414:
402:
390:
438:
426:
498:
450:
20:
273:
international army, with the
Russian army as its nucleus, to provide the wherewithal to intervene in any country that needed it. Castlereagh, speaking for Britain saw this as a highly undesirable commitment to reactionary policies. He recoiled at the idea of Russian armies marching across Europe to put down popular uprisings. Furthermore, to admit all the smaller countries, would create intrigue and confusion. Britain refused to participate, so the idea was abandoned.
474:
462:
660:
486:
285:. In neither case was any decision arrived at, owing mainly to the refusal of the other powers to agree with the British proposal for a reciprocal right of search on the high seas and to the objection of Britain to international action which would have involved the presence of a Russian squadron in the Mediterranean.
224:
The evacuation of France by Allied units was agreed to in principle at the first session, the consequent treaty being signed on 9 October. The immediate object of the conference being thus readily disposed of, the time of the congress was mainly occupied in discussing the form to be taken by the
78:
The main achievement of the
Congress was to definitively terminate the wars of 1792–1815. They closed out all claims against France, and accepted France as an equal and full member of the Concert of Four, which was now composed of Five Powers. To hedge their bets, the Four secretly renewed the
54:, which had defeated it in 1814. The purpose was to decide the withdrawal of the army of occupation from France and renegotiate the reparations it owed. It produced an amicable settlement, whereby France refinanced its reparations debt; the Allies in a few weeks withdrew all of their troops.
272:
The
Russian tsar proposed the formation of an entirely new alliance, to include all of the signatories from the Vienna treaties, to guarantee the sovereignty, territorial integrity, and preservation of the ruling governments of all members of this new coalition. The tsar further proposed an
99:, whose growing closeness to Russia was clear, strengthening the hand of the Tsar. It was therefore agreed that only those five countries that had signed the 1815 Treaty of Paris would take part. This excluded a large number of participants who had previously taken part in the
75:). When the Congress met, Paris had discharged its obligations punctually. 332 million remained; France offered to pay the sum of 265 million. Of that, 100 million francs would be in the form of French bonds bearing interest, the rest in installments through to English banks.
225:
European alliance, and the "military measures", if any, to be adopted as a precaution against a fresh outburst on the part of France. The proposal of the
Emperor Alexander I to establish a "universal union of guarantee" on the broad basis of the
373:
by an international committee of the powers. The detailed study of its proceedings is highly instructive in revealing the almost insurmountable obstacles to any really effective international diplomatic system prior to the creation of the
94:
proposed in March 1818 that there should be a
Congress later in the year. Metternich took up the proposal but was concerned to limit the number of countries attending. In particular he was alarmed by the prospect of
358:
276:
The delegates discussed several topics left unsettled in the hurried winding up of the
Congress of Vienna, or which had arisen since. The most important were the methods to be adopted for the suppression of the
675:
369:
The
Congress, which broke up at the end of November, is of historical importance mainly as marking the highest point reached during the 19th century in the attempt to govern
107:
514:
229:, after much debate, broke down on the uncompromising opposition of Britain; and the main outcome of the congress was the signature, on 15 November, of two instruments:
413:
79:
Quadruple
Alliance, but this was a formality of no consequence. The Four drifted apart year by year over questions dealing with Italy, South America, and Greece.
68:
succeeded in having France admitted as a full discussion partner in the
European congress system and France's position as a European power was restored.
106:
While several locations were considered for the
Congress Aix-la-Chapelle, which had been part of Prussia since 1815, was chosen due to its proximity to
823:
64:
The occupation was formally terminated at the conference on 30 September 1818; by 30 November evacuation was complete. The French representative
437:
788:
209:
65:
39:
684:
783:
818:
793:
185:
401:
389:
704:
264:
The secret protocol was communicated in confidence to Richelieu; to the declaration France was invited publicly to adhere.
181:
341:
against their prince and the position of the Jews in Austria and Prussia. An attempt made to introduce the subject of the
71:
Financially, France was originally obligated to pay 700 million francs, in installments every four months for five years (
773:
744:
497:
449:
252:
a public "declaration" of the intention of the powers to maintain their intimate union, "strengthened by the ties of
144:
425:
308:
to be recognized as king was unanimously rejected; and measures were taken to redress the grievances of the German
205:
177:
138:
115:
828:
813:
808:
720:
Bridge, Roy, "Allied Diplomacy in Peacetime: The Failure of the Congress 'System,' 1815-23" in Alan Sked, ed.,
119:
833:
189:
35:
768:
461:
763:
213:
201:
473:
798:
238:
803:
485:
288:
In matters of less importance the Congress was more unanimous. Thus on the urgent appeal of King
778:
289:
671:
246:
197:
72:
293:
169:
737:
The Congress of Vienna and its Legacy: War and Great Power Diplomacy after Napoleon Account
316:
278:
173:
8:
329:
In addition to these a great variety of questions were considered, from the treatment of
319:
305:
353:
Certain vexatious questions of diplomatic etiquette were settled once and for all. (see
242:
100:
47:
740:
700:
375:
309:
88:
58:
633:
The Congress of Vienna and Its Legacy: War and Great Power Diplomacy After Napoleon
193:
149:
130:
91:
136:
to travel to the Congress and paint the leading dignitaries. Amongst them was his
354:
342:
282:
168:(Aix-la-Chapelle) on 1 of October, and its first session was attended by Emperor
133:
43:
19:
301:
297:
153:
51:
757:
679:
666:
322:, were after consideration reserved for a further conference to be called at
226:
694:
688:. Vol. 1 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 449–450.
334:
253:
212:, by favour of the Allies, was present on behalf of France. Members of the
323:
126:
34:, held in the autumn of 1818, was a high-level diplomatic meeting of
330:
111:
665:
This article incorporates text from a publication now in the
727:
Veve, Thomas D. "France and the Allied Occupation, 1816-1818,"
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338:
234:
165:
24:
542:
540:
538:
536:
534:
532:
530:
257:
96:
359:
Aix-la-Chapelle: Diplomatic Precedence of Ministers Resident
296:
received a peremptory summons to carry out the terms of the
527:
256:
brotherhood", of which the object was the preservation of
729:
Consortium on Revolutionary Europe 1750-1850: Proceedings
611:
609:
607:
605:
603:
601:
599:
315:
The important outstanding questions in Germany, e.g. the
515:
International relations of the Great Powers (1814–1919)
596:
57:
It was part of the series of conferences known as the
755:
560:, They History of European Diplomacy: 1815-1914
693:Schneider, Karin; Kurz, Stephan, eds. (2018).
692:
110:in northern France. Seventy years before the
216:were also heavily involved in the congress.
114:had hosted the negotiations that led to the
696:Mächtekongresse 1818-1822. Digitale Edition
345:was defeated by the opposition of Britain.
219:
326:am Main, which occurred on 10 July 1819.
824:Arthur Wellesley, 1st Duke of Wellington
699:. Vienna: Austrian Academy of Sciences.
670:
615:
546:
18:
734:
381:
756:
267:
260:on the basis of respect for treaties.
148:. These works became the core of the
722:Europe's Balance of Power, 1815-1848
443:Arthur Wellesley, Duke of Wellington
249:(of 20 November 1815) against France
789:19th-century diplomatic conferences
337:to the grievances of the people of
129:commissioned the country's leading
13:
714:
14:
845:
784:Diplomatic conferences in Germany
145:Portrait of the Duke of Richelieu
819:Frederick William III of Prussia
658:
640:Metternich: Councillor of Europe
591:Great Power Diplomacy: 1814-1914
496:
484:
472:
460:
448:
436:
424:
419:Frederick William III of Prussia
412:
400:
388:
178:Frederick William III of Prussia
139:Portrait of Francis I of Austria
794:1818 in international relations
625:
241:established by the treaties of
108:Wellington's Army of Occupation
676:Aix-la-Chapelle, Congresses of
583:
574:
565:
552:
120:War of the Austrian Succession
1:
646:
467:Count Capo d'Istria of Russia
364:
180:. Britain was represented by
82:
491:Prince Hardenberg of Prussia
455:Prince Metternich of Austria
348:
237:confirming and renewing the
159:
7:
508:
378:after the First World War.
38:and the four allied powers
32:Congress of Aix-la-Chapelle
10:
850:
774:Post-Napoleonic congresses
503:Duc de Richelieu of France
479:Count Nesselrode of Russia
214:Rothschild banking dynasty
164:The congress, convened in
116:Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle
739:. London: I. B. Tauris.
520:
731:1990, Vol. 20, p411-416
685:Encyclopædia Britannica
672:Phillips, Walter Alison
290:Frederick VI of Denmark
220:A treaty for withdrawal
118:of 1748 that ended the
829:Klemens von Metternich
735:Jarrett, Mark (2013).
300:; The petition of the
27:
814:Alexander I of Russia
809:September 1818 events
407:Alexander I of Russia
294:Charles XIV of Sweden
170:Alexander I of Russia
23:Congress memorial in
22:
16:Diplomatic conference
834:Ioannis Kapodistrias
635:. I.B. Tauris, 2013.
395:Francis I of Austria
382:Gallery of delegates
279:Atlantic slave trade
174:Francis I of Austria
73:1815 Treaty of Paris
769:Bourbon Restoration
268:Diverse discussions
192:, Russia by Counts
549:, p. 450 ¶ 3.
310:mediatized princes
239:Quadruple Alliance
186:Duke of Wellington
101:Congress of Vienna
28:
764:History of Aachen
724:(1979), pp 34–53.
706:978-3-9504783-0-3
431:Lord Castlereagh
376:League of Nations
202:Prince Hardenberg
190:Prince Metternich
89:Foreign Secretary
59:Concert of Europe
841:
799:1818 conferences
750:
710:
689:
664:
662:
661:
619:
613:
594:
593:(1992) pp 33-35.
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562:(1927), pp 28-31
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343:Spanish colonies
210:Duc de Richelieu
206:Count Bernstorff
182:Lord Castlereagh
150:Waterloo Chamber
131:portrait painter
92:Lord Castlereagh
66:Duc de Richelieu
849:
848:
844:
843:
842:
840:
839:
838:
804:1818 in Prussia
754:
753:
747:
717:
715:Further reading
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659:
657:
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631:Jarrett, Mark.
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355:diplomatic rank
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283:Barbary pirates
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134:Thomas Lawrence
85:
17:
12:
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5:
847:
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779:1818 in France
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751:
746:978-1780761169
745:
732:
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690:
680:Chisholm, Hugh
648:
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643:
642:. Faber, 2010.
638:Palmer, Alan.
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618:, p. 450.
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302:Prince-elector
298:Treaty of Kiel
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221:
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172:, the Emperor
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154:Windsor Castle
84:
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15:
9:
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667:public domain
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616:Phillips 1911
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589:Norman Rich,
586:
580:Jarrett p.181
577:
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558:R.B. Mowat,
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548:
547:Phillips 1911
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227:Holy Alliance
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200:, Prussia by
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194:Capo d'Istria
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188:, Austria by
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652:Attribution:
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626:Bibliography
590:
585:
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571:Palmer p.256
567:
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335:Saint Helena
333:in exile at
328:
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31:
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176:, and King
758:Categories
647:References
365:Assessment
320:succession
198:Nesselrode
125:Britain's
83:Background
674:(1911). "
349:Diplomacy
324:Frankfurt
254:Christian
233:a secret
160:Delegates
509:See also
331:Napoleon
281:and the
243:Chaumont
235:protocol
184:and the
112:spa town
87:British
682:(ed.).
669::
48:Prussia
44:Austria
40:Britain
743:
703:
678:". In
663:
371:Europe
339:Monaco
208:. The
166:Aachen
52:Russia
36:France
25:Aachen
521:Notes
317:Baden
306:Hesse
258:peace
247:Paris
97:Spain
741:ISBN
701:ISBN
357:and
245:and
204:and
196:and
142:and
50:and
30:The
304:of
152:at
760::
598:^
529:^
361:)
312:.
292:,
156:.
122:.
103:.
61:.
46:,
42:,
749:.
709:.
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