1653:
discovery of cell signaling pathways by mitochondria which are crucial platforms for cell function regulation such as apoptosis. Its physiological adaptability is strongly linked to the cell mitochondrial channel's ongoing reconfiguration through a range of mechanisms known as mitochondrial membrane dynamics, including endomembrane fusion and fragmentation (separation) and ultrastructural membrane remodeling. As a result, mitochondrial dynamics regulate and frequently choreograph not only metabolic but also complicated cell signaling processes such as cell pluripotent stem cells, proliferation, maturation, aging, and mortality. Mutually, post-translational alterations of mitochondrial apparatus and the development of transmembrane contact sites among mitochondria and other structures, which both have the potential to link signals from diverse routes that affect mitochondrial membrane dynamics substantially, Mitochondria are wrapped by two membranes: an inner mitochondrial membrane (IMM) and an outer mitochondrial membrane (OMM), each with a distinctive function and structure, which parallels their dual role as cellular powerhouses and signaling organelles. The inner mitochondrial membrane divides the mitochondrial lumen into two parts: the inner border membrane, which runs parallel to the OMM, and the cristae, which are deeply twisted, multinucleated invaginations that give room for surface area enlargement and house the mitochondrial respiration apparatus. The outer mitochondrial membrane, on the other hand, is soft and permeable. It, therefore, acts as a foundation for cell signaling pathways to congregate, be deciphered, and be transported into mitochondria. Furthermore, the OMM connects to other cellular organelles, such as the endoplasmic reticulum (ER), lysosomes, endosomes, and the plasma membrane. Mitochondria play a wide range of roles in cell biology, which is reflected in their morphological diversity. Ever since the beginning of the mitochondrial study, it has been well documented that mitochondria can have a variety of forms, with both their general and ultra-structural morphology varying greatly among cells, during the cell cycle, and in response to metabolic or cellular cues. Mitochondria can exist as independent organelles or as part of larger systems; they can also be unequally distributed in the cytosol through regulated mitochondrial transport and placement to meet the cell's localized energy requirements. Mitochondrial dynamics refers to the adaptive and variable aspect of mitochondria, including their shape and subcellular distribution.
1644:
of chromosomes. The cell cycle checkpoints are surveillance systems that keep track of the cell cycle's integrity, accuracy, and chronology. Each checkpoint serves as an alternative cell cycle endpoint, wherein the cell's parameters are examined and only when desirable characteristics are fulfilled does the cell cycle advance through the distinct steps. The cell cycle's goal is to precisely copy each organism's DNA and afterwards equally split the cell and its components between the two new cells. Four main stages occur in the eukaryotes. In G1, the cell is usually active and continues to grow rapidly, while in G2, the cell growth continues while protein molecules become ready for separation. These are not dormant times; they are when cells gain mass, integrate growth factor receptors, establish a replicated genome, and prepare for chromosome segregation. DNA replication is restricted to a separate
Synthesis in eukaryotes, which is also known as the S-phase. During mitosis, which is also known as the M-phase, the segregation of the chromosomes occur. DNA, like every other molecule, is capable of undergoing a wide range of chemical reactions. Modifications in DNA's sequence, on the other hand, have a considerably bigger impact than modifications in other cellular constituents like RNAs or proteins because DNA acts as a permanent copy of the cell genome. When erroneous nucleotides are incorporated during DNA replication, mutations can occur. The majority of DNA damage is fixed by removing the defective bases and then re-synthesizing the excised area. On the other hand, some DNA lesions can be mended by reversing the damage, which may be a more effective method of coping with common types of DNA damage. Only a few forms of DNA damage are mended in this fashion, including pyrimidine dimers caused by ultraviolet (UV) light changed by the insertion of methyl or ethyl groups at the purine ring's O6 position.
1672:(CMA) protein quality assurance by digesting oxidized and altered proteins under stressful circumstances and supplying amino acids through protein denaturation. Autophagy is the primary intrinsic degradative system for peptides, fats, carbohydrates, and other cellular structures. In both physiologic and stressful situations, this cellular progression is vital for upholding the correct cellular balance. Autophagy instability leads to a variety of illness symptoms, including inflammation, biochemical disturbances, aging, and neurodegenerative, due to its involvement in controlling cell integrity. The modification of the autophagy-lysosomal networks is a typical hallmark of many neurological and muscular illnesses. As a result, autophagy has been identified as a potential strategy for the prevention and treatment of various disorders. Many of these disorders are prevented or improved by consuming polyphenol in the meal. As a result, natural compounds with the ability to modify the autophagy mechanism are seen as a potential therapeutic option. The creation of the double membrane (phagophore), which would be known as nucleation, is the first step in macro-autophagy. The phagophore approach indicates dysregulated polypeptides or defective organelles that come from the cell membrane, Golgi apparatus, endoplasmic reticulum, and mitochondria. With the conclusion of the autophagocyte, the phagophore's enlargement comes to an end. The auto-phagosome combines with the lysosomal vesicles to formulate an auto-lysosome that degrades the encapsulated substances, referred to as phagocytosis.
1668:
infections. Additionally, autophagy has antiviral and antibacterial roles within the cell, and it is involved at the beginning of distinctive and adaptive immune responses to viral and bacterial contamination. Some viruses include virulence proteins that prevent autophagy, while others utilize autophagy elements for intracellular development or cellular splitting. Macro autophagy, micro autophagy, and chaperon-mediated autophagy are the three basic types of autophagy. When macro autophagy is triggered, an exclusion membrane incorporates a section of the cytoplasm, generating the autophagosome, a distinctive double-membraned organelle. The autophagosome then joins the lysosome to create an autolysosome, with lysosomal enzymes degrading the components. In micro autophagy, the lysosome or vacuole engulfs a piece of the cytoplasm by invaginating or protruding the lysosomal membrane to enclose the cytosol or organelles. The
1395:(GPCR): Is widely recognized to contain seven transmembrane domains. The ligand binds on the extracellular domain and once the ligand binds, this signals a guanine exchange factor to convert GDP to GTP and activate the G-α subunit. G-α can target other proteins such as adenyl cyclase or phospholipase C, which ultimately produce secondary messengers such as cAMP, Ip3, DAG, and calcium. These secondary messengers function to amplify signals and can target ion channels or other enzymes. One example for amplification of a signal is cAMP binding to and activating PKA by removing the regulatory subunits and releasing the catalytic subunit. The catalytic subunit has a nuclear localization sequence which prompts it to go into the nucleus and phosphorylate other proteins to either repress or activate gene activity.
1640:
excellent monitoring strategy for accurate cell cycle and divisions. Cdks, associated cyclin counterparts, protein kinases, and phosphatases regulate cell growth and division from one stage to another. The cell cycle is controlled by the temporal activation of Cdks, which is governed by cyclin partner interaction, phosphorylation by particular protein kinases, and de-phosphorylation by Cdc25 family phosphatases. In response to DNA damage, a cell's DNA repair reaction is a cascade of signaling pathways that leads to checkpoint engagement, regulates, the repairing mechanism in DNA, cell cycle alterations, and apoptosis. Numerous biochemical structures, as well as processes that detect damage in DNA, are ATM and ATR, which induce the DNA repair checkpoints
1826:
1864:
1464:: G1, S, G2, and M. The G phase – which is the cell growth phase – makes up approximately 95% of the cycle. The proliferation of cells is instigated by progenitors. All cells start out in an identical form and can essentially become any type of cells. Cell signaling such as induction can influence nearby cells to determinate the type of cell it will become. Moreover, this allows cells of the same type to aggregate and form tissues, then organs, and ultimately systems. The G1, G2, and S phase (DNA replication, damage and repair) are considered to be the interphase portion of the cycle, while the M phase (
1009:: Utilizes rapidly growing cells on media which allows for a large amount of a specific cell type and an efficient way to study cells. Cell culture is one of the major tools used in cellular and molecular biology, providing excellent model systems for studying the normal physiology and biochemistry of cells (e.g., metabolic studies, aging), the effects of drugs and toxic compounds on the cells, and mutagenesis and carcinogenesis. It is also used in drug screening and development, and large scale manufacturing of biological compounds (e.g., vaccines, therapeutic proteins).
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1270:: Cytoskeleton is a structure that helps to maintain the shape and general organization of the cytoplasm. It anchors organelles within the cells and makes up the structure and stability of the cell. The cytoskeleton is composed of three principal types of protein filaments: actin filaments, intermediate filaments, and microtubules, which are held together and linked to subcellular organelles and the plasma membrane by a variety of accessory proteins.
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1382:. Direct cell-cell contact is when a receptor on a cell binds a molecule that is attached to the membrane of another cell. Endocrine signaling occurs through molecules secreted into the bloodstream. Paracrine signaling uses molecules diffusing between two cells to communicate. Autocrine is a cell sending a signal to itself by secreting a molecule that binds to a receptor on its surface. Forms of communication can be through:
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1224:: This functions to synthesize, store, and secrete proteins to the Golgi apparatus. Structurally, the endoplasmic reticulum is a network of membranes found throughout the cell and connected to the nucleus. The membranes are slightly different from cell to cell and a cell's function determines the size and structure of the ER.
880:. These have allowed for and are currently being used for discoveries and research pertaining to how cells function, ultimately giving insight into understanding larger organisms. Knowing the components of cells and how cells work is fundamental to all biological sciences while also being essential for research in
1615:, which studies whole tissues. Cytopathology is commonly used to investigate diseases involving a wide range of body sites, often to aid in the diagnosis of cancer but also in the diagnosis of some infectious diseases and other inflammatory conditions. For example, a common application of cytopathology is the
1002:, and to derive medications.The techniques by which cells are studied have evolved. Due to advancements in microscopy, techniques and technology have allowed scientists to hold a better understanding of the structure and function of cells. Many techniques commonly used to study cell biology are listed below:
1276:: The cell membrane can be described as a phospholipid bilayer and is also consisted of lipids and proteins. Because the inside of the bilayer is hydrophobic and in order for molecules to participate in reactions within the cell, they need to be able to cross this membrane layer to get into the cell via
1652:
Mitochondria are commonly referred to as the cell's "powerhouses" because of their capacity to effectively produce ATP which is essential to maintain cellular homeostasis and metabolism. Moreover, researchers have gained a better knowledge of mitochondria's significance in cell biology because of the
1639:
The cell cycle is composed of a number of well-ordered, consecutive stages that result in cellular division. The fact that cells do not begin the next stage until the last one is finished, is a significant element of cell cycle regulation. Cell cycle checkpoints are characteristics that constitute an
1212:, which includes nuclear pores allowing for the transportation of proteins between the inside and outside of the nucleus. This is also the site for replication of DNA as well as transcription of DNA to RNA. Afterwards, the RNA is modified and transported out to the cytosol to be translated to protein.
1643:
The cell cycle is a sequence of activities in which cell organelles are duplicated and subsequently separated into daughter cells with precision. There are major events that happen during a cell cycle. The processes that happen in the cell cycle include cell development, replication and segregation
1556:
The cell cycle is a four-stage process that a cell goes through as it develops and divides. It includes Gap 1 (G1), synthesis (S), Gap 2 (G2), and mitosis (M). The cell either restarts the cycle from G1 or leaves the cycle through G0 after completing the cycle. The cell can progress from G0 through
1100:, and lack an enclosed cell nucleus. Eukaryotic cells are found in plants, animals, fungi, and protists. They range from 10 to 100 μm in diameter, and their DNA is contained within a membrane-bound nucleus. Eukaryotes are organisms containing eukaryotic cells. The four eukaryotic kingdoms are
1667:
Autophagy is a self-degradative mechanism that regulates energy sources during growth and reaction to dietary stress. Autophagy also cleans up after itself, clearing aggregated proteins, cleaning damaged structures including mitochondria and endoplasmic reticulum and eradicating intracellular
1154:
is initiated at a promoter sequence on the DNA template comprising two consensus sequences that recruit RNA polymerase. The prokaryotic polymerase consists of a core enzyme of four protein subunits and a σ protein that assists only with initiation. For instance, in a process termed
1401:: Bind growth factors, further promoting the tyrosine on the intracellular portion of the protein to cross phosphorylate. The phosphorylated tyrosine becomes a landing pad for proteins containing an SH2 domain allowing for the activation of Ras and the involvement of the
1440:
Cells are the foundation of all organisms and are the fundamental units of life. The growth and development of cells are essential for the maintenance of the host and survival of the organism. For this process, the cell goes through the steps of the
1043:: The cells are placed in the machine which uses a beam to scatter the cells based on different aspects and can therefore separate them based on size and content. Cells may also be tagged with GFP-fluorescence and can be separated that way as well.
840:. All living organisms are made of cells. A cell is the basic unit of life that is responsible for the living and functioning of organisms. Cell biology is the study of the structural and functional units of cells. Cell biology encompasses both
1240:: This functions to further process, package, and secrete the proteins to their destination. The proteins contain a signal sequence that allows the Golgi apparatus to recognize and direct it to the correct place. Golgi apparatus also produce
1320:
Cell metabolism is necessary for the production of energy for the cell and therefore its survival and includes many pathways and also sustaining the main cell organelles such as the nucleus, the mitochondria, the cell membrane etc. For
1159:, the fertility factor allows the bacteria to possess a pilus which allows it to transmit DNA to another bacteria which lacks the F factor, permitting the transmittance of resistance allowing it to survive in certain environments.
1472:
portion of the cycle. Mitosis is composed of many stages which include, prophase, metaphase, anaphase, telophase, and cytokinesis, respectively. The ultimate result of mitosis is the formation of two identical daughter cells.
1325:, once glucose is available, glycolysis occurs within the cytosol of the cell to produce pyruvate. Pyruvate undergoes decarboxylation using the multi-enzyme complex to form acetyl coA which can readily be used in the
1254:: The lysosome functions to degrade material brought in from the outside of the cell or old organelles. This contains many acid hydrolases, proteases, nucleases, and lipases, which break down the various molecules.
1230:: Commonly known as the powerhouse of the cell is a double membrane bound cell organelle. This functions for the production of energy or ATP within the cell. Specifically, this is the place where the Krebs cycle or
1258:
is the process of degradation through lysosomes which occurs when a vesicle buds off from the ER and engulfs the material, then, attaches and fuses with the lysosome to allow the material to be degraded.
3509:
1825:
1037:: Involves metal staining and the passing of electrons through the cells, which will be deflected upon interaction with metal. This ultimately forms an image of the components being studied.
1370:
or cell communication is important for cell regulation and for cells to process information from the environment and respond accordingly. Signaling can occur through direct cell contact or
1557:
terminal differentiation. Finally, the interphase refers to the phases of the cell cycle that occur between one mitosis and the next, and includes G1, S, and G2. Thus, the phases are:
1234:
for the production of NADH and FADH occurs. Afterwards, these products are used within the electron transport chain (ETC) and oxidative phosphorylation for the final production of ATP.
1524:) during development. Maintenance of cell division potential over successive generations depends on the avoidance and the accurate repair of cellular damage, particularly
962:
which states that all living things are made up of cells and that cells are organisms' functional and structural units. This was ultimately concluded by plant scientist
3613:
1949:
1019:, are used to label a specific component of the cell. Afterwards, a certain light wavelength is used to excite the fluorescent marker which can then be visualized.
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and observing a cell-like structure; however, the cells were dead. They gave no indication to the actual overall components of a cell. A few years later, in 1674,
1150:
that holds all the genetic material in a circular structure. There are many processes that occur in prokaryotic cells that allow them to survive. In prokaryotes,
1218:: This structure is within the nucleus, usually dense and spherical. It is the site of ribosomal RNA (rRNA) synthesis, which is needed for ribosomal assembly.
1863:
3295:
Perrone, Lorena; Squillaro, Tiziana; Napolitano, Filomena; Terracciano, Chiara; Sampaolo, Simone; Melone, Mariarosa Anna
Beatrice (13 August 2019).
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3297:"The Autophagy Signaling Pathway: A Potential Multifunctional Therapeutic Target of Curcumin in Neurological and Neuromuscular Diseases"
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3436:(2013). "Chapter 2. Technologies for Detecting Metals in Single Cells. Section 4. Intrinsic X-Ray Fluorescence". In Bani, Lucia (ed.).
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Paez-Espino D, Eloe-Fadrosh EA, Pavlopoulos GA, Thomas AD, Huntemann M, Mikhailova N, Rubin E, Ivanova NN, Kyrpides NC (August 2016).
1389:: Can be of different types such as voltage or ligand gated ion channels. They allow for the outflow and inflow of molecules and ions.
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Avise JC. Perspective: The evolutionary biology of aging, sexual reproduction, and DNA repair. Evolution. 1993 Oct;47(5):1293-1301.
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to ultimately form a proton gradient across the inner mitochondrial membrane. This gradient can then drive the production of ATP and
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Bernstein C, Bernstein H, Payne C. Cell immortality: maintenance of cell division potential. Prog Mol
Subcell Biol. 2000;24:23-50.
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1488:. When the cell has completed its growth process and if it is found to be damaged or altered, it undergoes cell death, either by
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1984:
Alberts, Bruce; Johnson, Alexander D.; Morgan, David; Raff, Martin; Roberts, Keith; Walter, Peter (2015). "Cells and genomes".
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Cell biology research looks at different ways to culture and manipulate cells outside of a living body to further research in
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1092:. Prokaryotic cells are much smaller than eukaryotic cells, making them the smallest form of life. Prokaryotic cells include
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The ancestry of each present day cell presumably traces back, in an unbroken lineage for over 3 billion years to the
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1025:: Uses the optical aspect of light to represent the solid, liquid, and gas-phase changes as brightness differences.
978:
are not considered in cell biology – they lack the characteristics of a living cell and instead are studied in the
1031:: Combines fluorescence microscopy with imaging by focusing light and snap shooting instances to form a 3-D image.
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Griffiths, Anthony J.F.; Miller, Jeffrey H.; Suzuki, David T.; Lewontin, Richard C.; Gelbart, William M. (2000).
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further contributed to the cell theory, adding that all cells come from the division of pre-existing cells.
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but multi-generational cell lineages. The immortality of a cell lineage depends on the maintenance of
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Pelley, John W. (2007), "Citric Acid Cycle, Electron
Transport Chain, and Oxidative Phosphorylation",
2404:
Elosegui-Artola A, Andreu I, Beedle AE, Lezamiz A, Uroz M, Kosmalska AJ, et al. (November 2017).
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1607:. Cytopathology is generally used on samples of free cells or tissue fragments, in contrast to the
1588:: the two cells enter a resting stage where they do their job without actively preparing to divide.
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which is simply the exact opposite of respiration as it ultimately produces molecules of glucose.
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1290:: Function to produce spindle fibers which are used to separate chromosomes during cell division.
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1049:: This process requires breaking up the cell using high temperature or sonification followed by
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Giacomello, Marta; Pyakurel, Aswin; Glytsou, Christina; Scorrano, Luca (18 February 2020).
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Nelson, Daniel (22 June 2018). "The
Difference Between Eukaryotic And Prokaryotic Cells".
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The scientific branch that studies and diagnoses diseases on the cellular level is called
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3582:"Francis Harry Compton Crick (1916–2004)" by A. Andrei at the Embryo Project Encyclopedia
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potential. This potential may be lost in any particular lineage because of cell damage,
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in 1838, who viewed live cells in plant and animal tissue, respectively. 19 years later,
888:, and other diseases. Research in cell biology is interconnected to other fields such as
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3124:"DNA damage and decisions: CtIP coordinates DNA repair and cell cycle checkpoints"
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1264:: Functions to translate RNA to protein. it serves as a site of protein synthesis.
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1544:, provide an opportunity for effective repair of DNA damages in the germ line by
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referred to the building blocks of all living organisms as "cells" (published in
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1084:. Prokaryotic cells are distinguished from eukaryotic cells by the absence of a
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4785:
4595:
4106:
3887:
3829:
3713:
3371:
3123:
3068:
2714:
2422:
2406:"Force Triggers YAP Nuclear Entry by Regulating Transport across Nuclear Pores"
2405:
2386:
1911:
1897:
1752:
1727:
1612:
1367:
1362:
1350:
1107:
1050:
971:
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294:
31:
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1461:
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7016:
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5503:
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4016:
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3379:
3322:
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3204:
3147:
3092:
3030:
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2602:
2471:"Endoplasmic Reticulum (Rough and Smooth) | British Society for Cell Biology"
2363:
2238:
2083:
1836:
1777:
1772:
1604:
1598:
1513:
1469:
1450:
1430:
1294:
Eukaryotic cells may also be composed of the following molecular components:
1273:
1053:
to separate the parts of the cell allowing for them to be studied separately.
995:
909:
562:
457:
347:
324:
319:
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3100:
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2256:
2136:
1855:
1717:
1311:: They help to propel substances and can also be used for sensory purposes.
1267:
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1227:
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1085:
1006:
979:
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3781:
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2820:
1954:
1782:
1737:
1509:
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1386:
959:
881:
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622:
577:
522:
462:
447:
442:
407:
367:
259:
249:
244:
164:
110:
6544:
2128:
2102:
7347:
6428:
6423:
6368:
6353:
6293:
6258:
6253:
6223:
6183:
6163:
6095:
6075:
5824:
5651:
5543:
5488:
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5397:
5357:
5262:
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5112:
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4945:
4940:
4885:
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4775:
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4700:
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4406:
4399:
4384:
4379:
4374:
4329:
4275:
4265:
4215:
4210:
4200:
3440:. Metal Ions in Life Sciences. Vol. 12. Springer. pp. 15–40.
3313:
3180:
2092:. Vol. 7 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 710.
1757:
1687:
1541:
1533:
1454:
1442:
1434:
1425:
1420:
1302:
1245:
1205:
1077:
1063:
999:
905:
869:
857:
849:
841:
833:
642:
637:
582:
567:
507:
472:
467:
437:
397:
377:
309:
289:
149:
144:
30:
This article is about the branch of biology. For cells themselves, see
4503:
3196:
1905:
1634:
1532:
depends on the effectiveness of processes for avoiding DNA damage and
7409:
6711:
6576:
6343:
6328:
6313:
6263:
6238:
5981:
5782:
5694:
5576:
5508:
5480:
5387:
5201:
5190:
5186:
5154:
4860:
4845:
4830:
4780:
4755:
4487:
4449:
4422:
4394:
4287:
4270:
4205:
4178:
4110:
3294:
1873:
1662:
1616:
1608:
1576:: in preparation for cell division, new organelles and proteins form.
1537:
1521:
1489:
1298:
1287:
1281:
1255:
1215:
1173:
1139:
1138:
than gram-negative bacteria. Bacterial structural features include a
1089:
1081:
1040:
845:
682:
557:
542:
527:
477:
452:
207:
120:
115:
3022:
2230:
7431:
6497:
6433:
6358:
6288:
6218:
6213:
6040:
5974:
5571:
5528:
5427:
5299:
5174:
5150:
4950:
4875:
4805:
4735:
4730:
4555:
4432:
4188:
4173:
4168:
3179:
Glick, Danielle; Barth, Sandra; Macleod, Kay F. (3 February 2010).
1959:
1891:
1529:
1496:, to eliminate the threat it can cause to the organism's survival.
1493:
1261:
1251:
1147:
1143:
1093:
983:
889:
755:
647:
572:
502:
432:
427:
254:
223:
202:
2403:
1480:, by a series of signaling factors and complexes such as cyclins,
1178:
1068:
7451:
6448:
6178:
6050:
5967:
5812:
5787:
5772:
5754:
5601:
5566:
5407:
5402:
5329:
5324:
5304:
5097:
5082:
5033:
4965:
4695:
4565:
4454:
4354:
4307:
4183:
3066:
2805:"Cell cycle control, checkpoint mechanisms, and genotoxic stress"
1465:
1200:
and genetic information storage for the cell, containing all the
1097:
975:
829:
825:
662:
392:
264:
211:
197:
47:
1582:: cytokinesis occurs, resulting in two identical daughter cells.
6115:
5646:
5631:
5591:
5586:
5460:
5382:
5377:
5287:
4630:
4297:
3563:
2077:
1308:
1197:
921:
885:
329:
219:
2803:
Shackelford, R E; Kaufmann, W K; Paules, R S (February 1999).
1988:(6th ed.). New York, NY: Garland Science. pp. 1–42.
5777:
5676:
5608:
5596:
5334:
5282:
2384:
2028:
2026:
2024:
1115:
947:
215:
55:
7426:
5656:
5641:
5581:
5257:
5146:
5102:
3520:
2270:
Doble, Mukesh; Gummadi, Sathyanarayana N. (5 August 2010).
1499:
135:
5002:
2021:
946:
was the first to analyze live cells in his examination of
7436:
5435:
4427:
2802:
2493:"Biology4Kids.com: Cell Structure: Endoplasmic Reticulum"
1564:: the cell grows in size and its contents are replicated.
1485:
1201:
2518:"Powerhouse of the cell has self-preservation mechanism"
1983:
1950:
Institute of
Molecular and Cell Biology (disambiguation)
5319:
4104:
2950:"A Long Twentieth Century of the Cell Cycle and Beyond"
3621:
3236:
Yoshii, Saori R.; Mizushima, Noboru (28 August 2017).
2686:"What Are the Main Functions of Cilia & Flagella?"
848:
and has many subtopics which may include the study of
3069:"The cell biology of mitochondrial membrane dynamics"
3062:
3060:
3058:
2320:
Levetin, Estelle; McMahon, Karen (16 October 2014).
1887:
1520:
as occurs in nerve cells, or programmed cell death (
1076:
There are two fundamental classifications of cells:
3005:Cimprich, Karlene A.; Cortez, David (August 2008).
1635:
Cell cycle checkpoints and DNA damage repair system
1134:composition. Gram-positive bacteria have a thicker
3055:
1647:
1110:. Bacteria, the most prominent type, have several
3178:
3007:"ATR: an essential regulator of genome integrity"
1570:: the cell replicates each of the 46 chromosomes.
1284:, concentration gradients, and membrane channels.
7525:
3354:Levine, Beth; Kroemer, Guido (11 January 2008).
2898:"The Cell Cycle - Phases - Mitosis - Regulation"
2858:
2856:
2391:An Introduction to Genetic Analysis. 7th Edition
2297:Cell Physiology Sourcebook: A Molecular Approach
1167:
868:. The study of cells is performed using several
3235:
3122:You, Zhongsheng; Bailis, Julie M. (July 2010).
3181:"Autophagy: cellular and molecular mechanisms"
3004:
2319:
1305:and is a mixture of DNA with various proteins.
6560:
5018:
4519:
4090:
3607:
3353:
2853:
2748:"Cell Signaling by Receptor Tyrosine Kinases"
2274:. New Delhi: Prentice-Hall of India Pvt.Ltd.
1460:The cell cycle is divided into four distinct
1146:for the translation of RNA to protein, and a
794:
3493:Cell and Molecular Biology by Karp 5th Ed.,
2745:
2712:
2397:
2269:
1445:and development which involves cell growth,
3432:
3242:International Journal of Molecular Sciences
2672:The Cell: A Molecular Approach. 2nd Edition
2580:The Cell: A Molecular Approach. 2nd Edition
2213:McKinnon, Katherine M. (21 February 2018).
2200:The Cell: A Molecular Approach. 2nd Edition
1977:
1196:: The nucleus of the cell functions as the
6567:
6553:
5025:
5011:
4526:
4512:
4097:
4083:
3614:
3600:
3356:"Autophagy in the Pathogenesis of Disease"
1675:
1528:. In sexual organisms, continuity of the
1189:are composed of the following organelles:
801:
787:
6574:
4992:Timeline of biology and organic chemistry
3387:
3330:
3312:
3271:
3253:
3212:
3155:
3121:
3038:
2965:
2836:
2763:
2421:
2294:
2246:
1409:
1162:
2715:"Biochemistry, Electron Transport Chain"
2713:Ahmad, Maria; Kahwaji, Chadi I. (2019),
2212:
2071:
2069:
1835:is best known for his 1837 discovery of
1500:Cell mortality, cell lineage immortality
1424:
1414:
1177:
1067:
4533:
2595:Lysosomes: some pathologic implications
2592:
2157:
1102:Animalia, Plantae, Fungi, and Protista.
14:
7526:
2665:
2640:
2573:
2541:
2353:
2349:
2347:
2345:
2343:
2193:
920:Cells were first seen in 17th-century
6548:
5006:
4987:Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine
4507:
4078:
3595:
3073:Nature Reviews Molecular Cell Biology
3011:Nature Reviews Molecular Cell Biology
2947:
2746:Schlessinger, Joseph (October 2000).
2708:
2706:
2189:
2187:
2185:
2183:
2181:
2179:
2096:
2075:
2066:
2057:
2032:
2008:
1920:The American Society for Cell Biology
1349:. Metabolism in plant cells includes
1333:. These products are involved in the
7482:
6519:
3587:"Biology Resource By Professor Lin."
3238:"Monitoring and Measuring Autophagy"
2162:. Rastogi Publications. p. 11.
2037:. Rastogi Publications. p. 11.
1551:
1536:that do occur. Sexual processes in
1508:. It is not actually cells that are
1122:. Bacteria can be classed as either
27:Branch of biology that studies cells
7506:
6529:
2490:
2340:
24:
5446:Evolutionary developmental biology
2885:10.1111/j.1558-5646.1993.tb02155.x
2703:
2552:10.1016/b978-0-323-03410-4.50013-4
2544:Elsevier's Integrated Biochemistry
2176:
1631:that may lead to cervical cancer.
1315:
25:
7550:
5471:Post-transcriptional modification
3532:
2809:Environmental Health Perspectives
1872:, Nobel Prize winner for work on
1356:
7505:
7493:
7481:
7470:
7469:
6528:
6518:
6509:
6508:
6496:
5847:
4057:
4056:
4045:
4044:
3562:
3508: This article incorporates
3503:
2299:(3rd ed.). Academic Press.
2058:Hooke, Robert (September 1665).
1904:
1890:
1862:
1844:
1824:
1035:Transmission electron microscopy
768:
767:
754:
54:
3984:Biological techniques and tools
3404:
3347:
3288:
3229:
3172:
3115:
2998:
2941:
2915:
2890:
2873:
2796:
2739:
2678:
2659:
2634:
2609:
2586:
2567:
2535:
2510:
2484:
2463:
2438:
2378:
2313:
2288:
2263:
2219:Current Protocols in Immunology
2158:Lavanya, P. (1 December 2005).
2076:Chubb, Gilbert Charles (1911).
1648:Mitochondrial membrane dynamics
1476:The cell cycle is regulated in
1072:A drawing of a prokaryotic cell
3676:Genetically modified organisms
2948:Nurse, Paul (7 January 2000).
2668:"Transport of Small Molecules"
2643:The Cell: A Molecular Approach
2295:Kaneshiro, Edna (2 May 2001).
2206:
2151:
2051:
2002:
1015:: Fluorescent markers such as
938:) after looking at a piece of
13:
1:
6834:Interface and colloid science
6588:Glossary of chemical formulae
4261:Microtubule organizing center
3426:
2967:10.1016/S0092-8674(00)81684-0
2765:10.1016/s0092-8674(00)00114-8
2215:"Flow Cytometry: An Overview"
2033:Gupta, P. (1 December 2005).
1986:Molecular Biology of the Cell
1629:precancerous cervical lesions
1168:Structure of eukaryotic cells
1142:that helps the cell to move,
1057:
989:
950:. Many years later, in 1831,
3643:History of molecular biology
2666:Cooper, Geoffrey M. (2000).
2574:Cooper, Geoffrey M. (2000).
2546:, Elsevier, pp. 55–63,
2326:. McGraw Hill. p. 135.
2194:Cooper, Geoffrey M. (2000).
1670:chaperone-mediated autophagy
1656:
1592:
1106:They both reproduce through
7:
7111:Bioorganometallic chemistry
6598:List of inorganic compounds
5032:
3446:10.1007/978-94-007-5561-1_2
2868:10.1007/978-3-662-06227-2_2
2641:Cooper, Geoffrey M (2000).
2105:"Uncovering Earth's virome"
1883:
1534:repairing those DNA damages
1182:A diagram of an animal cell
958:. All of this preceded the
10:
7555:
7037:Dynamic covalent chemistry
7008:Enantioselective synthesis
6988:Physical organic chemistry
6941:Organolanthanide chemistry
3919:polyclonal B cell response
3372:10.1016/j.cell.2007.12.018
2423:10.1016/j.cell.2017.10.008
2160:Cell and Molecular Biology
2035:Cell and Molecular Biology
1660:
1596:
1418:
1393:G-protein coupled receptor
1360:
1222:Endoplasmic reticulum (ER)
1171:
1061:
924:with the invention of the
915:
29:
7465:
7368:
7129:
7045:
6966:
6916:
6792:
6735:
6626:Electroanalytical methods
6611:
6583:
6490:
6459:
6021:
5991:
5957:Polymerase chain reaction
5917:Green fluorescent protein
5867:
5856:
5845:
5753:
5685:
5617:
5557:
5494:Earliest known life forms
5479:
5426:
5343:
5250:
5090:
5081:
5040:
4974:
4541:
4480:
4415:
4340:
4231:
4117:
4040:
4022:Polymerase chain reaction
3982:
3934:
3863:
3795:
3747:
3694:
3651:
3633:
3553:Resources in your library
3140:10.1016/j.tcb.2010.04.002
3085:10.1038/s41580-020-0210-7
2721:, StatPearls Publishing,
2323:Ebook: Plants and Society
1399:Receptor tyrosine kinases
1347:oxidative phosphorylation
1204:organized in the form of
1023:Phase-contrast microscopy
707:List of unsolved problems
7381:Nobel Prize in Chemistry
7297:Supramolecular chemistry
6936:Organometallic chemistry
4256:Prokaryotic cytoskeleton
3438:Metallomics and the Cell
3185:The Journal of Pathology
2364:10.31988/scitrends.20655
1970:
1798:Matthias Jakob Schleiden
1546:homologous recombination
1518:terminal differentiation
1335:electron transport chain
1329:to produce NADH and FADH
1208:. It is surrounded by a
1088:or other membrane-bound
702:List of research methods
7319:Combinatorial chemistry
7230:Food physical chemistry
7193:Environmental chemistry
7077:Bioorthogonal chemistry
7003:Retrosynthetic analysis
6824:Chemical thermodynamics
6807:Spectroelectrochemistry
6750:Computational chemistry
6009:species discovery curve
5137:Response to environment
3638:Outline of cell biology
2621:Encyclopedia Britannica
2491:Studios, Andrew Rader.
2387:"Bacterial conjugation"
2272:Biochemical Engineering
2196:"Tools of Cell Biology"
2089:Encyclopædia Britannica
1965:Outline of cell biology
1833:Jan Evangelista Purkyně
1813:Jan Evangelista Purkyně
1676:Notable cell biologists
1482:cyclin-dependent kinase
1013:Fluorescence microscopy
175:Response to environment
7391:of element discoveries
7237:Agricultural chemistry
7225:Carbohydrate chemistry
7116:Bioinorganic chemistry
6981:Alkane stereochemistry
6926:Coordination chemistry
6755:Mathematical chemistry
6621:Instrumental chemistry
6482:Plant morphology terms
6086:Biological engineering
5768:Biological interaction
4601:Biological engineering
3510:public domain material
3128:Trends in Cell Biology
1478:cell cycle checkpoints
1437:
1410:Growth and development
1183:
1163:Structure and function
1073:
692:List of biology awards
300:Biological engineering
7386:Timeline of chemistry
7283:Post-mortem chemistry
7268:Clandestine chemistry
7198:Atmospheric chemistry
7121:Biophysical chemistry
6953:Solid-state chemistry
6903:Equilibrium chemistry
6812:Photoelectrochemistry
6169:Developmental biology
6144:Computational biology
6124:Cellular microbiology
5466:Mendelian inheritance
5378:Energy transformation
4686:Developmental biology
4661:Computational biology
4641:Cellular microbiology
4246:Intermediate filament
4139:Endoplasmic reticulum
4002:In situ hybridization
3924:somatic hypermutation
3914:monoclonal antibodies
3749:Developmental biology
3434:Penner-Hahn, James E.
2617:"Ribosome | cytology"
2576:"The Golgi Apparatus"
1945:Cellular microbiology
1788:Edmund Beecher Wilson
1733:Anton van Leeuwenhoek
1428:
1415:Eukaryotic cell cycle
1361:Further information:
1181:
1071:
966:and animal scientist
944:Anton Van Leeuwenhoek
383:Developmental biology
358:Computational biology
338:Cellular microbiology
7376:History of chemistry
7331:Chemical engineering
7106:Bioorganic chemistry
6856:Structural chemistry
6593:List of biomolecules
6389:Reproductive biology
6274:Mathematical biology
6199:Evolutionary biology
6149:Conservation biology
5962:Two-hybrid screening
5932:Protein purification
5763:Biogeochemical cycle
5725:Internal environment
5373:Cellular respiration
4906:Reproductive biology
4791:Mathematical biology
4716:Evolutionary biology
4666:Conservation biology
4493:Extracellular matrix
3964:Molecular biologists
3739:Clone (cell biology)
3571:at Wikimedia Commons
3255:10.3390/ijms18091865
2923:"What is Pathology?"
2821:10.1289/ehp.99107s15
2497:www.biology4kids.com
2416:(6): 1397–1410.e14.
1854:, discoverer of the
1683:Jean Baptiste Carnoy
1453:, regeneration, and
1323:cellular respiration
1114:, although most are
902:medical microbiology
725:Agricultural science
603:Reproductive biology
488:Mathematical biology
413:Evolutionary biology
363:Conservation biology
7399:The central science
7353:Ceramic engineering
7278:Forensic toxicology
7251:Chemistry education
7149:Radiation chemistry
7131:Interdisciplinarity
7084:Medicinal chemistry
7022:Fullerene chemistry
6898:Microwave chemistry
6767:Molecular mechanics
6762:Molecular modelling
6174:Ecological genetics
5887:Gel electrophoresis
5877:Genetic engineering
5830:Population dynamics
5740:Reproductive system
4691:Ecological genetics
4535:Branches of biology
4196:Cytoplasmic granule
3949:Biochemistry topics
3850:Population genetics
3825:Genetic engineering
3734:Signal transduction
3671:Genetic engineering
3527:on 8 December 2009.
2225:(1): 5.1.1–5.1.11.
2129:10.1038/nature19094
2121:2016Natur.536..425P
1940:Cellular adaptation
1380:autocrine signaling
1136:peptidoglycan layer
1029:Confocal microscopy
926:compound microscope
730:Biomedical sciences
388:Ecological genetics
42:Part of a series on
7442:Chemical substance
7304:Chemical synthesis
7273:Forensic chemistry
7154:Actinide chemistry
7096:Clinical chemistry
6777:Molecular geometry
6772:Molecular dynamics
6727:Elemental analysis
6680:Separation process
6503:Biology portal
6399:Structural biology
6384:Relational biology
6209:Generative biology
6204:Freshwater biology
6004:mark and recapture
5952:Restriction enzyme
5745:Respiratory system
5700:Circulatory system
5627:Epidermis (botany)
4982:History of biology
4916:Structural biology
4901:Relational biology
4726:Generative biology
4721:Freshwater biology
4221:Weibel–Palade body
4105:Structures of the
3840:Molecular genetics
3412:"Research - IIMCB"
3314:10.3390/nu11081881
1763:George Emil Palade
1703:Geoffrey M. Cooper
1438:
1403:MAP kinase pathway
1184:
1074:
1047:Cell fractionation
964:Matthias Schleiden
894:molecular genetics
878:cell fractionation
854:cell communication
836:, and behavior of
761:Biology portal
613:Structural biology
598:Relational biology
423:Generative biology
418:Freshwater biology
7539:Molecular biology
7521:
7520:
7457:Quantum mechanics
7422:Chemical compound
7405:Chemical reaction
7343:Materials science
7261:General chemistry
7256:Amateur chemistry
7184:Photogeochemistry
7169:Stellar chemistry
7139:Nuclear chemistry
7060:Molecular biology
7027:Polymer chemistry
6998:Organic synthesis
6993:Organic reactions
6958:Ceramic chemistry
6948:Cluster chemistry
6878:Chemical kinetics
6866:Molecular physics
6745:Quantum chemistry
6658:Mass spectrometry
6542:
6541:
6404:Synthetic biology
6284:Molecular biology
6139:Cognitive biology
6017:
6016:
5843:
5842:
5534:Natural selection
5315:Organic compounds
5212:Scientific method
5202:Emergent property
5143:Hierarchy of life
5113:Energy processing
5000:
4999:
4921:Synthetic biology
4801:Molecular biology
4656:Cognitive biology
4501:
4500:
4281:Spindle pole body
4072:
4071:
4051:Molecular biology
3959:Molecular biology
3936:Molecular biology
3820:Genetic disorders
3623:Molecular biology
3567:Media related to
3539:Library resources
3474:978-94-007-5561-1
3455:978-94-007-5560-4
3197:10.1002/path.2697
2902:TeachMePhysiology
2815:(suppl 1): 5–24.
2333:978-0-07-717206-0
2017:. www.nature.com.
2009:Bisceglia, Nick.
1793:Kenneth R. Miller
1748:Peter D. Mitchell
1723:H. Robert Horvitz
1708:Christian de Duve
1552:Cell cycle phases
1130:depending on the
898:molecular biology
828:that studies the
824:) is a branch of
811:
810:
735:Health technology
618:Synthetic biology
498:Molecular biology
353:Cognitive biology
150:Energy processing
16:(Redirected from
7546:
7509:
7508:
7497:
7485:
7484:
7473:
7472:
7417:Chemical element
7072:Chemical biology
6931:Magnetochemistry
6908:Mechanochemistry
6861:Chemical physics
6802:Electrochemistry
6707:Characterization
6569:
6562:
6555:
6546:
6545:
6532:
6531:
6522:
6521:
6512:
6511:
6505:
6501:
6500:
6477:Ecological terms
6129:Chemical biology
5992:Field techniques
5865:
5864:
5851:
5710:Digestive system
5705:Endocrine system
5278:Chemical element
5237:Biology journals
5133:Self-replication
5088:
5087:
5027:
5020:
5013:
5004:
5003:
4646:Chemical biology
4528:
4521:
4514:
4505:
4504:
4099:
4092:
4085:
4076:
4075:
4060:
4059:
4048:
4047:
3805:Applied genetics
3729:Membrane biology
3616:
3609:
3602:
3593:
3592:
3566:
3528:
3523:. Archived from
3507:
3506:
3468:electronic-book
3467:
3420:
3419:
3416:www.iimcb.gov.pl
3408:
3402:
3401:
3391:
3351:
3345:
3344:
3334:
3316:
3292:
3286:
3285:
3275:
3257:
3233:
3227:
3226:
3216:
3176:
3170:
3169:
3159:
3119:
3113:
3112:
3064:
3053:
3052:
3042:
3002:
2996:
2995:
2969:
2945:
2939:
2938:
2936:
2934:
2927:News-Medical.net
2919:
2913:
2912:
2910:
2908:
2894:
2888:
2887:. PMID 28564887.
2877:
2871:
2870:. PMID 10547857.
2860:
2851:
2850:
2840:
2800:
2794:
2793:
2767:
2743:
2737:
2736:
2735:
2733:
2710:
2701:
2700:
2698:
2696:
2682:
2676:
2675:
2663:
2657:
2656:
2638:
2632:
2631:
2629:
2627:
2613:
2607:
2606:
2590:
2584:
2583:
2571:
2565:
2564:
2539:
2533:
2532:
2530:
2528:
2514:
2508:
2507:
2505:
2503:
2488:
2482:
2481:
2479:
2477:
2467:
2461:
2460:
2458:
2456:
2442:
2436:
2435:
2425:
2401:
2395:
2394:
2382:
2376:
2375:
2351:
2338:
2337:
2317:
2311:
2310:
2292:
2286:
2285:
2267:
2261:
2260:
2250:
2210:
2204:
2203:
2191:
2174:
2173:
2155:
2149:
2148:
2115:(7617): 425–30.
2100:
2094:
2093:
2081:
2079:"Cytology"
2073:
2064:
2063:
2055:
2049:
2048:
2030:
2019:
2018:
2006:
2000:
1999:
1981:
1914:
1909:
1908:
1900:
1895:
1894:
1870:Yoshinori Ohsumi
1866:
1848:
1831:Czech anatomist
1828:
1808:Yoshinori Ohsumi
1743:Marta Miączyńska
1540:, as well as in
1344:
1301:: This makes up
1278:osmotic pressure
1210:nuclear envelope
1187:Eukaryotic cells
1112:different shapes
866:cell composition
846:eukaryotic cells
818:cellular biology
803:
796:
789:
776:
771:
770:
763:
759:
758:
697:List of journals
343:Chemical biology
58:
39:
38:
21:
7554:
7553:
7549:
7548:
7547:
7545:
7544:
7543:
7524:
7523:
7522:
7517:
7461:
7364:
7358:Polymer science
7314:Click chemistry
7309:Green chemistry
7203:Ocean chemistry
7179:Biogeochemistry
7125:
7041:
7013:Total synthesis
6976:Stereochemistry
6962:
6912:
6829:Surface science
6819:Thermochemistry
6788:
6731:
6702:Crystallography
6607:
6579:
6573:
6543:
6538:
6495:
6494:
6486:
6472:Botanical terms
6455:
6454:
6453:
6414:Systems biology
6379:Quantum biology
6013:
5987:
5869:
5859:
5852:
5839:
5749:
5730:Muscular system
5687:
5681:
5672:Vascular tissue
5619:
5613:
5553:
5514:History of life
5475:
5456:Gene regulation
5451:Gene expression
5422:
5339:
5246:
5077:
5036:
5031:
5001:
4996:
4970:
4931:Systems biology
4896:Quantum biology
4537:
4532:
4502:
4497:
4476:
4411:
4336:
4227:
4144:Golgi apparatus
4120:
4113:
4103:
4073:
4068:
4036:
3997:Electrophoresis
3978:
3930:
3893:Microbiologists
3859:
3791:
3743:
3690:
3647:
3629:
3620:
3559:
3558:
3557:
3547:
3546:
3542:
3535:
3513:
3504:
3456:
3429:
3424:
3423:
3410:
3409:
3405:
3352:
3348:
3293:
3289:
3234:
3230:
3177:
3173:
3120:
3116:
3065:
3056:
3023:10.1038/nrm2450
3003:
2999:
2946:
2942:
2932:
2930:
2921:
2920:
2916:
2906:
2904:
2896:
2895:
2891:
2878:
2874:
2861:
2854:
2801:
2797:
2744:
2740:
2731:
2729:
2711:
2704:
2694:
2692:
2684:
2683:
2679:
2664:
2660:
2653:
2639:
2635:
2625:
2623:
2615:
2614:
2610:
2591:
2587:
2572:
2568:
2562:
2540:
2536:
2526:
2524:
2516:
2515:
2511:
2501:
2499:
2489:
2485:
2475:
2473:
2469:
2468:
2464:
2454:
2452:
2444:
2443:
2439:
2402:
2398:
2383:
2379:
2352:
2341:
2334:
2318:
2314:
2307:
2293:
2289:
2282:
2268:
2264:
2231:10.1002/cpim.40
2211:
2207:
2192:
2177:
2170:
2156:
2152:
2101:
2097:
2074:
2067:
2056:
2052:
2045:
2031:
2022:
2007:
2003:
1996:
1982:
1978:
1973:
1935:Cell physiology
1930:Cell disruption
1925:Cell biophysics
1910:
1903:
1896:
1889:
1886:
1881:
1880:
1879:
1876:
1867:
1858:
1852:Theodor Schwann
1849:
1840:
1829:
1817:
1803:Theodor Schwann
1768:Keith R. Porter
1713:Henri Dutrochet
1678:
1665:
1659:
1650:
1637:
1625:cervical cancer
1623:used to detect
1601:
1595:
1554:
1502:
1447:DNA replication
1429:The process of
1423:
1417:
1412:
1365:
1359:
1342:
1338:
1332:
1318:
1316:Cell metabolism
1238:Golgi apparatus
1176:
1170:
1165:
1066:
1060:
992:
968:Theodor Schwann
954:discovered the
918:
884:fields such as
850:cell metabolism
807:
766:
753:
752:
745:
744:
720:
712:
711:
678:
670:
669:
668:
667:
628:Systems biology
593:Quantum biology
238:
230:
229:
194:
179:
141:
130:
106:
98:
63:
61:Science of life
35:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
7552:
7542:
7541:
7536:
7519:
7518:
7516:
7515:
7503:
7491:
7479:
7466:
7463:
7462:
7460:
7459:
7454:
7449:
7444:
7439:
7434:
7429:
7424:
7419:
7414:
7413:
7412:
7402:
7395:
7394:
7393:
7383:
7378:
7372:
7370:
7366:
7365:
7363:
7362:
7361:
7360:
7355:
7350:
7340:
7339:
7338:
7328:
7327:
7326:
7321:
7316:
7311:
7301:
7300:
7299:
7288:
7287:
7286:
7285:
7280:
7270:
7265:
7264:
7263:
7258:
7247:
7246:
7245:
7244:
7242:Soil chemistry
7234:
7233:
7232:
7227:
7220:Food chemistry
7217:
7215:Carbochemistry
7212:
7210:Clay chemistry
7207:
7206:
7205:
7200:
7189:
7188:
7187:
7186:
7181:
7171:
7165:Astrochemistry
7161:Cosmochemistry
7158:
7157:
7156:
7151:
7146:
7144:Radiochemistry
7135:
7133:
7127:
7126:
7124:
7123:
7118:
7113:
7108:
7103:
7101:Neurochemistry
7098:
7093:
7092:
7091:
7081:
7080:
7079:
7069:
7068:
7067:
7062:
7051:
7049:
7043:
7042:
7040:
7039:
7034:
7032:Petrochemistry
7029:
7024:
7019:
7010:
7005:
7000:
6995:
6990:
6985:
6984:
6983:
6972:
6970:
6964:
6963:
6961:
6960:
6955:
6950:
6945:
6944:
6943:
6933:
6928:
6922:
6920:
6914:
6913:
6911:
6910:
6905:
6900:
6895:
6893:Spin chemistry
6890:
6888:Photochemistry
6885:
6880:
6875:
6873:Femtochemistry
6870:
6869:
6868:
6858:
6853:
6848:
6843:
6842:
6841:
6831:
6826:
6821:
6816:
6815:
6814:
6809:
6798:
6796:
6790:
6789:
6787:
6786:
6785:
6784:
6774:
6769:
6764:
6759:
6758:
6757:
6747:
6741:
6739:
6733:
6732:
6730:
6729:
6724:
6719:
6714:
6709:
6704:
6699:
6698:
6697:
6692:
6685:Chromatography
6682:
6677:
6676:
6675:
6670:
6665:
6655:
6654:
6653:
6648:
6643:
6638:
6628:
6623:
6617:
6615:
6609:
6608:
6606:
6605:
6603:Periodic table
6600:
6595:
6590:
6584:
6581:
6580:
6572:
6571:
6564:
6557:
6549:
6540:
6539:
6537:
6536:
6526:
6516:
6506:
6491:
6488:
6487:
6485:
6484:
6479:
6474:
6469:
6463:
6461:
6457:
6456:
6452:
6451:
6446:
6441:
6436:
6431:
6426:
6421:
6416:
6411:
6406:
6401:
6396:
6391:
6386:
6381:
6376:
6371:
6366:
6361:
6356:
6351:
6346:
6341:
6336:
6331:
6326:
6321:
6316:
6311:
6306:
6301:
6296:
6291:
6286:
6281:
6276:
6271:
6269:Marine biology
6266:
6261:
6256:
6251:
6246:
6241:
6236:
6231:
6226:
6221:
6216:
6211:
6206:
6201:
6196:
6191:
6186:
6181:
6176:
6171:
6166:
6161:
6156:
6151:
6146:
6141:
6136:
6131:
6126:
6121:
6118:
6113:
6108:
6103:
6098:
6093:
6088:
6083:
6081:Bioinformatics
6078:
6073:
6068:
6063:
6058:
6053:
6048:
6043:
6038:
6033:
6027:
6026:
6025:
6023:
6019:
6018:
6015:
6014:
6012:
6011:
6006:
6001:
5995:
5993:
5989:
5988:
5986:
5985:
5978:
5971:
5964:
5959:
5954:
5949:
5944:
5939:
5934:
5929:
5924:
5919:
5914:
5912:DNA microarray
5909:
5907:DNA sequencing
5904:
5899:
5897:Centrifugation
5894:
5892:Chromatography
5889:
5884:
5882:Transformation
5879:
5873:
5871:
5862:
5854:
5853:
5846:
5844:
5841:
5840:
5838:
5837:
5832:
5827:
5822:
5821:
5820:
5810:
5805:
5800:
5795:
5793:Climate change
5790:
5785:
5780:
5775:
5770:
5765:
5759:
5757:
5751:
5750:
5748:
5747:
5742:
5737:
5735:Nervous system
5732:
5727:
5722:
5717:
5712:
5707:
5702:
5697:
5691:
5689:
5683:
5682:
5680:
5679:
5674:
5669:
5667:Vascular plant
5664:
5659:
5654:
5649:
5644:
5639:
5634:
5629:
5623:
5621:
5615:
5614:
5612:
5611:
5606:
5605:
5604:
5599:
5594:
5589:
5584:
5574:
5569:
5563:
5561:
5555:
5554:
5552:
5551:
5546:
5541:
5536:
5531:
5526:
5524:Microevolution
5521:
5519:Macroevolution
5516:
5511:
5506:
5501:
5496:
5491:
5485:
5483:
5477:
5476:
5474:
5473:
5468:
5463:
5458:
5453:
5448:
5443:
5438:
5432:
5430:
5424:
5423:
5421:
5420:
5415:
5413:Photosynthesis
5410:
5405:
5400:
5395:
5390:
5385:
5380:
5375:
5370:
5368:Cell signaling
5365:
5360:
5355:
5349:
5347:
5341:
5340:
5338:
5337:
5332:
5327:
5322:
5317:
5312:
5307:
5302:
5297:
5296:
5295:
5285:
5280:
5275:
5270:
5265:
5260:
5254:
5252:
5251:Chemical basis
5248:
5247:
5245:
5244:
5239:
5234:
5229:
5224:
5219:
5217:Taxonomic rank
5214:
5209:
5204:
5199:
5197:Reductionistic
5194:
5140:
5105:
5100:
5094:
5092:
5085:
5079:
5078:
5076:
5075:
5070:
5069:
5068:
5058:
5053:
5044:Introduction (
5041:
5038:
5037:
5030:
5029:
5022:
5015:
5007:
4998:
4997:
4995:
4994:
4989:
4984:
4978:
4976:
4972:
4971:
4969:
4968:
4963:
4958:
4953:
4948:
4943:
4938:
4933:
4928:
4923:
4918:
4913:
4908:
4903:
4898:
4893:
4888:
4883:
4878:
4873:
4868:
4863:
4858:
4853:
4848:
4843:
4838:
4833:
4828:
4823:
4818:
4813:
4808:
4803:
4798:
4793:
4788:
4786:Marine biology
4783:
4778:
4773:
4768:
4763:
4758:
4753:
4748:
4743:
4738:
4733:
4728:
4723:
4718:
4713:
4708:
4703:
4698:
4693:
4688:
4683:
4678:
4673:
4668:
4663:
4658:
4653:
4648:
4643:
4638:
4633:
4628:
4623:
4618:
4613:
4608:
4603:
4598:
4596:Bioinformatics
4593:
4588:
4583:
4578:
4573:
4568:
4563:
4558:
4553:
4548:
4542:
4539:
4538:
4531:
4530:
4523:
4516:
4508:
4499:
4498:
4496:
4495:
4490:
4484:
4482:
4478:
4477:
4475:
4474:
4469:
4464:
4463:
4462:
4457:
4447:
4446:
4445:
4440:
4435:
4425:
4419:
4417:
4416:Other internal
4413:
4412:
4410:
4409:
4404:
4403:
4402:
4397:
4392:
4387:
4382:
4377:
4372:
4367:
4362:
4352:
4346:
4344:
4338:
4337:
4335:
4334:
4333:
4332:
4327:
4317:
4316:
4315:
4310:
4305:
4300:
4290:
4285:
4284:
4283:
4278:
4273:
4268:
4258:
4253:
4248:
4243:
4237:
4235:
4229:
4228:
4226:
4225:
4224:
4223:
4218:
4213:
4208:
4203:
4193:
4192:
4191:
4186:
4181:
4176:
4171:
4166:
4156:
4151:
4146:
4141:
4136:
4131:
4125:
4123:
4115:
4114:
4102:
4101:
4094:
4087:
4079:
4070:
4069:
4067:
4066:
4054:
4041:
4038:
4037:
4035:
4034:
4029:
4024:
4019:
4014:
4009:
4004:
3999:
3994:
3988:
3986:
3980:
3979:
3977:
3976:
3971:
3966:
3961:
3956:
3951:
3946:
3940:
3938:
3932:
3931:
3929:
3928:
3927:
3926:
3921:
3916:
3905:
3900:
3895:
3890:
3885:
3880:
3875:
3869:
3867:
3861:
3860:
3858:
3857:
3852:
3847:
3842:
3837:
3832:
3827:
3822:
3817:
3812:
3807:
3801:
3799:
3793:
3792:
3790:
3789:
3784:
3779:
3777:Growth factors
3774:
3769:
3764:
3759:
3753:
3751:
3745:
3744:
3742:
3741:
3736:
3731:
3726:
3721:
3716:
3711:
3709:Cell signaling
3706:
3700:
3698:
3692:
3691:
3689:
3688:
3683:
3678:
3673:
3668:
3663:
3661:Bioinformatics
3657:
3655:
3649:
3648:
3646:
3645:
3640:
3634:
3631:
3630:
3619:
3618:
3611:
3604:
3596:
3590:
3589:
3584:
3579:
3572:
3556:
3555:
3549:
3548:
3537:
3536:
3534:
3533:External links
3531:
3530:
3529:
3516:Science Primer
3501:
3491:
3454:
3428:
3425:
3422:
3421:
3403:
3346:
3287:
3228:
3171:
3134:(7): 402–409.
3114:
3079:(4): 204–224.
3054:
3017:(8): 616–627.
2997:
2940:
2914:
2889:
2872:
2852:
2795:
2758:(2): 211–225.
2738:
2702:
2677:
2658:
2651:
2633:
2608:
2585:
2566:
2560:
2534:
2509:
2483:
2462:
2437:
2396:
2377:
2356:Science Trends
2339:
2332:
2312:
2306:978-0123877383
2305:
2287:
2281:978-8120330528
2280:
2262:
2205:
2175:
2169:978-8171338177
2168:
2150:
2095:
2084:Chisholm, Hugh
2065:
2050:
2044:978-8171338177
2043:
2020:
2011:"Cell Biology"
2001:
1995:978-0815344322
1994:
1975:
1974:
1972:
1969:
1968:
1967:
1962:
1957:
1952:
1947:
1942:
1937:
1932:
1927:
1922:
1916:
1915:
1912:Science portal
1901:
1898:Biology portal
1885:
1882:
1878:
1877:
1868:
1861:
1859:
1850:
1843:
1841:
1837:Purkinje cells
1830:
1823:
1820:
1819:
1818:
1816:
1815:
1810:
1805:
1800:
1795:
1790:
1785:
1780:
1775:
1770:
1765:
1760:
1755:
1753:Rudolf Virchow
1750:
1745:
1740:
1735:
1730:
1728:Marc Kirschner
1725:
1720:
1715:
1710:
1705:
1700:
1695:
1690:
1685:
1679:
1677:
1674:
1661:Main article:
1658:
1655:
1649:
1646:
1636:
1633:
1621:screening test
1613:histopathology
1597:Main article:
1594:
1591:
1590:
1589:
1583:
1577:
1571:
1565:
1553:
1550:
1506:origin of life
1501:
1498:
1433:in the animal
1419:Main article:
1416:
1413:
1411:
1408:
1407:
1406:
1396:
1390:
1368:Cell signaling
1363:Cell signaling
1358:
1357:Cell signaling
1355:
1351:photosynthesis
1340:
1330:
1317:
1314:
1313:
1312:
1306:
1292:
1291:
1285:
1271:
1265:
1259:
1249:
1235:
1225:
1219:
1213:
1172:Main article:
1169:
1166:
1164:
1161:
1152:mRNA synthesis
1108:binary fission
1062:Main article:
1059:
1056:
1055:
1054:
1051:centrifugation
1044:
1038:
1032:
1026:
1020:
1010:
991:
988:
972:Rudolf Virchow
917:
914:
809:
808:
806:
805:
798:
791:
783:
780:
779:
778:
777:
764:
747:
746:
743:
742:
737:
732:
727:
721:
718:
717:
714:
713:
710:
709:
704:
699:
694:
689:
679:
676:
675:
672:
671:
666:
665:
660:
655:
650:
645:
640:
635:
630:
625:
620:
615:
610:
605:
600:
595:
590:
585:
580:
575:
570:
565:
560:
555:
550:
545:
540:
535:
530:
525:
520:
515:
510:
505:
500:
495:
490:
485:
483:Marine biology
480:
475:
470:
465:
460:
455:
450:
445:
440:
435:
430:
425:
420:
415:
410:
405:
400:
395:
390:
385:
380:
375:
370:
365:
360:
355:
350:
345:
340:
335:
332:
327:
322:
317:
312:
307:
302:
297:
295:Bioinformatics
292:
287:
282:
277:
272:
267:
262:
257:
252:
247:
241:
240:
239:
236:
235:
232:
231:
228:
227:
205:
200:
193:
192:
178:
177:
172:
167:
162:
157:
152:
147:
140:
139:
134:Properties of
129:
128:
123:
118:
113:
107:
105:Key components
104:
103:
100:
99:
97:
96:
85:
84:
79:
74:
68:
65:
64:
59:
51:
50:
44:
43:
32:Cell (biology)
26:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
7551:
7540:
7537:
7535:
7532:
7531:
7529:
7514:
7513:
7504:
7502:
7501:
7496:
7492:
7490:
7489:
7480:
7478:
7477:
7468:
7467:
7464:
7458:
7455:
7453:
7450:
7448:
7447:Chemical bond
7445:
7443:
7440:
7438:
7435:
7433:
7430:
7428:
7425:
7423:
7420:
7418:
7415:
7411:
7408:
7407:
7406:
7403:
7400:
7396:
7392:
7389:
7388:
7387:
7384:
7382:
7379:
7377:
7374:
7373:
7371:
7367:
7359:
7356:
7354:
7351:
7349:
7346:
7345:
7344:
7341:
7337:
7336:Stoichiometry
7334:
7333:
7332:
7329:
7325:
7322:
7320:
7317:
7315:
7312:
7310:
7307:
7306:
7305:
7302:
7298:
7295:
7294:
7293:
7292:Nanochemistry
7290:
7289:
7284:
7281:
7279:
7276:
7275:
7274:
7271:
7269:
7266:
7262:
7259:
7257:
7254:
7253:
7252:
7249:
7248:
7243:
7240:
7239:
7238:
7235:
7231:
7228:
7226:
7223:
7222:
7221:
7218:
7216:
7213:
7211:
7208:
7204:
7201:
7199:
7196:
7195:
7194:
7191:
7190:
7185:
7182:
7180:
7177:
7176:
7175:
7172:
7170:
7166:
7162:
7159:
7155:
7152:
7150:
7147:
7145:
7142:
7141:
7140:
7137:
7136:
7134:
7132:
7128:
7122:
7119:
7117:
7114:
7112:
7109:
7107:
7104:
7102:
7099:
7097:
7094:
7090:
7087:
7086:
7085:
7082:
7078:
7075:
7074:
7073:
7070:
7066:
7063:
7061:
7058:
7057:
7056:
7053:
7052:
7050:
7048:
7044:
7038:
7035:
7033:
7030:
7028:
7025:
7023:
7020:
7018:
7017:Semisynthesis
7014:
7011:
7009:
7006:
7004:
7001:
6999:
6996:
6994:
6991:
6989:
6986:
6982:
6979:
6978:
6977:
6974:
6973:
6971:
6969:
6965:
6959:
6956:
6954:
6951:
6949:
6946:
6942:
6939:
6938:
6937:
6934:
6932:
6929:
6927:
6924:
6923:
6921:
6919:
6915:
6909:
6906:
6904:
6901:
6899:
6896:
6894:
6891:
6889:
6886:
6884:
6881:
6879:
6876:
6874:
6871:
6867:
6864:
6863:
6862:
6859:
6857:
6854:
6852:
6851:Sonochemistry
6849:
6847:
6846:Cryochemistry
6844:
6840:
6839:Micromeritics
6837:
6836:
6835:
6832:
6830:
6827:
6825:
6822:
6820:
6817:
6813:
6810:
6808:
6805:
6804:
6803:
6800:
6799:
6797:
6795:
6791:
6783:
6780:
6779:
6778:
6775:
6773:
6770:
6768:
6765:
6763:
6760:
6756:
6753:
6752:
6751:
6748:
6746:
6743:
6742:
6740:
6738:
6734:
6728:
6725:
6723:
6720:
6718:
6717:Wet chemistry
6715:
6713:
6710:
6708:
6705:
6703:
6700:
6696:
6693:
6691:
6688:
6687:
6686:
6683:
6681:
6678:
6674:
6671:
6669:
6666:
6664:
6661:
6660:
6659:
6656:
6652:
6649:
6647:
6644:
6642:
6639:
6637:
6634:
6633:
6632:
6629:
6627:
6624:
6622:
6619:
6618:
6616:
6614:
6610:
6604:
6601:
6599:
6596:
6594:
6591:
6589:
6586:
6585:
6582:
6578:
6570:
6565:
6563:
6558:
6556:
6551:
6550:
6547:
6535:
6527:
6525:
6517:
6515:
6507:
6504:
6499:
6493:
6492:
6489:
6483:
6480:
6478:
6475:
6473:
6470:
6468:
6465:
6464:
6462:
6458:
6450:
6447:
6445:
6442:
6440:
6437:
6435:
6432:
6430:
6427:
6425:
6422:
6420:
6417:
6415:
6412:
6410:
6407:
6405:
6402:
6400:
6397:
6395:
6392:
6390:
6387:
6385:
6382:
6380:
6377:
6375:
6372:
6370:
6367:
6365:
6362:
6360:
6357:
6355:
6352:
6350:
6349:Phylogenetics
6347:
6345:
6342:
6340:
6337:
6335:
6332:
6330:
6327:
6325:
6322:
6320:
6317:
6315:
6312:
6310:
6307:
6305:
6302:
6300:
6297:
6295:
6292:
6290:
6287:
6285:
6282:
6280:
6277:
6275:
6272:
6270:
6267:
6265:
6262:
6260:
6257:
6255:
6252:
6250:
6247:
6245:
6244:Human biology
6242:
6240:
6237:
6235:
6232:
6230:
6227:
6225:
6222:
6220:
6217:
6215:
6212:
6210:
6207:
6205:
6202:
6200:
6197:
6195:
6192:
6190:
6187:
6185:
6182:
6180:
6177:
6175:
6172:
6170:
6167:
6165:
6162:
6160:
6157:
6155:
6152:
6150:
6147:
6145:
6142:
6140:
6137:
6135:
6134:Chronobiology
6132:
6130:
6127:
6125:
6122:
6119:
6117:
6114:
6112:
6111:Biotechnology
6109:
6107:
6106:Biostatistics
6104:
6102:
6099:
6097:
6094:
6092:
6089:
6087:
6084:
6082:
6079:
6077:
6074:
6072:
6069:
6067:
6064:
6062:
6059:
6057:
6054:
6052:
6049:
6047:
6044:
6042:
6039:
6037:
6034:
6032:
6029:
6028:
6024:
6020:
6010:
6007:
6005:
6002:
6000:
5999:Belt transect
5997:
5996:
5994:
5990:
5984:
5983:
5979:
5977:
5976:
5972:
5970:
5969:
5965:
5963:
5960:
5958:
5955:
5953:
5950:
5948:
5947:Southern blot
5945:
5943:
5942:Northern blot
5940:
5938:
5935:
5933:
5930:
5928:
5925:
5923:
5920:
5918:
5915:
5913:
5910:
5908:
5905:
5903:
5900:
5898:
5895:
5893:
5890:
5888:
5885:
5883:
5880:
5878:
5875:
5874:
5872:
5866:
5863:
5861:
5855:
5850:
5836:
5833:
5831:
5828:
5826:
5823:
5819:
5816:
5815:
5814:
5811:
5809:
5806:
5804:
5801:
5799:
5796:
5794:
5791:
5789:
5786:
5784:
5781:
5779:
5776:
5774:
5771:
5769:
5766:
5764:
5761:
5760:
5758:
5756:
5752:
5746:
5743:
5741:
5738:
5736:
5733:
5731:
5728:
5726:
5723:
5721:
5720:Immune system
5718:
5716:
5713:
5711:
5708:
5706:
5703:
5701:
5698:
5696:
5693:
5692:
5690:
5684:
5678:
5675:
5673:
5670:
5668:
5665:
5663:
5660:
5658:
5655:
5653:
5650:
5648:
5645:
5643:
5640:
5638:
5637:Ground tissue
5635:
5633:
5630:
5628:
5625:
5624:
5622:
5616:
5610:
5607:
5603:
5600:
5598:
5595:
5593:
5590:
5588:
5585:
5583:
5580:
5579:
5578:
5575:
5573:
5570:
5568:
5565:
5564:
5562:
5560:
5556:
5550:
5547:
5545:
5542:
5540:
5539:Phylogenetics
5537:
5535:
5532:
5530:
5527:
5525:
5522:
5520:
5517:
5515:
5512:
5510:
5507:
5505:
5504:Genetic drift
5502:
5500:
5497:
5495:
5492:
5490:
5487:
5486:
5484:
5482:
5478:
5472:
5469:
5467:
5464:
5462:
5459:
5457:
5454:
5452:
5449:
5447:
5444:
5442:
5439:
5437:
5434:
5433:
5431:
5429:
5425:
5419:
5416:
5414:
5411:
5409:
5406:
5404:
5401:
5399:
5396:
5394:
5391:
5389:
5386:
5384:
5381:
5379:
5376:
5374:
5371:
5369:
5366:
5364:
5361:
5359:
5356:
5354:
5351:
5350:
5348:
5346:
5342:
5336:
5333:
5331:
5328:
5326:
5323:
5321:
5318:
5316:
5313:
5311:
5310:Nucleic acids
5308:
5306:
5303:
5301:
5298:
5294:
5291:
5290:
5289:
5286:
5284:
5281:
5279:
5276:
5274:
5273:Chemical bond
5271:
5269:
5268:Carbohydrates
5266:
5264:
5261:
5259:
5256:
5255:
5253:
5249:
5243:
5240:
5238:
5235:
5233:
5230:
5228:
5225:
5223:
5220:
5218:
5215:
5213:
5210:
5208:
5205:
5203:
5200:
5198:
5195:
5192:
5188:
5184:
5180:
5176:
5172:
5168:
5164:
5160:
5156:
5152:
5148:
5144:
5141:
5138:
5134:
5130:
5126:
5122:
5118:
5114:
5110:
5106:
5104:
5101:
5099:
5096:
5095:
5093:
5089:
5086:
5084:
5080:
5074:
5071:
5067:
5064:
5063:
5062:
5059:
5057:
5054:
5051:
5047:
5043:
5042:
5039:
5035:
5028:
5023:
5021:
5016:
5014:
5009:
5008:
5005:
4993:
4990:
4988:
4985:
4983:
4980:
4979:
4977:
4973:
4967:
4964:
4962:
4959:
4957:
4954:
4952:
4949:
4947:
4944:
4942:
4939:
4937:
4934:
4932:
4929:
4927:
4924:
4922:
4919:
4917:
4914:
4912:
4909:
4907:
4904:
4902:
4899:
4897:
4894:
4892:
4889:
4887:
4884:
4882:
4879:
4877:
4874:
4872:
4869:
4867:
4866:Phylogenetics
4864:
4862:
4859:
4857:
4854:
4852:
4849:
4847:
4844:
4842:
4839:
4837:
4834:
4832:
4829:
4827:
4824:
4822:
4819:
4817:
4814:
4812:
4809:
4807:
4804:
4802:
4799:
4797:
4794:
4792:
4789:
4787:
4784:
4782:
4779:
4777:
4774:
4772:
4769:
4767:
4764:
4762:
4761:Human biology
4759:
4757:
4754:
4752:
4749:
4747:
4744:
4742:
4739:
4737:
4734:
4732:
4729:
4727:
4724:
4722:
4719:
4717:
4714:
4712:
4709:
4707:
4704:
4702:
4699:
4697:
4694:
4692:
4689:
4687:
4684:
4682:
4679:
4677:
4674:
4672:
4669:
4667:
4664:
4662:
4659:
4657:
4654:
4652:
4651:Chronobiology
4649:
4647:
4644:
4642:
4639:
4637:
4634:
4632:
4629:
4627:
4626:Biotechnology
4624:
4622:
4621:Biostatistics
4619:
4617:
4614:
4612:
4609:
4607:
4604:
4602:
4599:
4597:
4594:
4592:
4589:
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4408:
4405:
4401:
4398:
4396:
4393:
4391:
4390:Proteinoplast
4388:
4386:
4383:
4381:
4378:
4376:
4373:
4371:
4368:
4366:
4363:
4361:
4358:
4357:
4356:
4353:
4351:
4350:Mitochondrion
4348:
4347:
4345:
4343:
4342:Endosymbionts
4339:
4331:
4328:
4326:
4325:Lamellipodium
4323:
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4321:
4318:
4314:
4311:
4309:
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4264:
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4241:Microfilament
4239:
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4222:
4219:
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4214:
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4209:
4207:
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4154:Autophagosome
4152:
4150:
4147:
4145:
4142:
4140:
4137:
4135:
4132:
4130:
4129:Cell membrane
4127:
4126:
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4122:
4119:Endomembrane
4116:
4112:
4108:
4100:
4095:
4093:
4088:
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4077:
4065:
4064:
4055:
4053:
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4043:
4042:
4039:
4033:
4030:
4028:
4027:Southern blot
4025:
4023:
4020:
4018:
4017:Northern blot
4015:
4013:
4010:
4008:
4007:Gene knockout
4005:
4003:
4000:
3998:
3995:
3993:
3990:
3989:
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3883:Extremophiles
3881:
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3658:
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3653:Biotechnology
3650:
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3526:
3522:
3518:
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3511:
3502:
3500:
3499:0-471-46580-1
3496:
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2989:
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2968:
2963:
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2955:
2951:
2944:
2929:. 13 May 2010
2928:
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2707:
2691:
2687:
2681:
2673:
2669:
2662:
2654:
2652:9780878931064
2648:
2645:. ASM Press.
2644:
2637:
2622:
2618:
2612:
2604:
2600:
2596:
2593:Verity, M A.
2589:
2581:
2577:
2570:
2563:
2561:9780323034104
2557:
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2061:
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2040:
2036:
2029:
2027:
2025:
2016:
2012:
2005:
1997:
1991:
1987:
1980:
1976:
1966:
1963:
1961:
1958:
1956:
1953:
1951:
1948:
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1943:
1941:
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1806:
1804:
1801:
1799:
1796:
1794:
1791:
1789:
1786:
1784:
1781:
1779:
1778:Michael Swann
1776:
1774:
1773:Ray Rappaport
1771:
1769:
1766:
1764:
1761:
1759:
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1754:
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1701:
1699:
1696:
1694:
1693:Günter Blobel
1691:
1689:
1686:
1684:
1681:
1680:
1673:
1671:
1664:
1654:
1645:
1641:
1632:
1630:
1626:
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1614:
1610:
1606:
1605:cytopathology
1600:
1599:Cytopathology
1587:
1584:
1581:
1578:
1575:
1572:
1569:
1566:
1563:
1560:
1559:
1558:
1549:
1547:
1543:
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1535:
1531:
1527:
1523:
1519:
1515:
1514:cell division
1511:
1507:
1497:
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1491:
1487:
1483:
1479:
1474:
1471:
1470:cell division
1467:
1463:
1458:
1456:
1452:
1451:cell division
1448:
1444:
1436:
1432:
1431:cell division
1427:
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1383:
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1324:
1310:
1307:
1304:
1300:
1297:
1296:
1295:
1289:
1286:
1283:
1279:
1275:
1274:Cell membrane
1272:
1269:
1266:
1263:
1260:
1257:
1253:
1250:
1247:
1243:
1242:glycoproteins
1239:
1236:
1233:
1229:
1226:
1223:
1220:
1217:
1214:
1211:
1207:
1203:
1199:
1195:
1192:
1191:
1190:
1188:
1180:
1175:
1160:
1158:
1153:
1149:
1145:
1141:
1137:
1133:
1129:
1128:gram-negative
1125:
1124:gram-positive
1121:
1117:
1113:
1109:
1104:
1103:
1099:
1095:
1091:
1087:
1083:
1079:
1070:
1065:
1052:
1048:
1045:
1042:
1039:
1036:
1033:
1030:
1027:
1024:
1021:
1018:
1014:
1011:
1008:
1005:
1004:
1003:
1001:
997:
996:human anatomy
987:
985:
981:
977:
973:
969:
965:
961:
957:
953:
949:
945:
941:
937:
936:
931:
927:
923:
913:
911:
910:cytochemistry
907:
903:
899:
895:
891:
887:
883:
879:
875:
871:
867:
863:
859:
855:
851:
847:
843:
839:
835:
831:
827:
823:
819:
815:
804:
799:
797:
792:
790:
785:
784:
782:
781:
775:
765:
762:
757:
751:
750:
749:
748:
741:
738:
736:
733:
731:
728:
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723:
722:
716:
715:
708:
705:
703:
700:
698:
695:
693:
690:
688:
684:
681:
680:
674:
673:
664:
661:
659:
656:
654:
651:
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631:
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621:
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611:
609:
606:
604:
601:
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596:
594:
591:
589:
586:
584:
581:
579:
576:
574:
571:
569:
566:
564:
563:Phylogenetics
561:
559:
556:
554:
551:
549:
546:
544:
541:
539:
536:
534:
531:
529:
526:
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519:
516:
514:
511:
509:
506:
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494:
491:
489:
486:
484:
481:
479:
476:
474:
471:
469:
466:
464:
461:
459:
458:Human biology
456:
454:
451:
449:
446:
444:
441:
439:
436:
434:
431:
429:
426:
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421:
419:
416:
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389:
386:
384:
381:
379:
376:
374:
371:
369:
366:
364:
361:
359:
356:
354:
351:
349:
348:Chronobiology
346:
344:
341:
339:
336:
333:
331:
328:
326:
325:Biotechnology
323:
321:
320:Biostatistics
318:
316:
313:
311:
308:
306:
303:
301:
298:
296:
293:
291:
288:
286:
283:
281:
278:
276:
273:
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268:
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263:
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258:
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246:
243:
242:
234:
233:
225:
221:
217:
213:
209:
206:
204:
201:
199:
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191:
189:
185:
181:
180:
176:
173:
171:
168:
166:
163:
161:
158:
156:
153:
151:
148:
146:
143:
142:
138:
137:
132:
131:
127:
124:
122:
119:
117:
114:
112:
109:
108:
102:
101:
94:
90:
87:
86:
83:
80:
78:
75:
73:
70:
69:
67:
66:
62:
57:
53:
52:
49:
46:
45:
41:
40:
37:
33:
19:
7534:Cell biology
7510:
7498:
7486:
7474:
7324:Biosynthesis
7174:Geochemistry
7089:Pharmacology
7065:Cell biology
7064:
7055:Biochemistry
6883:Spectroscopy
6782:VSEPR theory
6631:Spectroscopy
6575:Branches of
6394:Sociobiology
6374:Protistology
6339:Photobiology
6334:Pharmacology
6324:Parasitology
6319:Paleontology
6299:Neuroscience
6279:Microbiology
6189:Epidemiology
6159:Cytogenetics
6120:Cell biology
6101:Biosemiotics
6091:Biomechanics
6071:Biogeography
6066:Biochemistry
6061:Bacteriology
6056:Astrobiology
5980:
5973:
5966:
5937:Western blot
5927:Enzyme assay
5902:Cell culture
5803:Conservation
5688:and function
5686:Animal form
5620:and function
5393:Fermentation
5171:Organ system
5129:Reproduction
5107:Properties (
4911:Sociobiology
4891:Protistology
4856:Photobiology
4851:Pharmacology
4841:Parasitology
4836:Paleontology
4816:Neuroscience
4796:Microbiology
4706:Epidemiology
4676:Cytogenetics
4636:Cell biology
4635:
4616:Biosemiotics
4606:Biomechanics
4586:Biogeography
4581:Biochemistry
4576:Bacteriology
4571:Astrobiology
4370:Gerontoplast
4320:Pseudopodium
4313:Radial spoke
4293:Undulipodium
4233:Cytoskeleton
4149:Parenthesome
4063:Cell biology
4061:
4049:
4032:Western blot
3954:Biomolecules
3878:Bacteriology
3865:Microbiology
3772:Gastrulation
3719:Cytoskeleton
3696:Cell biology
3695:
3627:cell biology
3626:
3574:
3569:Cell biology
3544:Cell biology
3543:
3525:the original
3515:
3437:
3415:
3406:
3366:(1): 27–42.
3363:
3359:
3349:
3304:
3300:
3290:
3245:
3241:
3231:
3188:
3184:
3174:
3131:
3127:
3117:
3076:
3072:
3014:
3010:
3000:
2960:(1): 71–78.
2957:
2953:
2943:
2933:21 September
2931:. Retrieved
2926:
2917:
2905:. Retrieved
2901:
2892:
2875:
2812:
2808:
2798:
2755:
2751:
2741:
2730:, retrieved
2718:
2693:. Retrieved
2689:
2680:
2671:
2661:
2642:
2636:
2626:27 September
2624:. Retrieved
2620:
2611:
2594:
2588:
2579:
2569:
2543:
2537:
2527:27 September
2525:. Retrieved
2521:
2512:
2502:27 September
2500:. Retrieved
2496:
2486:
2474:. Retrieved
2465:
2455:27 September
2453:. Retrieved
2449:
2440:
2413:
2409:
2399:
2390:
2380:
2355:
2322:
2315:
2296:
2290:
2271:
2265:
2222:
2218:
2208:
2199:
2159:
2153:
2112:
2108:
2098:
2087:
2060:Micrographia
2059:
2053:
2034:
2014:
2004:
1985:
1979:
1856:Schwann cell
1718:Robert Hooke
1698:Robert Brown
1666:
1651:
1642:
1638:
1602:
1585:
1579:
1573:
1567:
1561:
1555:
1503:
1475:
1459:
1439:
1387:Ion channels
1366:
1319:
1293:
1268:Cytoskeleton
1228:Mitochondria
1185:
1151:
1105:
1101:
1086:cell nucleus
1075:
1007:Cell culture
993:
982:subclass of
980:microbiology
952:Robert Brown
935:Micrographia
933:
930:Robert Hooke
919:
874:cell culture
872:techniques,
862:biochemistry
821:
817:
814:Cell biology
813:
812:
719:Applications
608:Sociobiology
588:Protistology
553:Photobiology
548:Pharmacology
538:Parasitology
533:Paleontology
513:Neuroscience
493:Microbiology
403:Epidemiology
373:Cytogenetics
334:Cell biology
315:Biosemiotics
305:Biomechanics
285:Biogeography
280:Biochemistry
275:Bacteriology
270:Astrobiology
182:
170:Reproduction
133:
60:
36:
7512:WikiProject
6737:Theoretical
6722:Calorimetry
6534:WikiProject
6444:Xenobiology
6439:Virophysics
6409:Systematics
6364:Primatology
6309:Ornithology
6249:Ichthyology
6234:Herpetology
6229:Gerontology
6194:Epigenetics
6154:Cryobiology
6046:Agrostology
6036:Aerobiology
6031:Abiogenesis
5868:Laboratory
5715:Homeostasis
5618:Plant form
5441:Epigenetics
5363:Cell theory
5263:Amino acids
5242:Common name
5232:Peer review
5207:Mechanistic
4961:Xenobiology
4956:Virophysics
4926:Systematics
4881:Primatology
4826:Ornithology
4766:Ichthyology
4751:Herpetology
4746:Gerontology
4711:Epigenetics
4671:Cryobiology
4561:Agrostology
4551:Aerobiology
4546:Abiogenesis
4472:Magnetosome
4438:Spliceosome
4365:Chromoplast
4360:Chloroplast
4251:Microtubule
4012:Microscopes
3944:Biochemists
3873:Antibiotics
3835:Geneticists
3810:Chromosomes
3782:Neurulation
3686:Vaccination
3483:electronic-
3307:(8): 1881.
3248:(9): 1865.
3191:(1): 3–12.
2695:23 November
2522:EurekAlert!
1955:Meiomitosis
1783:Roger Tsien
1738:Ira Mellman
1542:prokaryotes
1303:chromosomes
1246:glycolipids
1206:chromosomes
1157:conjugation
1078:prokaryotic
960:cell theory
928:. In 1665,
842:prokaryotic
658:Xenobiology
653:Virophysics
623:Systematics
578:Primatology
523:Ornithology
463:Ichthyology
448:Herpetology
443:Gerontology
408:Epigenetics
368:Cryobiology
260:Agrostology
250:Aerobiology
245:Abiogenesis
111:Cell theory
18:Cytological
7528:Categories
7348:Metallurgy
7047:Biological
6613:Analytical
6460:Glossaries
6429:Toxicology
6424:Teratology
6369:Proteomics
6354:Physiology
6294:Neontology
6259:Lipidology
6254:Immunology
6224:Geobiology
6184:Embryology
6164:Dendrology
6096:Biophysics
6076:Biogeology
5870:techniques
5825:Microbiome
5652:Plant stem
5544:Speciation
5489:Adaptation
5418:Prokaryote
5398:Metabolism
5358:Cell cycle
5189:>
5185:>
5181:>
5179:Population
5177:>
5173:>
5169:>
5165:>
5161:>
5157:>
5153:>
5149:>
5125:Regulation
5109:Adaptation
4946:Toxicology
4941:Teratology
4886:Proteomics
4871:Physiology
4811:Neontology
4776:Lipidology
4771:Immunology
4741:Geobiology
4701:Embryology
4681:Dendrology
4611:Biophysics
4591:Biogeology
4467:Proteasome
4460:Inclusions
4407:Nitroplast
4400:Apicoplast
4385:Elaioplast
4380:Amyloplast
4375:Leucoplast
4330:Filopodium
4276:Basal body
4266:Centrosome
4216:Peroxisome
4211:Glyoxysome
4201:Melanosome
4111:organelles
3908:Immunology
3787:Teratogens
3767:Morphogens
3762:Embryology
3724:Organelles
3704:Cell cycle
3681:Stem cells
3576:Aging Cell
3427:References
2732:20 October
2719:StatPearls
2450:Genome.gov
1758:Paul Nurse
1688:Peter Agre
1611:branch of
1538:eukaryotes
1526:DNA damage
1455:cell death
1443:cell cycle
1435:cell cycle
1421:Cell cycle
1288:Centrioles
1120:rod-shaped
1082:eukaryotic
1064:Cell types
1058:Cell types
1000:physiology
990:Techniques
906:immunology
882:biomedical
870:microscopy
858:cell cycle
643:Toxicology
638:Teratology
583:Proteomics
568:Physiology
508:Neontology
473:Lipidology
468:Immunology
438:Geobiology
398:Embryology
378:Dendrology
310:Biophysics
290:Biogeology
165:Regulation
145:Adaptation
7410:Catalysis
6918:Inorganic
6712:Titration
6577:chemistry
6344:Phycology
6329:Pathology
6314:Osteology
6304:Nutrition
6264:Mammalogy
6239:Histology
5982:in silico
5858:Research
5835:Resources
5808:Ecosystem
5798:Community
5783:Biosphere
5695:Breathing
5577:Eukaryote
5559:Diversity
5509:Gene flow
5481:Evolution
5388:Eukaryote
5300:Molecules
5191:Biosphere
5187:Ecosystem
5183:Community
5155:Organelle
5050:Evolution
4861:Phycology
4846:Pathology
4831:Osteology
4821:Nutrition
4781:Mammalogy
4756:Histology
4488:Cell wall
4450:Cytoplasm
4423:Nucleolus
4395:Tannosome
4303:Flagellum
4288:Myofibril
4271:Centriole
4206:Microbody
4179:Phagosome
3489:1868-0402
3481:1559-0836
3380:0092-8674
3323:2072-6643
3301:Nutrients
3264:1422-0067
3205:0022-3417
3148:0962-8924
3109:211170966
3093:1471-0072
3031:1471-0080
2976:0092-8674
2907:7 October
2829:0091-6765
2774:0092-8674
2690:Sciencing
2603:679070471
2476:6 October
2446:"Nucleus"
2239:1934-3671
1874:autophagy
1663:Autophagy
1657:Autophagy
1617:Pap smear
1609:pathology
1593:Pathology
1522:apoptosis
1490:apoptosis
1468:) is the
1376:paracrine
1372:endocrine
1327:TCA cycle
1299:Chromatin
1282:diffusion
1262:Ribosomes
1256:Autophagy
1232:TCA cycle
1216:Nucleolus
1174:Eukaryote
1144:ribosomes
1140:flagellum
1132:cell wall
1116:spherical
1090:organelle
1041:Cytometry
830:structure
683:Biologist
558:Phycology
543:Pathology
528:Osteology
518:Nutrition
478:Mammalogy
453:Histology
126:Phylogeny
121:Evolution
116:Ecosystem
7476:Category
7432:Molecule
7369:See also
6794:Physical
6514:Category
6434:Virology
6419:Taxonomy
6359:Pomology
6289:Mycology
6219:Genomics
6214:Genetics
6041:Agronomy
6022:Branches
5975:in vitro
5572:Bacteria
5549:Taxonomy
5529:Mutation
5499:Function
5428:Genetics
5330:Proteins
5175:Organism
5151:Molecule
5135:),
5091:Overview
5066:Timeline
5046:Genetics
4975:See also
4951:Virology
4936:Taxonomy
4876:Pomology
4806:Mycology
4736:Genomics
4731:Genetics
4556:Agronomy
4481:External
4433:Ribosome
4189:Acrosome
4174:Endosome
4169:Lysosome
3974:Proteins
3969:Peptides
3903:Virology
3898:Mycology
3845:Mutation
3797:Genetics
3464:23595669
3398:18191218
3341:31412596
3282:28846632
3223:20225336
3166:20444606
3101:32071438
3049:18594563
2992:16366539
2984:10647932
2847:10229703
2790:11465988
2782:11057895
2727:30252361
2432:29107331
2372:91382191
2257:29512141
2137:27533034
2015:Scitable
1960:Organoid
1884:See also
1586:G0 phase
1574:G2 phase
1562:G1 phase
1530:germline
1510:immortal
1494:necrosis
1252:Lysosome
1148:nucleoid
1094:Bacteria
984:virology
890:genetics
834:function
822:cytology
774:Category
740:Pharming
677:Research
648:Virology
633:Taxonomy
573:Pomology
503:Mycology
433:Genomics
428:Genetics
255:Agronomy
237:Branches
224:Protists
203:Bacteria
188:Kingdoms
93:timeline
82:Glossary
7488:Commons
7452:Alchemy
6968:Organic
6524:Commons
6467:Biology
6449:Zoology
6179:Ecology
6051:Anatomy
5968:in vivo
5860:methods
5813:Habitat
5788:Climate
5773:Biomass
5755:Ecology
5602:Protist
5567:Archaea
5461:Genomes
5408:Mitosis
5403:Meiosis
5325:Polymer
5305:Monomer
5293:Quantum
5127:,
5123:,
5119:,
5115:,
5111:,
5098:Science
5083:Biology
5061:History
5056:Outline
5034:Biology
4966:Zoology
4696:Ecology
4566:Anatomy
4455:Cytosol
4355:Plastid
4308:Axoneme
4184:Vacuole
4164:Exosome
4159:Vesicle
4134:Nucleus
3992:Cloning
3666:Cloning
3389:2696814
3332:6723827
3273:5618514
3214:2990190
3157:5640159
3040:2663384
2838:1566366
2248:5939936
2145:4466854
2117:Bibcode
2086:(ed.).
1580:M phase
1568:S phase
1466:mitosis
1345:during
1194:Nucleus
1098:Archaea
976:Viruses
956:nucleus
916:History
826:biology
663:Zoology
393:Ecology
265:Anatomy
212:Animals
208:Eukarya
198:Archaea
190:of life
184:Domains
89:History
77:Outline
48:Biology
7500:Portal
6646:UV-Vis
6116:Botany
5922:vector
5778:Biomes
5647:Phloem
5632:Flower
5592:Fungus
5587:Animal
5383:Enzyme
5288:Matter
5283:Lipids
5222:Theory
5163:Tissue
5117:Growth
4631:Botany
4298:Cilium
4121:system
3757:Ageing
3541:about
3497:
3487:
3479:
3472:
3462:
3452:
3396:
3386:
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3329:
3321:
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2835:
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2780:
2772:
2725:
2649:
2601:
2558:
2430:
2370:
2330:
2303:
2278:
2255:
2245:
2237:
2166:
2143:
2135:
2109:Nature
2041:
1992:
1627:, and
1484:, and
1462:phases
1378:, and
1198:genome
922:Europe
908:, and
886:cancer
876:, and
864:, and
816:(also
772:
330:Botany
220:Plants
155:Growth
6673:MALDI
6641:Raman
5818:niche
5677:Xylem
5662:Shoot
5609:Virus
5597:Plant
5345:Cells
5335:Water
5258:Atoms
5167:Organ
5121:Order
5073:Index
4443:Vault
3888:Fungi
3830:Genes
3714:Cells
3512:from
3105:S2CID
2988:S2CID
2786:S2CID
2368:S2CID
2141:S2CID
2082:. In
1971:Notes
1309:Cilia
948:algae
838:cells
687:list)
216:Fungi
160:Order
72:Index
7427:Atom
6695:HPLC
5657:Root
5642:Leaf
5582:Alga
5159:Cell
5147:Atom
5103:Life
4107:cell
3625:and
3521:NCBI
3495:ISBN
3485:ISSN
3477:ISSN
3470:ISBN
3460:PMID
3450:ISBN
3394:PMID
3376:ISSN
3360:Cell
3337:PMID
3319:ISSN
3278:PMID
3260:ISSN
3219:PMID
3201:ISSN
3162:PMID
3144:ISSN
3097:PMID
3089:ISSN
3045:PMID
3027:ISSN
2980:PMID
2972:ISSN
2954:Cell
2935:2021
2909:2021
2843:PMID
2825:ISSN
2778:PMID
2770:ISSN
2752:Cell
2734:2019
2723:PMID
2697:2020
2647:ISBN
2628:2021
2599:OCLC
2556:ISBN
2529:2021
2504:2021
2478:2019
2457:2021
2428:PMID
2410:Cell
2328:ISBN
2301:ISBN
2276:ISBN
2253:PMID
2235:ISSN
2164:ISBN
2133:PMID
2039:ISBN
1990:ISBN
1619:, a
1244:and
1096:and
1080:and
998:and
940:cork
844:and
186:and
136:life
7437:Ion
6668:ICP
6651:NMR
5436:DNA
5353:ATP
5227:Law
4428:RNA
3855:RNA
3815:DNA
3442:doi
3384:PMC
3368:doi
3364:132
3327:PMC
3309:doi
3268:PMC
3250:doi
3209:PMC
3193:doi
3189:221
3152:PMC
3136:doi
3081:doi
3035:PMC
3019:doi
2962:doi
2958:100
2881:doi
2864:doi
2833:PMC
2817:doi
2813:107
2760:doi
2756:103
2548:doi
2418:doi
2414:171
2360:doi
2243:PMC
2227:doi
2223:120
2125:doi
2113:536
1492:or
1486:p53
1202:DNA
1126:or
1118:or
1017:GFP
820:or
7530::
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7163:/
7015:/
6690:GC
6663:EI
6636:IR
5320:pH
5048:,
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