513:
arguments of the national communists as impractical and counterproductive to the revolution in general, without elaborating their fear that the safety of Russia lay in the balance. And it was this understanding, coupled with the
Russian Bolsheviks' displeasure at seeing another revolutionary center proposed in their own revolutionary empire, that galvanized them into action against the national communists. Carr noted that owing to the unwieldy size of the gathering, policy debates and decisions took place behind closed doors, conducted by appointed leaders of the communist and non-communist "fractions" that were present. "A multinational assembly nearly 2,000 strong is not a working body", Carr observed. He further noted that the Baku Congress "had no successor, and left little behind it in the way of machinery" beyond a report to the Executive Committee of the Communist International by the Council for Propaganda and Action of the Peoples of the East and perhaps a single issue of a theoretical journal called
123:
national communists as impractical and counterproductive to the revolution in general, without elaborating their fear that the safety of Russia lay in the balance. And it was this understanding, coupled with the
Russian Bolsheviks' displeasure at seeing another revolutionary center proposed in their own revolutionary empire, that galvanized them into action against the national communists. The gathering adopted a formal "Manifesto of the Peoples of the East" as well as an "Appeal to the Workers of Europe, America, and Japan." While an executive body was elected to carry on Comintern work in the Middle East and the Far East, the long-term effect of the Congress was ultimately symbolic rather than practical, serving as a marker of Comintern commitment to the revolutionary anti-colonial movements of the east but forging few lasting ties.
442:. Pavlovich represented modern imperialist rivalry in the East as a three-way conflict between the empires of Germany, Great Britain, and Russia — with new players the United States, France, and Japan entering the fray during the World War and its immediate aftermath. Pavlovich railed against "the criminal blockade and the bloody war that was forced upon us" and to applause asserted that "a war against Soviet Russia is a war against the revolutionary East, and, vice versa, a war against the East is a war against Soviet Russia!" He also charged the Turkish government of Enver Pasha with "disgraceful" behavior at the
353:
253:
261:
192:, the call originally slated the opening of the gathering for August 15, 1920 — although the date was soon postponed by two weeks to September 1. The gathering was billed as "a congress of...workers and peasants of Persia, Armenia, and Turkey," according to the text of the convention call. The document asked supporters to "spare no effort to ensure that as many as possible are present" for the Congress. It made use of religious imagery in noting:
393:...he peasants of the entire East, under the wise leadership of the organized workers in the West, will now be able to rise up in their hundreds of millions in order to carry out a real, thoroughgoing agrarian revolution. They will be able to clear the soil so that no large landowners are left, no debt slavery, no taxes, dues, or any other variety of the devices used by the rich are left, and the land passes into the hands of the laboring masses.
20:
467:
independence, and therefore they cannot halt and rest content when that is won.... For the complete and real liberation of the peasantry of the East from all forms of oppression, dependence, and exploitation, it is also necessary to overthrow the rule of their landlords and bourgeoisie and to establish the Soviet power of the workers and peasants...
434:, Enver's sworn enemy, in high regard. With the sympathetic support of Kemal seen as important to Soviet foreign policy, a compromise had been brokered providing for the reading of Kemal's statement without his physical presence in the hall — a decision which took the edge off of the inevitable anger and hubbub on the floor when it was read.
458:
toiling masses of the East will not come to a halt", but would rather move past rule by a national bourgeoisie to "complete liberation from imperialist exploitation" through "transfer of the land to the toilers" and "removal from power of the non-working element, all foreign colonialist elements, ...and all privileged persons".
266:
262:
263:
406:
as in large measure a struggle of these imperialist powers for markets in the Middle East and Far East. The enormous cost of this war in money and lives had severely weakened all of these capitalist powers, winners and losers alike, Radek argued, increasing the need for colonial exploitation while at
239:
at the time, with the government of Great
Britain in particular doing its best to impede travel to oil-rich Baku. Two delegates were killed and several wounded when a ship traveling to Baku from Iran was attacked by British warplanes. Additionally, British ships patrolled the Black Sea, making travel
401:
The following night's session, opened with
Zinoviev in the chair, was dedicated to the international political situation and revolved around a lengthy speech by Karl Radek. Radek targeted the British and Russian empires for their protracted imperial struggle over "the peoples of the East," joined in
397:
Zinoviev declared that the 2nd World
Congress had determined that it would not be necessary for the nations of the East to have "passed through the state of capitalism" before embarking upon socialist revolution. The nations of China, India, Persia (Iran), Turkey, and Armenia were explicitly singled
512:
Soviet decision makers recognized that revolutionary activity along the Soviet Union's southern border would draw the attention of capitalist powers and invite them to intervene. It was this understanding which prompted the
Russian representation at the Baku Congress in September 1920 to reject the
461:
Kun was followed by a report on the agrarian question by
Comintern China expert Anatoly Skachko. A lengthy set of Theses on the Agrarian Question were presented as part of Skachko's report calling for the overthrow of colonial and landlord rule, the takeover of lands, and the cancellation of debts
457:
At the sixth
Session, during the night of September 6, a set of "Theses on Soviet Power in the East" were delivered as part of a report by Hungarian revolutionary leader Bela Kun. These theses asserted that "even after the rule of the foreign imperialists has been eliminated, the revolution of the
122:
Soviet decision makers recognized that revolutionary activity along the Soviet Union's southern border would draw the attention of capitalist powers and invite them to intervene. It was this understanding which prompted the
Russian representation at the Baku Congress to reject the arguments of the
294:
was problematic for congress organizers, as the vast number of languages spoken by participants presented a massive task for translators. Rousing speeches could be delivered only with painful delays as a myriad of translators rehashed and restated words from their original language to languages
278:
revolutionaries. Rather, these were largely anti-colonial fighters and their sympathizers, with a smattering of professional revolutionaries from the
Bolshevik organizations of Azerbaijan, Armenia, Kazakhstan, and Soviet Russia. This situation was a reflection of the fact that in 1920 Communist
471:
A final seventh session, held the night of September 7, established a permanent executive body called the Council for Propaganda and Action of the Peoples of the East. This body was to convene additional Congresses of the Peoples of the East "no less frequently than once a year" and to conduct
196:
Formerly you traveled across deserts to reach the holy places. Now make your way over mountains and rivers, through forests and deserts, to meet and discuss how to free yourselves from the chains of servitude and unite in fraternal alliance, so as to live a life based on equality, freedom, and
466:
The peasants of the East, now marching arm in arm with their democratic bourgeoisie to win independence for their countries from the Western Imperialist powers, must remember that they have their own special tasks to perform. Their liberation will not be achieved merely by winning political
221:. Transportation was difficult, with many delegates traveling together from Moscow following the conclusion of the 2nd World Congress of the Comintern in a special train designated for that purpose. Even this was no easy task, as the train passed through territory wracked by the ongoing
265:
483:. Included was a call for equality of rights between the genders, unconditional access of women to education, equality of marriage rights, an end to polygamy, employment of women in government institutions, and the establishment of committees for the rights and protection of women.
364:
p.m. on the night of September 1 by Nariman Narimanov, noted the existence of organized communist and non-party "fractions" and the seating of a pre-chosen slate of 16 representatives of each of these groups. Grigory Zinoviev was elected Chairman of the Congress by acclamation and
243:
Despite various hardships, nearly 1,900 delegates ultimately succeeded in making their way to Baku for convocation of the Congress of the Peoples of the East on September 1, 1920. The gathering was by far the largest assembly of delegates organized by the Comintern to that date.
286:
very weak in comparison to those of the colonial powers. Movements for national independence were barely beginning and consequently those attracted to the Comintern's red flame were, in the words of Comintern chief Grigory Zinoviev, "heterogeneous" and "motley" in composition.
384:
The first session was almost entirely dedicated to a lengthy keynote speech delivered by Zinoviev, who declared the Baku Congress to be the "second half of the Congress that recently finished its work in Moscow". The new Communist International was contrasted to the old
437:
Session five was held during the night of September 5, 1920 and dealt with the questions of nationalism and colonialism, with the discussion based upon a lengthy speech delivered to the gathering by Mikhail Pavlovich, a Bolshevik official in the
302:
The opening of the congress on September 1 was preceded by an opening rally held the day before under the auspices of the Baku Soviet and the Trade Union Congress of Azerbaijan. Opening at almost 1:30 in the morning, the gathering gave Zinoviev,
153:, held in July and August 1920. It was this latter and more inclusive gathering, attended by a significant contingent of delegates from the continent of Asia, which authorized the convocation a specialized gathering to rally the various
311:" repeatedly. Introductory remarks were delivered by Nariman Narimanov on behalf of the Communist Party of Azerbaijan and the keynote speech by Grigory Zinoviev. Additional speeches were made by Radek and Hungarian revolutionary leader
295:
comprehensible to their listeners. Understanding of the words being spoken was imperfect, with accents often heavy, and the conference hall crowded and noisy. Moreover, religious and ethnic tension such as those between
472:
day-to-day work in the interval between Congresses. This entity seems to have been more or less stillborn, with only one subsequent Congress of the Toilers of the East convened in Moscow in January and February 1922.
373:
were honored additionally as "honorary chairmen". Ten honorary members of the Presiding Committee were also named including: the American John Reed, Tom Quelch of Great Britain, Rosmer, Radek, Steinhardt, and Soviet
264:
164:
These national-colonial liberation movements were seen as a mechanism for the shattering of colonial empires and the removal of the markets which were believed to be instrumental in the stabilization of
148:
in March 1919. A haphazard affair, which was attended by many sympathetic radicals who had no formal mandate from their home organizations, the Comintern's structure was perfected and formalized at its
177:
the Comintern believed that strong revolutionary movements in these countries would provide an additional line of defense to ward off foreign invasion by the enemies of the Bolshevik regime.
504:
Muslim beliefs and institutions were treated with veiled respect, and the cause of world revolution narrowed down to specific and more manageable dimensions. The Muslim tradition of
274:
Despite the fact that nearly 1,300 of the 1,891 delegates attending the Baku Congress were registered as "communists", those attending the gathering were not, in general, veteran
240:
from Turkey a risky affair. The governments of Armenia and Georgia banned attendance at the conference, forcing delegates to use stealth at border crossings from these countries.
407:
the same time making it possible for the danger to "pass away like a bad dream if the toiling masses of the East will rise up together with the workers of Europe."
508:, or holy war against the infidel, was harnessed to a modern crusade of oppressed peoples against the imperialist oppressors, with Britain as the main target.
422:
The fourth session, convened that same evening, heard a series of speakers, including the reading of a substantial written statement by the controversial
189:
500:
emphasized the Comintern's "uncompromising" promotion of the notion of revolution combined with its willingness to compromise with Muslim traditions:
307:, and the various representatives of the Comintern from Europe and America a rousing welcome, with an orchestra playing the revolutionary anthem "
629:
174:
439:
360:
The Congress of the Peoples of the East took place in seven sessions over an eight-day period. The first session, called to order at 9:40
1518:
475:
An additional short discussion on the situation faced by the women's movement in the East was also conducted, with Naciye Hanım of the
234:
375:
1302:
Hanim in "Council of Propaganda and Action; Women of the East; Concluding Remarks: Session 7: September 7, 1920," in Riddell (ed.),
201:
Physical arrangements for the Baku Congress were coordinated by a small committee in that city including the Azerbaijani communists
1503:
476:
415:
The third session, lasting three hours, was held in the early afternoon of September 3 and dealt largely with the situation in
1258:
Skachko's report appears as part of "Soviets in the East; Agrarian Question: Session 6: September 6, 1920," in Riddell (ed.),
1340:
1249:"Theses on Soviet Power in the East" in "Soviets in the East; Agrarian Question: Session 6: September 6, 1920," pp. 181-182.
1286:"Council of Propaganda and Action; Women of the East; Concluding Remarks: Session 7: September 7, 1920," in Riddell (ed.),
1274:"Theses on the Agrarian Question," in "Soviets in the East; Agrarian Question: Session 6: September 6, 1920," pp. 194-198.
1236:
Kun's report appears as part of "Soviets in the East; Agrarian Question: Session 6: September 6, 1920," in Riddell (ed.),
150:
104:
426:
of Turkey. Enver, a nationalist who came to power in 1908, and who was one of those primarily responsible for the 1915
115:, Mikhail Pavlovich, and Anatoly Skachko. Non-RCP delegates delivering major reports included Hungarian revolutionary
1110:
Radek's speech appears in the chapter ""World Political Situation: Session 2, September 2, 1920", in Riddell (ed.),
23:
The keynote address to the Congress of the Peoples of the East was delivered by Comintern chief Grigory Zinoviev.
1391:
282:
Industrialization was minimal in these nations, the trade union movement virtually non-existent, and national
1406:
Mohammed Nuri El-Amin, "The Role of International Communism in the Muslim World and in Egypt and the Sudan,"
834:
141:
1498:
1474:
1493:
430:, was a highly divisive figure among the delegates, many of whom hailed from Armenia and others who held
796:
1513:
1477:
1132:
Radek in "Tasks of the Congress of the Peoples of the East: Session 1, September 1, 1920," pp. 83-85.
1101:
Zinoviev in "Tasks of the Congress of the Peoples of the East: Session 1, September 1, 1920," pg. 71.
1087:
Zinoviev in "Tasks of the Congress of the Peoples of the East: Session 1, September 1, 1920," pg. 63.
76:
1062:"Tasks of the Congress of the Peoples of the East: Session 1, September 1, 1920," in Riddell (ed.),
315:, all of whom spoke in Russian with Turkic summary translation. Short speeches were also delivered
1141:
Radek in "Tasks of the Congress of the Peoples of the East: Session 1, September 1, 1920," pg. 88.
1123:
Radek in "Tasks of the Congress of the Peoples of the East: Session 1, September 1, 1920," pg. 83.
1004:"Joint Celebration of the Baku Soviet and the Azerbaijan Trade Union Congress," in Riddell (ed.),
431:
1523:
443:
137:
52:
41:
1205:
Pavlovich in "National and Colonial Questions: Session 5, September 5, 1920," in Riddell (ed.),
641:
324:
1417:
1332:
Muslim National Communism in the Soviet Union: A Revolutionary Strategy for the Colonial World
1330:
1150:"Discussion: Turkestan, Mountain Republic: Session 3, September 4, 1920," in Riddell (ed.),
853:(Russian edition), whole no. 12 (July 1920), col. 259-264. Reprinted in John Riddell (ed.),
279:
Parties had been established in very few of the colonial and semi-colonial nations of Asia.
726:
386:
206:
1044:"Joint Celebration of the Baku Soviet and the Azerbaijan Trade Union Congress," pp. 55-59.
1035:"Joint Celebration of the Baku Soviet and the Azerbaijan Trade Union Congress," pp. 52-55.
1026:"Joint Celebration of the Baku Soviet and the Azerbaijan Trade Union Congress," pp. 46-47.
8:
1078:"Tasks of the Congress of the Peoples of the East: Session 1, September 1, 1920," pg. 62.
214:
95:. Although attended by delegates representing more than two dozen ethnic entities of the
1508:
1053:"Joint Celebration of the Baku Soviet and the Azerbaijan Trade Union Congress," pg. 59.
1017:"Joint Celebration of the Baku Soviet and the Azerbaijan Trade Union Congress," pg. 46.
402:
the 20th Century by the rival empires of Germany and France. Radek attempted to reveal
352:
308:
225:
including destroyed train stations and railway sidings littered with burned rail cars.
1227:
Pavlovich in "National and Colonial Questions: Session 5, September 5, 1920," pg. 153.
1218:
Pavlovich in "National and Colonial Questions: Session 5, September 5, 1920," pg. 143.
1449:
1336:
427:
222:
202:
64:
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and non-Muslims, and Armenians and Turks, subtly undermined the Congress's harmony.
256:
An "Eastern Orchestra" played for delegates during the September 1920 Baku Congress.
480:
356:
Karl Radek (L) at the 2nd World Congress of the Comintern, Moscow, July–August 1920
185:
108:
32:
173:
economies. Moreover, with revolutionary sentiment strong in the nations bordering
1429:
Stephen White, "Colonial Revolution and the Communist International, 1919-1924,"
1163:"Guest Speakers; India; Turkey: Session 4: September 4, 1920," in Riddell (ed.),
677:
525:
According to a survey conducted of congress delegates the following ethnicities (
328:
84:
538:
366:
158:
252:
184:
the official monthly magazine of the Comintern. Signed by Comintern president
103:, the Baku Congress was dominated by the lengthy speeches of leaders from the
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683:
635:
580:
451:
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out by Zinoviev as ripe for "proletarian revolution" in his keynote address.
378:
320:
291:
218:
210:
88:
80:
1475:"Minutes of the Congress of the Peoples of the East: Baku, September 1920".
370:
958:
A History of Soviet Russia: The Bolshevik Revolution, 1917-1923: Volume 3
665:
423:
403:
283:
166:
154:
96:
92:
1444:
1434:
312:
116:
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905:
To See the Dawn: Baku, 1920 — First Congress of the Peoples of the East
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by Zinoviev, with the communist future painted in rosy terms in which:
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304:
170:
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60:
1461:
To See The Dawn: Baku, 1920: First Congress of the Peoples of the East
1411:
610:
562:
550:
416:
180:
The written call for the Congress was made in the July 1920 issue of
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Stephen White, "Soviet Russia and the Asian Revolution, 1917-1924,
762:
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708:
592:
568:
556:
544:
229:
100:
67:). The congress was attended by nearly 1,900 delegates from across
339:
a.m. with the formal Congress slated to open the following night.
841:
Brian Pearce, trans. London: New Park Publications, 1977; pg. ix.
714:
695:
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604:
332:
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51:) was a multinational conference held in September 1920 by the
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671:
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19:
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Soviet Russia was additionally the subject of a military
808:
46:
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and 25 Western European and American members of the
75:
and marked a commitment by the Comintern to support
1418:"Communism and the East: The Baku Congress, 1920."
190:Executive Committee of the Communist International
347:
1485:
1392:"Composition of the Congress by Nationalities,"
885:"Call to the Baku Congress," in Riddell (ed.),
869:"Call to the Baku Congress," in Riddell (ed.),
529:) were represented at the 1920 Baku Congress.
1433:, vol. 40, no. 2 (Summer 1976), pp. 173–193.
1329:Bennigsen, Alexandre A. (15 September 1980).
1322:
1192:Pavlovich's speech appears in Riddell (ed.),
462:and taxes Skachko reminded the audience that
335:. The meeting finally drew to a close at 3:30
1423:, vol. 33, no. 3 (Sept. 1974), pp. 492–514.
1361:
1359:
1175:
1173:
1454:Postcolonialism: An Historical Introduction
1443:, vol. 10, no. 3 (July 1984), pp. 219–232.
1394:Marxists Internet Archive, www.marxists.org
1335:. University of Chicago Press. p. 76.
1270:
1268:
919:
917:
915:
913:
907:. New York: Pathfinder Press, 1993; pg. 20.
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897:
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16:1920 multinational conference in Azerbaijan
1456:(Oxford: Blackwell, 2001), pp. 134–9.
1097:
1095:
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839:Baku: Congress of the Peoples of the East.
520:
1408:British Journal of Middle Eastern Studies
1356:
1328:
1170:
814:
491:
486:
450:government of Georgia with aggression in
161:movements around the Comintern's banner.
83:" in addition to the traditional radical
1410:, vol. 23, no. 1 (May 1996), pp. 29–53.
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1265:
974:
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970:
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440:People's Commissariat of Foreign Affairs
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259:
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18:
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479:delivering a report to the congress in
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1463:. New York: Pathfinder Books, 1993.
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960:. London: Macmillan, 1953; pg. 260.
930:
376:People's Commissar of Nationalities
270:Congress of the Peoples of the East
213:of Turkey, as well as the Georgian
140:(Comintern) was established at the
119:and Turkish feminist Naciye Hanım.
29:Congress of the Peoples of the East
13:
1400:
14:
1535:
1467:
903:John Riddell, "Introduction" to
851:Kommunisticheskii Internatsional
778:No questionnaire — more than 100
1441:Review of International Studies
1385:
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348:Speeches of Zinoviev and Radek
1:
1519:Soviet Union–Turkey relations
1504:Baku in the Russian Civil War
209:, Said Gabiev from Dagestan,
131:
802:
247:
7:
923:Riddell, "Introduction" to
790:
775:No nationality stated — 266
79:movements in the colonial "
47:
10:
1540:
991:Kemp, Kemp, "Foreword" to
797:League against Imperialism
444:Brest-Litovsk negotiations
327:of the United States, and
126:
1478:Marxists Internet Archive
477:Communist Party of Turkey
77:revolutionary nationalist
36:
1380:The Bolshevik Revolution
1367:The Bolshevik Revolution
1317:The Bolshevik Revolution
1181:The Bolshevik Revolution
182:Communist International,
1473:Brian Pearce (trans.),
521:Attendance by ethnicity
515:The Peoples of the East
138:Communist International
105:Russian Communist Party
53:Communist International
1382:, vol. 3, pp. 267-268.
510:
492:Assessments and legacy
487:Programmatic documents
469:
395:
357:
271:
257:
199:
48:S'yezd narodov Vostoka
24:
1431:Science & Society
502:
464:
432:Mustafa Kemal Atatürk
391:
355:
269:
255:
194:
63:(then the capital of
37:Съезд народов Востока
22:
978:Kemp, "Foreword" to
943:Kemp, "Foreword" to
387:Second International
1499:Soviet Central Asia
1480:, www.marxists.org/
215:Sergo Ordzhonikidze
1494:1920 in Azerbaijan
1369:, vol. 3, pg. 262.
1319:, vol. 3, pg. 261.
1183:, vol. 3, pg. 265.
496:British historian
358:
309:The Internationale
272:
258:
151:2nd World Congress
107:(RCP), including:
25:
1450:Robert J.C. Young
1342:978-0-226-04236-7
787:
786:
428:Armenian genocide
411:Reports by others
267:
223:Russian Civil War
203:Nariman Narimanov
142:Founding Congress
65:Soviet Azerbaijan
45:
1531:
1514:1920 conferences
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1260:To See the Dawn,
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1064:To See the Dawn,
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855:To See the Dawn,
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831:
818:
812:
533:
381:, among others.
369:, Zinoviev, and
363:
338:
268:
235:cordon sanitaire
217:and the Russian
186:Grigory Zinoviev
109:Grigory Zinoviev
50:
40:
38:
1539:
1538:
1534:
1533:
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1416:Stephen White,
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1401:Further reading
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1304:To See the Dawn
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1288:To See the Dawn
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1238:To See the Dawn
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1207:To See the Dawn
1204:
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1194:To See the Dawn
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1165:To See the Dawn
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1152:To See the Dawn
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1112:To See the Dawn
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1006:To See the Dawn
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955:
951:
942:
931:
925:To See the Dawn
922:
911:
902:
893:
887:To See the Dawn
884:
877:
871:To See the Dawn
868:
861:
849:
845:
832:
821:
813:
809:
805:
793:
788:
702:
617:
527:natsional'nosty
523:
494:
489:
413:
361:
350:
345:
336:
329:Karl Steinhardt
260:
250:
134:
129:
85:labour movement
17:
12:
11:
5:
1537:
1527:
1526:
1524:Events in Baku
1521:
1516:
1511:
1506:
1501:
1496:
1482:
1481:
1469:
1468:External links
1466:
1465:
1464:
1459:John Riddell,
1457:
1447:
1437:
1427:
1414:
1402:
1399:
1397:
1396:
1384:
1371:
1355:
1341:
1321:
1308:
1306:, pp. 204-207.
1292:
1276:
1264:
1251:
1242:
1240:, pp. 172-183.
1229:
1220:
1211:
1209:, pp. 137-138.
1198:
1196:, pp. 137-158.
1185:
1169:
1167:, pp. 114-136.
1156:
1154:, pp. 103-113.
1143:
1134:
1125:
1116:
1103:
1089:
1080:
1068:
1055:
1046:
1037:
1028:
1019:
1010:
997:
984:
962:
949:
929:
909:
891:
875:
859:
843:
819:
815:Bennigsen 1980
806:
804:
801:
800:
799:
792:
789:
785:
784:
780:
779:
776:
773:
767:
766:
760:
754:
748:
742:
736:
730:
724:
718:
712:
704:
700:
699:
693:
687:
681:
675:
669:
663:
657:
651:
645:
639:
633:
627:
619:
615:
614:
608:
602:
596:
590:
584:
578:
572:
566:
560:
554:
548:
542:
531:
522:
519:
493:
490:
488:
485:
412:
409:
367:Vladimir Lenin
349:
346:
344:
341:
249:
246:
207:M. D. Huseinov
133:
130:
128:
125:
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
1536:
1525:
1522:
1520:
1517:
1515:
1512:
1510:
1507:
1505:
1502:
1500:
1497:
1495:
1492:
1491:
1489:
1479:
1476:
1472:
1471:
1462:
1458:
1455:
1451:
1448:
1446:
1442:
1438:
1436:
1432:
1428:
1426:
1422:
1421:Slavic Review
1419:
1415:
1413:
1409:
1405:
1404:
1393:
1388:
1381:
1375:
1368:
1362:
1360:
1344:
1338:
1334:
1333:
1325:
1318:
1312:
1305:
1299:
1297:
1289:
1283:
1281:
1271:
1269:
1261:
1255:
1246:
1239:
1233:
1224:
1215:
1208:
1202:
1195:
1189:
1182:
1176:
1174:
1166:
1160:
1153:
1147:
1138:
1129:
1120:
1113:
1107:
1098:
1096:
1094:
1084:
1075:
1073:
1065:
1059:
1050:
1041:
1032:
1023:
1014:
1007:
1001:
994:
988:
981:
975:
973:
971:
969:
967:
959:
953:
946:
940:
938:
936:
934:
926:
920:
918:
916:
914:
906:
900:
898:
896:
888:
882:
880:
872:
866:
864:
856:
852:
847:
840:
836:
830:
828:
826:
824:
817:, p. 76.
816:
811:
807:
798:
795:
794:
783:
777:
774:
772:
771:TOTAL — 1,275
769:
768:
764:
761:
758:
755:
752:
749:
746:
743:
740:
737:
734:
731:
728:
725:
722:
719:
716:
713:
711:(Kalmyks) — 3
710:
707:
706:
705:
703:
697:
694:
691:
688:
685:
682:
679:
676:
673:
670:
667:
664:
661:
658:
655:
652:
649:
646:
643:
640:
637:
634:
631:
628:
625:
622:
621:
620:
618:
612:
609:
606:
603:
600:
597:
594:
591:
588:
585:
582:
579:
576:
573:
570:
567:
564:
561:
558:
555:
552:
549:
546:
543:
540:
537:
536:
535:
534:
530:
528:
518:
516:
509:
507:
501:
499:
484:
482:
478:
473:
468:
463:
459:
455:
453:
452:South Ossetia
449:
445:
441:
435:
433:
429:
425:
420:
418:
408:
405:
399:
394:
390:
388:
382:
380:
379:Joseph Stalin
377:
372:
368:
354:
340:
334:
330:
326:
322:
321:Alfred Rosmer
318:
314:
310:
306:
300:
298:
293:
292:heterogeneity
288:
285:
280:
277:
254:
245:
241:
238:
236:
231:
226:
224:
220:
219:Elena Stasova
216:
212:
211:Mustafa Suphi
208:
204:
198:
193:
191:
187:
183:
178:
176:
175:Soviet Russia
172:
168:
162:
160:
159:anti-colonial
156:
152:
147:
143:
139:
124:
120:
118:
114:
110:
106:
102:
98:
94:
90:
89:North America
86:
82:
78:
74:
70:
66:
62:
58:
54:
49:
43:
34:
30:
21:
1460:
1453:
1440:
1430:
1420:
1407:
1387:
1379:
1374:
1366:
1346:. Retrieved
1331:
1324:
1316:
1311:
1303:
1287:
1262:pp. 183-199.
1259:
1254:
1245:
1237:
1232:
1223:
1214:
1206:
1201:
1193:
1188:
1180:
1164:
1159:
1151:
1146:
1137:
1128:
1119:
1114:, pp. 80-96.
1111:
1106:
1083:
1063:
1058:
1049:
1040:
1031:
1022:
1013:
1005:
1000:
992:
987:
979:
957:
956:E. H. Carr,
952:
944:
924:
904:
886:
870:
854:
850:
846:
838:
810:
781:
770:
701:
616:
526:
524:
514:
511:
503:
495:
474:
470:
465:
460:
456:
436:
421:
414:
400:
396:
392:
383:
371:Leon Trotsky
359:
343:The Congress
319:of Britain,
301:
289:
284:bourgeoisies
281:
273:
242:
232:
227:
200:
197:brotherhood.
195:
181:
179:
163:
135:
121:
28:
26:
424:Enver Pasha
404:World War I
323:of France,
167:imperialist
97:Middle East
93:Australasia
87:of Europe,
1488:Categories
1290:, pg. 201.
1066:pp. 61-62.
995:, pg. xii.
857:pp. 36-41.
835:"Foreword"
833:Tom Kemp,
745:Ukrainians
733:Abkhazians
690:Hungarians
660:Kabardians
498:E. H. Carr
317:Tom Quelch
305:Karl Radek
171:capitalist
132:Background
113:Karl Radek
61:Azerbaijan
1509:Comintern
1008:, pg. 45.
927:, pg. 21.
889:, pg. 40.
873:, pg. 36.
803:Footnotes
642:Jamshidis
611:Ossetians
605:Lesghians
581:Kirghizes
563:Georgians
551:Armenians
448:Menshevik
417:Turkestan
325:John Reed
248:Delegates
42:romanized
1445:In JSTOR
1435:In JSTOR
1425:In JSTOR
1412:In JSTOR
947:, pg. x.
791:See also
763:Latvians
739:Bashkirs
727:Tekintsy
709:Kalmucks
636:Ingushes
593:Turkmens
569:Chechens
557:Russians
545:Persians
446:and the
313:Béla Kun
230:blockade
155:national
144:held in
117:Béla Kun
101:Far East
99:and the
1348:10 July
982:pg. xi.
715:Koreans
696:Germans
666:Chinese
648:Hazaras
630:Indians
481:Turkish
333:Austria
297:Muslims
276:Marxist
127:History
44::
33:Russian
1378:Carr,
1365:Carr,
1339:
1315:Carr,
1179:Carr,
782:
757:Czechs
751:Croats
624:Uzbeks
599:Kumyks
575:Tajiks
362:
337:
146:Moscow
91:, and
73:Europe
980:Baku,
721:Arabs
684:Poles
678:Avars
672:Kurds
654:Sarts
565:— 100
559:— 104
553:— 157
547:— 192
541:— 235
539:Turks
506:jihad
290:This
1350:2013
1337:ISBN
993:Baku
945:Baku
656:— 10
650:— 11
644:— 12
638:— 13
632:— 14
626:— 15
613:— 17
607:— 25
601:— 33
595:— 35
589:— 41
587:Jews
583:— 47
577:— 61
571:— 82
205:and
157:and
136:The
81:East
71:and
69:Asia
57:Baku
27:The
837:to
765:— 1
759:— 1
753:— 1
747:— 1
741:— 1
735:— 2
729:— 2
723:— 3
717:— 3
698:— 3
692:— 3
686:— 5
680:— 7
674:— 8
668:— 8
662:— 9
331:of
55:in
1490::
1452:,
1358:^
1295:^
1279:^
1267:^
1172:^
1092:^
1071:^
965:^
932:^
912:^
894:^
878:^
862:^
822:^
517:.
454:.
419:.
169:,
111:,
59:,
39:,
35::
1352:.
237:)
233:(
31:(
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