4304: 4300: 4296: 4292: 4285: 4277: 4273: 4268: 4263: 4259: 4255: 4254:Diabetes Care 4251: 4244: 4236: 4232: 4227: 4222: 4218: 4214: 4210: 4203: 4196: 4191: 4184: 4179: 4172: 4167: 4165: 4157: 4152: 4150: 4142: 4137: 4135: 4127: 4122: 4120: 4118: 4116: 4114: 4112: 4095: 4089: 4087: 4085: 4083: 4081: 4079: 4070: 4066: 4061: 4056: 4052: 4048: 4044: 4040: 4036: 4029: 4021: 4017: 4012: 4007: 4003: 3999: 3995: 3991: 3987: 3980: 3978: 3969: 3965: 3960: 3955: 3950: 3945: 3941: 3937: 3933: 3926: 3918: 3914: 3909: 3904: 3900: 3896: 3892: 3888: 3884: 3877: 3875: 3866: 3862: 3857: 3852: 3848: 3844: 3840: 3836: 3832: 3828: 3824: 3817: 3815: 3813: 3804: 3800: 3795: 3790: 3786: 3782: 3778: 3771: 3763: 3759: 3754: 3749: 3745: 3741: 3737: 3730: 3728: 3719: 3715: 3711: 3707: 3703: 3699: 3691: 3683: 3679: 3674: 3669: 3665: 3661: 3657: 3653: 3652:Diabetes Care 3649: 3642: 3634: 3630: 3625: 3620: 3616: 3612: 3608: 3601: 3593: 3589: 3584: 3579: 3575: 3571: 3567: 3563: 3559: 3552: 3544: 3540: 3535: 3530: 3526: 3522: 3518: 3514: 3513:Diabetes Care 3510: 3503: 3495: 3491: 3487: 3483: 3479: 3475: 3471: 3467: 3460: 3458: 3449: 3445: 3441: 3437: 3433: 3429: 3425: 3421: 3414: 3407: 3402: 3400: 3398: 3396: 3388: 3383: 3381: 3379: 3377: 3375: 3367: 3362: 3355: 3350: 3348: 3346: 3344: 3336: 3335:public domain 3317: 3315: 3309: 3303: 3296: 3291: 3284: 3279: 3272: 3267: 3265: 3257: 3252: 3250: 3242: 3237: 3230: 3225: 3217: 3213: 3208: 3203: 3199: 3195: 3194:Diabetes Care 3191: 3184: 3182: 3174: 3169: 3162: 3157: 3155: 3153: 3151: 3149: 3132: 3128: 3124: 3118: 3110: 3106: 3102: 3098: 3094: 3090: 3083: 3076: 3072: 3068: 3064: 3060: 3056: 3052: 3048: 3044: 3037: 3030: 3025: 3018: 3013: 3005: 3001: 2997: 2996:NIHR Evidence 2993: 2987: 2979: 2973: 2957: 2953: 2949: 2945: 2941: 2937: 2933: 2929: 2925: 2918: 2902: 2898: 2892: 2885: 2880: 2878: 2876: 2874: 2872: 2870: 2862: 2857: 2850: 2845: 2843: 2835: 2830: 2828: 2826: 2824: 2817:, p. 11. 2816: 2811: 2804: 2799: 2797: 2795: 2787: 2782: 2780: 2778: 2776: 2767: 2763: 2758: 2753: 2749: 2745: 2744:Diabetes Care 2741: 2739: 2730: 2715: 2709: 2705: 2698: 2697: 2690: 2683: 2678: 2671: 2666: 2664: 2662: 2654: 2649: 2647: 2645: 2643: 2635: 2630: 2623: 2618: 2616: 2608: 2603: 2601: 2599: 2597: 2589: 2584: 2582: 2580: 2578: 2576: 2567: 2563: 2558: 2553: 2549: 2545: 2541: 2534: 2527: 2522: 2515: 2510: 2508: 2506: 2498: 2493: 2491: 2489: 2487: 2479: 2474: 2472: 2470: 2453: 2447: 2445: 2437: 2432: 2430: 2422: 2417: 2415: 2413: 2405: 2400: 2398: 2389: 2385: 2379: 2373:, Table 36.1. 2372: 2367: 2365: 2349: 2345: 2338: 2330: 2326: 2321: 2316: 2312: 2308: 2304: 2300: 2296: 2289: 2287: 2278: 2274: 2268: 2264: 2263: 2255: 2236: 2232: 2226: 2219: 2218: 2211: 2195: 2191: 2185: 2177: 2173: 2169: 2165: 2161: 2157: 2153: 2149: 2142: 2126: 2123:. July 2016. 2122: 2118: 2112: 2096: 2092: 2088: 2082: 2074: 2070: 2065: 2060: 2056: 2052: 2048: 2044: 2043:Diabetes Care 2040: 2033: 2031: 2029: 2027: 2025: 2023: 2014: 2010: 2006: 2002: 1998: 1994: 1987: 1971: 1967: 1963: 1957: 1955: 1953: 1951: 1949: 1932: 1928: 1924: 1918: 1916: 1914: 1912: 1895: 1891: 1887: 1881: 1879: 1877: 1875: 1873: 1871: 1854: 1850: 1846: 1840: 1838: 1829: 1825: 1821: 1817: 1812: 1807: 1803: 1799: 1795: 1788: 1780: 1776: 1771: 1766: 1762: 1758: 1754: 1750: 1746: 1742: 1738: 1731: 1723: 1719: 1714: 1709: 1705: 1701: 1696: 1691: 1687: 1683: 1679: 1675: 1671: 1664: 1660: 1652: 1638: 1635: 1625: 1621: 1617: 1615: 1611: 1607: 1603: 1598: 1595: 1594:animal models 1585: 1583: 1579: 1574: 1569: 1566: 1556: 1554: 1550: 1546: 1542: 1538: 1534: 1530: 1526: 1515: 1510: 1500: 1498: 1492: 1490: 1486: 1482: 1476: 1466: 1464: 1458: 1454: 1450: 1446: 1443: 1434: 1432: 1426: 1424: 1420: 1416: 1412: 1411:mycophenolate 1408: 1404: 1400: 1396: 1391: 1387: 1382: 1380: 1376: 1373:injection of 1372: 1362: 1360: 1359: 1354: 1353:IPEX syndrome 1350: 1349: 1344: 1340: 1339: 1334: 1330: 1326: 1322: 1318: 1314: 1310: 1306: 1302: 1298: 1294: 1290: 1286: 1276: 1274: 1269: 1267: 1263: 1260: 1251: 1249: 1239: 1237: 1233: 1228: 1226: 1221: 1219: 1215: 1211: 1207: 1203: 1193: 1191: 1187: 1181: 1179: 1175: 1171: 1167: 1163: 1156: 1149:Complications 1146: 1144: 1140: 1136: 1132: 1128: 1116: 1112: 1109: 1106: 1105: 1101: 1098: 1097: 1093: 1090: 1089: 1085: 1081: 1077: 1073: 1070: 1069: 1064: 1061: 1059: 1055: 1049: 1040: 1031: 1028: 1024: 1014: 1010: 1008: 1004: 1000: 996: 992: 988: 984: 980: 976: 971: 969: 965: 961: 957: 954: 950: 946: 942: 938: 934: 930: 926: 922: 912: 910: 906: 903: 899: 895: 893: 889: 885: 881: 877: 873: 863: 859: 857: 856:carbohydrates 847: 845: 841: 837: 833: 829: 825: 821: 817: 812: 810: 806: 802: 798: 794: 790: 786: 782: 776: 774: 770: 766: 765:glucose meter 762: 757: 753: 749: 743: 733: 731: 727: 723: 719: 715: 710: 708: 704: 700: 695: 685: 683: 680: 676: 672: 668: 664: 663:cyclosporin A 661: 657: 653: 649: 645: 642: 632: 630: 629:immune system 626: 622: 618: 614: 610: 606: 602: 598: 597: 592: 591: 586: 585: 580: 576: 571: 562: 560: 556: 555:enteroviruses 551: 549: 545: 544:dietary fiber 541: 536: 532: 528: 524: 517:Environmental 514: 512: 508: 504: 500: 496: 492: 488: 484: 480: 470: 467: 463: 458: 456: 452: 448: 444: 440: 436: 432: 422: 413: 411: 407: 401: 399: 395: 391: 387: 383: 382:heart disease 379: 375: 371: 370:diabetic diet 367: 363: 359: 354: 352: 348: 344: 339: 337: 333: 329: 325: 321: 316: 314: 310: 309:blurry vision 306: 302: 298: 294: 290: 286: 282: 281:immune system 278: 274: 270: 266: 262: 253: 249: 246: 242: 240: 236: 232: 228: 225: 222: 218: 214: 210: 208: 204: 200: 196: 194: 190: 187: 183: 179: 175: 171: 167: 163: 159: 155: 152: 150: 149:Complications 146: 143: 139: 135: 132: 130: 126: 123: 122:Endocrinology 120: 118: 114: 105: 70: 69: 67: 65:Pronunciation 63: 58: 54: 49: 45: 41: 36: 30: 19: 8190: 8145:Mantoux test 7806:Food allergy 7628:Hypoglycemia 7547: 7403:Hypoglycemia 7307:Ketoacidosis 7302:Hypoglycemia 7242:conventional 7144:Glucose test 7139:Fructosamine 6978: 6917: 6906: 6895: 6871: 6860: 6849: 6834: 6819: 6730: 6695: 6692:Diabetologia 6691: 6675:. Retrieved 6663: 6659: 6622: 6618: 6583: 6579: 6543:(6): 392–7. 6540: 6536: 6497: 6493: 6454: 6450: 6413: 6409: 6374: 6370: 6347: 6314: 6310: 6277: 6273: 6240: 6236: 6203: 6199: 6180: 6147: 6143: 6134: 6099: 6095: 6089: 6041: 6037: 6027: 5984: 5978: 5935: 5929: 5894: 5888: 5845: 5839: 5814: 5810: 5804: 5774:(7): e2915. 5771: 5767: 5761: 5734: 5731:Diabetologia 5730: 5720: 5683: 5679: 5669: 5626: 5620: 5575: 5569: 5537:(1): 25–38. 5534: 5530: 5497:. Retrieved 5493:"NOD/ShiLtJ" 5487: 5441: 5389: 5385: 5379: 5367: 5355: 5322: 5318: 5312: 5277: 5273: 5263: 5228: 5224: 5198: 5195:"About DRWF" 5189: 5177:. Retrieved 5173: 5170:"About JDRF" 5164: 5151: 5141: 5106: 5102: 5092: 5067: 5063: 5057: 4999: 4993: 4980: 4968:. Retrieved 4947: 4935:. Retrieved 4920: 4909:the original 4904: 4898:"Fast Facts" 4857:(s8): 1–44. 4854: 4850: 4840: 4798: 4771:. Retrieved 4761: 4749:. Retrieved 4739: 4727: 4685: 4681: 4671: 4644: 4640: 4630: 4585: 4581: 4571: 4559:. Retrieved 4550: 4501: 4497: 4491: 4469:(1): 86–92. 4466: 4462: 4456: 4447: 4419: 4415: 4371: 4367: 4329: 4325: 4319: 4294: 4290: 4284: 4257: 4253: 4243: 4216: 4212: 4202: 4190: 4178: 4098:. Retrieved 4042: 4038: 4028: 3993: 3990:Diabetologia 3989: 3939: 3935: 3925: 3893:(1): 15–38. 3890: 3886: 3833:(1): 12–28. 3830: 3826: 3784: 3780: 3770: 3743: 3739: 3701: 3697: 3690: 3655: 3651: 3641: 3614: 3610: 3600: 3565: 3561: 3551: 3516: 3512: 3502: 3469: 3465: 3423: 3419: 3413: 3361: 3320:. Retrieved 3311: 3302: 3290: 3278: 3236: 3224: 3197: 3193: 3168: 3135:. Retrieved 3127:diabetes.org 3126: 3117: 3092: 3088: 3082: 3074: 3046: 3042: 3036: 3024: 3012: 2995: 2986: 2972:cite journal 2960:. Retrieved 2931: 2927: 2917: 2905:. Retrieved 2900: 2891: 2856: 2810: 2747: 2743: 2737: 2729: 2717:. Retrieved 2695: 2689: 2682:Repaske 2016 2677: 2670:Repaske 2016 2629: 2547: 2543: 2533: 2521: 2499:, p. 1. 2456:. Retrieved 2387: 2378: 2351:. Retrieved 2347: 2337: 2302: 2298: 2261: 2254: 2242:. Retrieved 2216: 2210: 2198:. Retrieved 2184: 2151: 2147: 2141: 2129:. Retrieved 2120: 2111: 2099:. Retrieved 2093:. May 2015. 2090: 2081: 2046: 2042: 1999:(12): 1472. 1996: 1992: 1986: 1974:. Retrieved 1965: 1935:. Retrieved 1926: 1898:. Retrieved 1889: 1857:. Retrieved 1848: 1801: 1797: 1787: 1747:(1): 37–44. 1744: 1740: 1730: 1677: 1673: 1663: 1649: 1631: 1622: 1618: 1612:involved in 1599: 1591: 1570: 1563:Pluripotent 1562: 1521: 1512: 1496: 1493: 1478: 1459: 1455: 1451: 1447: 1444: 1440: 1437:Epidemiology 1431:nicotinamide 1427: 1403:azathioprine 1390:cyclosporine 1383: 1368: 1356: 1346: 1336: 1309:white people 1282: 1270: 1264: 1257: 1245: 1229: 1222: 1199: 1182: 1158: 1123: 1111:Hypothalamic 1050: 1046: 1037: 1020: 1011: 1003:janus kinase 972: 964:synthesizing 941:CD4+ T cells 921:CD8+ T-cells 918: 915:Pathogenesis 907: 896: 869: 860: 853: 813: 801:short-acting 777: 769:hypoglycemia 756:insulin pump 745: 711: 691: 682:gatifloxicin 638: 594: 588: 582: 575:HLA class II 572: 568: 552: 527:autoimmunity 520: 476: 459: 427: 402: 366:insulin pump 355: 340: 317: 268: 264: 260: 259: 193:Risk factors 29: 7796:Anaphylaxis 7792:(Hay fever) 7558:gestational 7446:Diabetes UK 7174:SPINA-GBeta 7106:Blood tests 7012:Prediabetes 6897:MedlinePlus 6237:Pediatr Rev 6079:Works cited 5686:: 9051426. 4773:15 February 4751:15 February 4561:28 November 4504:(10): 440. 3568:(1): 4–12. 3137:11 November 1545:Diabetes UK 1371:intravenous 1236:retinopathy 1162:epinephrine 1113:inhibitory 1027:alpha cells 983:macrophages 975:necroptosis 956:HLA class I 953:overexpress 902:portal vein 882:to prevent 872:transplants 824:pramlintide 652:pentamidine 451:candidiasis 406:Scandinavia 390:foot ulcers 285:blood sugar 165:Usual onset 142:weight loss 43:Other names 8323:Categories 8265:Autoimmune 8154:Autoimmune 8084:Autoimmune 7927:Autoimmune 7858:Autoimmune 7692:Insulinoma 7202:Prevention 7194:Management 7119:Biomarkers 6873:DiseasesDB 6677:12 January 6580:Endocr Rev 5499:18 January 5460:1149391907 4970:19 October 4937:19 October 4622:1610759650 4449:neuropathy 4418:(Review). 3200:(4): 935. 3045:(Review). 2962:31 January 2907:31 January 2702:. Geneva: 1859:24 January 1845:"Diabetes" 1804:: 110580. 1655:References 1565:stem cells 1551:, and the 1507:See also: 1399:prednisone 1375:teplizumab 1365:Prevention 1080:astrocytes 1078:stores in 1074:Increased 1009:pathways. 909:Donislecel 866:Transplant 797:mobile app 736:Management 679:antibiotic 677:, and the 667:tacrolimus 644:didanosine 538:intake of 511:idiopathic 447:bedwetting 439:polydipsia 384:, stroke, 324:beta cells 320:autoimmune 224:Teplizumab 220:Prevention 7935:Cytotoxic 7697:Insulitis 7647:disorders 7605:Abnormal 7247:pulsatile 7237:intensive 7149:C-peptide 7079:Permanent 7074:Transient 7039:Type 3a ( 6908:eMedicine 6416:: 17016. 6317:: j1321. 6302:202575545 6265:199381655 6228:221097632 6206:: m2998. 6172:220326946 6126:228087604 6019:212739248 5970:212739708 5880:212740474 5817:: 13–31. 5661:212741496 5424:186207231 5347:205280579 5152:USA Today 5034:258831851 4881:222102948 3472:: 54–60. 3258:, "Main". 2948:0028-4793 1820:1872-8227 1761:1538-3598 1704:1932-6203 1610:MHC genes 1351:(causing 1341:(causing 1135:insulitis 987:granzymes 979:apoptosis 937:insulitis 850:Lifestyle 844:off-label 828:metformin 730:C-peptide 688:Diagnosis 648:protozoal 497:, and/or 351:C-peptide 313:tiredness 251:Frequency 239:Prognosis 230:Treatment 117:Specialty 8224:multiple 8222:Unknown/ 8024:Type III 7988:receptor 7837:Tree nut 7537:Diabetes 7525:pancreas 7179:SPINA-GR 7069:Neonatal 6997:Type 4 ( 6988:cluster) 6965:Diabetes 6785:Archived 6767:Archived 6722:33595677 6672:30215903 6647:28784928 6639:27834384 6610:30541144 6559:27492964 6524:29094512 6481:31999944 6438:23127616 6430:28358037 6401:29916386 6339:11374615 6331:28373161 6294:31533907 6257:31371634 6220:32784223 6164:32618719 6118:33298417 6068:22352879 6011:32180188 5962:32180191 5921:22893398 5872:32180185 5831:26596652 5796:34331597 5788:28692149 5753:11596676 5712:27595114 5653:32180186 5612:32180187 5561:31241444 5416:31190305 5339:25211370 5304:25303535 5255:24843642 5203:Archived 5179:24 March 5156:Archived 5133:23524461 5026:37213115 5017:10203966 4961:Archived 4931:Archived 4873:17767619 4704:17284617 4663:11095451 4618:ProQuest 4614:25298678 4555:Archived 4526:30653959 4518:25118849 4483:22119251 4444:20270743 4436:26392070 4398:25468009 4390:25270960 4346:23062861 4311:25660575 4276:16043739 4235:16505242 4213:Diabetes 4100:20 March 4069:27207540 4039:Diabetes 4020:27342407 3968:26185599 3917:23391237 3865:21039590 3803:15734853 3781:Diabetes 3762:11916913 3740:Diabetes 3682:19729529 3633:16567528 3611:Diabetes 3592:22214853 3543:18594062 3494:46878644 3486:29412832 3466:Peptides 3448:19872862 3440:26049639 3216:16567844 3131:Archived 3123:"Stress" 3109:68302123 3071:53102654 3063:30362180 2956:37796241 2766:33298413 2566:16306330 2544:Diabetes 2353:29 April 2329:37748184 2320:10841362 2277:Archived 2235:Archived 2194:Archived 2176:21485081 2168:16530579 2125:Archived 2095:Archived 2073:24935775 2013:17895465 1970:Archived 1931:Archived 1894:Archived 1853:Archived 1828:36804193 1779:25562264 1722:37656703 1713:10473533 1674:PLOS ONE 1592:Various 1578:glucagon 1518:Research 1329:vitiligo 1084:glycosyl 1076:glycogen 1023:glucagon 991:perforin 671:leukemia 623:. 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