Confederate States Army

1051: 2579: 3985:(1997), p. ix. "In both the Union and Confederate samples, foreign-born soldiers are substantially underrepresented. In the Union sample, only 9 percent of soldiers were born abroad in the Confederate Army, compared with 24 percent of all Union Army soldiers. Unskilled and even skilled laborers are underrepresented in both samples. Nonslaveholding farmers are underrepresented in the Confederate sample. Indeed, while about one-third of all Confederate soldiers belonged to slaveholding families, slightly more than two-thirds of the sample whose slaveholding status is known did so ... Officers are overrepresented in both samples. While some 10 percent of Civil War soldiers served as officers for at least half of their time in the army, 47 percent of the Confederate sample and 35 percent of the Union sample did so. Both samples are also skewed toward those who volunteered in 1861–62 and therefore contain disproportionately few draftees 2591: 2566: 2835:

figures on the number of Confederate soldiers. The best estimates of the number of deaths of Confederate soldiers appear to be about 94,000 killed or mortally wounded in battle, 164,000 deaths from disease and between 26,000 and 31,000 deaths in Union prison camps. In contrast, about 25,000 Union soldiers died as a result of accidents, drowning, murder, killed after capture, suicide, execution for various crimes, execution by the Confederates (64), sunstroke, other and not stated. Confederate casualties for all these reasons are unavailable. Since some Confederate soldiers would have died for these reasons, more total deaths and total casualties for the Confederacy must have occurred. One estimate of the Confederate wounded, which is considered incomplete, is 194,026; another is 226,000. At the end of the war 174,223 men of the Confederate forces surrendered to the

1027: 2815: 1385: 42: 593:

Methodists, and Lutherans. One result was wave after wave of religious revivals in the Army, religion playing a major part in the lives of Confederate soldiers. Some men with a weak religious affiliation became committed Christians, and saw their military service in terms of satisfying God's wishes. Religion strengthened the soldiers' loyalty to their comrades and the Confederacy. Military historian Samuel J. Watson argues that Christian faith was a major factor in combat motivation. According to his analysis, the soldiers' faith was consoling for the loss of comrades; it was a shield against fear; it helped reduce drinking and fighting in the ranks; it enlarged the soldiers' community of close friends and helped compensate for their long-term separation from home.

1213: 3966:

slaveholding families than from non-slaveholding families expressed such a purpose: 33 percent, compared with 12 percent. Ironically, the proportion of Union soldiers who wrote about the slavery question was greater, as the next chapter will show. There is a ready explanation for this apparent paradox. Emancipation was a salient issue for Union soldiers because it was controversial. Slavery was less salient for most Confederate soldiers because it was not controversial. They took slavery for granted as one of the Southern 'rights' and institutions for which they fought, and did not feel compelled to discuss it. Although only 20 percent of the soldiers avowed explicit proslavery purposes in their letters and diaries,

1270: 1289: 1392: 1175: 1399: 1378: 2203: 1194: 1251: 2175:, combined with the frequent unwillingness or inability of Southern state governments to provide adequate funding, were key factors in the Confederate army's demise. The Confederacy early on lost control of most of its major river and ocean ports to capture or blockade. The road system was poor, and it relied more and more on a heavily overburdened railroad system. U.S. forces destroyed track, engines, cars, bridges and telegraph lines as often as possible, knowing that new equipment was unavailable to the Confederacy. Occasional raids into the North were designed to bring back money and supplies. In 1864, the Confederates burned down 1232: 511:, which was established by the Confederate Provisional Congress in an act on February 21, 1861. The Confederate Congress gave control over military operations, and authority for mustering state forces and volunteers to the President of the Confederate States of America on February 28, 1861, and March 6, 1861. On March 8 the Confederate Congress passed a law that authorized Davis to issue proclamations to call up no more than 100,000 men. The War Department asked for 8,000 volunteers on March 9, 20,000 on April 8, and 49,000 on and after April 16. Davis proposed an army of 100,000 soldiers in his message to Congress on April 29. 1430: 1437: 1135: 536: 1163: 1121: 1156: 739:") and quietly returned when their family problems had been resolved. By September 1864, however, President Davis publicly admitted that two-thirds of the soldiers were absent, "most of them without leave". The problem escalated rapidly after that, and fewer and fewer men returned. Soldiers who were fighting in defense of their homes realized that they had to desert to fulfill that duty. Historian Mark Weitz argues that the official count of 103,400 deserters is too low. He concludes that most of the desertions came because the soldier felt he owed a higher duty to his own family than to the Confederacy. 1488: 2768:, profoundly angered the Confederacy, with the Confederates calling it uncivilized. As a response, in May 1863, the Confederacy passed a law demanding "full and ample retaliation" against the United States, stating that any black person captured in "arms against the Confederate States" or giving aid and comfort to their enemies would be turned over to state authorities, where they could be tried as slave insurrectionists; a capital offense punishable with a sentence of death. However, Confederate authorities feared retaliation, and consequently no black prisoner was ever put on trial and executed. 121: 496: 2859: 1149: 1128: 1307: 1015: 1142: 1039: 405: 768: 646:

percent. Ironically, the proportion of Union soldiers who wrote about the slavery question was greater, as the next chapter will show. There is a ready explanation for this apparent paradox. Emancipation was a salient issue for Union soldiers because it was controversial. Slavery was less salient for most Confederate soldiers because it was not controversial. They took slavery for granted as one of the Southern 'rights' and institutions for which they fought, and did not feel compelled to discuss it.

2199:

their shoulders to designate what part of the service the soldier was in. Confederate soldiers also frequently suffered from inadequate supplies of shoes, tents, and other gear, and would be forced to innovate and make do with whatever they could scrounge from the local countryside. While Confederate officers were generally better-supplied and were normally able to wear a regulation officer's uniform, they often chose to share other hardships – such as the lack of adequate food – with their troops.

1330:), but all wore the same insignia regardless of grade. This was a decision made early in the conflict. The Confederate Congress initially made the rank of brigadier general the highest rank. As the war progressed, the other general-officer ranks were quickly added, but no insignia for them was created. (Robert E. Lee was a notable exception to this. He chose to wear the rank insignia of a colonel.) Only seven men achieved the rank of (full) general; the highest-ranking (earliest date of rank) was 918:) and even President Jefferson Davis, were former U.S. Army and, in smaller numbers, U.S. Navy officers who had been opposed to, disapproved of, or were at least unenthusiastic about secession, but resigned their U.S. commissions upon hearing that their states had left the Union. They felt that they had no choice but to help defend their homes. President Abraham Lincoln was exasperated to hear of such men who professed to love their country but were willing to fight against it. 2493: 9805: 7149: 1008:

would be commanded by senior colonels or even a lower grade officer. Barring the same type of circumstances that might leave a lower grade officer in temporary command, divisions were commanded by major generals and corps were commanded by lieutenant generals. A few corps commanders were never confirmed as lieutenant generals and exercised corps command for varying periods as major generals. Armies of more than one corps were commanded by (full) generals.

213: 9815: 2503:, along with a few Cherokee, sided with the Confederate army, in which he was made colonel and commanded a battalion of Cherokee. Reluctantly, on October 7, 1861, Chief Ross signed a treaty transferring all obligations due to the Cherokee from the United States to the Confederate States. The Cherokee were guaranteed protection, rations of food, livestock, tools, and other goods, as well as a delegate to the Confederate Congress at Richmond. 825: 2729:. According to John Parker, a slave who was forced by the Confederates to fight Union soldiers, "Our masters tried all they could to make us fight ... They promised to give us our freedom and money besides, but none of us believed them; we only fought because we had to." Parker stated that had he been given an opportunity, he would have turned against his Confederate captors, and "could do it with pleasure". According to abolitionist 456:, were enrolled in the ACSA to ensure that they outranked all militia officers. ACSA ultimately existed only on paper. The organization of the ACSA did not proceed beyond the appointment and confirmation of some officers. Three state regiments were later denominated "Confederate" regiments, but this appears to have had no practical effect on the organization of a regular Confederate Army and no real effect on the regiments themselves. 5662: 2603: 2534: 720:, research done using an 1862 Georgia lottery showed that rich white Southern men actually enlisted at a higher rate than poor men because they had more to lose. Slavery helped provide them with wealth and power, and they felt that the Civil War would destroy everything that they had if they lost because they saw slavery as the foundation of their wealth, which was under threat and caused them to fight hard. 519:

certain occupations considered to be most valuable for the home front (such as railroad and river workers, civil officials, telegraph operators, miners, druggists and teachers) were exempt from the draft. The act was amended twice in 1862. On September 27, the maximum age of conscription was extended to 45. On October 11, the Confederate Congress passed the so-called "

747:

noted, "The deserters belong almost entirely to the poorest class of non-slave-holders whose labor is indispensable to the daily support of their families" and that "When the father, husband or son is forced into the service, the suffering at home with them is inevitable. It is not in the nature of these men to remain quiet in the ranks under such circumstances."

1341:, the number of adjacent strips (and therefore the width of the lines of the design) denoting rank. The color of the piping and kepi denoted the military branch. The braid was sometimes left off by officers since it made them conspicuous targets. The kepi was rarely used, the common slouch hat being preferred for its practicality in the Southern climate. 1050: 437:) began organizing on April 27. Virtually all regular, volunteer, and conscripted men preferred to enter this organization since officers could achieve a higher rank in the Provisional Army than they could in the Regular Army. If the war had ended successfully for them, the Confederates intended that the PACS would be disbanded, leaving only the ACSA. 2744:, was devastatingly effective at shooting Confederate artillerymen defending the city. In response, some Confederate artillery crews started forcing slaves to load the cannons. "They forced their negroes to load their cannon," reported a U.S. officer. "They shot them if they would not load the cannon, and we shot them if they did." 321:

deaths in Union prison camps. One estimate of the total Confederate wounded is 194,026. In comparison, the best estimates of the number of Union military personnel deaths are 110,100 killed in battle, 224,580 deaths from disease, and 30,218 deaths in Confederate prison camps. The estimated figure for Union Army wounded is 275,174.

2717:

occasion some of those body servants were known to have picked up a rifle and fought. But there was no official recruitment of black soldiers in the Confederate army until the very end of the war..." He continued, "But Appomattox came only a few weeks later, and none of these men were ever put in uniform to fight."

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White Southerners founded the Confederacy on the ideology of white supremacy. Confederate soldiers on their way to Antietam and Gettysburg, their two main forays into U.S. states, put this ideology into practice: they seized scores of free black people in Maryland and Pennsylvania and sold them south

2771:

James McPherson states that "Confederate troops sometimes murdered black soldiers and their officers as they tried to surrender. In most cases, though, Confederate officers returned captured black soldiers to slavery or put them to hard labor on southern fortifications." African American soldiers who

2680:

opposed arming slaves, saying that it was "suicidal" and would run contrary to the Confederacy's ideology. Opposing such a move, Cobb stated that African Americans were untrustworthy and innately lacked the qualities to make good soldiers, and that using them would cause many Confederates to quit the

937:

in the Army was a company of 100 soldiers. Ten companies were organized into an infantry regiment, which theoretically had 1,000 men. In reality, as disease, desertions and casualties took their toll, and the common practice of sending replacements to form new regiments took hold, most regiments were

746:

Historians of the Civil War have emphasized how soldiers from poor families deserted because they were urgently needed at home. Local pressures mounted as Union forces occupied more and more Confederate territory, putting more and more families at risk of hardship. One Confederate officer at the time

708:

One Confederate soldier from Texas gave his reasons for fighting for the Confederacy, stating that "we are fighting for our property", contrasting this with the motivations of Union soldiers, who, he claimed, were fighting for the "flimsy and abstract idea that a negro is equal to an Anglo American".

620:

Unlike many slaveholders in the age of Thomas Jefferson, Confederate soldiers from slaveholding families expressed no feelings of embarrassment or inconsistency in fighting for their liberty while holding other people in slavery. Indeed, white supremacy and the right of property in slaves were at the

611:

contrasts the views of Confederate soldiers regarding slavery with those of the colonial American revolutionaries of the 18th century. He stated that while the American rebel colonists of the 1770s saw an incongruity between owning slaves on the one hand, and proclaiming to be fighting for liberty on

2689:

said "In my opinion, the worst calamity that could befall us would be to gain our independence by the valor of our slaves... instead of our own... " and complained using black troops would be "a surrender of the entire slavery question." Maintaining the institution of slavery was the primary goal of

2275:

Score after score of the finest, swiftest British steamers and ships, loaded with British material of war of every description, cannon, rifles by the hundreds of thousand, powder by the thousand of tons, shot, shell, cartridges, swords, etc, with cargo after cargo of clothes, boots, shoes, blankets,

2182:

As a result of severe supply problems, as well as the lack of textile factories in the Confederacy and the successful U.S. naval blockade of Southern ports, the typical Confederate soldier was rarely able to wear the standard regulation uniform, particularly as the war progressed. While on the march

1972:

In addition to the Confederate field armies, the Confederate States itself was divided into several military territorial organizations, known as departments. These departments were mainly administrative in nature, organizing recruiting, supply distribution, and coordinating with the field armies in

1459:

were elected by the soldiers under their command. The Confederate Congress authorized the awarding of medals for courage and good conduct on October 13, 1862, but wartime difficulties prevented the procurement of the needed medals. To avoid postponing recognition for their valor, those nominated for

1451:

Branch colors were used for the color of chevrons—blue for infantry, yellow for cavalry, and red for artillery. This could differ with some units, however, depending on available resources or the unit commander's desire. Cavalry regiments from Texas, for example, often used red insignia and at least

592:

The southern churches met the shortage of Army chaplains by sending missionaries. The Southern Baptists sent a total of 78 missionaries, starting in 1862. Presbyterians were even more active, with 112 missionaries sent in early 1865. Other missionaries were funded and supported by the Episcopalians,

555:

Some historians emphasize that Civil War soldiers were driven by political ideology, holding firm beliefs about the importance of liberty, Union, or state rights, or about the need to protect or to destroy slavery. Others point to less overtly political reasons to fight, such as the defense of one's

304:

who were pressed into performing various tasks for the army, such as the construction of fortifications and defenses or driving wagons. Since these figures include estimates of the total number of soldiers who served at any time during the war, they do not represent the size of the army at any given

2694:

or a great many of the most powerful southerners the idea of arming and freeing the slaves was repugnant because the protection of slavery had been and still remained the central core of Confederate purpose ... Slavery was the basis of the planter class's wealth, power, and position in society. The

2506:

In exchange, the Cherokee would furnish ten companies of mounted men, and allow the construction of military posts and roads within the Cherokee Nation. However, no Indian regiment was to be called on to fight outside Indian Territory. As a result of the Treaty, the 2nd Cherokee Mounted Rifles, led

2467:

A Chance for Active Service. The Secretary of War has authorized me to enlist all the Indians east of the Mississippi River into the service of the Confederate States, as Scouts. In addition to the Indians, I will receive all white male citizens, who are good marksmen. To each member, Fifty Dollars

2198:

Furthermore, each state often had its uniform regulations and insignia, which meant that the "standard" Confederate uniform often featured a variety of differences based on the state the soldier came from. For example, uniforms for North Carolina regiments often featured a colored strip of cloth on

645:

nly 20 percent of the sample of 429 Southern soldiers explicitly voiced proslavery convictions in their letters or diaries. As one might expect, a much higher percentage of soldiers from slaveholding families than from non-slaveholding families expressed such a purpose: 33 percent, compared with 12

578:

Confederate and Union soldiers interpreted the heritage of 1776 in opposite ways. Confederates professed to fight for liberty and independence from a too radical government; Unionists said they fought to preserve the nation conceived in liberty from dismemberment and destruction ... The rhetoric of

2747:

In other cases, under explicit orders from their commanders, Confederate armies would often forcibly kidnap free African American civilians during their incursions into Union territory, sending them south into Confederate territory and thus enslaving them, as was the case with the Army of Northern

2711:

On March 13, 1865, the Confederate Congress passed General Order 14 by a single vote in the Confederate senate, and Jefferson Davis signed the order into law. The order was issued March 23, but as it was late in the war, only a few African American companies were raised in the Richmond area before

2653:

continued to maintain their position and oppose the idea of armed black men in the Confederate Army, even as late in the war as January 1865. They stated that it was incongruous with the Confederacy's goals and views regarding African Americans and slavery. The Georgian newspaper opined that using

2639:

says, "When Lee publicly advocated arming slaves in early 1865, he did so as a desperate expedient that might prolong Southern military resistance." After acrimonious debate the Confederate Congress agreed in March 1865. The war was nearly over by then, and only about two hundred enslaved soldiers

716:, reflecting on his role in the war, stated in a letter to a friend that "I've always understood that we went to war on account of the thing we quarreled with the North about. I've never heard of any other cause than slavery." As stated by Andrew Hall, Connor Huff and Shiro Kuriwaki in the article 526:

The Confederate Congress enacted several more amendments throughout the war to address losses suffered in battle as well as the United States' greater supply of manpower. In December 1863, it abolished the practice of allowing a rich drafted man to hire a substitute to take his place in the ranks.

6342:

he Government owes to all men employed in its armies, without regard to distinction of color, the full protection of the laws of war—and that any violation of these laws, or of the usages of civilized nations in time of war, by the Rebels now in arms, should be made the subject of prompt and full

3965:

It would be wrong, however, to assume that Confederate soldiers were constantly preoccupied with this matter. Only 20 percent of the sample of 429 Southern soldiers explicitly voiced proslavery convictions in their letters or diaries. As one might expect, a much higher percentage of soldiers from

2793:

The Confederate law declaring black U.S. soldiers to be insurrectionist slaves, combined with the Confederacy's discriminatory mistreatment of captured black U.S. soldiers, became a stumbling block for prisoner exchanges between the United States and the Confederacy, as the U.S. government in the

2634:

nor slaves. The idea of arming the Confederacy's slaves for use as soldiers was speculated on from the onset of the war, but such proposals were not seriously considered by Jefferson Davis or others in the Confederate administration until late in the war when severe manpower shortages were faced.

742:

Confederate policies regarding desertion generally were severe. For example, on August 19, 1862, General Stonewall Jackson approved the court-martial sentence of execution for three soldiers for desertion, rejecting pleas for clemency from the soldiers' regimental commander. Jackson's goal was to

390:

on April 12–13, 1861 and forced its capitulation on April 14. The United States, outraged by the Confederacy's attack, demanded war. It rallied behind Lincoln's call on April 15 for all the loyal states to send troops to recapture the forts from the secessionists, to put down the rebellion and to

320:

According to the National Park Service, "Soldier demographics for the Confederate Army are not available due to incomplete and destroyed enlistment records." Their estimates of Confederate military personnel deaths are about 94,000 killed in battle, 164,000 deaths from disease, and between 25,976

3915:

Confederate soldiers from slaveholding families expressed no feelings of embarrassment or inconsistency in fighting for their liberty while holding other people in slavery. Indeed, white supremacy and the right of property in slaves were at the core of the ideology for which Confederate soldiers

3023:

are more extensive and reliable, but are not entirely accurate. Estimates of the number of individual Union soldiers range between 1,550,000 and 2,400,000, with a number between 2,000,000 and 2,200,000 most likely. Union Army records show slightly more than 2,677,000 enlistments, but this number

2214:

Confederate soldiers were also faced with inadequate food rations, especially as the war progressed. There was plenty of meat in the Confederacy. The unsolvable problem was shipping it to the armies, especially when Lee's army in Virginia was at the end of a long, tenuous supply line. The United

1007:

were commanded by captains and had two or more lieutenants. Regiments were commanded by colonels. Lieutenant colonels were second in command. At least one major was next in command. Brigades were commanded by brigadier generals although casualties or other attrition sometimes meant that brigades

518:

law in either Confederate or Union history, the Conscription Act, which made all able bodied white men between the ages of 18 and 35 liable for a three-year term of service in the Provisional Army. It also extended the terms of enlistment for all one-year soldiers to three years. Men employed in

395:

then joined the Confederacy. Both the United States and the Confederate States began in earnest to raise large, mostly volunteer, armies, with the opposing objectives: putting down the rebellion and preserving the Union on the one hand, and establishing independence from the United States on the

2716:

and placed back under U.S. control. According to historian James M. McPherson in 1994, "no black soldiers fought in the Confederate army, unless they were passing as white. He noted that some Confederates brought along "their body servants, who in many cases had grown up with them" and that "on

2621:

noted that "the country and the army are mainly dependent upon slave labor for support." African American slave labor was used in a wide variety of logistical support roles for the Confederacy, from infrastructure and mining, to teamster and medical roles such as hospital attendants and nurses.

2194:

Individual states were expected to supply their soldiers, which led to a lack of uniformity. Some states (such as North Carolina) were able to better supply their soldiers, while other states (such as Texas) were unable for various reasons to adequately supply their troops as the war continued.

1979:

Unlike the Union, which had fairly stable military departments through most of the Civil War, Confederate departments were constantly being formed, reformed, and renamed as the war progressed. The original two departments, formed at the beginning of the Civil War, were "Department No 1" (later

776:

involved at any time during the war. Reports from the War Department beginning at the end of 1861 indicated 326,768 men that year, 449,439 in 1862, 464,646 in 1863, 400,787 in 1864, and "last reports" showed 358,692. Estimates of enlistments throughout the war range from 1,227,890 to 1,406,180.

750:

Some soldiers also deserted from ideological motivations. A growing threat to the solidarity of the Confederacy was dissatisfaction in the Appalachian mountain districts caused by lingering unionism and a distrust of the power wielded by the slave-holding class. Many of their soldiers deserted,

6282:

Confederate troops sometimes murdered black soldiers and their officers as they tried to surrender. In most cases, though, Confederate officers returned captured black soldiers to slavery or put them to hard labor on southern fortifications ... Expressing outrage at this treatment, in 1863 the

2834:

The exact number is unknown. Since these figures include estimates of the total number of individual soldiers who served in each army at any time during the war, they do not represent the size of the armies at any given date. Confederate casualty figures are as incomplete and unreliable as the

906:

was an extreme case of a Southern States Rights advocate asserting control over Confederate soldiers: he defied the Confederate government's wartime policies and resisted the military draft. Believing that local troops should be used only for the defense of Georgia, Brown tried to stop Colonel

2556:

authorized the raising of regiments during the fall of 1860, Seminoles, Creeks, Chickasaws, Choctaws, and Cherokees responded with considerable enthusiasm. Their zeal for the Confederate cause, however, began to evaporate when they found that neither arms nor pay had been arranged for them. A

775:

Because of the destruction of any central repository of records in Richmond in 1865 and the comparatively poor record-keeping of the time, there can be no definitive number that represents the strength of the Confederate States Army. Estimates range from 500,000 to 2,000,000 soldiers who were

2695:

South's leading men of the planter class, had built their world upon slavery and the idea of voluntarily destroying that world, even in the ultimate crisis, was almost unthinkable to them. Such feelings moved Senator R. M. T. Hunter to deliver a long speech against the bill to arm the slaves.

556:

home and family, or the honor and brotherhood to be preserved when fighting alongside other men. Most historians agree that, no matter what he thought about when he went into the war, the experience of combat affected him profoundly and sometimes affected his reasons for continuing to fight.

758:

deserted the army long before he became a famous writer and lecturer, but he often commented upon the episode comically. Author Neil Schmitz has examined the deep unease Twain felt about losing his honor, his fear of facing death as a soldier, and his rejection of a Southern identity as a

299:

An accurate count of the total number of individuals who served in the Confederate Army is not possible due to incomplete and destroyed Confederate records; estimates of the number of Confederate soldiers are between 750,000 and 1,000,000 troops. This does not include an unknown number of

2846:

and only nine percent were foreign-born white men, Irishmen being the largest group with others including Germans, French, Mexicans, and British. A small number of Asian men were forcibly inducted into the Confederate Army against their will, when they arrived in Louisiana from overseas.

855:

was "charged with the conduct of military operations in the armies of the Confederacy" from March 13 to May 31, 1862. He was referred to as Davis' military adviser but exercised broad control over the strategic and logistical aspects of the Army, a role similar in nature to the current

640:

McPherson states that Confederate soldiers did not discuss the issue of slavery as often as United States soldiers did, because most Confederate soldiers readily accepted as an obvious fact that they were fighting to perpetuate slavery and thus did not feel the need to debate over it:

978:" was used to describe a military unit, it referred to a multi-company task force of a regiment or a near-regimental size unit. Throughout the war, the Confederacy raised the equivalent of 1,010 regiments in all branches, including militias, versus 2,050 regiments for the U.S. Army. 4364:"The South's Inner Civil War: The more fiercely the Confederacy fought for its independence, the more bitterly divided it became. To fully understand the vast changes the war unleashed on the country, you must first understand the plight of the Southerners who didn't want secession" 993:. Two to four corps usually formed an army. Occasionally, a single corps might operate independently as if it were a small army. The Confederate States Army consisted of several field armies, named after their primary area of operation. The largest Confederate field army was the 709:

One Louisianan artilleryman stated, "I never want to see the day when a negro is put on an equality with a white person. There is too many free niggers ... now to suit me, let alone having four millions." A North Carolinian soldier stated, " white man is better than a nigger."

2551:

battalions were formed in Indian Territory and later in Mississippi in support of the southern cause. The Choctaws, who were expecting support from the Confederates, got little. Webb Garrison, a Civil War historian, describes their response: when Confederate Brigadier General

527:

Substitution had also been practiced in the United States, leading to similar resentment from the lower classes. In February 1864, the age limits were extended to between 17 and 50. Challenges to the subsequent acts came before five state supreme courts; all five upheld them.

2648:

As early as November 1864, some Confederates knew that the chance of securing victory against the U.S. was slim. Despite lacking foreign assistance and recognition and facing slim chances of victory against superior U.S. assets, Confederate newspapers such as the Georgian

2392:. They fought knowing they might jeopardize their freedom, unique cultures, and ancestral lands if they ended up on the losing side of the Civil War. During the Civil War, 28,693 Native Americans served in the U.S. and Confederate armies, participating in battles such as 2658:

Such an act on our part would be a stigma on the imperishable pages of history, of which all future generations of Southrons would be ashamed. These are some of the additional considerations which have suggested themselves to us. Let us put the negro to work, but not to

2262:

The Confederate gtovernment had some success in importing weapons from Britain. When the War began, the Confederacy lacked the financial and manufacturing capacity to wage war against the industrialized North. In order to increase its arsenal, the Confederacy looked to

2170:

The supply situation for most Confederate armies was dismal, even when they were victorious on the battlefield. The central Confederate government was short of money so each state government had to supply its regiments. The lack of central authority and the ineffective

2298:

etween October 26, 1864 and January 1865, it was still possible for 8,632,000 lbs of meat, 1,507,000 lbs of lead, 1,933,000 lbs of saltpeter, 546,000 pairs of shoes, 316,000 blankets, half a million pounds of coffee, 69,000 rifles, and 43 cannon to run the blockade

1987:

In Virginia, where hostilities broke out almost immediately after the start of the war, the "Alexandria line" was established as the first Confederate administrative body in this area. This was later expanded to formal military departments in the following order:

734:

At many points during the war, and especially near the end, the Confederate armies were very poorly fed. At home their families were in worsening condition and faced starvation and the depredations of roving bands of marauders. Many soldiers went home temporarily

5390:'s troops seized scores of free black people in Maryland and Pennsylvania and sent them south into slavery. This was in keeping with Confederate national policy, which virtually re-enslaved free people of color into work gangs on earthworks throughout the south. 985:, although as the number of soldiers in many regiments became greatly reduced, especially later in the war, more than four were often assigned to a brigade. Occasionally, regiments would be transferred between brigades. Two to four brigades usually formed a 885:

The lack of centralized control was a strategic weakness for the Confederacy, and there are only a few examples of its armies acting in concert across multiple theaters to achieve a common objective. One instance occurred in late 1862 with Lee's invasion of

340:, surrendered to the U.S. on April 9, 1865 (officially April 12), and April 18, 1865 (officially April 26). Other Confederate forces surrendered between April 16, 1865, and June 28, 1865. By the end of the war, more than 100,000 Confederate soldiers had 2830:

Incomplete and destroyed records make an accurate count of the number of soldiers who served in the Confederate army impossible. Historians provide estimates of the actual number of individual Confederate soldiers between 750,000 and 1,000,000 troops.

464:(the army, the navy, and the marine corps) are often referred to as "Confederates", and members of the Confederate army were referred to as "Confederate soldiers". Supplementing the Confederate army were the various state militias of the Confederacy: 686:

Nonslaveholding farmers are underrepresented in the Confederate sample. Indeed, while about one-third of all Confederate soldiers belonged to slaveholding families, slightly more than two-thirds of the sample whose slaveholding status is known did

5875:

t does not extend freedom to the slaves who serve, giving them little personal motivation to support the Southern cause. Ultimately, very few blacks serve in the Confederate armed forces, as compared to hundreds of thousands who serve for the

751:

returned home, and formed a military force that fought off regular army units trying to punish them. North Carolina lost nearly a quarter of its soldiers (24,122) to desertion. This was the highest rate of desertion of any Confederate state.

6949:

200 cartes-de-visite depicting officers in the Confederate army and navy, officials in the Confederate government, famous Confederate wives, and other notable figures of the Confederacy. Also included are 64 photographs attributed to Mathew

424:

passed on February 28, 1861, one week before the act which established the permanent regular army organization, passed on March 6. Although the two forces were to exist concurrently, little was done to organize the Confederate regular army.

3155: 2026:, directly subordinate to the Army of the Shenandoah. The Shenandoah Valley was without a department for most of the war, militarily controlled by Army of the Northwest and the Army of the Valley, before finally being declared the 4192:"How people convince themselves that the Confederate flag represents freedom, not slavery: Historian John M. Coski examines the fights over the symbol's meaning in 'The Confederate Battle Flag: America's Most Embattled Emblem.'" 2616:

With so many white males conscripted into the army and roughly 40% of its population unfree, the work required to maintain a functioning society in the Confederacy ended up largely on the backs of slaves. Even Georgian governor

344:, and some estimates put the number as high as one-third of all Confederate soldiers. The Confederacy's government effectively dissolved when it fled Richmond on April 3, 1865, and exerted no control over the remaining armies. 6319:

58. The law of nations knows of no distinction of color, and if an enemy of the United States should enslave and sell any captured persons of their army, it would be a case for the severest retaliation, if not redressed upon

2569:

1862 illustration showing Confederates escorting kidnapped African American civilians south into slavery. A similar instance occurred in Pennsylvania when the Army of Northern Virginia invaded it in 1863 to fight the U.S. at

316:

as a means to supplement the volunteer soldiers. Although exact records are unavailable, estimates of the percentage of Confederate soldiers who were drafted are about double the 6 percent of Union soldiers who were drafted.

583:

Before and during the Civil War, the popular press of Richmond, including its five major newspapers, sought to inspire a sense of patriotism, Confederate identity, and the moral high ground in the southern population.

6074:

I have given the subject of arming the Negro my hearty support. This, with the emancipation of the Negro, is the heaviest blow yet given the Confederacy. The South rave a great deal about it and profess to be very

2776:

were often singled out by the Confederates and suffered extra violence when captured by them. They were often the victims of battlefield massacres and atrocities at the hands of the Confederates, most notably at

2703:

urging the Confederacy to raise black soldiers by offering emancipation; Jefferson Davis refused to consider the proposal and issued instructions forbidding the matter from being discussed. It would not be until

2654:

black men as soldiers would be an embarrassment to Confederates and their children, saying that although African Americans should be used for slave labor, they should not be used as armed soldiers, opining that:

2684:

The overwhelming support most Confederates had for maintaining black slavery was the primary cause of their strong opposition to using African Americans as armed soldiers. Former Confederate secretary of state

1026: 2806:, "Expressing outrage at this treatment, in 1863 the Lincoln administration suspended the exchange of prisoners until the Confederacy agree to treat white and black prisoners alike. The Confederacy refused." 965:

Regiments, which were the basic units of army organization through which soldiers were supplied and deployed, were raised by individual states. They were generally referred by number and state, for example

5710:

arnest and vituperative opposition to the enlistment of slaves in Confederate service was widespread, even as the concussion of U.S. artillery rattled the panes in the windows of the capitol in Richmond.

476:. Some of these militia forces, in the early days of the Confederacy, had operated as stand alone military forces before being incorporated into the Confederate Army; one of the more well known was the 2183:

or in parade formation, Confederate armies often displayed a wide array of dress, ranging from faded, patched-together regulation uniforms; rough, homespun uniforms colored with homemade dyes such as

448:) was the regular army and was authorized to include 15,015 men, including 744 officers, but this level was never achieved. The men serving in the highest rank as Confederate States generals, such as 705:, some Confederate soldiers welcomed the move, as they believed it would strengthen pro-slavery sentiment in the Confederacy, and thus lead to greater enlistment of soldiers in the Confederate army. 6642:

Jones, Adam Matthew. "'The land of my birth and the home of my heart': Enlistment Motivations for Confederate Soldiers in Montgomery County, Virginia, 1861–1862.'" (MA thesis Virginia Tech, 2014).

2511:. In the summer of 1862, U.S. troops captured Chief Ross, who was paroled and spent the remainder of the war in Washington and Philadelphia proclaiming Cherokee loyalty to the United States Army. 1973:

the event of Union invasions. The military departments were also the ultimate authority for all Confederate forts within their region, as well as commanding all garrison forces and units of the

2802:'s platform of the 1864 presidential election reflected this view, as it too condemned the Confederacy's discriminatory mistreatment of captured black U.S. soldiers. According to the authors of 6547: 1472:

The C.S. Army was composed of independent armies and military departments that were constituted, renamed, and disbanded as needs arose, particularly in reaction to offensives launched by the

938:

greatly reduced in strength. By the mid-war, most regiments averaged 300–400 men, with Confederate units slightly smaller on average than their U.S. counterparts. For example, at the pivotal

2557:

disgusted officer later acknowledged that "with the exception of a partial supply for the Choctaw regiment, no tents, clothing, or camp, and garrison equipage was furnished to any of them."

2468:

Bounty, clothes, arms, camp equipage &c: furnished. The weapons shall be Enfield Rifles. For further information address me at Mobile, Ala. (Signed) S. G. Spann, Comm'ing Choctaw Forces.

701:

In some cases, Confederate men were motivated to join the army in response to the United States' actions regarding its opposition to slavery. After U.S. President Abraham Lincoln issued the

2611: 9849: 2416:. Many Native American tribes, such as the Creek, the Cherokee, and the Choctaw, were slaveholders themselves, and thus, found a political and economic commonality with the Confederacy. 2092:

Battles in Tennessee, and shifting fronts in that region, also brought about the need for new departments in that region, most of which reported directly to the Army of Tennessee under

2507:

by Col. John Drew, was formed. Following the Battle of Pea Ridge, Arkansas, March 7–8, 1862, Drew's Mounted Rifles defected to the United States forces in Kansas, where they joined the

2370:

that became part of its 6th Regiment. Following the protests of many soldiers, who did not feel like Italian citizens since they fought against the unification of Italy, it was renamed

4191: 4044:

The Proclamation is worth three hundred thousand soldiers to our Government at least ... It shows exactly what this war was brought about for and the intention of its damnable authors.

2226:" food and ammunition from whatever sources were available, including captured U.S. depots and encampments, and private citizens regardless of their loyalties. Lee's campaign against 1476:. These major units were generally named after states or geographic regions (in comparison to the U.S. Army's custom of naming armies after rivers). Armies were usually commanded by 256:

established a provisional volunteer army and gave control over military operations and authority for mustering state forces and volunteers to the newly chosen Confederate president,

9844: 9463: 7034: 2303:

alone, while cotton sufficient to pay for these purchases was exportedt is evident that the blockade runners made an important contribution to the Confederate effort to carry on.

420:. It was to consist of a large provisional force to exist only in time of war and a small permanent regular army. The provisional, volunteer army was established by an act of the 2699:

Though most Confederates were opposed to the idea of using black soldiers, a small number suggested the idea. An acrimonious and controversial debate was raised by a letter from

9782: 9609: 7324: 5205: 5156: 2578: 870:

was similarly "charged with the conduct of military operations in the armies of the Confederacy" from February 24, 1864 (after he was relieved of field command following the

539:

An 1861 Confederate recruiting poster from Virginia, urging men to join the Confederate cause and fight off the Union Army, which it refers to as a "brutal and desperate foe"

9869: 5689: 4868:

Woods, M. (2019). "Tennessee In The War, 1861-1865: Lists Of Military Organizations And Officers From Tennessee In Both The Confederate And Union Armies", Wentworth Press.

2187:(a yellow-brown color), and even soldiers in a hodgepodge of civilian clothing. After a successful battle, it was not unusual for victorious Confederate troops to procure 6088: 2933: 9864: 7152: 806:

The CSA was initially a (strategically) defensive army, and many soldiers were resentful when Lee led the Army of Northern Virginia in an invasion of the North in the

660:

Continuing, McPherson also stated that of the hundreds of Confederate soldiers' letters he had examined, none of them contained any anti-slavery sentiment whatsoever:

6159: 2888: 878: 202: 2733:

in 1862, he had met a slave who "had unwillingly fought on the side of Rebellion", but the slave had since defected to "the side of Union and universal liberty".

2284:

It was estimated the Confederate Army received thousands of tons of gunpowder, half a million rifles, and several hundred cannons from British blockade runners.

9292: 5528:

Journal of the Senate at an Extra Session of the General Assembly of the State of Georgia, Convened under the Proclamation of the Governor, March 25, 1863, p. 6.

1212: 631: 602: 8747: 8742: 8752: 6132: 6023:

David G. Smith, "Race and Retaliation: The Capture of African Americans During the Gettysburg Campaign." in Peter Wallenstein and Bertram Wyatt-Brown, ed.,

2681:

army. Cobb said using blacks as soldiers would be the end of the revolution, because "if slaves make good soldiers, our whole theory of slavery is wrong."

9513: 9402: 9387: 7231: 7027: 2300: 9179: 9099: 7627: 6283:

Lincoln administration suspended the exchange of prisoners until the Confederacy agree to treat white and black prisoners alike. The Confederacy refused.

3772: 2582:

An 1862 illustration of a Confederate officer forcing slaves at gunpoint to fire a cannon at U.S. soldiers in battle. A similar instance occurred at the

4878: 2222:

often spent as much time and effort searching for food for their men, as they did in planning strategy and tactics. Individual commanders often had to "

296:

garrison. By March 1861, the Provisional Confederate Congress expanded the provisional forces and established a more permanent Confederate States Army.

7361: 4363: 3007: 2913: 6057: 9207: 5854: 5723: 5415:

he Army of Northern Virginia was under orders to capture and send south supposed escaped slaves during that army's invasion of Pennsylvania in 1863.

1269: 7622: 2271:

which later carried war supplies bound for Southern ports. A British publication in 1862 summed up the country's involvement in blockade running:

514:

On August 8, 1861, the Confederacy called for 400,000 volunteers to serve for one or three years. In April 1862, the Confederacy passed the first

9397: 9372: 9174: 9082: 7632: 7366: 7020: 2908: 2172: 1288: 1082: 819: 3212:

American Civil War: The Definitive Encyclopedia and Document Collection [6 volumes]: The Definitive Encyclopedia and Document Collection

1014: 9859: 9224: 8867: 8256: 8135: 6917: 2938: 2103: 5666: 4420:

Dotson, Rand (2000). ""The Grave and Scandalous Evil Infected to Your People": The Erosion of Confederate Loyalty in Floyd County, Virginia".

2842:

Compared to the Union Army at the time, the Confederate Army was not very ethnically diverse. Ninety-one percent of Confederate soldiers were

9751: 9109: 8862: 8857: 8283: 2903: 2690:

the Confederacy's existence, and thus, using their slaves as soldiers was incongruous with that goal. According to historian Paul D. Escott:

2248:

the devastation of plantations, farms and railroads meant the Confederacy increasingly lost the capacity to feed its soldiers and civilians.

8115: 7185: 2590: 1067: 6842:

Sheehan-Dean, Aaron. "The Blue and Gray in Black and White: Assessing the Scholarship on Civil War Soldiers," in Aaron Sheehan-Dean, ed.,

5754: 3093:, Texas, on May 12, 1865. In areas more distant from the main theaters of operations, Confederate forces in Alabama and Mississippi under 9672: 9202: 8251: 8010: 6931: 3032:. These figures represent the total number of soldiers who served at any time during the war, not the size of the army at any given date. 2565: 490: 7004: 6984: 4943:

Steven G. Collins, "System in the South: John W. Mallet, Josiah Gorgas, and uniform production at the confederate ordnance department."

9766: 9629: 9614: 8045: 7661: 6965: 3112: 2883: 2383: 2257: 5214: 5165: 2814: 2191:

uniform parts from captured supplies and dead U.S. soldiers; this would occasionally cause confusion in later battles and skirmishes.

9619: 9382: 9352: 8990: 8919: 7617: 7612: 3056: 2264: 1250: 461: 237: 128: 2165: 9533: 9468: 8170: 8145: 7381: 7356: 7306: 7286: 6333: 5090: 1723: 1038: 930:, the Confederate Army's soldiers were organized by military specialty. The combat arms included infantry, cavalry, and artillery. 857: 796:

September 27, 1862, the Second Conscription Act: expanded the age range to 18 to 45, with implementation beginning on July 15, 1863

364:

forts, within their borders. Lincoln was determined to hold the forts remaining under U.S. control when he took office, especially

120: 6890: 5697: 2427:

conducted in July 1861. The treaty covered sixty-four terms covering many subjects like Choctaw and Chickasaw nation sovereignty,

1231: 1193: 836:

The army did not have a formal overall military commander, or general in chief, until late in the war. The Confederate President,

523:", which exempted anyone who owned 20 or more slaves, a move that caused deep resentment among conscripts who did not own slaves. 9736: 9711: 9427: 9124: 9020: 8872: 8205: 8085: 7296: 5472: 4605:

Lynda Lasswell Crist (May 25, 2017). Ted Ownby; Charles Reagan Wilson; Ann J. Abadie; Odie Lindsey; James G. Thomas, Jr. (eds.).

2423:

was appointed as Confederate envoy to Native Americans. In this capacity he negotiated several treaties, one such treaty was the

1887: 1713: 1703: 8095: 4385:

Doyle, Patrick J. (2013). "Understanding the Desertion of South Carolinian Soldiers during the Final Years of the Confederacy".

3474: 9677: 9422: 8165: 8160: 7835: 6096: 3861: 2918: 2893: 1708: 1698: 8005: 5924: 4850:

Fullerton, D. (2017). "Armies in Gray: The Organizational History of the Confederate States Army in the Civil War", LSU Press.

2431:

citizenship possibilities, and an entitled delegate in the House of Representatives of the Confederate States of America. The

2276:

medicines and supplies of every kind, all paid for by British money, at the sole risk of British adventurers, well insured by

848:

and provided the strategic direction for Confederate land and naval forces. The following men had varying degrees of control:

503:

man into the Confederate army. The Unionist man objects, with the Confederates threatening to lynch him if he does not comply.

9249: 8241: 8236: 8100: 8000: 7251: 6879: 6826: 6785: 6576: 6486: 5990: 5901: 5816: 5764: 5513: 5311: 5276: 5243: 4745: 4718: 4691: 4664: 4616: 3831: 3742: 3631: 3589: 3391: 3322: 3280: 3220: 3193: 2725:

In some cases, the Confederates forced their African American slaves to fire upon U.S. soldiers at gunpoint, such as at the

1464:, which would be read at the first dress parade after its receipt and be published in at least one newspaper in each state. 1384: 1174: 248:(1861–1865), fighting against the United States forces to win the independence of the Southern states and uphold and expand 9508: 9212: 9184: 8423: 8231: 8200: 8130: 7990: 7564: 5048: 5019: 3097: 1930: 1834: 1779: 1663: 3508: 1940:

Some other prominent Confederate generals who led significant units operating sometimes independently in the CSA included

682:

McPherson admits some flaws in his sampling of letters. Soldiers from slaveholding families were overrepresented by 100%:

9498: 9488: 9139: 8847: 8210: 8175: 8070: 7648: 2424: 8125: 6296: 5436: 3085:, also had already surrendered on April 14, 1865, and April 16, 1865, respectively. U.S. and Confederate units fought a 2030:. Elsewhere in the Confederacy, the following major departments were formed which operated throughout most of the war: 2022:

In the Shenandoah Valley, the first Confederate administrative command was set up at Harper's Ferry, later becoming the

9649: 9639: 9624: 9392: 9217: 8246: 8195: 8140: 8105: 8090: 8080: 8065: 8040: 7995: 7980: 7915: 7792: 7241: 7129: 7104: 6712: 6275: 6196: 6039:

Ted Alexander, "'A Regular Slave Hunt': The Army of Northern Virginia and Black Civilians in the Gettysburg Campaign",

4133: 4079: 4022: 3951: 3900: 3695: 2823: 2487: 2313: 1917: 1797: 1496: 1092: 934: 551:

says that historians are of two minds on why millions of men seemed so eager to fight, suffer and die over four years:

41: 9854: 9761: 9644: 9634: 9362: 8958: 8852: 8729: 8226: 8190: 8110: 8050: 8030: 8025: 8020: 7975: 7406: 7398: 7276: 7220: 7099: 7089: 6531: 5961: 5613: 5583: 5373: 5343: 4269: 4167: 3518: 3349: 3253: 3140: 2405: 1736: 508: 124: 6376: 2096:. Hood would directly command the following three departments at the same time as his service as an Army commander: 9839: 8155: 8120: 8060: 8015: 7178: 6605:

Freemon, Frank R. (1987). "Administration of the Medical Department of the Confederate States Army, 1861 to 1865".

2928: 2799: 2518: 2280:

and under the protection of the British flag, have been sent across the ocean to the insurgents by British agency.

2074:, one of the largest departments of the war. At the same time, departments were being formed further west as the: 998: 579:

liberty that had permeated the letters of Confederate volunteers in 1861, grew even stronger as the war progressed.

421: 373: 312:

Although most of the soldiers who fought in the American Civil War were volunteers, both sides by 1862 resorted to

253: 17: 6941: 5925:"Confederate Law authorizing the enlistment of black soldiers, March 13, 1865, as promulgated in a military order" 3119:

surrendered on May 4, 1865, May 12, 1865, May 26, 1865 (officially June 2, 1865), and June 28, 1865, respectively.

2122:

Department of South Carolina and Georgia (later expanded to the Department of South Carolina, Georgia, and Florida

9721: 9706: 9588: 9548: 9447: 9432: 9417: 9412: 9244: 9149: 8180: 8075: 8035: 7756: 7592: 5077: 2923: 2898: 2741: 1844: 1784: 942:, the average U.S. Army infantry regiment's strength was 433 men, versus 409 for Confederate infantry regiments. 6669:

Logue, Larry M. (1993). "Who Joined the Confederate Army? Soldiers, Civilians, and Communities in Mississippi".

2798:

officially objected to the Confederacy's discriminatory mistreatment of prisoners of war on basis of color. The

2179:, a Pennsylvania city they had raided twice in the years before, due to its failure to pay an extortion demand. 284:. On March 1, 1861, on behalf of the Confederate government, Davis assumed control of the military situation at 9746: 9065: 8829: 8185: 8150: 8055: 7761: 7291: 6169: 4814: 4772: 4490:

Giuffre, Katherine A. (1997). "First in Flight: Desertion as Politics in the North Carolina Confederate Army".

4324:

Bearman, Peter S. (1991). "Desertion as Localism: Army Unit Solidarity and Group Norms in the U.S. Civil War".

2594:

An 1864 cartoon lampooning the Confederacy's deliberating on the use of black soldiers, showing them defecting

2367: 1849: 1839: 841: 356:

took office as President of the United States on March 4, 1861, the seven seceding slave states had formed the

277: 261: 6493:

Crawford, Martin (1991). "Confederate Volunteering and Enlistment in Ashe County, North Carolina, 1861–1862".

2994:

slave states which had already declared their secession from the Union of the United States of America met at

9104: 9025: 8842: 8308: 7766: 7574: 7114: 6998: 6872:

How A One-Legged Rebel Lives: Reminiscences of the Civil War; The Story of the Campaigns of Stonewall Jackson

6808: 4882: 2548: 2541: 2452: 2428: 2291: 1865: 736: 357: 241: 4948: 4371: 2112:

In 1864, Robert E. Lee held the idea for "super theaters" encompassing vast areas of the south, as follows:

1391: 9377: 9119: 8909: 8884: 8596: 7671: 7376: 7316: 7064: 6741: 6061: 5599: 4473:

Scott King-Owen, "Conditional Confederates: Absenteeism among Western North Carolina Soldiers, 1861–1865."

3647: 2773: 2757: 2244:

reduced the ability of the South to produce food and ship it to the armies or its cities. Coupled with the

2071: 2040: 1547: 664:

Although only 20 percent of the soldiers avowed explicit proslavery purposes in their letters and diaries,

477: 301: 249: 6947:

collections/strong/Duke University Libraries Digital Collections – William Emerson Strong Photograph Album

6462: 5862: 5806: 5731: 4478: 3185:

The Most Fearful Ordeal: Original Coverage of the Civil War by Writers and Reporters of The New York Times

9808: 9556: 9307: 9144: 9134: 9129: 9087: 8511: 7810: 7261: 7171: 2267:. British merchants and bankers funded the purchase of arms and construction of ships being outfitted as 1525: 1102: 472:

were organized and commanded by the state governments, similar to those authorized by the United States'

4219:"Wealth, Slaveownership, and Fighting for the Confederacy: An Empirical Study of the American Civil War" 2455:

wanted to recruit Indians east of the Mississippi River in 1862, so they opened up a recruiting camp in

1398: 1377: 1310:

An 1895 illustration showing the uniforms of the Confederate Army contrasted with those of the U.S. Army

212: 9699: 9287: 9114: 8997: 8975: 8904: 8819: 7880: 7681: 7559: 7541: 6959: 4737:

The Slave-trader's Letter-book: Charles Lamar, the Wanderer, and Other Tales of the African Slave Trade

3663:"'Necessity Knows No Law': Vested Rights and Styles of Reasoning in the Confederate Conscription Cases" 3029: 2327: 2027: 1854: 1508: 1473: 939: 369: 285: 6717:

Sheehan-Dean, Aaron. "Justice Has Something to Do with It: Class Relations and the Confederate Army."

6119:

History of the Negro Race in America from 1619 to 1880: Negros as Slaves, as Soldiers, and as Citizens

2202: 881:

by an act of Congress (January 23, 1865) and served in this capacity from January 31 to April 9, 1865.

718:

Wealth, Slaveownership, and Fighting for the Confederacy: An Empirical Study of the American Civil War

9818: 9731: 9687: 9493: 9275: 9077: 9050: 9030: 8931: 8737: 8642: 7940: 7855: 7771: 7421: 7346: 7134: 7084: 6970: 6936: 3086: 2864: 2765: 2116:

Department of North Carolina and Southern Virginia (expansion of the Department of Southern Virginia)

1926: 1681: 1659: 1477: 1461: 994: 871: 861: 702: 325: 47: 6479:

Citizen-Officers: The Union and Confederate Volunteer Junior Officer Corps in the American Civil War

4447:

Otten, James T. (1974). "Disloyalty in the Upper Districts of South Carolina During the Civil War".

3820:""Wholesome Reading Purifies and Elevates the Man": The Religious Military Press in the Confederacy" 2234:(a rich agricultural region) was driven in part by his desperate need of supplies, especially food. 9694: 9578: 9503: 9478: 9473: 9437: 9357: 9055: 9040: 8621: 7905: 7870: 7805: 7746: 7741: 7471: 7054: 6953: 6892:

The War of the Rebellion: a Compilation of the Official Records of the Union and Confederate Armies

5603: 5406: 5130: 3157: 3094: 2737: 2726: 2583: 2323: 2237: 2002:

Virginia also maintained the following smaller departments which fluctuated as the war progressed:

1752: 1504: 1429: 1134: 265: 6978: 1162: 570:

Educated soldiers drew upon their knowledge of American history to justify their costs. Historian

9682: 9302: 9270: 9265: 8963: 8936: 8328: 7825: 7815: 7587: 7436: 7124: 6993: 6227: 5011: 3443: 3101: 3090: 2878: 2335: 2153: 1896: 1456: 1436: 1331: 1327: 1155: 1087: 1004: 802:

March 13, 1865, authorized up to 300,000 African American troops but was never fully implemented.

449: 306: 6946: 3662: 3547: 1487: 9667: 9367: 8941: 8531: 8368: 8343: 7875: 7776: 7691: 7431: 7340: 5639: 5064: 3314: 3245: 2514: 2366:. Most Confederate Italian Americans had settled in Louisiana. The militia of Louisiana had an 2157: 2053: 1974: 1858: 1689: 1577: 1512: 1359: 1120: 971: 911: 6265: 6186: 6028: 5951: 5573: 5363: 5301: 5005: 4735: 4708: 4681: 4654: 4606: 4125: 4071: 4014: 3943: 3892: 3819: 3685: 3621: 3579: 3420: 2964: 376:

had authorized the organization of a large Provisional Army of the Confederate States (PACS).

9583: 9483: 9297: 8946: 8899: 8809: 8777: 8484: 8474: 7920: 7910: 7895: 7845: 7800: 7456: 7441: 7334: 7094: 6450:

Bardolph, Richard. "Inconstant rebels: desertion of North Carolina troops in the Civil War."

5978: 5889: 5503: 4639: 4157: 3270: 3210: 3183: 3130: 2778: 2730: 2409: 1757: 1097: 409: 387: 269: 6847: 6663: 6247:

98, no. 2 (The Trumpet Unblown: The Old Dominion in the Civil War), (1990), pp. 242–43.

4259: 3383: 3339: 3024:

apparently includes many re-enlistments. These numbers do not include sailors who served in

1562: 907:

Francis Bartow from taking Georgia troops out of the state to the First Battle of Bull Run.

535: 9741: 9593: 9566: 9035: 8814: 8797: 8454: 7950: 7935: 7930: 7900: 7885: 7865: 7483: 7387: 7271: 6814: 3064: 2782: 2571: 2331: 2287: 2227: 1891: 1676: 1636: 899: 743:

maintain discipline in a volunteer army whose homes were under threat of enemy occupation.

163: 8: 9726: 9518: 9407: 9281: 8926: 8879: 8626: 8586: 8571: 8464: 8313: 7985: 7945: 7820: 7781: 7751: 7706: 7666: 7266: 7256: 7069: 7059: 7012: 6709:

Lee's Miserables: Life in the Army of Northern Virginia from the Wilderness to Appomattox

5040: 2995: 2673: 2413: 2393: 2207: 2083: 1980:

incorporated into the Department of Louisiana) and "Department No 2" (later becoming the

1814: 1788: 1717: 1573: 1567: 1530: 1455:

The CSA differed from many contemporaneous armies in that all officers under the rank of

986: 495: 473: 384: 6337: 6006: 4859:

Vandiver, F. (1977) "Rebel Brass: The Confederate Command System", Greenwood Publishing.

2586:, where slaves were forced by the Confederates to load and fire a cannon at U.S. forces. 1148: 1127: 729: 9572: 9442: 8968: 8953: 8834: 8792: 8764: 8601: 8566: 8413: 8373: 7890: 7860: 7850: 7726: 7721: 7701: 7696: 7676: 7426: 7329: 7246: 7194: 7119: 7079: 6896: 6764: 6729: 6686: 6636:

Training, Tactics and Leadership in the Confederate Army of Tennessee: Seeds of Failure

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The Negro's Civil War: How American Blacks Felt and Acted During the War for the Union

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Rich Man's War: Class, Caste, and Confederate Defeat in the Lower Chattahoochee Valley

2708:

wrote the Confederate Congress urging them that the idea would take serious traction.

2388:

Native Americans served in both the United States and Confederate military during the

1141: 412:, whose image became one of the most famous portraits of the young soldiers of the war 9814: 9070: 8672: 8606: 8541: 8444: 8363: 8323: 7925: 7731: 7686: 7301: 7109: 6911: 6875: 6822: 6781: 6747:

Watson, Samuel J (1994). "Religion and combat motivation in the Confederate armies".

6622: 6618: 6586: 6572: 6527: 6514: 6482: 6359: 6271: 6192: 6185:

Murrin, John; McPherson, James M.; Johnson, Paul; Fahs, Alice; Gerstle, Gary (2009).

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Confederate Emancipation: Southern Plans to Free and Arm Slaves during the Civil War

6463:"West Points of the Confederacy: Southern Military Schools and the Confederate Army" 5505:

Confederate Emancipation: Southern Plans to Free and Arm Slaves during the Civil War

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held "temporary full general" rank, which was withdrawn by the Confederate Congress.

4244: 3731:

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3104: 2700: 2448: 2319: 1945: 1771: 1761: 1744: 1651: 1641: 1107: 1056:

Lt Col. E. V. Nash, 4th Georgia Infantry Doles-Cook Brigade, who was killed in 1864

915: 520: 167: 5182: 3774:

Soldiers of the Cross: Soldier-Christians and the Impact of the War on their Faith

2612:

Military history of African Americans in the American Civil War § Confederacy

9756: 9045: 8894: 8787: 8667: 8662: 8657: 8647: 8616: 8526: 8469: 8459: 8418: 7446: 7416: 7236: 6564: 5359: 5297: 3732: 3575: 3078: 2761: 2618: 2456: 2397: 2268: 2184: 2023: 1949: 1908: 1416: 1323: 903: 837: 613: 607:, which examines the motivations of the American Civil War's soldiers, historian 380: 353: 281: 257: 192: 188: 6862:

Confederate States. War Dept. Regulations for the Army of the Confederate States

5319:

into slavery. Confederates maltreated black U.S. troops when they captured them.

3730: 2492: 2338:. In December 1860 and few months of 1861, these volunteers were transported to 1032:

Confederate mortar crew at Warrington, Florida in 1861, across from Fort Pickens

404: 8824: 8772: 8611: 8576: 8536: 8428: 8408: 8403: 8358: 7637: 7478: 7466: 6971:

Confederate Enlistment Oaths and Discharges of the Army of the State of Georgia

4838: 3108: 2636: 2444: 2245: 2215:

States victory at Vicksburg in 1863 shut off supplies from Texas and the west.

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874:) to January 31, 1865. This role was a military advisory position under Davis. 864:, which was considered the most important of all the Confederate field armies. 612:

the other, the Confederacy's soldiers did not, as the Confederate ideology of

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2999: 2705: 2686: 2521:, recruited hundreds of Cherokees for the Confederate army, particularly for 2241: 2219: 2133:

Department of Alabama and West Florida (expansion of the District of Alabama)

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The Confederate Congress provided for a Confederate army patterned after the

329: 207: 6297:"SECTION III.–Deserters—Prisoners of war–Hostages–Booty on the battle-field" 5303:

Lies My Teacher Told Me: Everything Your American History Textbook Got Wrong

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Vandiver, Frank E. (1944). "Texas and the Confederate Army's Meat Problem".

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Lies My Teacher Told Me: Everything Your American History Textbook Got Wrong

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who had fought against Giuseppe Garibaldi in, and were captured during, the

910:

Many of the Confederacy's senior military leaders (including Robert E. Lee,

9561: 9538: 9528: 9523: 9060: 9002: 8914: 8889: 8802: 8782: 8581: 8479: 6937:

A Manual of Military Surgery (1863). The manual used by doctors in the CSA.

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INSTRUCTIONS FOR THE GOVERNMENT OF ARMIES OF THE UNITED STATES IN THE FIELD

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After Secession: Jefferson Davis and the Failure of Confederate Nationalism

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The First Woman in the Republic: A Cultural Biography of Lydia Maria Child

4824: 4538: 2630:

The Confederacy did not allow African Americans to join the army, neither

2012:

Department of Richmond (operated in tandem with the Department of Henrico)

8333: 7371: 7351: 6977: 6380: 6363: 6301: 5658: 3116: 2795: 2677: 2553: 2525:. The Legion, raised in September 1862, fought until the end of the War. 2500: 2420: 2339: 2277: 1334:, Adjutant General and Inspector General of the Confederate States Army. 1001:

in 1865 marked the end of major combat operations in the U.S. Civil War.

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Civil War on the Western Border: The Missouri-Kansas Conflict, 1855–1865

5150: 5148: 4974: 4460: 4162:. United States of America: First Harvard University Press. p. 26. 933:

Although fewer soldiers might comprise a squad or platoon, the smallest

793:

Act: conscripted white men ages 18 to 35 for the duration of hostilities

372:. On February 28, shortly before Lincoln was sworn in as president, the 9716: 8591: 8353: 7554: 7549: 6768: 6690: 6596: 6557: 6443: 5432: 4930: 4511: 4433: 4359: 4345: 3504: 3470: 2991: 2836: 2713: 2640:

ended up being enlisted before the Confederate armies all surrendered.

2631: 2152:

A group of Confederate soldiers-possibly an artillery unit captured at

2148: 1957: 1731: 1492: 927: 755: 507:

Control and operation of the Confederate army were administered by the

141: 6660:

Searching for Black Confederates: The civil War’s most persistent Myth

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he Confederacy enacted the first conscription laws in American history

3089:, before the surrender on April 16, 1865, and a small final battle at 8980: 7163: 6591:

Christian Soldiers: The Meaning of Revivalism in the Confederate Army

6331: 5805:(1991). "Chapter 17: The Decision to Raise a Negro Army, 1864–1865". 5368:. New York City: Touchstone, Simon & Schuster, Inc. p. 350. 5145: 2188: 975: 902:. All three initiatives were unsuccessful, however. Georgia Governor 499:

A cartoon from the war, showing the Confederates forcibly drafting a

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Matte, Jacqueline (2002). "Refugees- Six Towns Choctaw, 1830–1890".

4922: 4503: 4337: 1626:(also known as the Army of the Mississippi; redesignated III Corps, 824: 8985: 3734:

Crucible of the Civil War: Virginia from Secession to Commemoration

2440: 2432: 2401: 2223: 1411: 1406: 891: 887: 6481:. Baton Rouge, Louisiana: Louisiana State University Press, 2015. 4805:

Boatner, Mark Mayo; Northrop, Allen C.; Miller, Lowell I. (1959).

4286:

A higher duty: desertion among Georgia troops during the Civil War

2451:

tribes were the only tribes to fight on the Confederate side. The

3003: 2602: 2540:, Lieutenant Colonel of the First Choctaw Battalion in Oklahoma, 2436: 982: 6726:

Why Confederates Fought: Family and Nation in Civil War Virginia

3863:

Why Confederates Fought: Family and Nation in Civil War Virginia

3337: 2533: 9783:

List of films and television shows about the American Civil War

6562: 6232:"The Boy Artillerist": Letters of Colonel William Pegram, C.S.A 5197: 2322:

soldiers of the Confederate States Army were veterans from the

1484:. Some of the more important armies and their commanders were: 6797:

More Damning than Slaughter: Desertion in the Confederate Army

5841:

The Gray and the Black: The Confederate Debate on Emancipation

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The Gray and the Black: The Confederate Debate on Emancipation

3648:"War Conscription Laws": November 15, 2012 by Margaret Wood."" 3240:

A Great Civil War: A Military and Political History, 1861–1865

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The Life of Johnny Reb: The Common Soldier of the Confederacy

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Congress of the Confederate States of America (May 1, 1863).

5861:. Kansas City: The Kansas City Public Library. Archived from 3623:

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2560: 2307: 2070:

The entire Mississippi region was eventually merged into the

990: 7505: 5065:"Wilmington to Canada: Blockade Runners & Secret Agents" 4159:

The Confederate Battle Flag: America's Most Embattled Emblem

2788: 2377: 1554:(eventually commander of all forces West of the Mississippi) 1337:

Officers' uniforms bore a braided design on the sleeves and

799:

February 17, 1864, the Third Conscription Act: ages 17 to 50

9850:

1865 disestablishments in the Confederate States of America

6844:

The View from the Ground: Experiences of Civil War Soldiers

5365:

Lies Across America: What American Historic Sites Get Wrong

5131:""We are all Americans", Native Americans in the Civil War" 4837:

Eicher, p. 807. There were seven full generals in the CSA;

4217:

Hall, Andrew; Huff, Connor; Kuriwaki, Shiro (August 2019).

3640: 3435: 2934:

Postage stamps and postal history of the Confederate States

2166:

Confederate States of America § Transportation systems

1592:, (also known as the Army of the Mississippi; redesignated 1491:

A painting of Lee's Army of Northern Virginia fighting the

1343: 1338: 1071: 621:

core of the ideology for which Confederate soldiers fought.

7042: 6422:

Adams, George Worthington (1940). "Confederate Medicine".

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Look Away!: A History of the Confederate States of America

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Historical times illustrated encyclopedia of the Civil War

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Reconstruction: America's Unfinished Revolution, 1863–1877

2334:. They were released after a treaty between Garibaldi and 1020:

Corporal of the Artillery division of the Confederate Army

6267:

Liberty, Equality, Power: Enhanced Concise Fourth Edition

6089:"Understanding Fort Pillow: 'Full and Ample Retaliation'" 5792:

Official Records, Series I, Vol. LII, Part 2, pp. 586–92.

3461: 3459: 3457: 3455: 3453: 2066:

Department of Alabama, Mississippi, and Eastern Louisiana

2056:

also brought about a succession of departments known as:

890:, coincident with two other actions: Bragg's invasion of 305:

date. These numbers do not include sailors who served in

9845:

1861 establishments in the Confederate States of America

6888: 6214:

The Sable Arm: Negro Troops in the Union Army, 1861–1865

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The Illustrated Battle Cry of Freedom: The Civil War Era

3942:. New York City: Oxford University Press, Inc. pp. 2889:

General in Chief of the Armies of the Confederate States

2126:

Lesser departments, without much combat activity, were:

879:

General in Chief of the Armies of the Confederate States

6255: 6253: 4124:. New York City: Oxford University Press, Inc. p. 4120: