418:(the bacterium responsible for tuberculosis) and the flu. In recent history, hyperglycemic individuals have also responded more severely to the symptoms of COVID-19. Another example is diabetes. Hyperglycemia and risk of severe infectious outcomes can even further be complicated by physiological stress. For instance, elevated blood glucose levels can actively contribute to pathophysiology of this disease, by exacerbating existing inflammation, impairing cellular immune responses, and increasing oxidative stress, which can also lead to more severe infection. In addition, patients with acute hyperglycemia who donât have a history of diabetes can experience higher rates of mortality and complications.
502:(a starch-like source of energy stored mostly in the liver), which in turn makes it difficult or impossible to remove excess glucose from the blood. With normal glucose levels, the total amount of glucose in the blood at any given moment is only enough to provide energy to the body for 20â30 minutes, and so glucose levels must be precisely maintained by the body's internal control mechanisms. When the mechanisms fail in a way that allows glucose to rise to abnormal levels, hyperglycemia is the result.
733:
410:. For example, advanced glycation end products (AGEs), which are more prevalent in hyperglycemic conditions, can interfere with the normal function of the immune system and contribute to the pathogenesis of infections. AGEs, whose cross-links are permanent will continue to harm the surrounding tissue until the proteins are destroyed. In addition, they can interact with the RAGE receptor to cause oxidative stress, apoptosis, and inflammation.
144:
pathological and functional changes for significant periods without producing any permanent effects or symptoms. During this asymptomatic period, an abnormality in carbohydrate metabolism can occur, which can be tested by measuring plasma glucose. Chronic hyperglycemia at above normal levels can produce a very wide variety of serious complications over a period of years, including kidney damage, neurological damage, cardiovascular damage,
712:
47:
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In diabetes mellitus (by far the most common cause of chronic hyperglycemia), treatment aims at maintaining blood glucose at a level as close to normal as possible, in order to avoid serious long-term complications. This is done by a combination of proper diet, regular exercise, and insulin or other
277:
Frequent hunger without other symptoms can also indicate that blood sugar levels are too low. This may occur when people who have diabetes take too much oral hypoglycemic medication or insulin for the amount of food they eat. The resulting drop in blood sugar level to below the normal range prompts a
805:
Hyperglycemia is one of the main symptoms of diabetes and it has substantially affected the population making it an epidemic due to the population's increased calorie consumption. Healthcare providers are trying to work more closely with people allowing them more freedom with interventions that suit
364:
Ketoacidosis is a life-threatening condition which requires immediate treatment. Symptoms include: shortness of breath, breath that smells fruity (such as pear drops), nausea and vomiting, and very dry mouth. Chronic hyperglycemia (high blood sugar) injures the heart in patients without a history of
426:
Hyperglycemia may be caused by: diabetes, various (non-diabetic) endocrine disorders (insulin resistance and thyroid, adrenal, pancreatic, and pituitary disorders), sepsis and certain infections, intracranial diseases (e.g. encephalitis, brain tumors (especially if near the pituitary gland), brain
375:
Perioperative hyperglycemia has been associated with immunosuppression, increased infections, osmotic diuresis, delayed wound healing, delayed gastric emptying, sympatho-adrenergic stimulation, and increased mortality. In addition, it reduces skin graft success, exacerbates brain, spinal cord, and
796:
Hyperglycemia is lower in higher income groups since there is access to better education, healthcare and resources. Low-middle income groups are more likely to develop hyperglycemia, due in part to a limited access to education and a reduced availability of healthy food options. Living in warmer
625:
Human and animal studies suggest that this is not benign, and that stress-induced hyperglycemia is associated with a high risk of mortality after both stroke and myocardial infarction. Somatostatinomas and aldosteronoma-induced hypokalemia can cause hyperglycemia but usually disappears after the
678:
Glucose levels vary before and after meals, and at various times of day; the definition of "normal" varies among medical professionals. In general, the normal range for most people (fasting adults) is about 4 to 6 mmol/L or 80 to 110 mg/dL. (where 4 mmol/L or 80 mg/dL is
143:
The degree of hyperglycemia can change over time depending on the metabolic cause, for example, impaired glucose tolerance or fasting glucose, and it can depend on treatment. Temporary hyperglycemia is often benign and asymptomatic. Blood glucose levels can rise well above normal and cause
1045:
Geijselaers, Stefan L.C.; Sep, Simone J.S.; Claessens, Danny; Schram, Miranda T.; Van Boxtel, Martin P.J.; Henry, Ronald M.A.; Verhey, Frans R.J.; Kroon, Abraham A.; Dagnelie, Pieter C.; Schalkwijk, Casper G.; Van Der Kallen, Carla J.H.; Biessels, Geert Jan; Stehouwer, Coen D.A. (2017).
514:
Obesity has been contributing to increased insulin resistance in the global population. Insulin resistance increases hyperglycemia because the body becomes over saturated by glucose. Insulin resistance desensitizes insulin receptors, preventing insulin from lowering blood sugar levels.
505:
Ketoacidosis may be the first symptom of immune-mediated diabetes, particularly in children and adolescents. Also, patients with immune-mediated diabetes can change from modest fasting hyperglycemia to severe hyperglycemia and even ketoacidosis as a result of stress or an infection.
632:
causes hyperglycaemia via several mechanisms, including through metabolic and hormonal changes, and via increased proinflammatory cytokines that interrupt carbohydrate metabolism, leading to excessive glucose production and reduced uptake in tissues, can cause hyperglycemia.
479:. In fact, chronic hyperglycemia is the defining characteristic of the disease. Intermittent hyperglycemia may be present in prediabetic states. Acute episodes of hyperglycemia without an obvious cause may indicate developing diabetes or a predisposition to the disorder.
395:, which are white blood cells responsible for responding to infection. In hyperglycemic individuals, the ability for neutrophils to move towards infection sites, ingest bacteria, and kill them are often impaired, leading to reduced effectiveness in combating infections.
763:
to at least 30 minutes a day causes the body to make better use of accumulated glucose since the glucose is being converted to energy by the muscles. Calorie monitoring, with restriction as necessary, can reduce over-eating, which contributes to hyperglycemia.
383:. This susceptibility can be attributed to the impairment of the immune system's response, which is often compromised in hyperglycemic conditions. Hyperglycemia also leads to biochemical changes in the body; both of these factors result in increased severity of
387:
and vulnerability to pathogens. Hyperglycemic individuals face the most pronounced risk from such types of ailments, including tuberculosis, the flu, and COVID-19. These risks can be compounded even further by the effects of physiological stress.
806:
their lifestyle. As physical inactivity and calorie consumption increases it makes individuals more susceptible to developing hyperglycemia. Hyperglycemia is caused by type 1 diabetes and non-whites have a higher susceptibility for it.
782:
Carbohydrates are the main cause for hyperglycemiaâwhole-wheat items should be substituted for non-whole-wheat items. Although fruits are a part of a complete nutritious diet, fruit intake should be limited due to high sugar content.
398:
Hyperglycemia also creates microbiological changes within the body: hyperglycemia can lead to rapid changes in blood pH and cell viscosity, weakening the cells and making it more conducive for infectious agents to thrive and dampen
1178:
ChĂĄvez-Reyes, JesĂșs; EscĂĄrcega-GonzĂĄlez, Carlos E.; Chavira-SuĂĄrez, Erika; LeĂłn-Buitimea, Angel; VĂĄzquez-LeĂłn, Priscila; Morones-RamĂrez, JosĂ© R.; VillalĂłn, Carlos M.; Quintanar-Stephano, AndrĂ©s; Marichal-Cancino, Bruno A. (2021).
413:
Due to neutrophil changes, microbiological changes, and chronic inflammation, patients with hyperglycemia are thus more prone to severe respiratory infections. This increased risk is particularly pronounced with pathogens like
534:
normally promotes gluconeogenesis in the fasted state, but insulin blocks Fox06 upon feeding. In a condition of insulin resistance insulin fails to block Fox06, resulting in continued gluconeogenesis even upon feeding.
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Treatment of hyperglycemia requires elimination of the underlying cause, such as diabetes. Acute hyperglycemia can be treated by direct administration of insulin in most cases. Severe hyperglycemia can be treated with
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3643:
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Hyperglycemia causes a decrease in cognitive performance, specifically in processing speed, executive function, and performance. Decreased cognitive performance may cause forgetfulness and concentration loss.
2214:
Giugliano D, Marfella R, Coppola L, et al. (1997). "Vascular effects of acute hyperglycemia in humans are reversed by L-arginine. Evidence for reduced availability of nitric oxide during hyperglycemia".
679:"optimal".) A subject with a consistent range above 7 mmol/L or 126 mg/dL is generally held to have hyperglycemia, whereas a consistent range below 4 mmol/L or 70 mg/dL is considered
2863:
403:. This is because hyperglycemia impacts a few factors such as microenvironment of immune cells, or even bacteriaâs supply of energy, adding on stress to the bacterial proliferation metabolism.
2327:
Pearson, Ewan R.; Starkey, Bryan J.; Powell, Roy J.; Gribble, Fiona M.; Clark, Penny M.; Hattersley, Andrew T. (2003). "Genetic cause of hyperglycaemia and response to treatment in diabetes".
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Inzucchi, Silvio E; Bergenstal, Richard M; Buse, John B; Diamant, Michaela; Ferrannini, Ele; Nauck, Michael; Peters, Anne L; Tsapas, Apostolos; Wender, Richard; Matthews, David R (2012).
530:
due to insulin resistance. Insulin normally inhibits glycogenolysis, but fails to do so in a condition of insulin resistance, resulting in increased glucose production. In the liver,
443:. Several hormones act to increase blood glucose levels and may thus cause hyperglycaemia when present in excess, including: cortisol, catecholamines, growth hormone, glucagon, and
1853:
Swe MT, Pongchaidecha A, Chatsudthipong V, Chattipakorn N, Lungkaphin A (2019). "Molecular signaling mechanisms of renal gluconeogenesis in nondiabetic and diabetic conditions".
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3755:
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1806:"Adipose Tissue Insulin Resistance in Youth on the Spectrum From Normal Weight to Obese and From Normal Glucose Tolerance to Impaired Glucose Tolerance to Type 2 Diabetes"
3078:
1782:
2003:
Cetin M, Yetgin S, Kara A, et al. (1994). "Hyperglycemia, ketoacidosis and other complications of L-asparaginase in children with acute lymphoblastic leukemia".
966:
Pais I, Hallschmid M, Jauch-Chara K, et al. (2007). "Mood and cognitive functions during acute euglycaemia and mild hyperglycaemia in type 2 diabetic patients".
155:
Acute hyperglycemia involving glucose levels that are extremely high is a medical emergency and can rapidly produce serious complications (such as fluid loss through
2304:
Rosen's
Emergency Medicine: Expert Consult Premium Edition â Enhanced Online Features and Print (Rosen's Emergency Medicine: Concepts & Clinical Practice (2v.))
281:
Polydipsia and polyuria occur when blood glucose levels rise high enough to result in excretion of excess glucose via the kidneys, which leads to the presence of
2849:
1690:
135:
and overall glucose tolerance. On average, however, chronic levels above 10â12 mmol/L (180â216 mg/dL) can produce noticeable organ damage over time.
376:
renal damage by ischemia, worsens neurologic outcomes in traumatic head injuries, and is associated with postoperative cognitive dysfunction following CABG.
361:. The degradation of triacylglycerides by hormone-sensitive lipase produces free fatty acids that are eventually converted to acetyl-coA by beta-oxidation.
365:
heart disease or diabetes and is strongly associated with heart attacks and death in subjects with no coronary heart disease or history of heart failure.
152:
may be a result of long-term hyperglycemia. Impairment of growth and susceptibility to certain infections can occur as a result of chronic hyperglycemia.
636:
Hormones such as the growth hormone, glucagon, cortisol and catecholamines, can cause hyperglycemia when they are present in the body in excess amounts.
736:
Replacing white bread with whole wheat bread may help reduce hyperglycemia. Progressively removing bread and reducing carbohydrates may help even more.
2493:
1048:"The Role of Hyperglycemia, Insulin Resistance, and Blood Pressure in Diabetes-Associated Differences in Cognitive PerformanceâThe Maastricht Study"
3071:
427:
haemorrhages, and meningitis) (frequently overlooked), convulsions, end-stage terminal disease, prolonged/major surgeries, stress, and excessive
1711:
166:
The following symptoms may be associated with acute or chronic hyperglycemia, with the first three composing the classic hyperglycemic triad:
2422:
2188:
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131:. For diabetics, glucose levels that are considered to be too hyperglycemic can vary from person to person, mainly due to the person's
675:
Scientific journals are moving towards using mmol/L; some journals now use mmol/L as the primary unit but quote mg/dL in parentheses.
54:
Artist's depiction of hyperglycemia. White hexagons in the image represent glucose molecules, which are increased in the lower image.
3750:
2596:
2731:"Effect of physical inactivity on major non-communicable diseases worldwide: an analysis of burden of disease and life expectancy"
1136:
2281:
2401:
2372:"Optimal Insulin Correction Factor in PostâHigh-Intensity Exercise Hyperglycemia in Adults With Type 1 Diabetes: The FIT Study"
2311:
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1335:
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test. The definition of acute hyperglycemia varies by study, with mmol/L levels from 8 to 15 (mg/dL levels from 144 to 270).
1778:
1405:
2911:
1646:
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alone or in combination with basal insulin can be used as a treatment for hyperglycemia with patients still in hospital.
671:
Milligrams per deciliter (mg/dL) is used in some countries such as the United States, Japan, France, Egypt and
Colombia.
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797:
climates can reduce hyperglycemia due to increased physical activity while people are less active in colder climates.
2440:
Mattei, Josiemer; Bigornia, Sherman J; Sotos-Prieto, Mercedes; Scott, Tammy; Gao, Xiang; Tucker, Katherine L (2019).
2252:"Hemocue Urine Albumin Point-Of-Care Test Shows Strong Agreement With the Results Obtained With a Large Nephelometer"
1429:
863:
753:
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The chronic inflammatory state induced by high glucose levels can also lead to dysfunction in various parts of the
369:
2442:"The Mediterranean Diet and 2-Year Change in Cognitive Function by Status of Type 2 Diabetes and Glycemic Control"
3019:
2159:"diabetes FAQ: general (part 1 of 5)Section - What are mg/dL and mmol/L? How to convert? Glucose? Cholesterol?"
1855:
1729:
Wewer
Albrechtsen, Nicolai J.; Kuhre, Rune E.; Pedersen, Jens; Knop, Filip K.; Holst, Jens J. (November 2016).
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adults, blood plasma glucose should not exceed 7 mmol/L or 126 mg/dL. Sustained higher levels of
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cause damage to the blood vessels and to the organs they supply, leading to the complications of diabetes.
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2067:"Stress hyperglycemia and prognosis of stroke in nondiabetic and diabetic patients: a systematic overview"
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3269:
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384:
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1003:"Acute hyperglycemia alters mood state and impairs cognitive performance in people with type 2 diabetes"
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3012:
1715:
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132:
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1671:. Turner, Helen E., 1967-, Eastell, R. (Richard),, Grossman, Ashley (First ed.). Oxford. 2018.
1240:"Diabetes-Associated Susceptibility to Tuberculosis: Contribution of Hyperglycemia vs. Dyslipidemia"
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3311:
1958:
1904:
1574:"Glucose Metabolism Abnormalities in Cushing Syndrome: From Molecular Basis to Clinical Management"
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650:
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623:(Or perhaps stroke or myocardial infarction was caused by hyperglycemia and undiagnosed diabetes.)
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1181:"Susceptibility for Some Infectious Diseases in Patients With Diabetes: The Key Role of Glycemia"
595:
3572:
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99:), but symptoms may not start to become noticeable until even higher values such as 13.9â16.7
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2158:
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which can detect sugar in the urine or microalbuminuria which could be a symptom of diabetes.
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202:
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Ishii, Hajime; Suzuki, Hodaka; Baba, Tsuneharu; Nakamura, Keiko; Watanabe, Tsuyoshi (2001).
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8:
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Kim, J. Y.; Bacha, F.; Tfayli, H.; Michaliszyn, S. F.; Yousuf, S.; Arslanian, S. (2019).
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2619:"Classification and Diagnosis of Diabetes: Standards of Medical Care in Diabetesâ2019"
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Chronic hyperglycemia that persists even in fasting states is most commonly caused by
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2012:
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Thiazides are used to treat type 2 diabetes but it also causes severe hyperglycemia.
476:
460:
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Furthermore, hyperglycemia has been linked to increased susceptibility to a range of
88:
59:
3056:
2780:"Diabetes in Normal-Weight Individuals: High Susceptibility in Nonwhite Populations"
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Scaroni, Carla; Zilio, Marialuisa; Foti, Michelangelo; Boscaro, Marco (2017-06-01).
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can help reduce carbohydrate intake to better control hyperglycemia. Diets such as
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Diets higher in healthy unsaturated fats and whole wheat carbohydrates such as the
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156:
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Defects in insulin secretion, insulin action, or both, results in hyperglycemia.
544:
527:
519:
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help reduce calorie consumption which could significantly reduce hyperglycemia.
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Hyperglycemia can also be improved through minor lifestyle changes. Increasing
583:
247:
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120:
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108:
107:). A subject with a consistent fasting blood glucose range between ~5.6 and ~7
104:
100:
96:
92:
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2682:"Management of Hyperglycemia in Type 2 Diabetes: A Patient-Centered Approach"
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1406:"Hyperglycemia in diabetes-Hyperglycemia in diabetes - Symptoms & causes"
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494:), depending on the type and state of the disease. Low insulin levels and/or
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Florvall, Gösta; Basu, Samar; Helmersson, Johanna; Larsson, Anders (2006).
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1989:
1935:
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may develop hyperglycemia, even in the absence of a diagnosis of diabetes.
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20:
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Not to be confused with the opposite disorder (involving low blood sugar),
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2016:
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Impairment of cognitive function, along with increased sadness and anxiety
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1954:"FoxO integration of insulin signaling with glucose and lipid metabolism"
1900:"Regulation of Glucose Production in the Pathogenesis of Type 2 Diabetes"
1590:
1573:
1324:"A Brief Summary of the Finite Element Method for Differential Equations"
858:
688:
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211:
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1971:
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3129:
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Lee IM, Shiroma EJ, Lobelo F, Puska P, Blair SN, Katzmarzyk PT (2012).
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or metformin or both. These drugs help by improving glycaemic control.
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Aronson, Ronnie; Brown, Ruth E; Li, Aihua; Riddell, Michael C (2019).
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Ngo, Minh Dao; Bartlett, Stacey; Ronacher, Katharina (November 2021).
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2567:"Seasonal Variation of Glycemic Control in Type 2 Diabetic Patients"
2111:"Management of Inpatient Hyperglycemia and Diabetes in Older Adults"
1455:"Management of Inpatient Hyperglycemia and Diabetes in Older Adults"
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3465:
3216:
1731:"The biology of glucagon and the consequences of hyperglucagonemia"
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Certain medications increase the risk of hyperglycemia, including:
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typically produces hyperglycemia; chronic use, however, produces
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Miller, Miller's
Anesthesia, 7th edition, pp. 1716, 2674, 2809.
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823:
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119:
guidelines) is considered slightly hyperglycemic, and above 7
2679:
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2249:
1513:
Hage, Mirella; Zantout, Mira S.; Azar, Sami T. (2011-07-12).
1453:
Umpierrez, Guillermo E.; Pasquel, Francisco J. (April 2017).
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695:
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In diabetes mellitus, hyperglycemia is usually caused by low
439:
Chronic, persistent hyperglycaemia is most often a result of
368:
Also, a life-threatening consequence of hyperglycemia can be
217:
2065:
Capes SE, Hunt D, Malmberg K, Pathak P, Gerstein HC (2001).
522:
is the failure of insulin to suppress glucose production by
189:
an increased frequency, although it is a common consequence)
2326:
835:
613:
A high proportion of patients with an acute stress such as
268:
229:
2516:"Intergenerational diabetes and obesityâA cycle to break?"
2030:
Luna B, Feinglos MN (2001). "Drug-induced hyperglycemia".
159:). It is most often seen in persons who have uncontrolled
1803:
965:
490:) and/or by resistance to insulin at the cellular level (
2213:
653:
at home to be aware of which units of measurement their
2564:
2109:
Umpierrez, Guillermo E.; Pasquel, Francisco J. (2017).
2064:
1571:
665:
668:
standard unit used in most countries around the world.
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2728:
2369:
1000:
3625:
1358:"Hyperglycemia and Perioperative Glucose Management"
3756:
Abnormal clinical and laboratory findings for blood
1237:
904:"Diagnosis and Classification of Diabetes Mellitus"
391:Importantly, hyperglycemia affects the function of
2302:Ron Walls; John J. Ratey; Robert I. Simon (2009).
1137:"Chronic hyperglycemia may lead to cardiac damage"
2777:
2186:
1430:"Hyperglycemia: Symptoms, Causes, and Treatments"
16:Too much blood sugar, usually because of diabetes
3742:
2108:
1452:
2002:
1947:
1945:
1637:, Treasure Island (FL): StatPearls Publishing,
1512:
748:Those with hyperglycaemia can be treated using
349:In untreated hyperglycemia, a condition called
311:Confusion or a decreased level of consciousness
173:â frequent hunger, especially pronounced hunger
79:is a condition in which an excessive amount of
2425:. Total health institute. 2005. Archived from
1897:
1629:Mubarik, Ateeq; Aeddula, Narothama R. (2020),
1628:
1080:
694:Chronic hyperglycemia can be measured via the
498:prevent the body from converting glucose into
179:â frequent thirst, especially excessive thirst
40:High blood sugar, hyperglycemia, hyperglycĂŠmia
3072:
2857:
1328:Finite Element Methods and Their Applications
1141:Journal of the American College of Cardiology
657:uses. Glucose levels are measured in either:
2029:
1942:
1891:
1846:
1087:Kraemer, Fredric B.; Shen, Wen-Jun (2002).
1086:
1001:Sommerfield AJ, Deary IJ, Frier BM (2004).
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1710:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (
1303:Centers for Disease Control and Prevention
45:
3029:Other pancreatic disorders and conditions
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1515:"Thyroid Disorders and Diabetes Mellitus"
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1381:
1273:
1255:
1214:
1196:
1104:
1063:
1018:
919:
704:Chronic hyperglycemia can be measured by
2513:
2191:. Total Health Institute. Archived from
1321:
791:
731:
710:
2514:Ma, Ronald CW; Popkin, Barry M (2017).
1951:
849:for abstract nouns of feminine gender.
3743:
2617:American Diabetes Association (2019).
2104:
2102:
1355:
902:American Diabetes Association (2014).
518:The leading cause of hyperglycemia in
447:. Hyperglycaemia may thus be seen in:
3060:
2845:
2295:
1508:
1506:
942:
897:
895:
893:
891:
889:
887:
885:
883:
881:
879:
509:
138:
1785:from the original on 26 January 2022
1668:Oxford desk reference. Endocrinology
1173:
1171:
1040:
1038:
470:
3377:Glycogen phosphorylase isoenzyme BB
2778:Gujral, U. P.; Narayan KMV (2019).
2099:
1296:
13:
2610:
2269:10.2337/diacare.29.02.06.dc05-1080
1503:
876:
83:(glucotoxicity) circulates in the
14:
3772:
2826:
2492:. US Department of Health. 2015.
1299:"Diabetes and Your Immune System"
1168:
1035:
185:â increased volume of urination (
1322:Baccouch, Mahboub (2021-02-17),
864:Reference ranges for blood tests
754:Dipeptidyl peptidase-4 inhibitor
649:It is critical for patients who
370:nonketotic hyperosmolar syndrome
357:levels increase the activity of
344:
3751:Disorders of endocrine pancreas
2771:
2722:
2673:
2662:from the original on 2022-01-26
2599:from the original on 2019-12-06
2558:
2507:
2496:from the original on 2020-01-07
2482:
2433:
2415:
2404:from the original on 2019-12-06
2363:
2320:
2284:from the original on 2019-12-06
2243:
2207:
2180:
2169:from the original on 2018-08-28
2151:
2058:
2023:
1996:
1797:
1771:
1722:
1693:from the original on 2022-01-26
1659:
1649:from the original on 2022-01-26
1622:
1565:
1446:
1422:
1398:
1349:
1315:
1290:
1231:
1147:from the original on 2013-12-27
968:Exp. Clin. Endocrinol. Diabetes
943:James, Norman (30 March 2019).
786:
2490:"Dietary Guidelines 2015-2020"
1898:Sargsyan A, Herman MA (2019).
1856:Journal of Cellular Physiology
1159:
1129:
994:
959:
936:
590:. The acute administration of
538:
353:may develop because decreased
1:
3334:Comprehensive metabolic panel
3036:Pancreatic beta cell function
2747:10.1016/S0140-6736(12)61031-9
2341:10.1016/s0140-6736(03)14571-0
1362:Current Pharmaceutical Design
1257:10.3390/microorganisms9112282
869:
800:
644:
324:'Fruity' smelling breath odor
220:healing (cuts, scrapes, etc.)
117:American Diabetes Association
2533:10.1371/journal.pmed.1002415
809:
719:
639:
434:
148:or damage to feet and legs.
127:) is generally held to have
7:
3270:Thyroid-stimulating hormone
3232:Total iron-binding capacity
1779:"Hyperglycemia in diabetes"
1519:Journal of Thyroid Research
852:
729:and lifestyle modification.
246:, external ear infections (
10:
3777:
3761:Disorders causing seizures
3611:Elevated alpha-fetoprotein
3020:RabsonâMendenhall syndrome
3013:Congenital hyperinsulinism
2187:Total Health Life (2005).
1374:10.2174/138161212803832236
1185:Frontiers in Public Health
1106:10.1194/jlr.R200009-JLR200
1089:"Hormone-sensitive lipase"
1020:10.2337/diacare.27.10.2335
664:per liter (mmol/L) is the
416:Mycobacterium tuberculosis
161:insulin-dependent diabetes
133:renal threshold of glucose
18:
3714:
3629:
3603:
3563:
3556:
3526:
3503:
3494:
3464:
3385:
3342:
3280:
3250:
3207:
3160:
3095:
3028:
2992:
2953:
2884:
2584:10.2337/diacare.24.8.1503
1918:10.1007/s11892-019-1195-5
1198:10.3389/fpubh.2021.559595
1093:Journal of Lipid Research
727:oral hypoglycemic therapy
608:
421:
306:Kussmaul hyperventilation
234:Tingling in feet or heels
58:
53:
44:
36:
31:
2833:Hyperglycemia in infants
2229:10.1161/01.CIR.95.7.1783
2044:10.1001/jama.286.16.1945
1959:Journal of Endocrinology
1905:Current Diabetes Reports
1631:"Chromaffin Cell Cancer"
945:"Hyperglycemia Symptoms"
492:diabetes mellitus type 2
488:diabetes mellitus type 1
359:hormone sensitive lipase
254:Delayed gastric emptying
3140:BUN-to-creatinine ratio
1952:Lee S, Dong HH (2017).
715:Group aerobic exercises
626:removal of the tumour.
308:(deep, rapid breathing)
3573:Elevated transaminases
3265:Thyroid function tests
3227:Transferrin saturation
3087:Clinical biochemistry
1735:Biomarkers in Medicine
737:
716:
651:monitor glucose levels
401:inflammatory responses
385:respiratory infections
292:Signs and symptoms of
91:higher than 11.1
87:. This is generally a
3367:Lactate dehydrogenase
3329:Basic metabolic panel
3260:ACTH stimulation test
2084:10.1161/hs1001.096194
1748:10.2217/bmm-2016-0090
1714:) CS1 maint: others (
980:10.1055/s-2007-957348
792:Environmental factors
735:
714:
619:myocardial infarction
294:diabetic ketoacidosis
3387:Liver function tests
3242:Transferrin receptor
2632:(Suppl 1): S13âS28.
2306:. St. Louis: Mosby.
1591:10.1210/er.2016-1105
773:intermittent fasting
706:clinical urine tests
318:and osmotic diuresis
283:glucose in the urine
238:Erectile dysfunction
146:damage to the retina
3403:Serum total protein
3398:Human serum albumin
2335:(9392): 1275â1281.
1972:10.1530/JOE-17-0002
1532:10.4061/2011/439463
842:"blood", -ία, -ΔÎčα
741:medication such as
580:protease inhibitors
381:infectious diseases
327:Nausea and vomiting
314:Dehydration due to
285:. This produces an
150:Diabetic neuropathy
3715:External resources
3175:Arterial blood gas
3003:Insulin resistance
2878:glucose metabolism
2797:10.2337/dci19-0046
2423:"High Blood sugar"
2195:on August 17, 2013
2189:"High Blood Sugar"
1356:Duncan AE (2012).
1297:CDC (2023-07-31).
816:origin of the term
769:Mediterranean diet
738:
717:
510:Insulin resistance
496:insulin resistance
449:Cushing's syndrome
431:of carbohydrates.
259:Cardiac arrhythmia
139:Signs and symptoms
3738:
3737:
3623:
3622:
3619:
3618:
3552:
3551:
3505:Blood sugar level
3484:Pancreatic lipase
3322:Total cholesterol
3152:Serum osmolal gap
3147:Plasma osmolality
3054:
3053:
2943:Template:Diabetes
2790:(12): 2164â2166.
2741:(9838): 219â229.
2698:10.2337/dc12-0413
2639:10.2337/dc19-S002
2458:10.2337/dc19-0130
2389:10.2337/dc18-1475
2313:978-0-323-05472-0
2127:10.2337/dc16-0989
1869:10.1002/jcp.27598
1822:10.2337/dc18-1178
1741:(11): 1141â1151.
1678:978-0-19-967283-7
1578:Endocrine Reviews
1471:10.2337/dc16-0989
1368:(38): 6195â6203.
1337:978-1-83962-342-4
1099:(10): 1585â1594.
1065:10.2337/dc17-0330
1058:(11): 1537â1547.
921:10.2337/dc14-s081
477:diabetes mellitus
471:Diabetes mellitus
461:hyperglucagonemia
278:hunger response.
89:blood sugar level
70:
69:
26:Medical condition
3768:
3627:
3626:
3595:Hyperproteinemia
3561:
3560:
3501:
3500:
3081:
3074:
3067:
3058:
3057:
2970:Oxyhyperglycemia
2866:
2859:
2852:
2843:
2842:
2820:
2819:
2809:
2799:
2775:
2769:
2768:
2758:
2726:
2720:
2719:
2709:
2692:(6): 1364â1370.
2677:
2671:
2670:
2668:
2667:
2641:
2623:
2614:
2608:
2607:
2605:
2604:
2586:
2562:
2556:
2555:
2545:
2535:
2526:(10): e1002415.
2511:
2505:
2504:
2502:
2501:
2486:
2480:
2479:
2469:
2452:(8): 1372â1379.
2437:
2431:
2430:
2419:
2413:
2412:
2410:
2409:
2391:
2367:
2361:
2360:
2324:
2318:
2317:
2299:
2293:
2292:
2290:
2289:
2271:
2247:
2241:
2240:
2211:
2205:
2204:
2202:
2200:
2184:
2178:
2177:
2175:
2174:
2155:
2149:
2148:
2138:
2106:
2097:
2096:
2086:
2062:
2056:
2055:
2027:
2021:
2020:
2000:
1994:
1993:
1983:
1949:
1940:
1939:
1929:
1895:
1889:
1888:
1863:(6): 8134â8151.
1850:
1844:
1843:
1833:
1801:
1795:
1794:
1792:
1790:
1775:
1769:
1768:
1750:
1726:
1720:
1719:
1709:
1701:
1699:
1698:
1663:
1657:
1656:
1655:
1654:
1626:
1620:
1619:
1593:
1569:
1563:
1562:
1552:
1534:
1510:
1501:
1500:
1490:
1450:
1444:
1443:
1441:
1440:
1426:
1420:
1419:
1417:
1416:
1402:
1396:
1395:
1385:
1353:
1347:
1346:
1345:
1344:
1319:
1313:
1312:
1310:
1309:
1294:
1288:
1287:
1277:
1259:
1235:
1229:
1228:
1218:
1200:
1175:
1166:
1163:
1157:
1156:
1154:
1152:
1133:
1127:
1126:
1108:
1084:
1078:
1077:
1067:
1042:
1033:
1032:
1022:
998:
992:
991:
963:
957:
956:
954:
952:
940:
934:
933:
923:
899:
830:"over-", γλÏ
ÎșÏÏ
761:aerobic exercise
624:
453:pheochromocytoma
445:thyroid hormones
321:Increased thirst
287:osmotic diuresis
157:osmotic diuresis
49:
29:
28:
3776:
3775:
3771:
3770:
3769:
3767:
3766:
3765:
3741:
3740:
3739:
3734:
3733:
3710:
3709:
3638:
3624:
3615:
3599:
3588:Hypoalbuminemia
3583:Hypoproteinemia
3548:
3522:
3496:Small molecules
3490:
3460:
3381:
3338:
3276:
3246:
3203:
3193:
3156:
3091:
3085:
3055:
3050:
3024:
3008:Hyperinsulinism
2988:
2982:Whipple's triad
2949:
2880:
2872:Disease of the
2870:
2829:
2824:
2823:
2776:
2772:
2727:
2723:
2678:
2674:
2665:
2663:
2621:
2615:
2611:
2602:
2600:
2563:
2559:
2512:
2508:
2499:
2497:
2488:
2487:
2483:
2438:
2434:
2421:
2420:
2416:
2407:
2405:
2368:
2364:
2325:
2321:
2314:
2300:
2296:
2287:
2285:
2248:
2244:
2212:
2208:
2198:
2196:
2185:
2181:
2172:
2170:
2157:
2156:
2152:
2107:
2100:
2077:(10): 2426â32.
2063:
2059:
2038:(16): 1945â48.
2028:
2024:
2011:(3â4): 219â29.
2001:
1997:
1950:
1943:
1896:
1892:
1851:
1847:
1802:
1798:
1788:
1786:
1781:. Mayo Clinic.
1777:
1776:
1772:
1727:
1723:
1703:
1702:
1696:
1694:
1679:
1665:
1664:
1660:
1652:
1650:
1627:
1623:
1570:
1566:
1511:
1504:
1451:
1447:
1438:
1436:
1428:
1427:
1423:
1414:
1412:
1404:
1403:
1399:
1354:
1350:
1342:
1340:
1338:
1320:
1316:
1307:
1305:
1295:
1291:
1236:
1232:
1176:
1169:
1164:
1160:
1150:
1148:
1135:
1134:
1130:
1085:
1081:
1043:
1036:
1013:(10): 2335â40.
999:
995:
964:
960:
950:
948:
941:
937:
900:
877:
872:
855:
812:
803:
794:
789:
722:
647:
642:
622:
611:
545:corticosteroids
541:
528:gluconeogenesis
520:type 2 diabetes
512:
473:
465:hyperthyroidism
437:
424:
347:
141:
103:(~250â300
27:
24:
17:
12:
11:
5:
3774:
3764:
3763:
3758:
3753:
3736:
3735:
3732:
3731:
3719:
3718:
3716:
3712:
3711:
3708:
3707:
3696:
3685:
3670:
3655:
3639:
3634:
3633:
3631:
3630:Classification
3621:
3620:
3617:
3616:
3614:
3613:
3607:
3605:
3601:
3600:
3598:
3597:
3592:
3591:
3590:
3580:
3575:
3569:
3567:
3558:
3554:
3553:
3550:
3549:
3547:
3546:
3541:
3536:
3530:
3528:
3524:
3523:
3521:
3520:
3515:
3509:
3507:
3498:
3492:
3491:
3489:
3488:
3487:
3486:
3476:
3470:
3468:
3462:
3461:
3459:
3458:
3457:
3456:
3451:
3441:
3436:
3435:
3434:
3429:
3424:
3412:
3407:
3406:
3405:
3400:
3391:
3389:
3383:
3382:
3380:
3379:
3374:
3369:
3364:
3359:
3354:
3352:Cardiac marker
3348:
3346:
3344:Cardiovascular
3340:
3339:
3337:
3336:
3331:
3326:
3325:
3324:
3319:
3314:
3309:
3299:
3298:
3297:
3295:Hemoglobin A1c
3286:
3284:
3278:
3277:
3275:
3274:
3273:
3272:
3262:
3256:
3254:
3248:
3247:
3245:
3244:
3239:
3234:
3229:
3224:
3219:
3213:
3211:
3205:
3204:
3202:
3201:
3196:
3191:
3187:
3182:
3177:
3172:
3166:
3164:
3158:
3157:
3155:
3154:
3149:
3144:
3143:
3142:
3137:
3132:
3125:Renal function
3122:
3117:
3112:
3107:
3101:
3099:
3093:
3092:
3084:
3083:
3076:
3069:
3061:
3052:
3051:
3049:
3048:
3043:
3038:
3032:
3030:
3026:
3025:
3023:
3022:
3017:
3016:
3015:
3005:
2999:
2997:
2990:
2989:
2987:
2986:
2985:
2984:
2974:
2973:
2972:
2961:
2959:
2951:
2950:
2948:
2947:
2946:
2945:
2934:
2933:
2932:
2909:
2904:
2899:
2890:
2888:
2882:
2881:
2869:
2868:
2861:
2854:
2846:
2840:
2839:
2828:
2827:External links
2825:
2822:
2821:
2770:
2721:
2672:
2609:
2557:
2506:
2481:
2432:
2429:on 2013-08-17.
2414:
2362:
2319:
2312:
2294:
2262:(2): 422â423.
2242:
2223:(7): 1783â90.
2206:
2179:
2150:
2121:(4): 509â517.
2098:
2057:
2022:
1995:
1966:(2): R67âR79.
1941:
1890:
1845:
1816:(2): 265â272.
1796:
1770:
1721:
1677:
1658:
1621:
1584:(3): 189â219.
1564:
1502:
1465:(4): 509â517.
1445:
1421:
1397:
1348:
1336:
1330:, IntechOpen,
1314:
1289:
1244:Microorganisms
1230:
1167:
1158:
1143:. 2012-02-03.
1128:
1079:
1034:
993:
958:
947:. EndocrineWeb
935:
874:
873:
871:
868:
867:
866:
861:
854:
851:
811:
808:
802:
799:
793:
790:
788:
785:
777:ketogenic diet
750:sulphonylureas
721:
718:
673:
672:
669:
646:
643:
641:
638:
610:
607:
588:antipsychotics
584:L-asparaginase
540:
537:
511:
508:
472:
469:
436:
433:
423:
420:
346:
343:
338:
337:
334:
331:
330:Abdominal pain
328:
325:
322:
319:
312:
309:
303:
275:
274:
271:
266:
261:
256:
251:
240:
235:
232:
226:
221:
214:
205:
200:
195:
193:Blurred vision
190:
180:
174:
140:
137:
77:Hyperglycaemia
68:
67:
62:
56:
55:
51:
50:
42:
41:
38:
34:
33:
25:
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
3773:
3762:
3759:
3757:
3754:
3752:
3749:
3748:
3746:
3730:
3726:
3725:
3721:
3720:
3717:
3713:
3706:
3702:
3701:
3697:
3695:
3691:
3690:
3686:
3684:
3680:
3679:
3675:
3671:
3669:
3665:
3664:
3660:
3656:
3654:
3650:
3649:
3645:
3641:
3640:
3637:
3632:
3628:
3612:
3609:
3608:
3606:
3602:
3596:
3593:
3589:
3586:
3585:
3584:
3581:
3579:
3576:
3574:
3571:
3570:
3568:
3566:
3562:
3559:
3555:
3545:
3542:
3540:
3539:Hyperuricemia
3537:
3535:
3532:
3531:
3529:
3525:
3519:
3518:Hyperglycemia
3516:
3514:
3511:
3510:
3508:
3506:
3502:
3499:
3497:
3493:
3485:
3482:
3481:
3480:
3477:
3475:
3472:
3471:
3469:
3467:
3463:
3455:
3452:
3450:
3447:
3446:
3445:
3442:
3440:
3437:
3433:
3432:AST/ALT ratio
3430:
3428:
3425:
3423:
3420:
3419:
3418:
3417:
3416:transaminases
3413:
3411:
3408:
3404:
3401:
3399:
3396:
3395:
3393:
3392:
3390:
3388:
3384:
3378:
3375:
3373:
3370:
3368:
3365:
3363:
3360:
3358:
3357:Troponin test
3355:
3353:
3350:
3349:
3347:
3345:
3341:
3335:
3332:
3330:
3327:
3323:
3320:
3318:
3317:Triglycerides
3315:
3313:
3310:
3308:
3305:
3304:
3303:
3300:
3296:
3293:
3292:
3291:
3290:Blood glucose
3288:
3287:
3285:
3283:
3279:
3271:
3268:
3267:
3266:
3263:
3261:
3258:
3257:
3255:
3253:
3249:
3243:
3240:
3238:
3235:
3233:
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2963:
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2937:Complications
2935:
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2784:Diabetes Care
2781:
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2683:
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2626:Diabetes Care
2620:
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2568:
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2443:
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2253:
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2112:
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2026:
2018:
2014:
2010:
2006:
1999:
1991:
1987:
1982:
1977:
1973:
1969:
1965:
1961:
1960:
1955:
1948:
1946:
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1459:Diabetes Care
1456:
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1434:Yale Medicine
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834:"sweet wine,
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655:glucose meter
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553:beta blockers
550:
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408:immune system
404:
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371:
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360:
356:
352:
345:Complications
342:
335:
332:
329:
326:
323:
320:
317:
313:
310:
307:
304:
302:
299:
298:
297:
296:may include:
295:
290:
288:
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272:
270:
267:
265:
262:
260:
257:
255:
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249:
248:swimmer's ear
245:
241:
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236:
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231:
228:Dry or itchy
227:
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219:
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73:Hyperglycemia
66:
65:Endocrinology
63:
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32:Hyperglycemia
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3578:Elevated ALP
3544:Hypouricemia
3517:
3513:Hypoglycemia
3449:Unconjugated
3414:
3097:Electrolytes
2977:Hypoglycemia
2964:
2787:
2783:
2773:
2738:
2734:
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2685:
2675:
2664:. Retrieved
2629:
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2601:. Retrieved
2574:
2570:
2560:
2523:
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2509:
2498:. Retrieved
2484:
2449:
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2427:the original
2417:
2406:. Retrieved
2382:(1): 10â16.
2379:
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2332:
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2322:
2303:
2297:
2286:. Retrieved
2259:
2255:
2245:
2220:
2216:
2209:
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2193:the original
2182:
2171:. Retrieved
2163:www.faqs.org
2162:
2153:
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2070:
2060:
2035:
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2008:
2004:
1998:
1963:
1957:
1909:
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1799:
1787:. Retrieved
1773:
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1695:. Retrieved
1667:
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1634:
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1437:. Retrieved
1433:
1424:
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1409:
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1327:
1317:
1306:. Retrieved
1302:
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1247:
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1161:
1149:. Retrieved
1140:
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961:
949:. Retrieved
938:
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831:
827:
813:
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795:
787:Epidemiology
781:
766:
758:
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723:
703:
700:
693:
681:hypoglycemic
677:
674:
648:
635:
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612:
604:
600:hypoglycemia
596:amphetamines
542:
517:
513:
504:
481:
474:
438:
425:
412:
405:
397:
390:
378:
374:
367:
363:
351:ketoacidosis
348:
339:
301:Ketoacidosis
291:
280:
276:
203:Restlessness
186:
165:
154:
142:
85:blood plasma
76:
72:
71:
21:hypoglycemia
3724:MedlinePlus
3527:Nitrogenous
3362:CPK-MB test
3302:Lipid panel
3237:Transferrin
3185:Bicarbonate
3180:Base excess
3089:blood tests
2907:gestational
2837:MedlinePlus
2577:(8): 1503.
2217:Circulation
1410:Mayo Clinic
951:24 December
914:: S81âS90.
859:Prediabetes
689:blood sugar
576:pentamidine
557:epinephrine
539:Medications
393:neutrophils
336:Weight loss
212:weight gain
208:Weight loss
37:Other names
3745:Categories
3700:DiseasesDB
3454:Conjugated
3282:Metabolism
3222:Serum iron
3209:Iron tests
3130:Creatinine
3041:Insulinoma
2666:2019-12-06
2603:2019-12-06
2500:2019-12-06
2408:2019-12-06
2329:The Lancet
2288:2019-12-06
2173:2007-02-10
1697:2020-11-22
1687:1016052167
1653:2020-11-22
1635:StatPearls
1525:: 439463.
1439:2024-04-06
1415:2024-04-06
1343:2024-05-06
1308:2024-05-06
1151:3 February
870:References
801:Population
662:Millimoles
645:Monitoring
592:stimulants
549:octreotide
524:glycolysis
457:acromegaly
316:glycosuria
244:infections
242:Recurrent
177:Polydipsia
171:Polyphagia
95:(200
3444:Bilirubin
3394:Proteins
3372:Myoglobin
3170:Anion gap
3162:Acid-base
3110:Potassium
3046:Insulitis
2996:disorders
2954:Abnormal
1912:(9): 77.
1757:1752-0371
1706:cite book
1600:0163-769X
1541:2042-0072
1479:0149-5992
1266:2076-2607
1207:2296-2565
1115:0022-2275
810:Etymology
743:metformin
720:Treatment
640:Diagnosis
564:diuretics
435:Endocrine
224:Dry mouth
111:(100â126
60:Specialty
3557:Proteins
3534:Azotemia
3466:Pancreas
3252:Hormones
3217:Ferritin
3115:Chloride
2886:Diabetes
2874:pancreas
2816:31748211
2765:22818936
2716:22517736
2660:Archived
2656:56176183
2648:30559228
2597:Archived
2593:11473100
2552:29088227
2520:PLOS ONE
2494:Archived
2476:31123154
2402:Archived
2398:30455336
2357:34914098
2349:14575972
2282:Archived
2278:16443900
2167:Archived
2145:28325798
2093:11588337
2052:11667913
1990:28213398
1936:31377934
1885:53097552
1877:30370538
1840:30455334
1783:Archived
1765:27611762
1691:Archived
1647:archived
1643:30570981
1608:28368467
1559:21785689
1497:28325798
1392:22762467
1284:34835407
1225:33665182
1145:Archived
1123:12364542
1074:28842522
1029:15451897
988:17286234
930:24357215
853:See also
838:", αጷΌα
594:such as
561:thiazide
500:glycogen
486:levels (
441:diabetes
273:Seizures
183:Polyuria
129:diabetes
3694:D006943
3474:Amylase
3199:Lactate
3194:content
3120:Calcium
2994:Insulin
2835:â from
2807:6868465
2756:3645500
2707:3357214
2543:5663330
2467:6647047
2237:9107164
2136:5864102
2017:7996065
1981:5480241
1927:6834297
1831:6341282
1616:3985558
1550:3139205
1488:5864102
1383:3641560
1275:8620310
1216:7921169
745:, etc.
685:fasting
568:statins
484:insulin
355:insulin
198:Fatigue
81:glucose
3729:007228
3683:790.29
3479:Lipase
3105:Sodium
2958:levels
2902:type 2
2897:type 1
2893:Types
2814:
2804:
2763:
2753:
2735:Lancet
2714:
2704:
2654:
2646:
2591:
2550:
2540:
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2347:
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2199:May 4,
2143:
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2091:
2071:Stroke
2050:
2015:
1988:
1978:
1934:
1924:
1883:
1875:
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1789:22 Sep
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986:
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847:suffix
832:glycos
828:hyper-
826:áœÏÎÏ-
824:prefix
683:. In
630:Stress
615:stroke
609:Stress
586:, and
572:niacin
463:, and
429:eating
422:Causes
264:Stupor
121:mmol/L
109:mmol/L
101:mmol/L
93:mmol/L
3668:R73.9
3604:Other
2652:S2CID
2622:(PDF)
2353:S2CID
2005:J Med
1881:S2CID
1612:S2CID
840:haima
820:Greek
696:HbA1c
532:Fox06
218:wound
216:Poor
125:mg/dL
123:(126
113:mg/dL
105:mg/dL
97:mg/dL
3705:6234
3689:MeSH
3678:9-CM
3653:5A40
3135:Urea
2941:See
2912:MODY
2876:and
2812:PMID
2761:PMID
2712:PMID
2644:PMID
2589:PMID
2548:PMID
2472:PMID
2394:PMID
2345:PMID
2308:ISBN
2274:PMID
2233:PMID
2201:2011
2141:PMID
2089:PMID
2048:PMID
2032:JAMA
2013:PMID
1986:PMID
1932:PMID
1873:PMID
1836:PMID
1791:2020
1761:PMID
1753:ISSN
1716:link
1712:link
1683:OCLC
1673:ISBN
1639:PMID
1604:PMID
1596:ISSN
1555:PMID
1537:ISSN
1523:2011
1493:PMID
1475:ISSN
1388:PMID
1332:ISBN
1280:PMID
1262:ISSN
1221:PMID
1203:ISSN
1153:2012
1119:PMID
1111:ISSN
1070:PMID
1025:PMID
984:PMID
953:2022
926:PMID
836:must
814:The
775:and
526:and
269:Coma
230:skin
3674:ICD
3659:ICD
3644:ICD
3565:LFT
3439:GGT
3427:AST
3422:ALT
3410:ALP
3312:HDL
3307:LDL
2802:PMC
2792:doi
2751:PMC
2743:doi
2739:380
2702:PMC
2694:doi
2634:doi
2579:doi
2538:PMC
2528:doi
2462:PMC
2454:doi
2384:doi
2337:doi
2333:362
2264:doi
2225:doi
2131:PMC
2123:doi
2079:doi
2040:doi
2036:286
1976:PMC
1968:doi
1964:233
1922:PMC
1914:doi
1865:doi
1861:234
1826:PMC
1818:doi
1743:doi
1586:doi
1545:PMC
1527:doi
1483:PMC
1467:doi
1378:PMC
1370:doi
1270:PMC
1252:doi
1211:PMC
1193:doi
1101:doi
1060:doi
1015:doi
976:doi
972:115
916:doi
844:-ia
818:is
617:or
210:or
187:not
115:) (
75:or
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2161:.
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2129:.
2119:40
2117:.
2113:.
2101:^
2087:.
2075:32
2073:.
2069:.
2046:.
2034:.
2009:25
2007:.
1984:.
1974:.
1962:.
1956:.
1944:^
1930:.
1920:.
1910:19
1908:.
1902:.
1879:.
1871:.
1859:.
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