463:"The women begin to dance, while some of them place themselves in the circular galleries that I have said were (erected) at their gate of entrance. Who can fitly describe to you the great riches these women carry on their persons? - collars of gold with so many diamonds and rubies and pearls, bracelets also on their arms and on their upper arms, girdles below, and of necessity anklets on the feet. The marvel should be otherwise, namely that women of such a profession should obtain such wealth; but there are women among them who have lands that have been given to them, and litters, and so many maid-servants that one cannot number all their things. There is a woman in this city who is said to have a hundred thousand pardaos and I believe this from what I have seen of them. These women live in the best streets that there are in the city; it is the same in all their cities, their streets have the best rows of houses. They are very much esteemed, and are classed amongst those honored ones who are the mistresses of the captains; any respectable man may go to their houses without any blame attaching thereto. These women (are allowed) even to enter the presence of the wives of the king, and they stay with them and eat betel with them, a thing which no other person may do, no matter what his rank may be."
413:
56:
274:); however some question the accuracy of this usage. "According to the devadasi themselves there exists a devdasi 'way of life' or 'professional ethic' (vritti, murai) but not a devadasi jāti (sub-caste). Later, the office of devdasi became hereditary but it did not confer the right to work without adequate qualification" (Amrit Srinivasan, 1985). In Europe the term
443:, with munificent grants including the daily disbursement of oil, turmeric, betel leaves, and nuts. Nattuvanars were the male accompanists of the Devadasis during their performances. The Nattuvanars conducted the orchestra while the Devadasi performed her service. Inscriptions indicate that Nattuvanars taught the Chola queen and princess Kundavai.
1037:
did not provide the information as sought by the commission. However, the state government provided statistical data regarding the survey conducted by them to sanction a "Devadasi
Maintenance Allowance". A total of 8,793 applications were received and after conducting a survey 6,314 were rejected and
775:
school she established in Madras. Bharatanatyam is commonly seen as a very ancient dance tradition associated with the
Natyashastra. However, Bharatanatyam as it is performed and known today is actually a product of Arundale's recent endeavour to remove the Devadasi dance tradition from the perceived
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trained in ballet, sought to re-appropriate the
Devadasi dance traditions in a context perceived respectably by Indian society which had by then adopted the western morales. She altered the dance repertoire to exclude pieces perceived as erotic in their description of a deity. She also systematized
625:
Unlike other parts of India, the Odia Mahari
Devadasis were never sexually liberal and were expected to remain celibate upon becoming Devadasis. However, there are records of Odia Mahari Devadasi having relationships and children. It is said that the daughters of the Maharis of the Jagannath temple
676:
river for the sage's worship and rituals. One day at the river she saw a group of youths engaged in water sports and forgot to return home in time for her husband's worship and rituals, which made
Jamadagni question her chastity. He ordered their sons one by one to punish their mother, but four of
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herself, and second, the women were honored because they were considered to be "those great women who (could) control natural human impulses, their five senses and submit themselves completely to God." As they were married to an immortal, the women were considered to be auspicious. Their main
153:
Between the sixth and thirteenth centuries, Devadasis had a high rank and dignity in society and were exceptionally affluent as they were seen as the protectors of the arts. During this period, royal patrons provided them with gifts of land, property, and jewellery. After becoming
Devadasis, the
728:
In addition to obligatory registration, the
British Government also established institutions known as Lock Hospitals where women were brought in order to be treated for venereal diseases. However, many of the women admitted to these hospitals, including many Devadasi, were identified through the
724:
in India. During the
British colonial period many British soldiers were exposed to venereal diseases in brothels, and Devadasis were misunderstood to be responsible. In an effort to control the spread of venereal disease the British Government mandated that all prostitutes register themselves.
133:
is a female artist who is dedicated to the worship and service of a deity or a temple for the rest of her life. The dedication takes place in a ceremony that is somewhat similar to a marriage ceremony. In addition to taking care of the temple and performing rituals, these women also learn and
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dedication ceremony, was a widely advertised community event requiring the full cooperation of the local religious authorities. It initiated a young girl into the
Devadasi profession and was performed in the temple by a priest. In the Hindu tradition, marriage is viewed as the only religious
432:("Deva" means "Divine" and "Adigalar" "Servants", i.e. "Servants of the Divine"). Both male and female Devadasas and Devadasis were dedicated to the service of Hindu temples and their deities. The Chola empire developed the tradition of music and dance employed during temple festivals.
161:
in the Indian subcontinent, kings who were the patrons of temples lost their power, thus the temple artist communities also lost their significance. As a result, Devadasis were left without their traditional means of support and patronage and were now commonly associated with
852:, a woman eternally free from the adversity of widowhood. She would then perform her ritual and artistic duties in the temple. The puberty ceremonies were not only a religious occasion, but also a community feast and celebration in which the local elites also participated.
1991:. At the same time, other experts argue that the institution is "far older, and claim that what is arguably one of the most ancient extant pieces of Indian art, a small bronze of a naked dancing girl from Mohenjo-daro, dating to around 2500 B.C., could depict a devadasi."
713:
In later period the devadasis were equated with prostitutes and their children were again given away to temples. Stigma was attached to a particular caste of devadasis and they were seen as prostitutes. After a certain age they were left to fend for themselves.
908:("woman who never separated from good fortune"). Since she was wedded to a divine deity, she was supposed to be one of the especially welcome guests at weddings and was regarded as a bearer of good fortune. At weddings, people would receive a string of the
572:
writes that, "By the early twenty-first century, large numbers of women in the
Kalavanthulu community had converted to Christianity, because this promised them a stable monthly income as members of the new rehabilitation programs of these missions."
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immoral context associated with the Devadasi community and bring it into the upper caste performance milieu. She also adopted a lot of technical elements of ballet into the modified form of Bharatanatyam. To give the dance form a measure of respect
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referred to the women who danced inside the temple. Devadasi, or mahari, means "those great women who can control natural human impulses, their five senses and can submit themselves completely to God (Vachaspati)". Mahari is a contraction of
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Initiated by Karnataka State Women's Development Corporation and SC/ST Corporation, Government of Karnataka in Northern Districts of Karnataka, Report Submitted to National Commission for Women, New Delhi, 2001–02 (year not mentioned in the
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decided that in order to honour the gods, certain women who were trained in classical dancing, should be married to the deities. The inception of the practice was one that was imbued with great respect as the women who were chosen to become
1943:(2004). "There is no substantial evidence of the origin of culturally sanctioned practices in India, though it has been suggested by historians that the devadasi system was known in prehistoric cities in India..." p. 195 (emphasis added)
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According to a study by the Joint Women's Programme of Bangalore for National Commission for Women, girls who have to accept becoming a Devadasi, few reasons were provided, which included dumbness, deafness, poverty, and others. The
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of Karnataka helps former Devadasi find a foothold in mainstream society. In 1982 she was made a Devadasi at age seven. In 1997 she began the non-governmental organisation MASS (Mahila Abhivrudhi-Samrakshana Sansthe) in the
685:. To everybody's astonishment, Renuka's head multiplied by tens and hundreds and moved to different regions. This miracle inspired her four eunuch sons as well as others to become her followers and worship her head.
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had a high rank and dignity in society and were exceptionally affluent as they were seen as the protectors of the arts. During this period royal patrons provided them with gifts of land, property, and jewellery.
446:
As the Chola empire expanded in wealth and size, more temples were built throughout the country. Soon other empresses and emperors started imitating the Chola empire and adopted Devadasi systems of their own.
888:, the main ceremony for ornamenting and dressing the God. At bedtime, Lord Jagannatha would first be served by male Sebayatas, who would fan him and decorate him with flowers. After they left, a
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to help women like her escape the Devadasi system and live a life of dignity. Between 1997 and 2017 MASS helped over 4,800 Devadasis reintegrate into mainstream society. In 2018 she received the
633:. By 1998, only Shashimani and Parashmani were still alive. The daily ritualistic dance had stopped, although Shashimani and Parashmani served in a few of the yearly temple rituals such as
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duties, in addition to committing to a life without marriage (to a mortal, in the common, popular sense), were to take care of a temple and learn classical Indian dances, usually the
2926:
Cornwall, Andrea (2016) Save us from Saviours: Disrupting Development Narratives of the Rescue and Uplift of the 'Third World Woman' in Hemer, Oscar and Thomas Tufte (Eds.) (2016)
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Cornwall, Andrea (2016) Save us from Saviours: Disrupting Development Narratives of the Rescue and Uplift of the 'Third World Woman' in Hemer, Oscar and Thomas Tufte (Eds.) (2016)
916:. The presence of a Devadasi on any religious occasion in the house of a dvija member was regarded as sacred and she was treated with due respect, and was presented with gifts.
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in 1934. The colonial view of Devadasi practices remains debated as the British colonial government were unable to distinguish the Devadasis from non-religious street dancers.
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the dance in a way that incorporated the extension and use of space associated with dance traditions such as ballet. The product of this transformation was a new version of
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Reformists and abolitionists considered the Devadasi a social evil due to their way of life, which had very widely degenerated into a system of prostitution. The first anti-
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The Devadasi system is still in existence in rudimentary form, but under pressure from social activism at different times, some state governments have outlawed it, such as
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took to other professions such as nursing in the mid-20th century due to stigma attached to their inherent profession, as dance was frowned up during the colonial era.
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1002:, which is mandated to protect and promote the welfare of women, collected information on the prevalence of Devadasi culture in various states. The government of
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songs, and perhaps perform a ritualistic dance. Later she would come out and announce that the Lord has gone to sleep and the guard would close the main gate.
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The 1956 Orissa Gazette lists nine Devadasis and eleven temple musicians. By 1980, only four Devadasis were left – Harapriya, Kokilaprabha, Parashmani, and
412:
55:
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The definite origin of the Devadasi or Devidasi tradition is murky due to its early inception. The first known mention of a Devadasi is to a girl named
2643:
1142:. Movie portraying the theme of exploitation of young girls in the name of Devadasi tradition. Set in villages of Maharashtra and Karnataka. Starring
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or “Devidasi” were subject to two great honors: first, because they were literally married to the deity, they were to be treated as if they were the
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2,479 Devadasis were declared eligible for the allowance. At the time of sending the information, 1,432 Devadasis were receiving this allowance.
808:. The Bombay Devadasi Protection Act made dedication of women illegal, whether consensual or not. In 1947, the year of Indian independence, the
211:, which they would perform at temple rituals. Patrons were considered to have higher status for their ability to financially sponsor Devadasis.
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809:
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Kersenboom-Story, S. C. (1987). Nityasumaṅgalī: Devadasi Tradition in South India. India: Motilal Banarsidass.
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The tradition of female artists in temples is said to have developed during the 3rd century CE. A reference to such dancers is found in the
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1348:, Telugu supernatural drama-thriller that includes the sexual exploitation of young Devadasis in the late 1960s in West Bengal. Starring
876:(the devotees). In the main hall, a Devadasi, accompanied by musicians and the Rajaguru (the court guru), would dance standing near the
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or puberty ceremonies, the Devadasi initiate began her marriage with an emblem of the god borrowed from the temple as a stand-in
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There are many stories about the origin of the Yellamma cult. The most popular story indicates that Renuka was the daughter of a
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Religion and Society among the Harijans of Yellammana Jogatiyaru Hagu Devadasi Paddati (Jogati of Yellamma and Devadasi Custom)
2001:
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women would spend their time learning religious rites, rituals and dances. Devadasis were expected to live a life of celibacy.
2674:"DEVADASIS – SINNERS OR SINNED AGAINST: An attempt to look at the myth and reality of history and present status of Devadasis"
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In the southern Indian state of Karnataka the Devadasi system was practiced for over 10 centuries. Chief among them was the
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1984:
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Crooke, W., Encyclopaedia of Religion and Ethics, Vol. X, Eds., James Hastings and Clark Edinburg, Second Impression, 1930.
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registry and then forcibly brought to the hospitals. A number of these women were confined in the hospitals permanently.
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816:. The Devadasi system was formally outlawed in all of India in 1988, although social and economic pressures on mostly
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837:) permissible to women. Thus, the dedication was a symbolic "marriage" of the pubescent girl to the temple's deity.
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Iyer, L.A.K, Devadasis in South India: Their Traditional Origin And Development, Man in India, Vol.7, No. 47, 1927.
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1697:"Devadasi controversy: Celebrated to condemned: Tracing the devadasi story | Chennai News - Times of India"
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of Devadasi girls is low compared to the average of the country, it is rare to find Devadasis older than fifty.
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1216:. A Devadasi lineage with a critical role in the story that revolves around a mysterious musical instrument.
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From Sacred Servant to Profane Prostitute; A history of the changing legal status of the Devadasis in India
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Devadasis were required to register, as they were thought to be prostitutes by the British Government.
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1955:"The Psychological Acumens in the Construction of the Two Characters Manimegalai and Kayasandigai"
1954:
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As the Devadasi were equated with prostitutes, they also became associated with the spread of the
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1761:"Donors, Devotees, and Daughters of God: Temple Women in Medieval Tamilnadu - Reviews in History"
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Rajaladshmi, Suryanarayana and Mukherjee, "The Basavis in Chittoor District of Andhra Pradesh",
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stambha (pillar). They would perform only pure dance, and could be watched by the audience. The
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Ruspini, Elisabetta; Bonifacio, Glenda Tibe; Corradi, Consuelo, eds. (2018). "Divine shadows".
1401:
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1164:, a Hindi film on the life of a Devadasi in Maharashtra, Produced and directed by Mohan Kavia.
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Bayadère. Oxford English Dictionary. Retrieved 1 February 2008 from Oxford English Dictionary.
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150:. Their status as dancers, musicians, and consorts was an essential part of temple worship.
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Patriarchy and Accumulation on a World Scale: Women in the International Division of Labor
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ReportonTrafficking.pdf "A Report on Trafficking in Women and Children in India 2002-2003"
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8:
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National Human Rights Commission of India and United Nations Development Fund For Women,
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1232:, a national award-winning Marathi feature film; a love story revolving around Dev Dasi.
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603:
512:. As part of a social reform, a written agreement was made to formally end the practice.
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wrote that this system has been eradicated and there are now no Devadasis in the state.
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Levine, P. (2000). "Orientalist Sociology and the Creation of Colonial Sexualities."
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The 1956 Orissa Gazette references Devadasis dances. They had two daily rituals. The
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for each family to give one girl to the Devadasi system. These dancers were known as
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1976:
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families have ensured that the Devadasi system is still widely practiced illegally.
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states that, "the custom of association of dancing girls with temples is unknown to
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649:. The last of the Devadasis, Shashimani, died on 19 March 2015, at the age of 92.
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1988:
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historian. An inscription dated to the 11th century suggests that there were 400
279:
219:
203:
3271:, 8 June 2007 in which it's claimed that devadasis are 'sanctified prostitutes'.
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Impact of Legislative Prohibition of the Devadasi Practice in Karnataka: A Study
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The first legal initiative to outlaw the Devadasi system dates back to the 1934
3885:
3817:
3769:
3706:
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3554:
3417:
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Mukherjee, A.B., "Female Participation in India: Patterns & Associations",
3025:, L.A.K, "Devadasis in South India: Their Traditional Origin And Development",
2998:
2482:"Padma awardee Sitavva, Mysuru resident find mention in PM Modi's Mann ki Baat"
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707:
545:
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243:
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stated that the Devadasi system is not prevalent in the state. In March 2015,
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proposed a resolution at a 1932 meeting of the Madras Music Academy to rename
4008:
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3638:
3015:
Heggade Odeyar D., "A Socio-economic strategy for Rehabilitating Devadasis",
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1371:
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1251:
1111:
1007:
972:
934:
766:
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522:. Ādapāpas were not allowed to marry. In some places such as the Krishna and
344:
319:
135:
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1833:
1632:
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2944:, Vol. X, Eds., James Hastings and Clark Edinburg, Second Impression, 1930.
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1499:
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451:
420:; one of the temple gateways named after devadasi Vellayi in 14th century.
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in 2018; while a government study found 40,600 in 2008. The government of
340:
318:. Many scholars have noted that the tradition has no basis in scriptures.
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3184:, Paper presented in the A.P. History Congress at Warangal, January 1990.
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them refused on one pretext or the other. The sage cursed them to become
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167:
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2116:
A Forgotten Empire: (Vijayanagar) a Contribution to the History of India
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1570:
Women and Religion: Contemporary and Future Challenges in the Global Era
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Women and religion: Contemporary and future challenges in the Global Era
523:
222:
for temple deities. Devadasis were known by various local terms such as
3061:
Jordens, J.T.F., "Hindu Religions and Social Reform in British India",
2549:
2235:"The Sacred & the Profane – The Conference | Mahari of Odisha"
1386:
1018:
912:(wedding lock) prepared by her, threaded with a few beads from her own
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673:
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empire supported the Devadasi system; in Tamil Devadasis were known as
311:
2262:"Sashimani Devi, Last of India's Jagannath Temple Dancers, Dies at 92"
2020:"Temple Run: The Sacred Structures of the Chola Dynasty in Tamil Nadu"
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classical dance and who comes from a Mahari family, defines Mahari as
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1549:
1305:
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949:
945:
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746:
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630:
440:
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227:
143:
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Voice and Matter: Communication, Development and the Cultural Return
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Amrit Srinivasan, "Reform and Revival: The Devadasi and Her Dance",
2852:
Voice and Matter: Communication, Development and the Cultural Return
2207:
Unfinished Gestures: Devadasis, Memory, and Modernity in South India
2165:
1285:. A controversial documentary on the lives of Devadasi sex workers.
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officially maintained most brothels in India. The Irish missionary
672:, and was the mother of five sons. She used to bring water from the
458:
in 16th century describes the presence of Devadasis in the empire.
408:
Devdasis in South India and the Chola Empire and Vijayanagara Empire
193:
The practice became significant when one of the great queens of the
3043:(Second Revised Edition), New Delhi: Ashish Publishing House, 1994.
2396:
Unfinished Gestures: Devadasis, Memory and Modernity in South India
2326:"Abuse of Lower Castes in South India: The Institution of Devadasi"
1087:
913:
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A Devadasi was believed to be immune from widowhood and was called
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would then enter the room, stand near the door (Jaya Vijaya), sing
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658:
519:
368:
348:
307:
2430:"Urban Legend: Conquering a cult – Seetavva shows it can be done"
1668:
Divine Domesticities: Christian Paradoxes in Asia and the Pacific
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1309:
1143:
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665:
396:
376:
372:
355:. An example of reference to a Devadasi in the 3rd century CE in
61:
2919:
Chakrapani, C, "Jogin System: A Study in Religion and Society",
2914:
Women as Devadasis: Origin and Growth of the Devadasi Profession
2892:, (Carried out under financial assistance from NORAD), May 1993.
1940:
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was active in helping Devadasi women to escape their situation.
1514:"Is the Devadasi system still being followed in southern India"
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1406:
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877:
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Serving the Goddess, The dangerous life of a sacred sex worker
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were a community that was distributed throughout the state of
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1411:
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1228:
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942:, a carnatic vocalist and a performer on the Saraswati veena.
817:
425:
267:
1567:
Ruspini, Elisabetta, Bonifacio, Glenda Tibe (11 July 2018).
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From the late medieval period until 1910, the Pottukattu or
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and anti-dedication movement began in 1882, even though the
652:
439:
and orchestras, were maintained by the Brihadisvara temple,
2703:"Bala ( 1976) Satyajit Ray Documentary On T. Balasaraswati"
436:
181:
with its 1988 Devdasis (Prohibition of Dedication) Act and
3189:
Devadasi Custom – Rural Social Structure and Flesh Markets
3058:, Indrani Sinha (Chief Editor), Calcutta, Vol.2 No.1 1998.
1332:. A Bengali romantic drama between a King and a Devadasi.
1014:, died thus bringing the curtain down on the institution.
328:
literature. It is not mentioned by Greek writers, and the
3048:
An Exploratory Study on Devadasi Rehabilitation Programme
435:
Inscriptions indicate that 400 dancers, along with their
1476:(1 ed.). Bristol University Press. pp. 79–92.
518:
were female attendants to the ladies of the families of
2970:
Homo Hierarchius: The Caste System and Its Implications
2878:, Vol. XX, No. 44, 2 November 1985, pp. 1869–1876.
2118:. S. Sonnenschein & Company, Limited. p. 270.
1471:
27:
Woman dedicated to the worship of a temple's patron god
3177:(a novel), Madras: Christian Literature Society, 1976.
2166:
Singh, K. S.; Anthropological Survey of India (1998).
1545:"Devadasi: An exploitative ritual that refuses to die"
1025:
has identified 16,624 Devadasis within its state. The
3079:, Dharwad, Karnatak University Press (Kannada), 1983.
3056:
Devadasi System: Prostitution with Religious Sanction
3046:
JOINT WOMEN’S PROGRAMME, Regional Centre, Bangalore,
2937:, (Third Reprint), Delhi: Munshiram Manoharlal, 1968.
367:. Other sources include the works of authors such as
218:, dance and music are the necessary aspects of daily
3259:- Article on the Yellama Cult of India, 31 July 2000
3159:
Ranjana, "Daughters Married to Gods and Goddesses",
2935:
The Popular Religion and Folklore of Northern India
2145:. Vol. I. Library of Alexandria. p. 103.
1834:"The Devadasi System: Temple Prostitution in India"
1813:
Sahoo, supra note 14 (internal quotations omitted).
3105:Wives of The God-king: Rituals of Devadasi of Puri
3001:, "Female Initiation Rites on the Malabar Coast",
2899:, Bombay: Tata Institute of Social Sciences, 1953.
2321:
2319:
1612:
848:. From then onward, the Devadasi was considered a
622:, one who conquers the five main ripus – enemies.
3142:, Vol. XXXV, No. 4, January 1975, pp. 377–89
2986:, Edinburgh: Oliphant Anderson and Ferrier, 1900.
2972:, Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 1972.
2365:The Devadasi System: Temple Prostitution in India
123:Temple services (including rituals, music, dance)
4006:
2776:"BBC Four - Storyville, Sex, Death and the Gods"
1633:"BBC Four - Storyville, Sex, Death and the Gods"
993:
602:, translating to, "the woman belonging to God".
2316:
2081:. Archived from the original on 13 October 2007
1959:Annals of the Romanian Society for Cell Biology
693:
3166:Sahoo, B.B, "Revival of the Devadasi system",
3003:Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute
810:Madras Devadasi (Prevention of Dedication) Act
301:
3312:
3205:(Marathi), Pune: Sugawa Prakashan, July 1997.
3191:, New Delhi: Reliance Publishing House, 1992.
2897:Sex Delinquent Women and Their Rehabilitation
2068:
2066:
752:
166:. The practice of Devadasi was banned during
3287:- Article about 1930 video capture at Baroda
2883:Journal of Anthropological Society of Bombay
2700:
1597:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
1529:Devadasi: The Eternal Dancer | Unframed
1308:depicting the lives of Devadasis married to
576:
2881:Artal R.O., "Basavis in Peninsular India",
2869:The Position of Women in Hindu Civilization
2644:"Over 80K Devadasis in Karnataka, say NGOs"
2582:
2542:
920:Notable members from the Devadasi community
3326:
3319:
3305:
3208:Vijaya Kumar, S & Chakrapani, c 1993,
3036:, New Delhi: Vikas Publishing House, 1980.
3012:, New Delhi: Vikas Publishing House, 1983.
2072:
2063:
1645:
1542:
791:
681:and had Renuka beheaded by his fifth son,
387:in South India. Similarly, there were 500
3182:Devadasi System – A Universal Institution
3149:, Bombay: Lalwani Publishing House, 1967.
2530:
1952:
1849:
1562:
1560:
1078:, a French opera in three acts. Music by
769:, which she taught professionally at the
653:Yellamma Cult of Karnataka in South India
266:. Devadasi is sometimes referred to as a
134:practice classical Indian dances such as
3916:Social impact of Indian television drama
3091:Devadasi: A Burning Problem of Karnataka
3072:1857–1947. Delhi, Manohar. Oxford, 1975.
2338:"Horrors of India's brothels documented"
2297:
2138:
1900:"Dictionnaire de français > bayadère"
1864:
610:who served God through dance and music.
411:
332:, which describes in detail the life of
3107:, Delhi: Oxford University Press, 1985.
3041:Devadasi Cult – A Sociological Analysis
2963:Religion, Politics and History in India
2671:
2667:
2665:
2583:Viswanathan, Lakshmi (26 August 2021).
2159:
1831:
1124:National Centre for the Performing Arts
14:
4007:
3198:, New Delhi: S. Chand & Co., 1974.
3093:, Bijapur: Radha Printing Works, 1959.
2916:. Delhi, Deep & Deep Publications.
2871:, Benaras: Motilal Banarasi Das, 1956.
2507:
2391:
2229:
2227:
2203:
2132:
2113:
2073:Ramnarayan, Gowri (27 December 1998).
1733:
1665:Hyaeweol Choi, Margaret Jolly (2014).
1557:
1110:a documentary on dance performance of
399:. Between the 6th and 13th centuries,
214:According to temple worship rules, or
3300:
3251:Devadasis - Sinned or Sinned Against?
3135:, New Delhi: Sage Publications, 1971.
3086:, New Delhi: Chetna Publishers, 1976.
2956:Hindu Manners, Customs and Ceremonies
2954:Dubois Abbe J.A and Beachampes H.K.,
2259:
1621:from the original on 11 January 2022.
1049:
823:
585:Devadasis were known colloquially as
3180:Sujana Mallika & Krishna Reddy,
2942:Encyclopaedia of Religion and Ethics
2662:
1977:"A Brief History of Devadasi System"
1648:"'Devadasis are a cursed community'"
1646:Colundalur, Nash (21 January 2011).
1467:
1465:
1463:
1461:
1459:
1457:
1455:
1029:found more than 80,000 Devadasis in
812:outlawed dedication in the southern
788:to "Bharatanatyam" or Indian dance.
3065:, Ed. A.L. Basham, Clarendon Press,
2585:"Gowri Ammal's place in the annals"
2224:
2142:Castes and Tribes of Southern India
2024:National Geographic Traveller India
1858:
473:A community of Karnataka living in
314:by the king during the time of the
24:
3264:Slaves to the goddess of fertility
2861:
2272:
1027:Karnataka State Women's University
526:districts, Ādapāpas were known as
25:
4036:
3244:
3212:, Almora: Shri Almora Book Depot.
3147:A Study of Prostitution in Bombay
3140:The Indian Journal of Social Work
3138:Patil, B.R., "The Devadasis", in
2965:, The Hague, Mouton and Co., 1970
2701:Satyajit Ray (20 November 1976).
1543:Umashanker, K. (7 October 2017).
1452:
568:means one who is engaged in art.
3210:Joginism: A Bane of Indian Women
2951:, Bombay: Vora Publishers, 1957.
1010:, the last devadasi attached to
899:
548:. They were also referred to as
54:
3740:Proposed states and territories
3163:, Feb–Mar 1983, pp. 28–31.
2958:, Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1928
2844:
2818:
2793:
2768:
2742:
2720:
2694:
2636:
2610:
2576:
2567:
2501:
2474:
2456:"ZP honours Padma Shri Jodatti"
2448:
2422:
2356:
2330:
2253:
2210:. University of Chicago Press.
2197:
2107:
2037:
2012:
1994:
1969:
1946:
1933:
1892:
1883:
1825:
1816:
1807:
1798:
1783:
1753:
1727:
1718:
1709:
1689:
1265:Balasaraswati: Her Art and Life
1250:documentary series directed by
688:
246:. Devadasis were also known as
3084:Role Conflict in Working Women
2984:The Wrongs of Indian Womanhood
2909:, New York: Grove Press, 1954.
2260:Barry, Ellen (23 March 2015).
1865:De Souza, Teotonio R. (1994).
1795:(2007). Retrieved 4 July 2007.
1658:
1639:
1625:
1614:"India's 'prostitutes of God'"
1605:
1536:
1520:
1506:
804:province as it existed in the
798:Bombay Devadasi Protection Act
468:
172:Bombay Devadasi Protection Act
13:
1:
3168:Indian Journal of Social Work
3145:Puekar S.D. and Kamalla Rao,
2876:Economic and Political Weekly
2801:"Beatification of the Erotic"
2075:"Where are the master gurus?"
1953:Jaiganesh, B. (9 July 2021).
1445:
1084:Victor-Joseph Étienne de Jouy
1017:Similarly, the government of
1000:National Commission for Women
994:Contemporary statistical data
3114:. Delhi, Concept Publishers.
2940:Crooke, W., "Prostitution",
2536:
2280:"The Yellamma Cult of India"
2045:"Thanjavur through the ages"
1118:. A joint production of the
800:. This act pertained to the
704:British colonial authorities
694:Reformists and abolitionists
185:with its 1947 Devdasis Act.
7:
3504:Water supply and sanitation
3112:Indian Women and Patriarchy
3063:A Cultural History of India
2402:University of Chicago Press
1736:"Hinduism and prostitution"
1365:
872:would give Darshana to the
371:, a Chinese traveller, and
302:Ancient and medieval period
10:
4041:
3391:Public distribution system
3220:Sutanuka ekti debdasir nam
1975:Aparimita Pramanik Sahoo,
753:Evolution of Bharatanatyam
188:
29:
4020:Cultural history of India
3929:
3906:Films about social issues
3884:
3831:
3768:
3730:
3697:
3624:
3573:
3517:
3474:
3451:
3334:
3293:- VICE Travel Documentary
2979:, New Delhi: Uppal, 1983.
2907:The Wonder That Was India
2826:"The Last Great Devadasi"
2099:: CS1 maint: unfit URL (
855:
606:had defined Devadasis as
577:Mahari Devadasi of Odisha
298:) was occasionally used.
117:
107:
97:
89:
81:
69:
60:Devadasi named Gnyana of
53:
46:
3267:by Damian Grammaticas -
3203:Devadasi: Shodh Ani Bodh
3121:. London, Zed Books Ltd.
3054:JONAKI (The Glow Worm),
3010:Religion in Modern India
2992:Devadāsī: dancing damsel
2923:, Vol. IV, No. II, 1991.
2912:Chakrabothy, K. (2000).
2554:The Skeptic's Dictionary
2370:UCLA Women's Law Journal
2139:Thurston, Edgar (1909).
1838:UCLA Women's Law Journal
1287:The Vice Guide to Travel
1244:Sex, Death, and the Gods
1120:Government of Tamil Nadu
591:Jagannath temple complex
581:In the eastern state of
500:It was customary in the
113:44,000 to 250,000 (2006)
3374:National Pension System
3156:, Vol. 56, No. 4, 1976.
3034:Women’s Quest for Power
2995:, APH Publishing, 2000.
2989:Goswami, Kali Prasad.,
2930:. Gothenburg: Nordicom.
2885:, Vol. IX, No. 2, 1910.
2854:. Gothenburg: Nordicom.
2514:Oxford University Press
2508:Soneji, Davesh (2010).
2392:Soneji, Davesh (2012).
2204:Soneji, Davesh (2012).
2174:Oxford University Press
2114:Sewell, Robert (1900).
2002:"The legend of Vellayi"
1987:19 October 2007 at the
1869:. Concept. p. 68.
1832:Shingal, Ankur (2015).
1792:Encyclopædia Britannica
1304:. Television series on
1212:. Television series on
1180:. Television series on
1092:L'éducation d'un prince
926:Bangalore Nagarathnamma
792:Legislative Initiatives
668:, who married the sage
481:were are also known as
347:, a classical poet and
336:, is silent about it."
48:Female servant of a god
30:For the 1948 film, see
3712:Caste-related violence
3428:Universal basic income
3328:Social issues in India
3285:Devadasi video Mystery
3277:by William Dalrymple.
3126:Tiydschrift: Voor Econ
3100:65(17): Pages: 5–21.
3029:, Vol.7, No. 47, 1927.
2728:"Giddh – The Vultures"
2648:The New Indian Express
2510:Bharatnatyam: A reader
1924:, forme dialectale de
1402:Gomantak Maratha Samaj
1062:Title and description
466:
421:
291:
283:
3911:Freedom of expression
3170:, Vol 58, No 3, 1997.
2310:28 March 2007 at the
1617:. 20 September 2010.
1482:10.2307/j.ctv301d7f.9
1328:Television series on
906:akhanda saubhagyavati
782:Rukmini Devi Arundale
758:Rukmini Devi Arundale
614:, the oldest guru of
460:
415:
157:During the period of
3760:Separatist movements
2977:Religion and Society
2241:on 30 September 2007
1804:Sahoo, supra note 14
1771:on 27 September 2007
988:M. L. Vasanthakumari
983:Moovalur Ramamirtham
960:Mylapore Gowri Ammal
952:, carnatic vocalists
450:Portuguese traveler
170:, starting with the
93:no central authority
32:Devadasi (1948 film)
3798:Illegal immigration
3443:Widening income gap
3068:Jordan, K. (2003).
2618:"The last devadasi"
2378:10.5070/L3221026367
2169:India's Communities
1851:10.5070/L3221026367
1822:Lee, supra note 11.
1377:Sacred prostitution
1315:documentary series
1256:documentary series
1194:Indra Soundar Rajan
1080:Charles-Simon Catel
1055:
864:would dance at the
456:Vijayanagara Empire
416:Vellayi Gopuram in
310:, who was declared
103:Indian Subcontinent
43:
4025:Courtesans by type
4015:Hindu temple dance
3750:Religious violence
3611:Female infanticide
3596:Child prostitution
3413:Standard of living
3291:Prostitutes of God
3234:Hegge Vandu Payana
3128:, Geografie, 1972.
2982:Fuller Marcus B.,
2730:. Alternate Movies
2650:. 28 February 2020
2624:. 18 February 2016
2487:The Times of India
2344:. 23 November 2013
2266:The New York Times
1705:. 30 January 2018.
1702:The Times of India
1435:Muthulakshmi Reddy
1382:Child prostitution
1283:Prostitutes of God
1054:
1050:In popular culture
978:Muthulakshmi Reddy
884:would sing at the
868:. After breakfast
824:Devadasi practices
422:
195:Somavamshi dynasty
39:
4002:
4001:
3788:Human trafficking
3601:Child trafficking
3530:Domestic violence
3499:Natural disasters
3494:Manual scavenging
3354:Farmers' suicides
3196:Women in Rig Veda
3194:Upadhyaya, B.S.,
3133:Culture and Power
3117:Mies, M. (1986).
3110:Mies, M. (1980).
3089:Karkhanis, G.G.,
3075:Kadetotad, N.K.,
2933:Crooke Williams,
2681:Samarthbharat.com
2523:978-0-19-808377-1
2462:. 1 February 2018
2436:. 27 January 2018
2415:978-0-226-76809-0
2304:"Yellamma Slaves"
2217:978-0-226-76809-0
2152:978-1-4655-8236-2
2125:978-0-7165-2137-2
2008:. 4 January 2012.
1983:(July 18, 2006).
1965:(6): 16100–16106.
1516:. 8 October 2017.
1440:Hemalatha Lavanam
1430:Kanjirottu Yakshi
1363:
1362:
1267:. A biography of
968:Rādhikā-sāntvanam
956:M.S. Subbulakshmi
814:Madras Presidency
749:award at age 43.
612:Pankaj Charan Das
127:
126:
16:(Redirected from
4032:
3994:Police brutality
3783:Groom kidnapping
3745:Ethnic relations
3606:Female foeticide
3321:
3314:
3307:
3298:
3297:
3257:Given to Goddess
3187:Tarachand K.C.,
3173:Srinivasan, K.,
3008:Gupta Giri Raj,
2895:Banerjee, G.R.,
2855:
2848:
2842:
2841:
2839:
2837:
2822:
2816:
2815:
2813:
2811:
2805:Outlookindia.com
2797:
2791:
2790:
2788:
2786:
2772:
2766:
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2763:
2761:
2746:
2740:
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2737:
2735:
2724:
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2715:
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2698:
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2629:
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2580:
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2565:
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2498:
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2494:
2478:
2472:
2471:
2469:
2467:
2452:
2446:
2445:
2443:
2441:
2434:Deccan Chronicle
2426:
2420:
2419:
2399:
2389:
2380:
2362:Shingal, Ankur,
2360:
2354:
2353:
2351:
2349:
2334:
2328:
2323:
2314:
2301:
2295:
2294:
2292:
2290:
2276:
2270:
2269:
2257:
2251:
2250:
2248:
2246:
2237:. Archived from
2231:
2222:
2221:
2201:
2195:
2194:
2192:
2190:
2163:
2157:
2156:
2136:
2130:
2129:
2111:
2105:
2104:
2098:
2090:
2088:
2086:
2070:
2061:
2060:
2058:
2056:
2041:
2035:
2034:
2032:
2030:
2016:
2010:
2009:
1998:
1992:
1973:
1967:
1966:
1950:
1944:
1937:
1931:
1930:
1913:
1911:
1896:
1890:
1887:
1881:
1880:
1862:
1856:
1855:
1853:
1829:
1823:
1820:
1814:
1811:
1805:
1802:
1796:
1787:
1781:
1780:
1778:
1776:
1767:. Archived from
1757:
1751:
1750:
1748:
1746:
1740:Hinduwebsite.com
1731:
1725:
1722:
1716:
1713:
1707:
1706:
1693:
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1540:
1534:
1533:
1524:
1518:
1517:
1510:
1504:
1503:
1469:
1397:Shamakhi dancers
1345:Shyam Singha Roy
1056:
1053:
1012:Jagannath temple
950:Thanjavur Muktha
946:Thanjavur Brinda
940:Veenai Dhanammal
719:venereal disease
502:Krishna district
385:Thanjavur temple
383:attached to the
85:Temple priestess
58:
44:
38:
21:
4040:
4039:
4035:
4034:
4033:
4031:
4030:
4029:
4005:
4004:
4003:
3998:
3925:
3880:
3827:
3808:Organised crime
3793:Illegal housing
3764:
3726:
3693:
3669:Menstrual taboo
3620:
3616:Street children
3569:
3540:Family planning
3513:
3470:
3447:
3330:
3325:
3281:, 4 August 2008
3253:by Anil Chawla.
3247:
3216:Sanyal, Narayan
3103:Marglin, F.A.,
3098:Feminist Review
3039:Jogan Shankar,
3019:, Feb–Mar 1983.
3005:, No. 85, 1952.
2975:Durrani, K.S.,
2867:Altekar, A.S.,
2864:
2862:Further reading
2859:
2858:
2849:
2845:
2835:
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2809:
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2683:
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2663:
2653:
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2637:
2627:
2625:
2622:Forwardpress.in
2616:
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2317:
2312:Wayback Machine
2302:
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2233:
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2188:
2186:
2184:
2172:. Vol. 5.
2164:
2160:
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2133:
2126:
2112:
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2091:
2084:
2082:
2071:
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2054:
2052:
2051:. 15 March 2009
2043:
2042:
2038:
2028:
2026:
2018:
2017:
2013:
2000:
1999:
1995:
1989:Wayback Machine
1974:
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1577:. p. 108.
1565:
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1044:life expectancy
996:
948:and her sister
931:Padma Vibhushan
922:
902:
870:Lord Jagannatha
858:
850:nitya sumangali
826:
794:
755:
734:Sitavva Joddati
696:
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304:
204:goddess Lakshmi
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3803:Illegal mining
3800:
3795:
3790:
3785:
3780:
3774:
3772:
3766:
3765:
3763:
3762:
3757:
3752:
3747:
3742:
3736:
3734:
3728:
3727:
3725:
3724:
3719:
3714:
3709:
3707:Caste politics
3703:
3701:
3695:
3694:
3692:
3691:
3686:
3681:
3676:
3671:
3666:
3661:
3659:Women's health
3656:
3651:
3646:
3641:
3636:
3630:
3628:
3622:
3621:
3619:
3618:
3613:
3608:
3603:
3598:
3593:
3591:Child marriage
3588:
3583:
3577:
3575:
3571:
3570:
3568:
3567:
3562:
3557:
3555:Nuclear family
3552:
3547:
3542:
3537:
3532:
3527:
3521:
3519:
3515:
3514:
3512:
3511:
3509:Water disputes
3506:
3501:
3496:
3491:
3489:Climate change
3486:
3480:
3478:
3472:
3471:
3469:
3468:
3463:
3457:
3455:
3449:
3448:
3446:
3445:
3440:
3435:
3430:
3425:
3420:
3418:Street vendors
3415:
3410:
3409:
3408:
3398:
3393:
3388:
3387:
3386:
3376:
3371:
3366:
3361:
3356:
3351:
3346:
3344:Communications
3340:
3338:
3332:
3331:
3324:
3323:
3316:
3309:
3301:
3295:
3294:
3288:
3282:
3279:The New Yorker
3272:
3260:
3254:
3246:
3245:External links
3243:
3242:
3241:
3227:
3213:
3206:
3201:Vasant Rajas,
3199:
3192:
3185:
3178:
3171:
3164:
3161:Social Welfare
3157:
3150:
3143:
3136:
3129:
3122:
3115:
3108:
3101:
3094:
3087:
3080:
3073:
3066:
3059:
3052:
3044:
3037:
3030:
3020:
3017:Social Welfare
3013:
3006:
2999:Gough Kathleen
2996:
2987:
2980:
2973:
2968:Dumont Louis,
2966:
2961:Dumont Louis,
2959:
2952:
2949:Women in India
2945:
2938:
2931:
2924:
2917:
2910:
2900:
2893:
2886:
2879:
2872:
2863:
2860:
2857:
2856:
2843:
2832:. 9 March 2012
2817:
2792:
2767:
2756:. January 1987
2741:
2719:
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2635:
2609:
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2447:
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2315:
2296:
2271:
2252:
2223:
2216:
2196:
2182:
2158:
2151:
2131:
2124:
2106:
2062:
2036:
2011:
1993:
1968:
1945:
1932:
1891:
1882:
1876:978-8170225041
1875:
1857:
1824:
1815:
1806:
1797:
1782:
1752:
1726:
1717:
1708:
1688:
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1675:. p. 15.
1657:
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1248:BBC Storyville
1241:
1237:
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1221:
1220:
1217:
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1200:
1197:
1173:
1169:
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1155:
1154:
1151:
1135:
1131:
1130:
1127:
1114:, directed by
1103:
1099:
1098:
1095:
1082:, libretto by
1071:
1067:
1066:
1063:
1060:
1051:
1048:
1023:Andhra Pradesh
995:
992:
991:
990:
985:
980:
975:
970:
961:
958:
953:
943:
937:
928:
921:
918:
901:
898:
890:Bhitara Gaauni
882:Bhitara Gaunis
862:Bahara Gaaunis
857:
854:
825:
822:
793:
790:
778:E Krishna Iyer
754:
751:
708:Amy Carmichael
695:
692:
690:
687:
654:
651:
578:
575:
546:Andhra Pradesh
475:Andhra Pradesh
470:
467:
430:Devar Adigalar
409:
406:
365:Silappadikaram
351:writer of the
303:
300:
244:Goa and Damaon
190:
187:
179:Andhra Pradesh
125:
124:
121:
118:
115:
114:
111:
108:
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101:
99:Region served
98:
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87:
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83:
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78:
71:
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66:
64:, 19th century
59:
51:
50:
26:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
4037:
4026:
4023:
4021:
4018:
4016:
4013:
4012:
4010:
3995:
3992:
3990:
3987:
3985:
3984:Superstitions
3982:
3980:
3977:
3975:
3972:
3968:
3965:
3963:
3962:Homosexuality
3960:
3959:
3958:
3955:
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3667:
3665:
3662:
3660:
3657:
3655:
3652:
3650:
3647:
3645:
3642:
3640:
3639:Bride burning
3637:
3635:
3632:
3631:
3629:
3627:
3623:
3617:
3614:
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3609:
3607:
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3018:
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3007:
3004:
3000:
2997:
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2988:
2985:
2981:
2978:
2974:
2971:
2967:
2964:
2960:
2957:
2953:
2950:
2947:Desai Neera,
2946:
2943:
2939:
2936:
2932:
2929:
2925:
2922:
2918:
2915:
2911:
2908:
2904:
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2898:
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2891:
2888:Asha Ramesh,
2887:
2884:
2880:
2877:
2873:
2870:
2866:
2865:
2853:
2847:
2831:
2830:Open Magazine
2827:
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2755:
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2675:
2672:Anil Chawla.
2668:
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2183:9780195633542
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2050:
2046:
2040:
2025:
2021:
2015:
2007:
2003:
1997:
1990:
1986:
1982:
1978:
1972:
1964:
1960:
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1765:History.ac.uk
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1584:9781447336372
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1532:, 15 May 2013
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1372:Isai Vellalar
1370:
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1355:
1351:
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1298:
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1269:Balasaraswati
1266:
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1260:
1259:
1255:
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1252:Beeban Kidron
1249:
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1234:
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1132:
1128:
1125:
1121:
1117:
1113:
1112:Balasaraswati
1109:
1108:
1104:
1101:
1100:
1096:
1093:
1089:
1085:
1081:
1077:
1076:
1075:Les bayadères
1072:
1069:
1068:
1064:
1061:
1058:
1057:
1047:
1045:
1039:
1036:
1032:
1028:
1024:
1020:
1015:
1013:
1009:
1008:Sasimani Debi
1005:
1001:
989:
986:
984:
981:
979:
976:
974:
973:Sasimani Debi
971:
969:
965:
962:
959:
957:
954:
951:
947:
944:
941:
938:
936:
935:Balasaraswati
932:
929:
927:
924:
923:
917:
915:
911:
907:
900:Social status
897:
895:
891:
887:
886:Badashinghara
883:
879:
875:
871:
867:
866:Sakaala Dhupa
863:
853:
851:
847:
843:
838:
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831:
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819:
815:
811:
807:
803:
799:
789:
787:
783:
779:
774:
773:
768:
767:Bharatanatyam
763:
759:
750:
748:
744:
740:
735:
730:
726:
723:
720:
715:
711:
709:
705:
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660:
650:
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644:
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632:
627:
623:
621:
620:Maha Ripu-Ari
617:
613:
609:
605:
601:
596:
592:
588:
584:
574:
571:
570:Davesh Soneji
567:
563:
559:
555:
551:
547:
543:
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431:
427:
419:
414:
405:
402:
398:
394:
390:
386:
382:
378:
374:
370:
366:
363:found in the
362:
358:
354:
350:
346:
342:
337:
335:
331:
327:
326:
321:
320:A. S. Altekar
317:
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293:
289:
285:
281:
277:
273:
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265:
261:
257:
253:
249:
245:
241:
237:
233:
229:
225:
221:
217:
212:
210:
209:Bharatanatyam
205:
201:
196:
186:
184:
180:
175:
173:
169:
165:
160:
155:
151:
149:
145:
141:
137:
136:Bharatanatyam
132:
122:
116:
112:
106:
102:
96:
92:
88:
84:
80:
76:
72:
68:
63:
57:
52:
49:
45:
42:
37:
33:
19:
3974:Human rights
3930:Other issues
3876:Tuberculosis
3861:Malnutrition
3699:Caste system
3674:Prostitution
3643:
3586:Child labour
3545:Joint family
3535:Dowry system
3525:Cohabitation
3484:Conservation
3438:Unemployment
3433:Urbanisation
3369:Debt bondage
3364:Land reforms
3278:
3268:
3263:
3233:
3219:
3209:
3202:
3195:
3188:
3181:
3174:
3167:
3160:
3154:Man in India
3153:
3146:
3139:
3132:
3131:Ostor Akos,
3125:
3118:
3111:
3104:
3097:
3090:
3083:
3076:
3069:
3062:
3055:
3047:
3040:
3033:
3032:Jain Devki,
3027:Man in India
3026:
3016:
3009:
3002:
2990:
2983:
2976:
2969:
2962:
2955:
2948:
2941:
2934:
2920:
2913:
2906:
2903:Basham, A.L.
2896:
2889:
2882:
2875:
2868:
2846:
2834:. Retrieved
2829:
2820:
2808:. Retrieved
2804:
2795:
2783:. Retrieved
2779:
2770:
2758:. Retrieved
2753:
2744:
2732:. Retrieved
2722:
2710:. Retrieved
2706:
2696:
2684:. Retrieved
2680:
2652:. Retrieved
2647:
2638:
2626:. Retrieved
2621:
2612:
2602:11 September
2600:. Retrieved
2588:
2578:
2569:
2557:. Retrieved
2553:
2544:
2532:
2509:
2503:
2491:. Retrieved
2485:
2476:
2464:. Retrieved
2459:
2450:
2438:. Retrieved
2433:
2424:
2395:
2372:, Vol 22:1,
2369:
2364:
2358:
2346:. Retrieved
2341:
2332:
2299:
2287:. Retrieved
2283:
2274:
2265:
2255:
2243:. Retrieved
2239:the original
2206:
2199:
2187:. Retrieved
2168:
2161:
2141:
2134:
2115:
2109:
2083:. Retrieved
2078:
2053:. Retrieved
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2760:20 November
2750:"Mahananda"
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683:Parashurama
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4009:Categories
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3778:Corruption
3755:Secularism
2550:"devadasi"
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2597:0971-751X
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2348:26 March
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