734:, initially developed in the 1950s, which proposed a mathematical formula for establishing the date when two languages separated, based on percentage of a core vocabulary of culturally independent words. In its simplest form a constant rate of change is assumed, though later versions allow variance but still fail to achieve reliability. Glottochronology has met with mounting scepticism, and is seldom applied today. Dating estimates can now be generated by computerised methods that have fewer restrictions, calculating rates from the data. However, no mathematical means of producing proto-language split-times on the basis of lexical retention has been proven reliable.
631:, to reconstruct proto-languages and specify the changes that have resulted in the documented languages. To maintain a clear distinction between attested and reconstructed forms, comparative linguists prefix an asterisk to any form that is not found in surviving texts. A number of methods for carrying out language classification have been developed, ranging from simple inspection to computerised hypothesis testing. Such methods have gone through a long process of development.
2006:
1998:
566:
745:. The method, which disavows any ability to date developments, aims simply to show which languages are more and less close to each other. Greenberg suggested that the method is useful for preliminary grouping of languages known to be related as a first step toward more in-depth comparative analysis. However, since mass comparison eschews the establishment of regular changes, it is flatly rejected by the majority of historical linguists.
39:
765:
them. Such statistical methods cannot be used to derive the features of a proto-language, apart from the fact of the existence of shared items of the compared vocabulary. These approaches have been challenged for their methodological problems, since without a reconstruction or at least a detailed list of phonological correspondences there can be no demonstration that two words in different languages are cognate.
655:. In principle, every difference between two related languages should be explicable to a high degree of plausibility; systematic changes, for example in phonological or morphological systems are expected to be highly regular (consistent). In practice, the comparison may be more restricted, e.g. just to the lexicon. In some methods it may be possible to reconstruct an earlier
682:
acceptance. The method has also not been very good at unambiguously identifying sub-families; thus, different scholars have produced conflicting results, for example in Indo-European. A number of methods based on statistical analysis of vocabulary have been developed to try and overcome this limitation, such as
729:
but is based on earlier work. This uses a short word list of basic vocabulary in the various languages for comparisons. Swadesh used 100 (earlier 200) items that are assumed to be cognate (on the basis of phonetic similarity) in the languages being compared, though other lists have also been used.
681:
Where languages are derived from a very distant ancestor, and are thus more distantly related, the comparative method becomes less practicable. In particular, attempting to relate two reconstructed proto-languages by the comparative method has not generally produced results that have met with wide
829:
Comparative linguistics includes the study of the historical relationships of languages using the comparative method to search for regular (i.e. recurring) correspondences between the languages' phonology, grammar and core vocabulary, and through hypothesis testing; some persons with little or no
764:
methods have been used to investigate the relationships between languages and to determine approximate dates for proto-languages. These are considered by many to show promise but are not wholly accepted by traditionalists. However, they are not intended to replace older methods but to supplement
788:
that govern language, and the range of types found in the world's languages in respect of any particular feature (word order or vowel system, for example). Typological similarity does not imply a historical relationship. However, typological arguments can be used in comparative linguistics: one
712:
The earliest method of this type was the comparative method, which was developed over many years, culminating in the nineteenth century. This uses a long word list and detailed study. However, it has been criticized for example as subjective, informal, and lacking testability. The comparative
849:
The most common method applied in pseudoscientific language comparisons is to search two or more languages for words that seem similar in their sound and meaning. While similarities of this kind often seem convincing to laypersons, linguistic scientists consider this kind of comparison to be
717:
uses only a single language, with comparison of word variants, to perform the same function. Internal reconstruction is more resistant to interference but usually has a limited available base of utilizable words and is able to reconstruct only certain changes (those that have left traces as
698:. The theoretical basis of such methods is that vocabulary items can be matched without a detailed language reconstruction and that comparing enough vocabulary items will negate individual inaccuracies; thus, they can be used to determine relatedness but not to determine the proto-language.
1451:(Kurzer Abriss der indogermanischen Ursprache, des Altindischen, Altiranischen, Altgriechischen, Altitalischen, Altkeltischen, Altslawischen, Litauischen und Altdeutschen.) (2 vols.) Weimar, H. Boehlau (1861/62); reprinted by Minerva GmbH, Wissenschaftlicher Verlag,
854:, which is contrary to the principles of the scientific method. Second, the large size of all languages' vocabulary and a relatively limited inventory of articulated sounds used by most languages makes it easy to find coincidentally similar words between languages.
803:
is to establish which items in a language's vocabulary result from linguistic contact. This is also an important issue both for the comparative method and for the lexical comparison methods, since failure to recognize a loan may distort the
2033:
1470:
1090:, around 1900) believed and asserted that humans descended from the frog, by linguistic means, in that the croaking of frogs sounds similar to spoken French; he held that the French word
1596:
1970:
659:. Although the proto-languages reconstructed by the comparative method are hypothetical, a reconstruction may have predictive power. The most notable example of this is
830:
specialization in the field sometimes attempt to establish historical associations between languages by noting similarities between them, in a way that is considered
857:
There are sometimes political or religious reasons for associating languages in ways that some linguists would dispute. For example, it has been suggested that the
799:. An empirical study of loans is by definition historical in focus and therefore forms part of the subject matter of historical linguistics. One of the goals of
1028:
1080:
There have also been claims that humans are descended from other, non-primate animals, with use of the voice referred to as the main point of comparison.
814:
by identifying important differences between the learner's native and target languages. Contrastive linguistics deals solely with present-day languages.
850:
unreliable for two primary reasons. First, the method applied is not well-defined: the criterion of similarity is subjective and thus not subject to
760:). The characters used can be morphological or grammatical as well as lexical. Since the mid-1990s these more sophisticated tree- and network-based
2040:
1589:
1941:
1291:
980:) derived from Scandinavian languages (Grotius was on Sweden's payroll), supporting Swedish colonial pretensions in America. The Dutch doctor
1338:
730:
Distance measures are derived by examination of language pairs but such methods reduce the information. An outgrowth of lexicostatistics is
1363:
2009:
1980:
1582:
103:
75:
1975:
1156:
674:, a type of consonant attested in no Indo-European language known at the time. The hypothesis was vindicated with the discovery of
56:
1551:
1405:
82:
2150:
593:
1166:
1161:
824:
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483:
89:
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method uses information from two or more languages and allows reconstruction of the ancestral language. The method of
1569:
1545:
1528:
1514:
1500:
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examines the linguistic results of contact between the speakers of different languages, particularly as evidenced in
122:
71:
2184:
1916:
2189:
2163:
2088:
2026:
443:
1758:
996:("Who does not love his fathers' language?"), whilst asserting that Hebrew is derived from Dutch. The Frenchman
748:
Recently, computerised statistical hypothesis testing methods have been developed which are related to both the
1061:
The first practitioners of comparative linguistics were not universally acclaimed: upon reading
Becanus' book,
756:. Character based methods are similar to the former and distanced based methods are similar to the latter (see
503:
448:
221:
60:
707:
678:, which proved to have exactly the consonants Saussure had hypothesized in the environments he had predicted.
478:
169:
1965:
423:
289:
1044:, claimed that the Bantu languages of Africa are descended from Latin, coining the French linguistic term
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There are other branches of linguistics that involve comparing languages, which are not, however, part of
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1948:
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1019:) that the Chinese and Egyptians were related, the former being a colony of the latter. In 1885,
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538:
376:
353:
49:
27:
1361:
Austronesian language phylogenies: Myths and misconceptions about
Bayesian computational methods
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meaning 'man', supposedly proving that the
British people are the 'covenant people' of God. And
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compares languages to classify them by their features. Its ultimate aim is to understand the
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1383:
Russell G. Schuh (1997) "The Use and Misuse of language in the study of
African history",
1246:
Greenberg, J. H. (2001). "The methods and purposes of linguistic genetic classification".
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Austronesian historical linguistics and culture history: a festschrift for Robert Blust
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and
Etruscan languages, in attempt to show that Basque was a remnant of an "
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789:
reconstruction may be preferred to another as typologically more plausible.
761:
401:
191:
1374:, ed. K. A. Adelaar and A. Pawley, 375–397. Canberra: Pacific Linguistics.
1287:
e.g. Greenhill, S. J., Q. D. Atkinson, A. Meade, and R. D. Gray. (2010). "
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argued during the mid-1900s that Basque is clearly related to the extinct
2018:
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MĂ©moire dans lequel on prouve que les
Chinois sont une colonie Ă©gyptienne
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528:
149:
20:
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1006:) that the Celtic language is the oldest, and the mother of all others.
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1449:
Compendium der vergleichenden
Grammatik der indogermanischen Sprachen.
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and the lexicon of two or more languages using techniques such as the
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languages which provided an innocent basis for this theory. In 1930s
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Grundriss der vergleichenden
Grammatik der indogermanischen Sprachen
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The fundamental technique of comparative linguistics is to compare
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in doing so. Just as
Egyptian is related to Brabantic, following
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1003:
MĂ©langes d'origines Ă©tymologiques et de questions grammaticales
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874:
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216:
1327:
See for example the criticisms of Gray and
Atkinson's work in
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towards the Sami in particular. There are also strong, albeit
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that is concerned with comparing languages to establish their
1191:
Ringe, D. A. (1995). "'Nostratic' and the factor of chance".
1971:
Institute of Linguistics of the Russian Academy of Sciences
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like the comparative method, while the latter uses only
1300:
Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences
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were close to the original language. Some believers in
1604:
1259:
Ringe, Don. (1993). "A reply to Professor Greenberg".
1562:
Dictionary of Historical and Comparative Linguistics
810:
compares languages usually with the aim of assisting
936:
926:
19:
For the "comparative" construction in language, see
1077:) to designate a far-sought, ridiculous etymology.
63:. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.
1552:Bibliography of historical-comparative linguistics
834:by specialists (e.g. spurious comparisons between
1261:Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society
725:, was developed, which is mainly associated with
2176:
1065:wrote, "never did I read greater nonsense", and
721:In the twentieth century an alternative method,
708:Comparative method § Origin and development
1942:Etymological Dictionary of the Altaic Languages
818:
627:and comparative linguistics aims to construct
2034:
1590:
587:
1505:Richard D. Janda and Brian D. Joseph (Eds),
1097:
1091:
1085:
1045:
1039:
1027:) compared the Maori and "Aryan" languages.
1014:
1001:
1981:Russian State University for the Humanities
993:Quis est enim qui non amet patrium sermonem
991:
985:
975:
963:Dissertatio de origine gentium Americanarum
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737:Another controversial method, developed by
2048:
2041:
2027:
1597:
1583:
1521:Historical linguistics and language change
909:try to derive their native languages from
594:
580:
1359:Greenhill, S. J., and R. D. Gray. 2009. "
1289:The shape and tempo of language evolution
123:Learn how and when to remove this message
1976:Moscow School of Comparative Linguistics
1157:Moscow School of Comparative Linguistics
1538:Historical Linguistics: An Introduction
1235:Historical Linguistics: An Introduction
2177:
1507:The Handbook of Historical Linguistics
1479:Historical and Comparative Linguistics
2151:Farming/language dispersal hypothesis
2022:
1578:
1523:. (Cambridge University Press, 1997)
1328:
1190:
1167:Quantitative comparative linguistics
1162:Pseudoscientific language comparison
1096:, 'dwelling', derived from the word
970:"proves" that the American Indians (
825:Pseudoscientific language comparison
758:Quantitative comparative linguistics
484:Conservative and innovative language
61:adding citations to reliable sources
32:
1495:(Cambridge University Press, 1977)
1237:(2nd ed.). Cambridge: The MIT Press
1221:by April McMahon and Robert McMahon
1058:, still using comparative methods.
13:
1219:Language Classification by Numbers
1142:Intercontinental Dictionary Series
14:
2201:
1341:from the original on 19 June 2017
768:
2005:
2004:
1996:
1917:Journal of Language Relationship
1402:Något om rastänkandet i Sverige.
1329:Poser, Bill (10 December 2003).
718:morphophonological variations).
564:
37:
1554:. Oxford Bibliographies Online.
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48:needs additional citations for
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1:
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852:verification or falsification
1966:Evolution of Human Languages
819:Pseudolinguistic comparisons
424:Functional discourse grammar
290:Ethnography of communication
7:
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885:, similarities between the
869:and other languages to the
623:implies a common origin or
544:Second-language acquisition
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690:. The former uses lexical
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222:Syntax–semantics interface
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1994:
1958:
1933:
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1641:Linguistic reconstruction
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1564:(Fitzroy Dearborn, 2001)
982:Johannes Goropius Becanus
966:(1625), the Dutch lawyer
921:, who said that the word
534:Philosophy of linguistics
434:Interactional linguistics
72:"Comparative linguistics"
2146:Father Tongue hypothesis
1959:Institutions and schools
1840:Vladislav Illich-Svitych
1302:277, no. 1693: 2443–50.
1248:Language and Linguistics
26:Not to be confused with
2185:Comparative linguistics
2069:Synchrony and diachrony
2064:Comparative Linguistics
1949:The Languages of Africa
1646:Internal reconstruction
1626:Etymological dictionary
1607:comparative linguistics
1366:28 January 2018 at the
1294:28 January 2018 at the
1127:Contrastive linguistics
901:, one that showed that
808:Contrastive linguistics
775:comparative linguistics
715:internal reconstruction
607:Comparative linguistics
28:contrastive linguistics
2190:Historical linguistics
2050:Historical linguistics
1493:Historical Linguistics
1420:See Gimbutas, Marija,
1331:"Dating Indo-European"
1308:10.1098/rspb.2010.0051
1205:10.1075/dia.12.1.04rin
1137:Historical linguistics
1117:Comparative literature
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1092:
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1002:
992:
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873:, was used to justify
611:historical linguistics
371:Theoretical frameworks
325:Philosophy of language
305:History of linguistics
1850:Alexis Manaster Ramer
1269:10.1007/s101209900033
865:group, which relates
663:'s proposal that the
661:Ferdinand de Saussure
265:Conversation analysis
16:Branch of linguistics
1691:Leipzig–Jakarta list
1651:Linguistic universal
1424:pp. 122 and 171–175
1422:The Living Goddesses
1408:15 June 2011 at the
1122:Contrastive analysis
987:Origines Antverpiana
974:) speak a language (
958:Old European culture
915:Herbert W. Armstrong
897:, some promoted the
863:Ural–Altaic language
509:Internet linguistics
419:Construction grammar
57:improve this article
1885:Vitaly Shevoroshkin
1082:Jean-Pierre Brisset
1041:Les langues nitales
977:lingua Maquaasiorum
907:Abrahamic religions
899:Sun Language Theory
838:and languages like
793:Contact linguistics
782:Linguistic typology
621:Genetic relatedness
444:Systemic functional
239:Applied linguistics
181:General linguistics
2136:Relationship with
2002:Linguistics portal
1986:Santa Fe Institute
1845:Frederik Kortlandt
1810:Aharon Dolgopolsky
1666:Origin of language
1621:Comparative method
1534:Winfred P. Lehmann
1509:(Blackwell, 2004)
1481:(Benjamins, 1989)
1112:Comparative method
1087:La Grande Nouvelle
925:comes from Hebrew
871:Mongolian language
750:comparative method
696:lexical similarity
653:comparative method
549:Theory of language
519:Origin of language
474:Autonomy of syntax
429:Grammaticalization
275:Discourse analysis
270:Corpus linguistics
2172:
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2016:
2015:
1900:Alfredo Trombetti
1890:Georgiy Starostin
1820:Harold C. Fleming
1700:Language families
1466:Berthold DelbrĂĽck
1445:August Schleicher
1400:Niclas Wahlgren.
1011:Joseph de Guignes
1000:claimed in 1818 (
919:British Israelism
917:, a proponent of
842:, as proposed by
812:language learning
670:system contained
629:language families
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335:Psycholinguistics
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1875:Martine Robbeets
1835:Murray Gell-Mann
1825:Joseph Greenberg
1800:Allan R. Bomhard
1686:Dolgopolsky list
1671:Paleolinguistics
1636:Lexicostatistics
1631:Glottochronology
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1101:
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1069:coined the term
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903:Turkic languages
836:Ancient Egyptian
832:pseudoscientific
754:lexicostatistics
739:Joseph Greenberg
732:glottochronology
723:lexicostatistics
684:lexicostatistics
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504:Internationalism
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846:in the 1960s).
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1759:Dené–Caucasian
1756:
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1721:
1716:
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1676:Proto-language
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1389:
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1231:Campbell, Lyle
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1129:
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1107:
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1038:, in his 1941
1021:Edward Tregear
998:Éloi Johanneau
990:(1580) admits
823:Main article:
820:
817:
816:
815:
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790:
770:
769:Related fields
767:
727:Morris Swadesh
703:
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657:proto-language
636:
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625:proto-language
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113:September 2020
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2074:Protolanguage
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2011:
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1963:
1961:
1957:
1951:
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1946:
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1943:
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1938:
1936:
1932:
1926:
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1924:Mother Tongue
1921:
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1918:
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1911:
1907:
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1815:Vladimir Dybo
1813:
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1795:Václav Blažek
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1571:
1570:1-57958-218-4
1567:
1563:
1559:
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1553:
1549:
1547:
1546:0-03-011430-6
1543:
1540:(Holt, 1962)
1539:
1535:
1532:
1530:
1529:0-521-45924-9
1526:
1522:
1518:
1516:
1515:1-4051-2747-3
1512:
1508:
1504:
1502:
1501:0-521-29188-7
1498:
1494:
1490:
1488:
1487:90-272-3557-0
1484:
1480:
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1467:
1463:
1462:Karl Brugmann
1460:
1458:
1457:3-8102-1071-4
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1430:0-520-22915-0
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1056:Hieroglyphica
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1007:
1004:
999:
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948:
947:archaeologist
944:
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929:
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920:
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778:
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766:
763:
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746:
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735:
733:
728:
724:
719:
716:
709:
699:
697:
693:
689:
685:
679:
677:
673:
669:
666:
665:Indo-European
662:
658:
654:
650:
646:
645:morphological
642:
632:
630:
626:
622:
618:
617:relatedness.
616:
612:
608:
597:
592:
590:
585:
583:
578:
577:
575:
574:
571:
567:
563:
562:
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550:
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530:
527:
525:
522:
520:
517:
515:
512:
510:
507:
505:
502:
500:
497:
495:
492:
490:
489:Descriptivism
487:
485:
482:
480:
477:
475:
472:
471:
465:
464:
457:
456:Structuralism
454:
450:
447:
445:
442:
440:
439:Prague circle
437:
435:
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430:
427:
425:
422:
420:
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411:
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285:Documentation
283:
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260:Computational
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116:
105:
102:
98:
95:
91:
88:
84:
81:
77:
74: –
73:
69:
68:Find sources:
62:
58:
52:
51:
46:This article
44:
40:
35:
34:
29:
22:
2138:anthropology
2107:Sound change
1947:
1940:
1922:
1915:
1860:Sorin Paliga
1774:Indo-Pacific
1706:
1681:Swadesh list
1606:
1561:
1537:
1520:
1519:Roger Lass,
1506:
1492:
1478:
1474:(1886–1916).
1469:
1448:
1439:Bibliography
1421:
1416:
1401:
1397:(in Swedish)
1392:
1384:
1379:
1371:
1355:
1343:. Retrieved
1335:Language Log
1334:
1323:
1299:
1283:
1260:
1255:
1247:
1242:
1234:
1226:
1218:
1213:
1199:(1): 55–74.
1196:
1192:
1186:
1079:
1070:
1060:
1055:
1024:
1008:
968:Hugo Grotius
922:
856:
848:
828:
774:
772:
762:phylogenetic
747:
736:
720:
711:
680:
641:phonological
638:
619:
606:
605:
402:Glossematics
382:Constituency
354:interpreting
192:Lexicography
134:
119:
110:
100:
93:
86:
79:
67:
55:Please help
50:verification
47:
1870:Ilia Peiros
1754:Sino-Uralic
1749:Indo-Uralic
1744:Ural-Altaic
1708:Proto-human
1656:Macrofamily
1605:Long-range
1387:25(1):36–81
1250:2: 111–135.
1193:Diachronica
1102:, 'water'.
1032: [
1013:theorized (
554:Terminology
529:Orthography
449:Usage-based
350:Translating
245:Acquisition
150:Linguistics
21:comparative
2179:Categories
1734:Eurasiatic
1558:R.L. Trask
1178:References
960:". In the
945:-American
943:Lithuanian
797:loan words
786:universals
706:See also:
672:laryngeals
615:historical
524:Orismology
409:Functional
397:Generative
387:Dependency
207:Pragmatics
197:Morphology
187:Diachronic
83:newspapers
1783:Linguists
1724:Nostratic
1172:Sound law
1029:Jean Prat
1009:In 1759,
984:, in his
931:meaning '
804:findings.
801:etymology
668:consonant
647:systems,
643:systems,
499:Iconicity
494:Etymology
414:Cognitive
377:Formalist
330:Phonetics
320:Philology
212:Semantics
202:Phonology
2164:Category
2127:Archaism
2010:Category
1909:Journals
1614:Concepts
1406:Archived
1364:Archived
1339:Archived
1316:25706475
1292:Archived
1233:(2004).
1106:See also
1093:logement
1075:Goropius
1071:goropism
1063:Scaliger
933:covenant
859:Turanian
692:cognates
300:Forensic
280:Distance
227:Typology
142:a series
140:Part of
2089:More...
1769:Austric
1719:Amerind
1560:(ed.),
1385:Ufahamu
1067:Leibniz
1054:in his
1052:Becanus
972:Mohawks
954:Pictish
923:British
883:genetic
702:History
676:Hittite
635:Methods
255:Applied
165:History
160:Outline
97:scholar
2057:Topics
1739:Altaic
1714:Borean
1568:
1544:
1527:
1513:
1499:
1485:
1455:
1428:
1370:". In
1345:1 June
1314:
1277:986947
1275:
1073:(from
1047:nitale
935:' and
895:Turkey
891:Altaic
887:Uralic
875:racism
649:syntax
570:Portal
468:Topics
217:Syntax
99:
92:
85:
78:
70:
1934:Books
1312:JSTOR
1273:JSTOR
1099:l'eau
1036:]
913:, as
879:areal
840:Wolof
741:, is
170:Index
104:JSTOR
90:books
1566:ISBN
1542:ISBN
1525:ISBN
1511:ISBN
1497:ISBN
1483:ISBN
1453:ISBN
1426:ISBN
1347:2017
928:brit
889:and
881:not
867:Sami
844:Diop
752:and
686:and
352:and
345:Text
76:news
1304:doi
1298:".
1265:doi
1201:doi
938:ish
861:or
59:by
2181::
1536:,
1468:,
1464:,
1447::
1337:.
1333:.
1310:.
1271:.
1197:12
1195:.
1034:fr
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144:on
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1349:.
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1267::
1207:.
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1084:(
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120:(
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111:(
101:·
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87:·
80:·
53:.
30:.
23:.
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.
