513:, cybernetics was declared one of the "major tools of the creation of a communist society". Khrushchev declared the development of cybernetics an "imperative" in Soviet science. According to Gerovitch, this put cybernetics "in fashion" as "many career-minded scientists began using 'cybernetics' as a buzzword" and the movement swelled with its new membership. The CIA reported that the July 1962 'Conference on the Philosophical Problems of Cybernetics' received "approximately 1000 specialists, mathematicians, philosophers, physicists, economists, psychologists, biologists, engineers, linguists, physicians". American intelligence apparently bought into the hype, though it confused institutional enthusiasm with Soviet government policy. Special Assistant
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135:: a reactionary pseudoscience that appeared in the U.S.A. after World War II and also spread through other capitalist countries. Cybernetics clearly reflects one of the basic features of the bourgeois worldview—its inhumanity, striving to transform workers into an extension of the machine, into a tool of production, and an instrument of war. At the same time, for cybernetics an imperialistic utopia is characteristic—replacing living, thinking man, fighting for his interests, by a machine, both in industry and in war. The instigators of a new world war use cybernetics in their dirty, practical affairs.
265:
445:, recommending the establishment of an organization dedicated to advancing cybernetics. The presidium determined that the Council on Cybernetics would be formed, with Berg as the chairman (due to his strong administrative connections) and Lyapunov his deputy. This council was wide-reaching, subsuming as many as 15 disciplines as of 1967, from "cybernetic linguistics" to "legal cybernetics". During Khrushchev's relaxation of scientific culture, the Council on Cybernetics served as an umbrella organization for formerly suppressed research, including such subjects as non-
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230:, recalling that "he never opposed cybernetics" and made every effort "to advance computer technology" in order to give the USSR the technological advantage. Though the scale of this campaign was modest, with only around 10 anti-cybernetic publications being produced, Valery Shilov has argued it constituted a "strict directive to action" from the "central ideological organs", a universal declaration of cybernetics as a bourgeois pseudoscience to be criticized and destroyed.
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original cyberneticians of the organization disgruntled; complaints were made that he seemed more focused on administration than scientific research, citing Berg's grand plans to expand the council to subsume "practically all of Soviet science". By the 1980s, cybernetics had lost relevance in Soviet scientific culture, as its terminology and political function were succeeded by those of
465:, and, in June 1961, together planned to create an Institute of Cybernetics. Despite these efforts, Lyapunov lost faith in the project after Krushchev's refusal to build more Moscow scientific institutes, and the Institute never emerged, settling with the Council of Cybernetics instead gaining the formal powers of an institute, without any expansion of staff.
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and gradually lost his influence in cybernetics. As one memoirist put it, this resignation meant that "the center that had unified cybernetics disappeared, and cybernetics naturally split into numerous branches." While the old guard of cyberneticians complained, the cybernetics movement, as a whole,
460:
Thanks to
Lyapunov, a further, 20-person Department of Cybernetics was created to solicit official funding for cybernetic research. Even with these institutions, Lyapunov still lamented that "the field of cybernetics in our country is not organized", and, from 1960 to 1961, worked with the department
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In July 1962, Berg created a plan for the radical restructuring of the
Council such that it covered "practically all of Soviet science". This was met with cold reception from many of the researchers of the council, with one cybernetician complaining, in a letter to Lyapunov, that "here are almost no
534:
According to
Gerovitch, "by the early 1970s, the cybernetics movement no longer challenged the orthodoxy; instead, tactical uses of cyberspeak overshadowed the original reformist goals that aspired the first Soviet cyberneticians." The ideas which were once seen as controversial, and huddled under
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Berg continued with his campaign for Soviet cybernetics into the 1960s, as cybernetics entered the Soviet mainstream. Berg's council sponsored pro-cybernetic programs in Soviet media. 20-minute radio broadcasts, entitled "Cybernetics in Our Lives", were produced; a series of broadcasts on Moscow TV
336:
The first article—authored by three Soviet military scientists—attempted to present the tenets of cybernetics as a coherent scientific theory, retooling it for Soviet use; they purposely avoided any discussion of philosophy, and presented Wiener as an
American anti-capitalist, in order to avoid any
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directly. Select sensational quotes of Wiener and speculations based "exclusively on the basis of other books already written on the same or similar subject", were used to characterize Wiener as both an idealist and a mechanicist, criticizing his supposed reduction of scientific and sociological
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was formed, an umbrella organization dedicated to providing funding for these new lights of Soviet science. By the 1960s, this fast legitimization put cybernetics in fashion, as "cybernetics" became a buzzword among career-minded scientists. Additionally, Berg's administration left many of the
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In contrast, Kolman's defense of cybernetics mirrored the
Stalinist criticisms it had endured. Kolman created a spurious historiography of cybernetics (which inevitably found its origins in Soviet science) and corrected the supposed "deviations" of the anti-cybernetic philosophers, employing
287:, allowed cybernetics to tear down its previous ideological criticisms and redeem itself in the public view. To Soviet scientists, cybernetics emerged as a possible vector of escape from the ideological traps of Stalinism, replacing it with the computational objectivity of cybernetics.
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to be intensified in Soviet media, and in an attempt to fill the
Department's quotas, Soviet journalists latched on to cybernetics as an American "reactionary pseudoscience" to denounce and mock. This attack was interpreted as a signal of an official attitude to cybernetics, so, under
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the umbrella organization of cybernetics, now entered the scientific mainstream, leaving cybernetics as a loose and incoherent ideological patchwork. Some cyberneticians, whose dissident styles had been sheltered by the cybernetics movement, now felt persecuted, and some, such as
314:, also joined this rehabilitation. In November 1954, Kolman presented a lecture at the Academy of Social Sciences, condemning this stifling of cybernetics to a shocked audience, who had expected a lecture rehearsing previous Stalinist criticisms, and marched down to the office of
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in the secret library of the
Special Construction Bureau and realizing instantly that "cybernetics was not a bourgeois pseudo-science, as official publications considered it at the time, but the opposite—a serious, important science". He joined with the dissident mathematician
408:, crammed in to get interviews from Wiener. Wiener himself spoke to American newspapers about this enormous enthusiasm for cybernetic research. In the Krushchev Thaw, Soviet cybernetics had not only been legitimized as a science, but had entered the vogue in Soviet academia.
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in June 1956, and they informed the Party of the extent to which USSR was "lagging behind the developed countries" in computer technology. Unfavorable descriptions of cybernetics were removed from official literature, and in 1958, the first
Russian translations of Wiener's
223:, was published under the pseudonym "Materialist", entitled "Whom Does Cybernetics Serve?"; it condemned cybernetics as a "misanthropic pseudo-theory" consisting of "mechanicism turning into idealism", pointing to the American military as the "god whom cybernetics served".
374:, at the time Deputy Minister of Defense, authored secret reports beleaguering the deficient state of information science in the USSR, pointing towards the suppression of cybernetics as the prime culprit. Party officials allowed a small Soviet delegation to be sent to the
421:: I'll tell you how much emphasis they're placing on it. They have an institute in Moscow. They have an institute in Kiev. They have an institute in Leningrad, They have one in Yerevan in Armenia, in Tiflis, in Samarkand, in Tashkent and Novosibirsk. They may have others.
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detailed advances in computer technology; and hundreds of lectures were given before various party members and workers on the subject of cybernetics. In 1961, the council produced an official volume proffering cybernetics as a socialist science: entitled
204:
213:, led a public campaign against the philosophy of "semantic idealism", characterizing Wiener, and cybernetics as a whole, as a part of this "reactionary philosophy". In 1952, another more explicitly anti-cybernetic article was published in the
363:
well-placed quotes from
Marxist authorities and philosophical epithets (e.g. "idealist" or "vitalist"), implying cybernetics' opponents fell into the same philosophical errors Marx and Lenin had criticized decades earlier, within their
252:", wishing for "the process of production realized without workers, only with machines controlled by the gigantic brain of the computer" with "no strikes or strike movements, and moreover no revolutionary insurrections". According to
307:, which the journal tacitly endorsed, though the Communist Party required that Lyapunov and Kitov present public lectures on cybernetics before its publication, with 121 seminars produced in total from 1954 until 55.
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that the Soviet commitment to cybernetics provided them "a tremendous advantage" in technology and economic productivity; in the absence of any complementary
American program, Schlesinger wrote, "we are finished".
404:. He arrived to see the booked hall swarmed with scientists eager to hear his lecture, some of whom sat on aisles and stairs to hear him speak; several Soviet publications, including the formerly anti-cybernetic
217:, definitively starting the campaign and leading the way for a flurry of popular titles denouncing the topic. At the zenith of this criticism, an article in the October 1953 issue of the state ideological organ,
191:
Though it was not commissioned by any Soviet authority and never mentioned the science by name, Agapov's article was taken as a signal of an official critical attitude towards cybernetics; editions of Wiener's
333:, Alexey Lyapunov, and Anatoly Kitov, and "What is Cybernetics" by Ernst Kolman. According to Benjamin Peters, these "two Soviet articles set the stage for the revolution of cybernetics in the Soviet Union".
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results from the Council. Berg only demands paperwork and strives for the expansion of the Council." Lyapunov, disgruntled with Berg and the non-academic direction of cybernetics, refused to write for
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entitled "Mark III, a Calculator", ridiculing this American excitement at the "sweet dream" of the military and industrial uses of these new "thinking machines", and criticizing cybernetics originator
194:
31:
431:: The general verdict, and this is from many different people, is that they're behind us in hardware not hopelessly, but slightly. They are ahead of us in the theorization of automatization.
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emigrated to escape this newfound scientific atmosphere. By the 1980s, cybernetics had lost its cultural relevance, being replaced in Soviet scientific culture with the concepts of '
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ideas to mere "mechanical model". Wiener's gloomy speculations on the "second industrial revolution" and the "assembly line without human agents" were distorted to brand him as a "
461:
to establish an official Institute of Cybernetics. Lyapunov joined forces with the structural linguists, who had been authorized to create the Institute of Semiotics directed by
275:, 1936; the death of Stalin (right) and accession of Khrushchev (left) in 1953, alongside the following political thaw, allowed cybernetics to be legitimized in the Soviet Union.
88:'s premiership allowed cybernetics to legitimize itself as "a serious, important science", and in 1955, articles on cybernetics were published in the state philosophical organ,
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Under the formerly suppressive scientific culture of the Soviet Union, cybernetics began to serve as an umbrella term for previously maligned areas of Soviet science, such as
157:
propaganda was to be intensified, in order "to show the decay of bourgeois culture and morals" and "debunk the myths of American propaganda" in the wake of the formation of
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256:, "each critic carried criticism one step further, gradually inflating the significance of cybernetics until it was seen as a full embodiment of imperialist ideology".
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of Soviet state-sanctioned media and academic publication was exclusively negative. Under the plans of the Soviet Department for Agitation and Propaganda, Soviet
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and the nation's economic and political reforms: from the unmitigated anti-Americanist criticism of cybernetics in the early 1950s; its legitimization after
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Rindzeviciute, Egle (2010). "Purification and Hybridisation of Soviet Cybernetics: The Politics of Scientific Governance in an Authoritarian Regime".
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were removed from library circulation, and several other periodicals followed suit, denouncing cybernetics as a "reactionary pseudoscience". In 1951,
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Number of authors engaged in each discipline of the Institute of Automation and Remote Control, from 1950 to 1969. From a report commissioned by the
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The beginning of a Soviet cybernetic movement was therefore first signalled by two articles, published together in the July–August 1955 volume of
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Leeds, Adam E. (2016). "Dreams in Cybernetic Fugue: Cold War Technoscience, the Intelligentsia, and the Birth of Soviet Mathematical Economics".
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630:. Yaroshevsky had first learned of cybernetics through an American journal of semantics, so he confused it for a subfield of Western semantics.
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During this period, Stalin himself never engaged in this rabid criticism of cybernetics, with the head of the Soviet Department of Sciences,
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161:. This imperative put Soviet newspaper editors in a frantic search for topics to criticize, in order to fill these propagandistic quotas.
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80:'s premiership, cybernetics was inflated into "a full embodiment of imperialist ideology" by Soviet writers. Upon Stalin's death, the
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was exploding; with the council subsuming 170 projects and 29 institutions by 1962, and 500 projects and 150 institutions by 1967.
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168:, following the post-war American interest in the developments in computer technology. The cover of the January 23, 1950, issue of
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Few of these critics had any access to primary sources on cybernetics. Agapov's sources were limited to the January 1950 issue of
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Initially, from 1950 to 1954, the reception of cybernetics by the Soviet Union establishment was exclusively negative. The Soviet
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for his "overvaluation of semantics and its misuse", and adopted as a general criticism of the "idealistic" nature of Western
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from 1958. 1958 was a watershed year for the study of cybernetics in the Soviet Union, also seeing a translation of Wiener's
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and up to 1961; its total saturation of Soviet academia in the 1960s; and its eventual decline through the 1970s and 1980s.
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the theory of automatic high-speed electronic calculating machines as a theory of self-organizing logical processes,
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as an example of the "charlatans and obscurantists, whom capitalists substitute for genuine scientists".
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Ford, John J. (1966). "Soviet Cybernetics and International Development". In Dechert, Charles R. (ed.).
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1699:. 2014 Third International Conference on Computer Technology in Russia and in the Former Soviet Union.
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622:"Semantic idealism" was an ideological term that gained currency after Stalin's criticisms of linguist
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under the slogan "Can Man Build a Superman?". On 4 May 1950, Agapov published an article in the
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416:: On your last trip to Russia, did you find the Soviets placing much emphasis on the computer?
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Holloway, David (1974). "Innovation in Science—the Case of Cybernetics in the Soviet Union".
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563:(1893–1979) Deputy Minister of Defense of the Soviet Union (September 1953–November 1957)
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1604:"Betrothal and Betrayal: The Soviet Translation of Norbert Wiener's Early Cybernetics"
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Kapitonova, Yu. V.; Letichevskii, A. A. (2003). "A Scientist of the XXIst Century".
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With this, Soviet cybernetics began its journey towards legitimization. Academician
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A very different academic, the Soviet philosopher and former ideological watchdog
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politically dangerous confrontation. They asserted cybernetics' main tenets as:
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1128:"MACHINES SMARTER THAN MEN? Interview With Dr. Norbert Wiener, Noted Scientist"
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Alongside these translations, in 1958 the first Soviet journal on cybernetics,
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On 10 April 1959, Berg sent a report edited by Lyapunov to a presidium of the
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575:(1923–1982) Soviet mathematician and founding father of Soviet cybernetics
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426:: Are they making full use of this science, in a way comparable to ours?
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Reefs of Myths: Towards the History of Cybernetics in the Soviet Union
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How Not to Network a Nation: The Uneasy History of the Soviet Internet
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came into contact with the dominant scientific ideologies of the
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396:, was launched with Lyapunov as its editor. For the 1960 First
676:] (4th ed.). Moscow: Gospolitizdat. pp. 236–237.
237:; the institute's criticisms were based on the 1949 volume of
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The reformed academic culture of the Soviet Union, after the
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From Newspeak to Cyberspeak: A History of Soviet Cybernetics
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The first to latch onto Cybernetics was science journalist,
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Peters, Benjamin (2012). "Normalizing Soviet Cybernetics".
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had its own particular characteristics, as the study of
1582:. Translated by Aronie, Emmanuel (2nd ed.). SIGCIS
1455:"The Cybernetics Scare and the Origins of the Internet"
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1476:"How the Computer Got Its Revenge on the Soviet Union"
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An American interview with Wiener, published in 1964.
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668:Rosenthal, Mark M.; Iudin, Pavel F., eds. (1954).
509:The work of the council was rewarded when, at the
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2619:Lenin All-Union Academy of Agricultural Sciences
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1429:. Notre Dame: University of Notre Dame Press.
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398:International Federation of Automatic Control
2957:Subfields of and cyberneticians involved in
174:had boasted an anthropomorphic cartoon of a
149:The initial reception of cybernetics in the
569:(1928–1993) dissident who emigrated in 1981
376:First International Congress on Cybernetics
3407:Science and technology in the Soviet Union
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1554:Historical Studies in the Natural Sciences
1399:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (
1339:. New York: Alfred E. Knopf. p. 339.
1337:Science and Philosophy in the Soviet Union
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1461:. Vol. 2, no. 1. pp. 32–38
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528:Cybernetics—in the Service of Communism
503:Cybernetics—in the Service of Communism
69:Department for Agitation and Propaganda
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1788:Index of Soviet Union–related articles
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1608:International Journal of Communication
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1573:Malinovsky, Boris Nikolaevich (2010).
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105:. Under the leadership of academician
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118:in the Soviet Union and, eventually,
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493:United States Department of Defense
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1537:10.1023/b:casa.0000003497.07568.d9
260:Legitimization and rise: 1954–1961
240:ETC: A Review of General Semantics
14:
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1474:Gerovitch, Slava (9 April 2015).
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1667:. Cambridge, MA: The MIT Press.
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1525:Cybernetics and Systems Analysis
1438:. Cambridge, MA: The MIT Press.
1427:The Social Impact of Cybernetics
453:("cybernetic linguistics"), and
327:The Main Features of Cybernetics
3028:Cybernetics in the Soviet Union
1357:
1328:
449:("physiological cybernetics"),
318:to have his lecture published.
50:Cybernetics in the Soviet Union
674:Short Philosophical Dictionary
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142:Short Philosophical Dictionary
1:
3412:Computing in the Soviet Union
2451:Political abuse of psychiatry
2243:Congress of People's Deputies
1368:Лингвисты, пришедшие с холода
637:
555:Notable Soviet cyberneticists
386:The Human Use of Human Beings
285:reforms of the Khrushchev era
126:Official criticism: 1950–1954
38:The Human Use of Human Beings
25:The first Russian edition of
1576:Pioneers of Soviet Computing
1132:U.S. News & World Report
469:Peak and decline: 1961–1980s
457:("biological cybernetics").
290:Military computer scientist
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2614:Academy of Medical Sciences
1684:Archiv für Sozialgeschichte
151:stifling scientific culture
10:
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1508:10.1177/030631277400400401
670:Kratkii filosofskii slovar
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2184:
2046:
2037:
1987:
1935:
1926:
1778:
1663:Peters, Benjamin (2016).
1628:Information & Culture
1602:Peters, Benjamin (2008).
1453:Gerovitch, Slava (2009).
1434:Gerovitch, Slava (2002).
3181:Charles Geoffrey Vickers
3068:Second-order cybernetics
1410:Norbert Wiener in Moscow
609:
350:the theory of automatic
294:recalled stumbling onto
3043:Engineering cybernetics
2973:Artificial intelligence
2905:Soviet Union portal
1705:10.1109/sorucom.2014.46
1695:Shilov, Valery (2014).
1418:10.1109/sorucom.2014.50
365:dialectical materialist
211:Institute of Philosophy
43:Problems of Cybernetics
3366:Walter Bradford Cannon
3256:Ludwig von Bertalanffy
3111:Alfred Radcliffe-Brown
3058:Management cybernetics
2983:Biomedical cybernetics
2978:Biological cybernetics
2797:Stalinist architecture
2551:Science and technology
2461:Ideological repression
2389:Soviet Airborne Forces
2327:Destruction battalions
1335:Graham, Loren (1972).
496:
451:structural linguistics
433:
276:
137:
111:Council of Cybernetics
99:structural linguistics
46:
3326:Anthony Stafford Beer
3161:Ernst von Glasersfeld
2579:List of metro systems
2132:Collective leadership
1737:at Wikimedia Commons
1640:10.1353/lac.2012.0009
1365:Бурас, Мария (2022).
515:Arthur Schlesinger Jr
490:
411:
267:
140:"Cybernetics" in the
130:
82:wide-reaching reforms
24:
3356:Valentin Braitenberg
3236:Jay Wright Forrester
2541:Net material product
2484:Censorship of images
2401:Political repression
2361:Soviet Border Troops
2294:First Deputy Premier
1878:1965 economic reform
1873:Soviet space program
666:, p. 150. From
447:Pavlovian physiology
394:Проблемы кибернетики
215:Literaturnaya Gazeta
181:Literaturnaya Gazeta
3381:William Grey Walter
3321:Sergei P. Kurdyumov
3281:N. Katherine Hayles
3063:Medical cybernetics
3023:Conversation theory
2609:Academy of Sciences
2424:Population transfer
2368:Soviet Armed Forces
2231:Congress of Soviets
2212:Presidium/Politburo
2176:Soviet anti-Zionism
2025:West Siberian Plain
1903:Revolutions of 1989
1840:Great Patriotic War
1825:New Economic Policy
1408:Fet, Yakov (2014).
1217:, pp. 241–246.
1205:, pp. 209–211.
1176:, pp. 204–209.
1134:. 24 February 1964.
1114:, pp. 194–195.
1102:, pp. 193–197.
1078:, pp. 193–194.
1066:, pp. 160–161.
1054:, pp. 170–173.
1030:, pp. 156–159.
1018:, pp. 177–179.
994:, pp. 159–160.
970:, pp. 154–156.
958:, pp. 173–177.
946:, pp. 153–155.
934:, pp. 151–154.
820:, pp. 149–150.
689:, pp. 119–120.
653:, pp. 196–197.
511:22nd Party Congress
443:Academy of Sciences
354:(particularly, the
200:Mikhail Yaroshevsky
3361:William Ross Ashby
3286:Natalia Bekhtereva
3261:Maleyka Abbaszadeh
3201:Heinz von Foerster
3126:Buckminster Fuller
3053:Information theory
3003:Catastrophe theory
2254:Military Collegium
2122:Capital punishment
2000:Caucasus Mountains
1913:Post-Soviet states
1793:Russian Revolution
980:Rindzeviciute 2010
908:Rindzeviciute 2010
898:, p. 128–129.
886:, p. 127–131.
835:, p. 179–180.
769:, p. 120–121.
757:, p. 181–182.
497:
402:Polytechnic Museum
356:theory of feedback
342:information theory
277:
120:post-Soviet states
47:
41:and the launch of
3389:
3388:
3311:Ranulph Glanville
3226:Jakob von Uexküll
3206:Humberto Maturana
3166:Francis Heylighen
2924:
2923:
2888:
2887:
2880:Hammer and sickle
2822:and their groups
2820:Soviet dissidents
2599:Communist Academy
2516:Economic planning
2492:
2491:
2385:Soviet Air Forces
2304:Security services
2224:General Secretary
2207:Central Committee
2149:Political parties
2081:Brezhnev Doctrine
2076:Foreign relations
2033:
2032:
1974:Autonomous okrugs
1888:Soviet–Afghan War
1868:Sino-Soviet split
1810:Russian Civil War
1733:Media related to
1714:978-1-4799-1799-0
1378:978-5-17-144664-2
1325:, p. 289–91.
585:Andrey Kolmogorov
517:warned President
463:Andrey Markov Jr.
406:Voprosy Filosofii
323:Voprosy Filosofii
316:Voprosy Filosofii
305:Voprosy Filosofii
273:Nikita Khrushchev
220:Voprosy Filosofii
91:Voprosy Filosofii
86:Nikita Khrushchev
3419:
3376:Warren McCulloch
3351:Valentin Turchin
3301:Pyotr Grigorenko
3246:John N. Warfield
3171:Francisco Varela
3131:Charles François
3101:Alexander Lerner
3078:Sociocybernetics
2998:Neurocybernetics
2951:
2944:
2937:
2928:
2927:
2914:
2913:
2903:
2902:
2901:
2651:
2650:
2559:
2414:Collectivization
2159:Marxism–Leninism
2044:
2043:
1933:
1932:
1764:
1757:
1750:
1741:
1740:
1732:
1718:
1691:
1678:
1659:
1622:
1621:
1615:
1598:
1597:
1591:
1589:
1587:
1581:
1569:
1548:
1519:
1490:
1488:
1486:
1470:
1468:
1466:
1449:
1430:
1421:
1404:
1398:
1390:
1351:
1350:
1332:
1326:
1320:
1314:
1308:
1302:
1296:
1290:
1289:, p. 262–3.
1284:
1278:
1272:
1266:
1260:
1254:
1253:, p. 260–1.
1248:
1242:
1236:
1230:
1229:, p. 255–6.
1224:
1218:
1212:
1206:
1200:
1194:
1188:
1177:
1171:
1165:
1159:
1153:
1147:
1136:
1135:
1124:
1115:
1109:
1103:
1097:
1091:
1085:
1079:
1073:
1067:
1061:
1055:
1049:
1043:
1037:
1031:
1025:
1019:
1013:
1007:
1001:
995:
989:
983:
977:
971:
965:
959:
953:
947:
941:
935:
929:
923:
917:
911:
905:
899:
893:
887:
881:
875:
869:
860:
854:
848:
842:
836:
830:
821:
815:
809:
803:
797:
791:
782:
776:
770:
764:
758:
752:
746:
740:
734:
733:, p. 148–9.
728:
722:
716:
705:
699:
690:
684:
678:
677:
660:
654:
648:
631:
620:
541:Alexander Lerner
537:Valentin Turchin
437:
389:were published.
208:
176:Harvard Mark III
145:
73:anti-Americanism
3427:
3426:
3422:
3421:
3420:
3418:
3417:
3416:
3392:
3391:
3390:
3385:
3341:Talcott Parsons
3331:Stuart Kauffman
3231:Jason Jixuan Hu
3216:Igor Aleksander
3196:Gregory Bateson
3191:Gordon S. Brown
3176:Frederic Vester
3156:Erich von Holst
3116:Allenna Leonard
3106:Alexey Lyapunov
3087:
3033:Decision theory
2961:
2955:
2925:
2920:
2899:
2897:
2884:
2832:
2806:
2726:
2640:
2585:
2557:
2531:Internet domain
2526:Five-year plans
2488:
2455:
2395:
2298:
2260:
2192:Communist Party
2180:
2139:Passport system
2029:
2005:European Russia
1983:
1922:
1863:Khrushchev Thaw
1842:(World War II)
1820:Creation treaty
1774:
1768:
1726:
1721:
1715:
1675:
1616:
1592:
1585:
1583:
1579:
1496:Science Studies
1484:
1482:
1464:
1462:
1446:
1392:
1391:
1379:
1360:
1355:
1354:
1347:
1333:
1329:
1321:
1317:
1309:
1305:
1297:
1293:
1285:
1281:
1273:
1269:
1261:
1257:
1249:
1245:
1237:
1233:
1225:
1221:
1213:
1209:
1201:
1197:
1189:
1180:
1172:
1168:
1160:
1156:
1148:
1139:
1126:
1125:
1118:
1110:
1106:
1098:
1094:
1090:, pp. 196.
1086:
1082:
1074:
1070:
1062:
1058:
1050:
1046:
1038:
1034:
1026:
1022:
1014:
1010:
1002:
998:
990:
986:
978:
974:
966:
962:
954:
950:
942:
938:
930:
926:
918:
914:
906:
902:
894:
890:
882:
878:
870:
863:
855:
851:
843:
839:
831:
824:
816:
812:
804:
800:
792:
785:
777:
773:
765:
761:
753:
749:
741:
737:
729:
725:
717:
708:
704:, pp. 120.
700:
693:
685:
681:
661:
657:
649:
645:
640:
635:
634:
621:
617:
612:
597:Alexey Lyapunov
591:Leonid Kraizmer
573:Victor Glushkov
557:
519:John F. Kennedy
485:
471:
439:
435:
427:
422:
417:
352:control systems
301:Alexey Lyapunov
281:death of Stalin
262:
254:Slava Gerovitch
202:
147:
139:
128:
71:had called for
17:
12:
11:
5:
3425:
3415:
3414:
3409:
3404:
3387:
3386:
3384:
3383:
3378:
3373:
3368:
3363:
3358:
3353:
3348:
3343:
3338:
3336:Stuart Umpleby
3333:
3328:
3323:
3318:
3313:
3308:
3303:
3298:
3296:Norbert Wiener
3293:
3291:Niklas Luhmann
3288:
3283:
3278:
3273:
3268:
3266:Manfred Clynes
3263:
3258:
3253:
3248:
3243:
3241:Jennifer Wilby
3238:
3233:
3228:
3223:
3218:
3213:
3211:I. A. Richards
3208:
3203:
3198:
3193:
3188:
3183:
3178:
3173:
3168:
3163:
3158:
3153:
3148:
3146:Claude Bernard
3143:
3141:Margaret Boden
3138:
3136:Genevieve Bell
3133:
3128:
3123:
3121:Anthony Wilden
3118:
3113:
3108:
3103:
3097:
3095:
3093:Cyberneticians
3089:
3088:
3086:
3085:
3080:
3075:
3073:Cybersemiotics
3070:
3065:
3060:
3055:
3050:
3045:
3040:
3035:
3030:
3025:
3020:
3018:Control theory
3015:
3010:
3005:
3000:
2995:
2990:
2985:
2980:
2975:
2969:
2967:
2963:
2962:
2954:
2953:
2946:
2939:
2931:
2922:
2921:
2919:
2918:
2908:
2893:
2890:
2889:
2886:
2885:
2883:
2882:
2877:
2876:
2875:
2865:
2864:
2863:
2853:
2852:
2851:
2840:
2838:
2834:
2833:
2831:
2830:
2829:
2828:
2816:
2814:
2808:
2807:
2805:
2804:
2799:
2794:
2789:
2784:
2779:
2774:
2769:
2768:
2767:
2757:
2752:
2747:
2742:
2736:
2734:
2728:
2727:
2725:
2724:
2719:
2714:
2713:
2712:
2707:
2697:
2692:
2687:
2686:
2685:
2680:
2675:
2665:
2660:
2654:
2648:
2642:
2641:
2639:
2638:
2637:
2636:
2626:
2621:
2616:
2611:
2606:
2601:
2595:
2593:
2587:
2586:
2584:
2583:
2582:
2581:
2576:
2574:Rail transport
2571:
2569:Railway system
2561:
2553:
2548:
2543:
2538:
2533:
2528:
2523:
2518:
2513:
2508:
2502:
2500:
2494:
2493:
2490:
2489:
2487:
2486:
2481:
2476:
2471:
2465:
2463:
2457:
2456:
2454:
2453:
2448:
2443:
2442:
2441:
2431:
2426:
2421:
2416:
2411:
2405:
2403:
2397:
2396:
2394:
2393:
2392:
2391:
2365:
2364:
2363:
2358:
2348:
2343:
2342:
2341:
2331:
2330:
2329:
2319:
2314:
2308:
2306:
2300:
2299:
2297:
2296:
2291:
2289:Deputy Premier
2286:
2281:
2280:
2279:
2272:Heads of state
2268:
2266:
2262:
2261:
2259:
2258:
2257:
2256:
2246:
2240:
2237:Supreme Soviet
2234:
2228:
2227:
2226:
2221:
2220:
2219:
2214:
2204:
2199:
2188:
2186:
2182:
2181:
2179:
2178:
2173:
2172:
2171:
2166:
2161:
2154:State ideology
2151:
2146:
2141:
2136:
2135:
2134:
2124:
2119:
2114:
2113:
2112:
2102:
2101:
2100:
2090:
2085:
2084:
2083:
2073:
2068:
2067:
2066:
2061:
2050:
2048:
2041:
2035:
2034:
2031:
2030:
2028:
2027:
2022:
2020:Ural Mountains
2017:
2012:
2010:North Caucasus
2007:
2002:
1997:
1991:
1989:
1985:
1984:
1982:
1981:
1976:
1971:
1970:
1969:
1959:
1954:
1953:
1952:
1941:
1939:
1930:
1924:
1923:
1921:
1920:
1915:
1910:
1905:
1900:
1895:
1890:
1885:
1880:
1875:
1870:
1865:
1860:
1855:
1854:
1853:
1848:
1837:
1832:
1827:
1822:
1817:
1812:
1807:
1806:
1805:
1800:
1790:
1784:
1782:
1776:
1775:
1767:
1766:
1759:
1752:
1744:
1725:
1724:External links
1722:
1720:
1719:
1713:
1692:
1679:
1673:
1660:
1634:(2): 145–175.
1623:
1599:
1570:
1560:(5): 633–668.
1549:
1531:(4): 471–476.
1520:
1502:(4): 299–337.
1491:
1471:
1450:
1444:
1431:
1422:
1405:
1377:
1361:
1359:
1356:
1353:
1352:
1345:
1327:
1323:Gerovitch 2002
1315:
1313:, p. 288.
1311:Gerovitch 2002
1303:
1301:, p. 262.
1299:Gerovitch 2002
1291:
1287:Gerovitch 2002
1279:
1275:Gerovitch 2009
1267:
1265:, p. 165.
1255:
1251:Gerovitch 2002
1243:
1241:, p. 256.
1239:Gerovitch 2002
1231:
1227:Gerovitch 2002
1219:
1215:Gerovitch 2002
1207:
1203:Gerovitch 2002
1195:
1193:, p. 167.
1178:
1174:Gerovitch 2002
1166:
1164:, p. 260.
1162:Gerovitch 2002
1154:
1152:, p. 164.
1137:
1116:
1104:
1100:Gerovitch 2002
1092:
1088:Gerovitch 2015
1080:
1076:Gerovitch 2015
1068:
1056:
1052:Gerovitch 2002
1044:
1032:
1020:
1016:Gerovitch 2002
1008:
1006:, p. 154.
996:
984:
982:, p. 301.
972:
960:
956:Gerovitch 2002
948:
944:Gerovitch 2002
936:
924:
912:
910:, p. 297.
900:
896:Gerovitch 2002
888:
884:Gerovitch 2002
876:
861:
859:, p. 126.
857:Gerovitch 2002
849:
847:, p. 131.
845:Gerovitch 2002
837:
822:
810:
808:, p. 299.
798:
796:, p. 125.
794:Gerovitch 2002
783:
781:, p. 149.
771:
767:Gerovitch 2002
759:
747:
745:, p. 121.
743:Gerovitch 2002
735:
723:
719:Gerovitch 2015
706:
702:Gerovitch 2002
691:
687:Gerovitch 2002
679:
655:
651:Gerovitch 2002
642:
641:
639:
636:
633:
632:
614:
613:
611:
608:
607:
606:
603:Sergei Sobolev
600:
594:
588:
582:
576:
570:
564:
556:
553:
470:
467:
410:
360:
359:
348:
345:
331:Sergei Sobolev
261:
258:
186:Norbert Wiener
129:
127:
124:
62:Stalin's death
27:Norbert Wiener
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
3424:
3413:
3410:
3408:
3405:
3403:
3400:
3399:
3397:
3382:
3379:
3377:
3374:
3372:
3369:
3367:
3364:
3362:
3359:
3357:
3354:
3352:
3349:
3347:
3346:Ulla Mitzdorf
3344:
3342:
3339:
3337:
3334:
3332:
3329:
3327:
3324:
3322:
3319:
3317:
3316:Robert Trappl
3314:
3312:
3309:
3307:
3304:
3302:
3299:
3297:
3294:
3292:
3289:
3287:
3284:
3282:
3279:
3277:
3274:
3272:
3271:Margaret Mead
3269:
3267:
3264:
3262:
3259:
3257:
3254:
3252:
3251:Kevin Warwick
3249:
3247:
3244:
3242:
3239:
3237:
3234:
3232:
3229:
3227:
3224:
3222:
3221:Jacque Fresco
3219:
3217:
3214:
3212:
3209:
3207:
3204:
3202:
3199:
3197:
3194:
3192:
3189:
3187:
3184:
3182:
3179:
3177:
3174:
3172:
3169:
3167:
3164:
3162:
3159:
3157:
3154:
3152:
3149:
3147:
3144:
3142:
3139:
3137:
3134:
3132:
3129:
3127:
3124:
3122:
3119:
3117:
3114:
3112:
3109:
3107:
3104:
3102:
3099:
3098:
3096:
3094:
3090:
3084:
3081:
3079:
3076:
3074:
3071:
3069:
3066:
3064:
3061:
3059:
3056:
3054:
3051:
3049:
3046:
3044:
3041:
3039:
3036:
3034:
3031:
3029:
3026:
3024:
3021:
3019:
3016:
3014:
3013:Connectionism
3011:
3009:
3006:
3004:
3001:
2999:
2996:
2994:
2991:
2989:
2986:
2984:
2981:
2979:
2976:
2974:
2971:
2970:
2968:
2964:
2960:
2952:
2947:
2945:
2940:
2938:
2933:
2932:
2929:
2917:
2909:
2907:
2906:
2895:
2894:
2891:
2881:
2878:
2874:
2871:
2870:
2869:
2866:
2862:
2859:
2858:
2857:
2854:
2850:
2847:
2846:
2845:
2842:
2841:
2839:
2835:
2827:
2824:
2823:
2821:
2818:
2817:
2815:
2813:
2809:
2803:
2800:
2798:
2795:
2793:
2790:
2788:
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40:
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28:
23:
19:
3371:Walter Pitts
3276:Marian Mazur
3151:Cliff Joslyn
3027:
2993:Biosemiotics
2896:
2668:Demographics
2658:Antisemitism
2603:
2511:Central Bank
2429:Forced labor
2377:Spetsnaz GRU
2197:organisation
2105:Human rights
2054:Constitution
1937:Subdivisions
1815:Russian SFSR
1771:Soviet Union
1727:
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1584:. Retrieved
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1483:. Retrieved
1479:
1463:. Retrieved
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1358:Bibliography
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545:Igor Mel'čuk
533:
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166:Boris Agapov
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138:
132:
131:
96:
89:
66:
58:Soviet Union
49:
48:
42:
36:
30:
18:
3402:Cybernetics
3306:Qian Xuesen
3186:Gordon Pask
3083:Synergetics
3048:Homeostasis
2988:Biorobotics
2959:cybernetics
2772:Phraseology
2717:Prohibition
2705:Linguistics
2690:Drug policy
2683:1989 census
2604:Cybernetics
2506:Agriculture
2419:Great Purge
2381:Soviet Navy
2373:Soviet Army
2245:(1989–1991)
2239:(1938–1991)
2233:(1922–1936)
2217:Secretariat
2088:Gun control
1995:Caspian Sea
1979:Closed city
1908:Dissolution
1893:Perestroika
1835:Great Purge
1735:Cybernetics
1263:Peters 2012
1191:Peters 2012
1150:Peters 2012
1064:Peters 2012
1040:Peters 2008
1028:Peters 2012
1004:Peters 2012
992:Peters 2012
968:Peters 2012
932:Peters 2012
920:Peters 2008
872:Peters 2008
833:Shilov 2014
818:Peters 2012
779:Peters 2012
755:Shilov 2014
731:Peters 2012
664:Peters 2012
605:(1908–1989)
599:(1911–1973)
593:(1912–2002)
587:(1903–1987)
581:(1920–2005)
567:Yuri Gastev
549:informatics
381:Cybernetics
367:framework.
296:Cybernetics
245:Cybernetics
203: [
195:Cybernetics
133:Cybernetics
116:informatics
54:cybernetics
32:Cybernetics
3396:Categories
2812:Opposition
2802:Television
2782:Propaganda
2755:Literature
2629:Naukograds
2624:Sharashkas
2558:(currency)
2536:Inventions
2479:Censorship
2409:Red Terror
2093:Government
1967:Autonomous
1950:Autonomous
1883:Stagnation
1846:Evacuation
1690:: 289–309.
1387:1293987701
1371:. Moscow.
662:Quoted in
638:References
561:Aksel Berg
473:See also:
372:Aksel Berg
250:technocrat
107:Aksel Berg
3038:Emergence
2966:Subfields
2873:Republics
2861:Republics
2849:Republics
2700:Languages
2564:Transport
2446:Holodomor
2339:Militsiya
2277:President
2169:Stalinism
2071:Elections
1945:Republics
1928:Geography
1918:Nostalgia
1830:Stalinism
1656:144363003
1545:195221399
1516:143821328
1395:cite book
628:semantics
475:Academset
209:, of the
2916:Category
2469:Religion
2356:Chairmen
2202:Congress
2164:Leninism
2144:Propiska
2039:Politics
1898:Glasnost
1858:Cold War
1798:February
1648:43737425
1614:: 66–80.
1480:Nautilus
1112:Fet 2014
455:genetics
103:genetics
2837:Symbols
2750:Fashion
2732:Culture
2646:Society
2591:Science
2556:Rouble
2498:Economy
2474:Science
2284:Premier
2265:Offices
2127:Leaders
2047:General
2015:Siberia
1988:Regions
1962:Oblasts
1803:October
1780:History
1586:28 June
1485:28 June
1465:28 June
483:VNIIPAS
2856:Emblem
2844:Anthem
2792:Sports
2745:Cinema
2740:Ballet
2722:Racism
2695:Family
2185:Bodies
1773:topics
1711:
1671:
1654:
1646:
1543:
1514:
1442:
1385:
1375:
1343:
543:, and
481:, and
144:, 1954
109:, the
2787:Radio
2765:Opera
2760:Music
2663:Crime
2434:Gulag
2312:Cheka
1957:Krais
1652:S2CID
1644:JSTOR
1580:(PDF)
1541:S2CID
1512:S2CID
672:[
610:Notes
329:" by
207:]
2868:Flag
2826:List
2634:List
2546:OGAS
2439:List
2322:NKVD
2110:LGBT
2098:List
2064:1977
2059:1936
1709:ISBN
1669:ISBN
1588:2019
1487:2019
1467:2019
1440:ISBN
1401:link
1383:OCLC
1373:ISBN
1341:ISBN
479:OGAS
383:and
283:and
271:and
235:Time
171:Time
159:NATO
101:and
2351:KGB
2346:MGB
2334:MVD
2317:GPU
2117:Law
1701:doi
1636:doi
1562:doi
1533:doi
1504:doi
1414:doi
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