Communication protocol

1833:, which assumes a connectionless network, RM/OSI assumed a connection-oriented network. Connection-oriented networks are more suitable for wide area networks and connectionless networks are more suitable for local area networks. Connection-oriented communication requires some form of session and (virtual) circuits, hence the (in the TCP/IP model lacking) session layer. The constituent members of ISO were mostly concerned with wide area networks, so the development of RM/OSI concentrated on connection-oriented networks and connectionless networks were first mentioned in an addendum to RM/OSI and later incorporated into an update to RM/OSI. 1011:. BSC is an early link-level protocol used to connect two separate nodes. It was originally not intended to be used in a multinode network, but doing so revealed several deficiencies of the protocol. In the absence of standardization, manufacturers and organizations felt free to enhance the protocol, creating incompatible versions on their networks. In some cases, this was deliberately done to discourage users from using equipment from other manufacturers. There are more than 50 variants of the original bi-sync protocol. One can assume, that a standard would have prevented at least some of this from happening. 902: 1895:

research are affected by metadata encryption; protocol designers must balance observability for operability and research against ossification resistance and end-user privacy. The IETF announced in 2014 that it had determined that large-scale surveillance of protocol operations is an attack due to the ability to infer information from the wire image about users and their behaviour, and that the IETF would "work to mitigate pervasive monitoring" in its protocol designs; this had not been done systematically previously. The

810: 877: 6625: 5612: 1028:). They can hold a market in a very negative grip, especially when used to scare away competition. From a historical perspective, standardization should be seen as a measure to counteract the ill-effects of de facto standards. Positive exceptions exist; a de facto standard operating system like Linux does not have this negative grip on its market, because the sources are published and maintained in an open way, thus inviting competition. 6635: 5622: 6645: 5601: 995:, which initiates the standardization process. The members of the standards organization agree to adhere to the work result on a voluntary basis. Often the members are in control of large market shares relevant to the protocol and in many cases, standards are enforced by law or the government because they are thought to serve an important public interest, so getting approval can be very important for the protocol. 5632: 466:. The functionalities are mapped onto the layers, each layer solving a distinct class of problems relating to, for instance: application-, transport-, internet- and network interface-functions. To transmit a message, a protocol has to be selected from each layer. The selection of the next protocol is accomplished by extending the message with a protocol selector for each layer. 1744:. To communicate, two peer entities at a given layer use a protocol specific to that layer which is implemented by using services of the layer below. For each layer, there are two types of standards: protocol standards defining how peer entities at a given layer communicate, and service standards defining how a given layer communicates with the layer above it. 1891:), which can influence protocol operation. Even if authenticated, if a portion is not encrypted, it will form part of the wire image, and intermediate parties may intervene depending on its content (e.g., dropping packets with particular flags). Signals deliberately intended for intermediary consumption may be left authenticated but unencrypted. 2109: 1781:

may provide the following services to the presentation layer: establishment and release of session connections, normal and expedited data exchange, a quarantine service which allows the sending presentation entity to instruct the receiving session entity not to release data to its presentation entity

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International standards organizations are supposed to be more impartial than local organizations with a national or commercial self-interest to consider. Standards organizations also do research and development for standards of the future. In practice, the standards organizations mentioned, cooperate

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In modern protocol design, protocols are layered to form a protocol stack. Layering is a design principle that divides the protocol design task into smaller steps, each of which accomplishes a specific part, interacting with the other parts of the protocol only in a small number of well-defined ways.

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had proven to be a successful design approach for both compiler and operating system design and, given the similarities between programming languages and communication protocols, the originally monolithic networking programs were decomposed into cooperating protocols. This gave rise to the concept of

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The authors wish to thank a number of colleagues for helpful comments during early discussions of international network protocols, especially R. Metcalfe, R. Scantlebury, D. Walden, and H. Zimmerman; D. Davies and L. Pouzin who constructively commented on the fragmentation and accounting issues; and

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In the early 1970s Mr Pouzin created an innovative data network that linked locations in France, Italy and Britain. Its simplicity and efficiency pointed the way to a network that could connect not just dozens of machines, but millions of them. It captured the imagination of Dr Cerf and Dr Kahn, who

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of a protocol is the information that a non-participant observer is able to glean from observing the protocol messages, including both information explicitly given meaning by the protocol, but also inferences made by the observer. Unencrypted protocol metadata is one source making up the wire image,

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To send a message on system A, the top-layer software module interacts with the module directly below it and hands over the message to be encapsulated. The lower module fills in the header data in accordance with the protocol it implements and interacts with the bottom module which sends the message

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is some kind of message flow diagram. To visualize protocol layering and protocol suites, a diagram of the message flows in and between two systems, A and B, is shown in figure 3. The systems, A and B, both make use of the same protocol suite. The vertical flows (and protocols) are in-system and the

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As Kahn recalls: ... Paul Baran's contributions ... I also think Paul was motivated almost entirely by voice considerations. If you look at what he wrote, he was talking about switches that were low-cost electronics. The idea of putting powerful computers in these locations hadn't quite occurred to

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recommended in 2023 that disclosure of information by a protocol to the network should be intentional, performed with the agreement of both recipient and sender, authenticated to the degree possible and necessary, only acted upon to the degree of its trustworthiness, and minimised and provided to a

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may provide the following services to the application layer: a request for the establishment of a session, data transfer, negotiation of the syntax to be used between the application layers, any necessary syntax transformations, formatting and special purpose transformations (e.g., data compression

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is the synchronization of software for receiving and transmitting messages of communication in proper sequencing. Concurrent programming has traditionally been a topic in operating systems theory texts. Formal verification seems indispensable because concurrent programs are notorious for the hidden

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To implement a networking protocol, the protocol software modules are interfaced with a framework implemented on the machine's operating system. This framework implements the networking functionality of the operating system. When protocol algorithms are expressed in a portable programming language

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does the setup, maintenance and release of network paths between transport peer entities. When relays are needed, routing and relay functions are provided by this layer. The quality of service is negotiated between network and transport entities at the time the connection is set up. This layer is

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may provide the following services to the application processes: identification of the intended communication partners, establishment of the necessary authority to communicate, determination of availability and authentication of the partners, agreement on privacy mechanisms for the communication,

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The literature presents numerous analogies between computer communication and programming. In analogy, a transfer mechanism of a protocol is comparable to a central processing unit (CPU). The framework introduces rules that allow the programmer to design cooperating protocols independently of one

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Error detection is necessary on networks where data corruption is possible. In a common approach, a CRC of the data area is added to the end of packets, making it possible for the receiver to detect differences caused by corruption. The receiver rejects the packets on CRC differences and arranges

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Addresses are used to identify both the sender and the intended receiver(s). The addresses are carried in the header area of the bitstrings, allowing the receivers to determine whether the bitstrings are of interest and should be processed or should be ignored. A connection between a sender and a

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For communication to occur, protocols have to be selected. The rules can be expressed by algorithms and data structures. Hardware and operating system independence is enhanced by expressing the algorithms in a portable programming language. Source independence of the specification provides wider

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Although the use of protocol layering is today ubiquitous across the field of computer networking, it has been historically criticized by many researchers as abstracting the protocol stack in this way may cause a higher layer to duplicate the functionality of a lower layer, a prime example being

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The modules below the application layer are generally considered part of the operating system. Passing data between these modules is much less expensive than passing data between an application program and the transport layer. The boundary between the application layer and the transport layer is

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Paul Baran ... focused on the routing procedures and on the survivability of distributed communication systems in a hostile environment, but did not concentrate on the need for resource sharing in its form as we now understand it; indeed, the concept of a software switch was not present in his

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The wire image can be deliberately engineered, encrypting parts that intermediaries should not be able to observe and providing signals for what they should be able to. If provided signals are decoupled from the protocol's operation, they may become untrustworthy. Benign network management and

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In the OSI model, communicating systems are assumed to be connected by an underlying physical medium providing a basic transmission mechanism. The layers above it are numbered. Each layer provides service to the layer above it using the services of the layer immediately below it. The top layer

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In the ISO, the standardization process starts off with the commissioning of a sub-committee workgroup. The workgroup issues working drafts and discussion documents to interested parties (including other standards bodies) in order to provoke discussion and comments. This will generate a lot of

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If long bitstrings are divided into pieces and then sent on the network individually, the pieces may get lost or delayed or, on some types of networks, take different routes to their destination. As a result, pieces may arrive out of sequence. Retransmissions can result in duplicate pieces. By

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combines both function and domain of use. The dominant layering schemes are the ones developed by the IETF and by ISO. Despite the fact that the underlying assumptions of the layering schemes are different enough to warrant distinguishing the two, it is a common practice to compare the two by

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principles have been applied to create a set of common network protocol design principles. The design of complex protocols often involves decomposition into simpler, cooperating protocols. Such a set of cooperating protocols is sometimes called a protocol family or a protocol suite, within a

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Communicating systems use well-defined formats for exchanging various messages. Each message has an exact meaning intended to elicit a response from a range of possible responses predetermined for that particular situation. The specified behavior is typically independent of how it is to be

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Failure to receive an acknowledgment indicates that either the original transmission or the acknowledgment was lost. The sender has no means to distinguish these cases and therefore, to ensure all data is received, must make the conservative assumption that the original transmission was

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Multiple standards bodies may be involved in the development of a protocol. If they are uncoordinated, then the result may be multiple, incompatible definitions of a protocol, or multiple, incompatible interpretations of messages; important invariants in one definition (e.g., that

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Protocol layering forms the basis of protocol design. It allows the decomposition of single, complex protocols into simpler, cooperating protocols. The protocol layers each solve a distinct class of communication problems. Together, the layers make up a layering scheme or model.

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Papastergiou, Giorgos; Fairhurst, Gorry; Ros, David; Brunstrom, Anna; Grinnemo, Karl-Johan; Hurtig, Per; Khademi, Naeem; Tüxen, Michael; Welzl, Michael; Damjanovic, Dragana; Mangiante, Simone (2017). "De-Ossifying the Internet Transport Layer: A Survey and Future Perspectives".

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At the time, the IETF had to cope with this and the fact that the Internet needed protocols that simply were not there. As a result, the IETF developed its own standardization process based on "rough consensus and running code". The standardization process is described by

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Getting the data across a network is only part of the problem for a protocol. The data received has to be evaluated in the context of the progress of the conversation, so a protocol must include rules describing the context. These kinds of rules are said to express the

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provides reliable and transparent data transfer in a cost-effective way as required by the selected quality of service. It may support the multiplexing of several transport connections on to one network connection or split one transport connection into several network

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Operating systems usually contain a set of cooperating processes that manipulate shared data to communicate with each other. This communication is governed by well-understood protocols, which can be embedded in the process code itself. In contrast, because there is no

1056:(IETF). The IETF maintains the protocols in use on the Internet. The IEEE controls many software and hardware protocols in the electronics industry for commercial and consumer devices. The ITU is an umbrella organization of telecommunication engineers designing the 905:

Figure 5: Protocol and software layering. The software modules implementing the protocols are represented by cubes. The information flow between the modules is represented by arrows. The (top two horizontal) red arrows are virtual. The blue lines mark the layer

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does the setup, maintenance and release of data link connections. Errors occurring in the physical layer are detected and may be corrected. Errors are reported to the network layer. The exchange of data link units (including flow control) is defined by this

1728:(such as layered protocols) and their standardization. This would prevent protocol standards with overlapping functionality and would allow clear definition of the responsibilities of a protocol at the different levels (layers). This gave rise to the 1848:

Nowadays, the IETF has become a standards organization for the protocols in use on the Internet. RM/OSI has extended its model to include connectionless services and because of this, both TCP and IP could be developed into international standards.

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without permission, interaction management so presentation entities can control whose turn it is to perform certain control functions, resynchronization of a session connection, reporting of unrecoverable exceptions to the presentation entity.

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responsible for the reliable delivery of data on a packet-switched network, rather than this being a service of the network itself. His team was the first to tackle the highly complex problem of providing user applications with a reliable

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s address could be taken to mean an addressing of all stations on the network, so sending to this address would result in a broadcast on the local network. The rules describing the meanings of the address value are collectively called an

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The information exchanged between devices through a network or other media is governed by rules and conventions that can be set out in communication protocol specifications. The nature of communication, the actual data exchanged and any

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Packets may be lost on the network or be delayed in transit. To cope with this, under some protocols, a sender may expect an acknowledgment of correct reception from the receiver within a certain amount of time. Thus, on

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horizontal message flows (and protocols) are between systems. The message flows are governed by rules, and data formats specified by protocols. The blue lines mark the boundaries of the (horizontal) protocol layers.

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Sometimes protocols need to map addresses of one scheme on addresses of another scheme. For instance, to translate a logical IP address specified by the application to an Ethernet MAC address. This is referred to as

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him as being cost effective. So the idea of computer switches was missing. The whole notion of protocols didn't exist at that time. And the idea of computer-to-computer communications was really a secondary concern.

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protocol metadata, and ensuring that extension points are exercised and wire image variability is exhibited as fully as possible; remedying existing ossification requires coordination across protocol participants.

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was developed internationally based on experience with networks that predated the internet as a reference model for general communication with much stricter rules of protocol interaction and rigorous layering.

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Flow control is needed when the sender transmits faster than the receiver or intermediate network equipment can process the transmissions. Flow control can be implemented by messaging from receiver to sender.

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Messages are sent and received on communicating systems to establish communication. Protocols should therefore specify rules governing the transmission. In general, much of the following should be addressed:

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Communicating processes or state machines employ queues (or "buffers"), usually FIFO queues, to deal with the messages in the order sent, and may sometimes have multiple queues with different prioritization.

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Strictly adhering to a layered model, a practice known as strict layering, is not always the best approach to networking. Strict layering can have a negative impact on the performance of an implementation.

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over the communications channel to the bottom module of system B. On the receiving system B the reverse happens, so ultimately the message gets delivered in its original form to the top module of system B.

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encoding. Binary protocols are intended to be read by a machine rather than a human being. Binary protocols have the advantage of terseness, which translates into speed of transmission and interpretation.

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Digital message bitstrings are exchanged. The bitstrings are divided in fields and each field carries information relevant to the protocol. Conceptually the bitstring is divided into two parts called the

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that are sensitive to the wire image of the protocol, and which can interrupt or interfere with messages that are valid but which the middlebox does not correctly recognize. This is a violation of the

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is divided into subproblems. As a result, the translation software is layered as well, allowing the software layers to be designed independently. The same approach can be seen in the TCP/IP layering.

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F. Buschmann, K. Henney, and D. C. Schmidt, Pattern-Oriented Software Architecture Volume 4: A Pattern Language for Distributed Computing, Volume 4 edition. Chichester England; New York: Wiley, 2007.

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protocol design and deployment, as it can prevent new protocols or extensions from being deployed on the Internet, or place strictures on the design of new protocols; new protocols may have to be

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Network applications have various methods of encapsulating data. One method very common with Internet protocols is a text oriented representation that transmits requests and responses as lines of

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Multiple protocols often describe different aspects of a single communication. A group of protocols designed to work together is known as a protocol suite; when implemented in software they are a

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in the Internet. Packet relaying across networks happens over another layer that involves only network link technologies, which are often specific to certain physical layer technologies, such as

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to the intended receiver(s) need to forward messages on behalf of the sender. On the Internet, the networks are connected using routers. The interconnection of networks through routers is called

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In addition to the NPL Network and the ARPANET, CYCLADES, an academic and research experimental network, also played an important role in the development of computer networking technologies

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are designed to function in diverse and complex settings. Internet protocols are designed for simplicity and modularity and fit into a coarse hierarchy of functional layers defined in the

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marking the pieces with sequence information at the sender, the receiver can determine what was lost or duplicated, ask for necessary retransmissions and reassemble the original message.

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for transport. In the common case of TCP and UDP, services are distinguished by port numbers. Conformance to these port numbers is voluntary, so in content inspection systems the term

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Text-based protocols are typically optimized for human parsing and interpretation and are therefore suitable whenever human inspection of protocol contents is required, such as during

797:. Mealy and Moore machines are in use as design tools in digital electronics systems encountered in the form of hardware used in telecommunication or electronic devices in general. 1825:

describes details like the electrical characteristics of the physical connection, the transmission techniques used, and the setup, maintenance and clearing of physical connections.

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Figure 3. Message flows using a protocol suite. Black loops show the actual messaging loops, red loops are the effective communication between layers enabled by the lower layers.

1724:, the predecessor of the Internet, was that protocols need a framework to operate. It is therefore important to develop a general-purpose, future-proof framework suitable for 1900:

minimum number of entities. Engineering the wire image and controlling what signals are provided to network elements was a "developing field" in 2023, according to the IAB.

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Typically, application software is built upon a robust data transport layer. Underlying this transport layer is a datagram delivery and routing mechanism that is typically

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In fact, CYCLADES, unlike ARPANET, had been explicitly designed to facilitate internetworking; it could, for instance, handle varying formats and varying levels of service

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of the communication. Other rules determine whether the data is meaningful for the context in which the exchange takes place. These kinds of rules are said to express the

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The immediate human readability stands in contrast to native binary protocols which have inherent benefits for use in a computer environment (such as ease of mechanical

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text, terminated by a newline character (and usually a carriage return character). Examples of protocols that use plain, human-readable text for its commands are FTP (

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Comer 2000, Sect. 11.3 - The Conceptual Layers Of Protocol Software, p. 179, the first two paragraphs describe the sending of a message through successive layers.

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Marsden 1986, Section 6.1 - Why are standards necessary?, p. 64-65, uses BSC as an example to show the need for both standard protocols and a standard framework.

2858: 2499: 636:. The actual message is carried in the payload. The header area contains the fields with relevance to the operation of the protocol. Bitstrings longer than the 841:(IP) resulted from the decomposition of the original Transmission Control Program, a monolithic communication protocol, into this layered communication suite. 2912:

Comer 2000, Sect. 11.2 - The Need For Multiple Protocols, p. 177, explains this by drawing analogies between computer communication and programming languages.

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Comer 2000, Sect. 11.10 - The Disadvantage Of Layering, p. 192, explains why "strict layering can be extremely inefficient" giving examples of optimizations.

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Marsden 1986, Section 3.3 - Acknowledgement, p. 28-33, explains the advantages of positive only acknowledgment and mentions datagram protocols as exceptions.

2100:, Hilpisch, Robert E.; Duchscher, Rob & Seel, Mark et al., "Wireless communication protocol", published 2009-05-05, assigned to 2826: 1872:

including packet timing also contribute. Different observers with different vantages may see different wire images. The wire image is relevant to end-user

4876: 1992:, which is used to encapsulate packets in a high-level protocol so that the packets can be passed across a transport system using the high-level protocol. 2583: 2156:

Comer 2000, Sect. 11.2 - The Need For Multiple Protocols, p. 177, "They (protocols) are to communication what programming languages are to computation"

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Comer 2000, Sect. 7.7.4 - Datagram Size, Network MTU, and Fragmentation, p. 104, Explains fragmentation and the effect on the header of the fragments.

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Comer 2000, Sect. 11.3 - The Conceptual Layers Of Protocol Software, p. 178, "Each layer takes responsibility for handling one part of the problem."

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Comer 2000, Sect. 11.2 - The need for multiple protocols, p. 178, explains similarities protocol software and compiler, assembler, linker, loader.

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This Basic Reference Model of Open Systems Interconnection is based on the assumption that a connection is required for the transfer of data.

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Systems typically do not use a single protocol to handle a transmission. Instead they use a set of cooperating protocols, sometimes called a

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Describes TCP/IP to the implementors of protocolsoftware. In particular the introduction gives an overview of the design goals of the suite.

1732:(OSI model), which is used as a framework for the design of standard protocols and services conforming to the various layer specifications. 5584: 5556: 5551: 4576: 5668: 4478: 2133: 3223: 3049: 73:. Communication protocols have to be agreed upon by the parties involved. To reach an agreement, a protocol may be developed into a 3532:"X.225 : Information technology – Open Systems Interconnection – Connection-oriented Session protocol: Protocol specification" 474:

There are two types of communication protocols, based on their representation of the content being carried: text-based and binary.

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In some cases, protocols gain market dominance without going through a standardization process. Such protocols are referred to as

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Marsden 1986, Section 3.5 - Direction of information flow, p. 34-35, explains master/slave and the negotiations to gain control.

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IETF 1989, Sect 1.3.1 - Organization, p. 15, 2nd paragraph: many design choices involve creative "breaking" of strict layering.

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The software supporting protocols has a layered organization and its relationship with protocol layering is shown in figure 5.

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Comer 2000, Section 1.9 - Internet Protocols And Standardization, p. 12, explains why the IETF did not use existing protocols.

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Considerations around Transport Header Confidentiality, Network Operations, and the Evolution of Internet Transport Protocols

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ISO 7498:1984/ADD 1:1987 – Information processing systems — Open Systems Interconnection — Basic Reference Model — Addendum 1

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and sophisticated bugs they contain. A mathematical approach to the study of concurrency and communication is referred to as

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Marsden 1986, Section 3.2 - Detection and transmission errors, p. 27, explains the advantages of backward error correction.

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on the Internet, and TCP itself has significantly ossified, making extension or modification of the protocol difficult.

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provides services to the application process. The layers communicate with each other by means of an interface, called a

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models are used to formally describe the possible interactions of the protocol. and communicating finite-state machines

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in 1975 but was not adopted by the CCITT nor by the ARPANET. Separate international research, particularly the work of

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In particular Ch.11 Protocol layering. Also has a RFC guide and a Glossary of Internetworking Terms and Abbreviations.

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Classification schemes for protocols usually focus on the domain of use and function. As an example of domain of use,

860:. Layering provides opportunities to exchange technologies when needed, for example, protocols are often stacked in a 388:-dependent behaviors, is defined by these specifications. In digital computing systems, the rules can be expressed by 6669: 6560: 6388: 5925: 5434: 4242: 4220: 4201: 4182: 4158: 4103: 4081: 4053: 3841: 3399: 3387: 3176:

Marsden 1986, Section 3.6 - Sequence control, p. 35-36, explains how packets get lost and how sequencing solves this.

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Marsden 1986, Chapter 3 - Fundamental protocol concepts and problem areas, p. 26-42, explains much of the following.

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Comer 2000, Sect. 1.3 - Internet Services, p. 3, "Protocols are to communication what algorithms are to computation"

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is produced by the working group. After feedback, modification, and compromise the proposal reaches the status of a

408:. Transmission is not necessarily reliable, and individual systems may use different hardware or operating systems. 6648: 5749: 5219: 4767: 4569: 1619: 1499: 1162: 4544: 6036: 5330: 2819: 1514: 1053: 738: 371:, published in 1984. For a period in the late 1980s and early 1990s, engineers, organizations and nations became 104: 2208: 6327: 6289: 5953: 5661: 5325: 2552: 2480: 1988:

are used on connection-oriented networks and connectionless networks respectively. An example of function is a

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Marsden 1986, Section 6.4 - Some problems with standardisation, p. 67, follows HDLC to illustrate the process.

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Computations deal with algorithms and data; Communication involves protocols and messages; So the analog of a

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describes the same for computations, so there is a close analogy between protocols and programming languages:

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Commonly recurring problems in the design and implementation of communication protocols can be addressed by

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arrangement to accommodate the connection of dissimilar networks. For example, IP may be tunneled across an

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to connect across the ARPANET by implementing higher-level communication protocols, an early example of the

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in an already-deployed protocol or mimic the wire image of another protocol. Because of ossification, the

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Marsden 1986, Section 14.3 - Layering concepts and general definitions, p. 183-185, explains terminology.

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Comer 2000, Sect. 11.2 - The Need For Multiple Protocols, p. 177, introduces the decomposition in layers.

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Marsden 1986, Section 14.3 - Layering concepts and general definitions, p. 187, explains address mapping.

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Comer 2000, Sect. 11.11 - The Basic Idea Behind Multiplexing And Demultiplexing, p. 192, states the same.

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Sect. 11.10 - The Disadvantage Of Layering, p. 192, states: layering forms the basis for protocol design.

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relating common protocols to the layers of the two schemes. The layering scheme from the IETF is called

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Marsden 1986, Section 6.1 - Why are standards necessary?, p. 65, explains lessons learned from ARPANET.

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Rybczynski, Tony (2009). "Commercialization of packet switching (1975-1985): A Canadian perspective ".

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Schwartz, Mischa (2010). "X.25 Virtual Circuits - TRANSPAC IN France - Pre-Internet Data Networking ".

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Comer 2000, Sect. 11.9.1 - Operating System Boundary, p. 192, describes the operating system boundary.

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questions, much discussion and usually some disagreement. These comments are taken into account and a

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ISO 7498:1994 – Information processing systems - Open Systems Interconnection - Basic Reference Model

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ISO 7498:1984 – Information processing systems - Open Systems Interconnection - Basic Reference Model

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The protocols can be arranged based on functionality in groups, for instance, there is a group of

111:(Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers) handles wired and wireless networking and the 6540: 6474: 6365: 6181: 5848: 5444: 5429: 5273: 5224: 5147: 5047: 4725: 4611: 4606: 2349: 1985: 1700: 1639: 1629: 1554: 946: 830: 819: 721:

Direction needs to be addressed if transmissions can only occur in one direction at a time as on

341: 6605: 6436: 6317: 6084: 6074: 6069: 5152: 4967: 4912: 4907: 4720: 4685: 3877: 2412:"Designed for Change: End-to-End Arguments, Internet Innovation, and the Net Neutrality Debate" 1949: 1360: 1172: 1037: 992: 777: 537: 396:. Protocols are to communication what algorithms or programming languages are to computations. 2891:

Ben-Ari 1982, Section 2.7 - Summary, p. 27, summarizes the concurrent programming abstraction.

2741: 2612:

McKenzie, Alexander (2011). "INWG and the Conception of the Internet: An Eyewitness Account".

2440: 2364: 2270: 2181: 6575: 6545: 6535: 6431: 6345: 6221: 6161: 6128: 6118: 6008: 5973: 5963: 5900: 5769: 5744: 5739: 5704: 5268: 5072: 5037: 4957: 4937: 4859: 4747: 4668: 2470: 2123: 1914: 1909: 1529: 1458: 1197: 491: 326: 264: 26: 4601: 3374:

Service Design Patterns: Fundamental Design Solutions for SOAP/WSDL and RESTful Web Services

2882:

Ben-Ari 1982, chapter 2 - The concurrent programming abstraction, p. 18-19, states the same.

2287:

Baran had put more emphasis on digital voice communications than on computer communications.

6335: 6307: 6279: 6274: 6103: 6079: 6031: 6016: 5998: 5988: 5983: 5945: 5895: 5890: 5807: 5753: 5182: 5142: 5112: 4869: 4804: 4626: 4437: 4409: 4381: 4353: 4325: 4297: 4269: 4134: 2342: 1930: 1524: 976: 786: 730: 526: 314: 229: 210: 78: 3229: 3053: 2411: 2021:

In networking equipment configuration, a term-of-art distinction is often drawn: The term

8: 6600: 6525: 6441: 6426: 6191: 5978: 5935: 5930: 5827: 5817: 5789: 5192: 5132: 4891: 4853: 4651: 4636: 4230: 4061: 2252:

Entrepreneurial Capitalism and Innovation: A History of Computer Communications 1968–1988

1869: 1747:

In the OSI model, the layers and their functionality are (from highest to lowest layer):

1285: 1192: 1089: 917: 769: 712: 405: 242: 2798: 2343:

Interface Message Processor: Specifications for the Interconnection of a Host and an IMP

1020:. De facto standards are common in emerging markets, niche markets, or markets that are 6565: 6464: 6340: 6297: 6206: 6148: 6133: 6123: 5915: 5714: 5419: 5376: 5307: 5177: 5107: 5082: 5017: 4864: 4585: 4518: 4505: 4067: 4027:

Comer 2000, Sect. 11.5.1 - The TCP/IP 5-Layer Reference Model, p. 183, states the same.

3483: 3450:

Comer 2000, Glossary of Internetworking Terms and Abbreviations, p. 704, term protocol.

2723: 2680: 2637: 2228: 1989: 1972:

transport protocol to have been designed with deliberate anti-ossification properties.

1953: 1803: 1767: 1693: 1253: 1167: 1065: 861: 813:

The TCP/IP model or Internet layering scheme and its relation to some common protocols.

463: 120: 74: 6585: 6515: 6494: 6456: 6264: 6231: 6211: 5910: 5822: 5696: 5459: 5381: 5295: 5278: 5241: 5087: 4917: 4886: 4752: 4646: 4524: 4238: 4216: 4197: 4178: 4154: 4099: 4077: 4049: 3937: 3901: 3500:

Marsden 1986, Section 6.3 - Advantages of standardization, p. 66-67, states the same.

3437: 3395: 2747: 2715: 2672: 2641: 2629: 2575: 2507: 2476: 2446: 2320: 2276: 2187: 1922: 1753: 1401: 1177: 1145: 1134: 1016: 889: 838: 428: 302: 171: 58: 34: 5127: 3681:

Marsden 1986, Section 14.11 - Connectionless mode and RM/OSI, p. 195, mentions this.

3487: 2727: 2684: 270:

Research in the early 1970s by Bob Kahn and Vint Cerf led to the formulation of the

6418: 6302: 6269: 6064: 5993: 5882: 5868: 5863: 5812: 5799: 5724: 5677: 5464: 5424: 5404: 5371: 5300: 5258: 5172: 5027: 5012: 4987: 4962: 4922: 4772: 4631: 4616: 4509: 4495: 4487: 4461: 4453: 4427: 4399: 4371: 4343: 4315: 4287: 4259: 4124: 4091: 3949: 3473: 3433: 2707: 2664: 2621: 2567: 2312: 2232: 2220: 2055: 1933:. Secondary causes include inflexibility in endpoint implementations of protocols. 1873: 1838: 507: 413: 353: 345: 275: 163: 154:

in a modern data-commutation context occurs in April 1967 in a memorandum entitled

4009: 3531: 2936:

Comer 2000, Sect. 11.2 - The Need For Multiple Protocols, p. 177, states the same.

991:

Protocol standards are commonly created by obtaining the approval or support of a

583:

Binary have been used in the normative documents describing modern standards like

6489: 6383: 6355: 6249: 6201: 6186: 6171: 6026: 6021: 5968: 5858: 5832: 5784: 5729: 5092: 4947: 4715: 4690: 4678: 3925: 3913: 3158:

Marsden 1986, Section 3.4 - Loss of information - timeouts and retries, p. 33-34.

1811: 1787: 1472: 1348: 901: 683: 549: 310: 252: 238: 186: 46: 4440: 4421: 4412: 4393: 4384: 4365: 4356: 4337: 4328: 4309: 4300: 4281: 4272: 4253: 4137: 4118: 3026: 2999: 1842: 1003:

The need for protocol standards can be shown by looking at what happened to the

357: 349: 6595: 6499: 6398: 6244: 6216: 5290: 5162: 5137: 5097: 5067: 4942: 4777: 4730: 4705: 4663: 4491: 2366:

UGC -NET/JRF/SET PTP & Guide Teaching and Research Aptitude: UGC -NET By HD

2300: 1821: 1759: 1587: 853: 436: 393: 367:

International work on a reference model for communication standards led to the

279: 256: 233: 97: 70: 2711: 2668: 2571: 2041:

is often used to refer to protocols identified through inspection signatures.

6663: 6484: 5779: 5439: 5212: 5202: 5117: 5007: 5002: 4992: 4977: 4799: 4658: 4041: 3756: 3754: 2803: 2719: 2676: 2633: 2579: 2511: 2324: 1918: 1884: 1877: 1797: 1777: 1394: 1299: 1093: 794: 790: 726: 401: 372: 198: 159: 145: 83:

protocols are to communication what programming languages are to computations

50: 4457: 3424:

Bochmann, G. (1978). "Finite state description of communication protocols".

2767: 2524:

included aspects of its design in the protocols that now power the internet.

2472:

Internationalising the Internet the Co-evolution of Influence and Technology

2316: 2224: 818:

Layering allows the parts of a protocol to be designed and tested without a

286:

and Carl Sunshine in December 1974, still a monolithic design at this time.

6580: 6239: 5317: 5157: 5102: 5032: 4997: 4932: 4831: 4821: 4673: 4071: 4046:

Interconnections: Bridges, Routers, Switches, and Internetworking Protocols

3592:

Marsden 1986, Section 14.5 - The presentation layer, p. 189, explains this.

2436: 1758:

agreement on responsibility for error recovery and procedures for ensuring

1207: 1085: 741:

where two parties respectively simultaneously transmit or wish to transmit.

704:. Acknowledgments are sent from receivers back to their respective senders. 417: 404:, communicating systems have to communicate with each other using a shared 313:, which was adopted by the CCITT in 1976. Computer manufacturers developed 225: 4549: 3751: 3691: 3666: 3647: 3583:

Marsden 1986, Section 14.4 - The application layer, p. 188, explains this.

3478: 3461: 2380: 340:

in 1982 and on the ARPANET in January 1983. The development of a complete

6570: 6196: 6108: 5517: 5167: 5077: 5062: 5022: 4982: 4841: 2600:

S. Crocker who commented on the creation and destruction of associations.

1888: 1659: 1654: 1649: 1573: 1544: 722: 283: 175: 30: 4423:

Considerations on Application - Network Collaboration Using Path Signals

3637:

Marsden 1986, Section 14.10 - The physical layer, p. 195, explains this.

3628:

Marsden 1986, Section 14.9 - The data link layer, p. 194, explains this.

3610:

Marsden 1986, Section 14.7 - The transport layer, p. 191, explains this.

3212:

Hoare 1985, Chapter 4 - Communication, p. 133, deals with communication.

2625: 677:

When systems are not directly connected, intermediary systems along the

332:

TCP software was redesigned as a modular protocol stack, referred to as

6590: 6520: 6113: 5853: 5709: 5522: 5229: 4927: 4836: 4792: 4762: 4740: 4168: 4146: 4114: 1960: 1644: 1539: 1519: 1306: 495: 202: 4466: 4420:

Arkko, Jari; Hardie, Ted; Pauly, Tommy; Kühlewind, Mirja (July 2023).

3997: 3619:

Marsden 1986, Section 14.8 - The network layer, p. 192, explains this.

3601:

Marsden 1986, Section 14.6 - The session layer, p. 190, explains this.

2820:"Rough Consensus and Running Code' and the Internet-OSI Standards War" 6095: 6056: 5507: 4972: 4787: 4554: 4500: 4432: 4404: 4376: 4348: 4320: 4292: 4264: 4129: 2209:"Data Communications at the National Physical Laboratory (1965-1975)" 1926: 1858: 1679: 1664: 1448: 1128: 1025: 845: 556: 456: 432:

layered protocols which nowadays forms the basis of protocol design.

421: 389: 368: 206: 88: 4096:

Internetworking with TCP/IP - Principles, Protocols and Architecture

809: 185:, the starting point for host-to-host communication in 1969 was the 6156: 5646: 5502: 5492: 5409: 5234: 5057: 4550:

Overview of protocols in telecontrol field with OSI Reference Model

4060:. In particular Ch. 18 on "network design folklore", which is also 3961: 1937: 1021: 857: 826: 776:

Communicating systems operate concurrently. An important aspect of

361: 294: 260: 221: 190: 62: 4450:

Implementing Real-Time Transport Services over an Ossified Network

3729: 3727: 3714: 3712: 3565:

Marsden 1986, Section 14.1 - Introduction, p. 181, introduces OSI.

3376:(1 ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Addison-Wesley Professional. 2417:. Information Technology and Innovation Foundation. pp. 7, 11 5497: 5482: 4700: 4474: 3973: 3955: 3943: 3931: 3919: 3819: 3817: 3790: 3122:

Comer 2000, Chapter 4 - Classful Internet Addresses, p. 64-67;71.

2058: – Programming tool to build network connectivity components 1721: 1380: 1311: 1232: 937:

error recovery on both a per-link basis and an end-to-end basis.

522: 444: 182: 3359:

A Pattern Language for Application-level Communication Protocols

876: 700:

Acknowledgement of correct reception of packets is required for

599:. An interface in UML may also be considered a binary protocol. 5527: 5487: 4809: 4448:

McQuistin, Stephen; Perkins, Colin; Fayed, Marwan (July 2016).

3778: 3766: 3739: 3724: 3709: 2105: 1887:, it is subject to modification by intermediate parties (i.e., 1599: 1594: 1422: 1222: 1186: 592: 588: 440: 337: 322: 38: 3814: 3802: 957:

Popular formal methods of describing communication syntax are

5512: 5449: 4757: 1614: 1609: 1443: 1428: 1331: 1275: 1270: 1076:(W3C) produces protocols and standards for Web technologies. 1061: 651:. Usually, some address values have special meanings. An all- 584: 576: 533: 503: 499: 452: 298: 116: 193:, which defined the transmission of messages to an IMP. The 5454: 2096: 1969: 1965: 1883:

If some portion of the wire image is not cryptographically

1669: 1563: 1559: 1549: 1453: 1411: 1406: 1375: 1260: 970: 572: 545: 515: 448: 306: 209:, was first implemented in 1970. The NCP interface allowed 131:, the standards are also being driven towards convergence. 108: 25:

is a system of rules that allows two or more entities of a

4520:

History of the Internet: A Chronology, 1843 to the Present

4172: 3332:"Communication-protocol Design Patterns (CommDP) - COMMDP" 3300:

Wakeman, I (January 1992). "Layering considered harmful".

733:. Arrangements have to be made to accommodate the case of 156:

A Protocol for Use in the NPL Data Communications Network.

4419: 3907: 3895: 3883: 3871: 3859: 3847: 3835: 3503: 2965:"Data Communication - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics" 1674: 1008: 511: 4252:

Bryant, Stewart; Morrow, Monique, eds. (November 2009).

16:

System for exchanging messages between computing systems

4120:

Requirements for Internet Hosts -- Communication Layers

3075: 2743:

The "Hidden" Prehistory of European Research Networking

1959:

Recommended methods of preventing ossification include

3985: 3241: 3239: 103:

Internet communication protocols are published by the

4447: 4255:

Uncoordinated Protocol Development Considered Harmful

3967: 2025:

strictly refers to the transport layer, and the term

559:

and during early protocol development design phases.

4395:

Long-Term Viability of Protocol Extension Mechanisms

4237:(10th Print ed.). Prentice Hall International. 4196:(10th Print ed.). Prentice Hall International. 4177:(10th Print ed.). Prentice Hall International. 4153:(10th Print ed.). Prentice Hall International. 4229: 3394:(1 ed.). Boston: Addison-Wesley Professional. 3236: 3185:

Marsden 1986, Section 3.7 - Flow control, p. 36-38.

4307: 4066: 3850:, 2.2. Control of the Distribution of Information. 3796: 3784: 3772: 3745: 3733: 3718: 3330:Lascano, Jorge Edison; Clyde, Stephen; Raza, Ali. 2553:"A Protocol for Packet Network Intercommunication" 998: 228:in the early 1970s was the first to implement the 4308:Trammell, Brian; Kuehlewind, Mirja (April 2019). 4280:Farrell, Stephen; Tschofenig, Hannes (May 2014). 4279: 3862:, 2.3. Protecting Information and Authentication. 3823: 3808: 2796: 2301:"Principles and lessons in packet communications" 1740:. Corresponding layers at each system are called 1050:Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers 1040:of relevance for communication protocols are the 822:of cases, keeping each design relatively simple. 647:receiver can be identified using an address pair 6661: 4363: 4090: 3760: 2529: 640:(MTU) are divided in pieces of appropriate size. 4392:Thomson, Martin; Pauly, Tommy (December 2021). 4210: 3459: 3392:Patterns of Enterprise Application Architecture 2899: 2897: 498:encoded in a machine-readable encoding such as 416:independent. The best-known frameworks are the 4364:Fairhurst, Gorry; Perkins, Colin (July 2021). 4123:. Internet Engineering Task Force abbr. IETF. 2932: 2930: 2920: 2918: 2037:strictly refers to port numbers, and the term 1099: 1042:International Organization for Standardization 506:, or in structured text-based formats such as 113:International Organization for Standardization 5686:Note: This template roughly follows the 2012 5662: 4570: 4452:. 2016 Applied Networking Research Workshop. 4040: 2206: 1701: 785:(CSP). Concurrency can also be modeled using 439:. Some of the best-known protocol suites are 4391: 4251: 4191: 4167: 4015: 4003: 3979: 3509: 3356: 3329: 3257: 2894: 2885: 2876: 245:, an early contribution to what will be the 5585:Global telecommunications regulation bodies 4516: 4479:IEEE Communications Surveys & Tutorials 4073:Design and Validation of Computer Protocols 2939: 2927: 2915: 2825:. IEEE Annals of the History of Computing. 2790: 2535: 2403: 2152: 2150: 833:. The first two cooperating protocols, the 725:links or from one sender at a time as on a 5669: 5655: 5621: 4577: 4563: 4145: 3314: 2697: 2166: 2164: 2162: 1708: 1694: 1031: 825:The communication protocols in use on the 707:Loss of information - timeouts and retries 373:polarized over the issue of which standard 4499: 4465: 4431: 4403: 4375: 4347: 4319: 4291: 4263: 4128: 4113: 3477: 3460:Brand, Daniel; Zafiropulo, Pitro (1983). 3221: 2298: 2248:"6.1 The Communications Subnet: BBN 1969" 2239: 2010:. The layering scheme from ISO is called 1952:(UDP) are the only practical choices for 170:in the United Kingdom, it was written by 3462:"On Communicating Finite-State Machines" 3423: 3371: 3317:Computer Networking: A Top-Down Approach 2654: 2611: 2550: 2179: 2147: 900: 875: 808: 427:At the time the Internet was developed, 305:, contributed to the development of the 134: 3299: 2760: 2614:IEEE Annals of the History of Computing 2462: 2409: 2268: 2159: 982: 952: 321:(SNA), Digital Equipment Corporation's 282:specification was written by Cerf with 85:. An alternate formulation states that 6662: 6379:Knowledge representation and reasoning 4584: 4335: 3991: 3874:, 2.5. Limiting Impact of Information. 3386: 3194:Ben-Ari 1982, in his preface, p. xiii. 3086:from the original on 30 September 2019 2435: 2136:from the original on 12 September 2012 1996: 1830: 1120: 924:called the operating system boundary. 201:and other graduate students including 6404:Philosophy of artificial intelligence 5650: 4558: 3203:Ben-Ari 1982, in his preface, p. xiv. 3047: 3020: 2993: 2864:from the original on 24 February 2021 2832:from the original on 17 November 2019 2778:from the original on 1 September 2022 2373: 1046:International Telecommunication Union 602: 5730:Energy consumption (Green computing) 5676: 5631: 4517:Moschovitis, Christos J. P. (1999). 4311:The Wire Image of a Network Protocol 4151:Principles of concurrent programming 3538:from the original on 1 February 2021 2746:. Trafford Publishing. p. 354. 2180:Naughton, John (24 September 2015). 896: 871: 297:standard which was presented to the 197:(NCP) for the ARPANET, developed by 87:protocols are to communication what 6409:Distributed artificial intelligence 5688:ACM Computing Classification System 4194:Principles of programming languages 3968:McQuistin, Perkins & Fayed 2016 3315:Kurose, James; Ross, Keith (2005). 2817: 2589:from the original on 6 January 2017 2560:IEEE Transactions on Communications 2468: 2410:Bennett, Richard (September 2009). 1096:) may not be respected in another. 291:International Network Working Group 13: 5921:Integrated development environment 4174:Communicating sequential processes 3357:Lascano, J. E.; Clyde, S. (2016). 2797:Andrew L. Russell (30 July 2013). 2605: 2492: 2391:from the original on 7 August 2022 2262: 2245: 2213:Annals of the History of Computing 1730:Open Systems Interconnection model 940: 927: 783:communicating sequential processes 764: 649:(sender address, receiver address) 412:the protocol software may be made 57:. Protocols may be implemented by 37:. The protocol defines the rules, 14: 6691: 6389:Automated planning and scheduling 5926:Software configuration management 4538: 4283:Pervasive Monitoring Is an Attack 4215:(2nd ed.). Chartwell Bratt. 3050:"Binary Representation Protocols" 3023:"Binary Representation Protocols" 2362: 1936:Ossification is a major issue in 1058:public switched telephone network 1005:Binary Synchronous Communications 702:connection-oriented communication 643:Address formats for data exchange 127:(PSTN). As the PSTN and Internet 125:public switched telephone network 6643: 6633: 6624: 6623: 5630: 5620: 5611: 5610: 5599: 5220:Free-space optical communication 4235:Structured computer organization 4048:(2nd ed.). Addison-Wesley. 4021: 3838:, 2.1. Intentional Distribution. 2975:from the original on 31 May 2022 2475:. Edward Elgar. pp. 51–55. 2029:refers to protocols utilizing a 690:Detection of transmission errors 6634: 6037:Computational complexity theory 4339:Transport Protocol Path Signals 4336:Hardie, Ted, ed. (April 2019). 4213:Communication network protocols 4098:(4th ed.). Prentice Hall. 4034: 3898:, 2.6. Minimum Set of Entities. 3700: 3684: 3675: 3659: 3640: 3631: 3622: 3613: 3604: 3595: 3586: 3577: 3568: 3559: 3550: 3524: 3515: 3494: 3453: 3444: 3417: 3408: 3380: 3365: 3350: 3323: 3308: 3293: 3284: 3275: 3266: 3248: 3228:, NPTEL courses, archived from 3215: 3206: 3197: 3188: 3179: 3170: 3161: 3152: 3143: 3134: 3125: 3116: 3107: 3098: 3068: 3048:Kirch, Olaf (16 January 2002). 3041: 3021:Kirch, Olaf (16 January 2002). 3014: 2994:Kirch, Olaf (16 January 2002). 2987: 2957: 2948: 2906: 2844: 2811: 2799:"OSI: The Internet That Wasn't" 2734: 2691: 2648: 2544: 2445:. MIT Press. pp. 124–127. 2429: 2381:"NCP – Network Control Program" 2356: 2335: 2069: 1903: 1054:Internet Engineering Task Force 999:The need for protocol standards 115:(ISO) handles other types. The 105:Internet Engineering Task Force 5828:Network performance evaluation 3797:Trammell & Kuehlewind 2019 3785:Trammell & Kuehlewind 2019 3773:Trammell & Kuehlewind 2019 3746:Trammell & Kuehlewind 2019 3734:Trammell & Kuehlewind 2019 3719:Trammell & Kuehlewind 2019 2292: 2207:Cambell-Kelly, Martin (1987). 2200: 2173: 2116: 2090: 624:Data formats for data exchange 527:improved bandwidth utilization 123:protocols and formats for the 1: 6192:Multimedia information system 6177:Geographic information system 6167:Enterprise information system 5763:Computer systems organization 3824:Farrell & Tschofenig 2014 3809:Farrell & Tschofenig 2014 2275:. Stripe Press. p. 286. 2269:Waldrop, M. Mitchell (2018). 2183:A Brief History of the Future 2083: 1982:connection-oriented protocols 1975: 1946:Transmission Control Protocol 1852: 835:Transmission Control Protocol 718:Direction of information flow 542:Simple Mail Transfer Protocol 477: 247:Transmission Control Protocol 6551:Computational social science 6139:Theoretical computer science 5959:Software development process 5735:Electronic design automation 5720:Very Large Scale Integration 5606:Telecommunication portal 5387:Telecommunications equipment 4545:Javvin's Protocol Dictionary 4018:, 3.5. Restoring Active Use. 3886:, 2.4. Minimize Information. 3761:Fairhurst & Perkins 2021 3438:10.1016/0376-5075(78)90015-6 3225:Digital Circuits and Systems 2700:IEEE Communications Magazine 2657:IEEE Communications Magazine 1917:is the loss of flexibility, 1111:draft international standard 959:Abstract Syntax Notation One 319:Systems Network Architecture 272:Transmission Control Program 168:National Physical Laboratory 65:, or a combination of both. 7: 6374:Natural language processing 6162:Information storage systems 5123:Alexander Stepanovich Popov 2807:. Vol. 50, no. 8. 2551:Cerf, V.; Kahn, R. (1974). 2044: 1897:Internet Architecture Board 1100:The standardization process 1064:communication systems. For 1007:(BSC) protocol invented by 804: 694:somehow for retransmission. 546:Hypertext Transfer Protocol 544:), early versions of HTTP ( 293:agreed on a connectionless 267:(PUP) for internetworking. 174:and Keith Bartlett for the 10: 6696: 6290:Human–computer interaction 6260:Intrusion detection system 6172:Social information systems 6157:Database management system 4827:Telecommunications history 4492:10.1109/COMST.2016.2626780 3076:"Welcome To UML Web Site!" 2768:"TCP/IP Internet Protocol" 2500:"The internet's fifth man" 2051:Lists of network protocols 1907: 1856: 967:augmented Backus–Naur form 866:Asynchronous Transfer Mode 490:represents its content in 378: 150:The first use of the term 143: 139: 6619: 6556:Computational engineering 6531:Computational mathematics 6508: 6455: 6417: 6364: 6326: 6288: 6230: 6147: 6093: 6055: 6007: 5944: 5877: 5841: 5798: 5762: 5695: 5684: 5594: 5536: 5473: 5435:Public Switched Telephone 5395: 5359: 5316: 5257: 5247:telecommunication circuit 5208:Fiber-optic communication 5191: 4953:Francis Blake (telephone) 4900: 4748:Optical telecommunication 4592: 2712:10.1109/MCOM.2009.5350364 2669:10.1109/MCOM.2010.5621965 2572:10.1109/TCOM.1974.1092259 2102:Starkey Laboratories Inc. 1925:. This is largely due to 1080:closely with each other. 1074:World Wide Web Consortium 638:maximum transmission unit 571:utilizes all values of a 562: 6670:Communications protocols 6566:Computational healthcare 6561:Differentiable computing 6480:Graphics processing unit 5906:Domain-specific language 5775:Computational complexity 5346:Orbital angular-momentum 4783:Satellite communications 4622:Communications satellite 4211:Brian W Marsden (1986). 4016:Thomson & Pauly 2021 4004:Thomson & Pauly 2021 3980:Thomson & Pauly 2021 3956:Papastergiou et al. 2017 3944:Papastergiou et al. 2017 3932:Papastergiou et al. 2017 3920:Papastergiou et al. 2017 3510:Bryant & Morrow 2009 2469:Kim, Byung-Keun (2005). 2369:. High Definition Books. 2363:BOOKS, HIGH DEFINITION. 2062: 1986:connectionless protocols 1072:standards are used. The 1060:(PSTN), as well as many 947:software design patterns 469: 344:by 1989, as outlined in 6541:Computational chemistry 6475:Photograph manipulation 6366:Artificial intelligence 6182:Decision support system 5225:Molecular communication 5048:Gardiner Greene Hubbard 4877:Undersea telegraph line 4612:Cable protection system 4458:10.1145/2959424.2959443 2352:(BBN). Report No. 1822. 2350:Bolt Beranek and Newman 2317:10.1109/PROC.1978.11143 2305:Proceedings of the IEEE 2225:10.1109/MAHC.1987.10023 2130:Encyclopædia Britannica 1038:standards organizations 1032:Standards organizations 831:Internet Protocol Suite 820:combinatorial explosion 342:Internet protocol suite 195:Network Control Program 158:Under the direction of 33:via any variation of a 6606:Educational technology 6437:Reinforcement learning 6187:Process control system 6085:Computational geometry 6075:Algorithmic efficiency 6070:Analysis of algorithms 5725:Systems on Chip (SoCs) 5367:Communication protocol 5153:Charles Sumner Tainter 4968:Walter Houser Brattain 4913:Edwin Howard Armstrong 4721:Information revolution 2996:"Text Based Protocols" 2442:Inventing the Internet 2299:Kleinrock, L. (1978). 1950:User Datagram Protocol 1831:TCP/IP layering scheme 1720:A lesson learned from 1115:international standard 993:standards organization 907: 881: 814: 778:concurrent programming 773:conceptual framework. 616:of the communication. 538:File Transfer Protocol 336:This was installed on 241:service while using a 55:error recovery methods 23:communication protocol 6576:Electronic publishing 6546:Computational biology 6536:Computational physics 6432:Unsupervised learning 6346:Distributed computing 6222:Information retrieval 6129:Mathematical analysis 6119:Mathematical software 6009:Theory of computation 5974:Software construction 5964:Requirements analysis 5842:Software organization 5770:Computer architecture 5740:Hardware acceleration 5705:Printed circuit board 5341:Polarization-division 5073:Narinder Singh Kapany 5038:Erna Schneider Hoover 4958:Jagadish Chandra Bose 4938:Alexander Graham Bell 4669:online video platform 4192:R.D. Tennent (1981). 3479:10.1145/322374.322380 3372:Daigneau, R. (2011). 2969:www.sciencedirect.com 1915:Protocol ossification 1910:protocol ossification 1802:also responsible for 1772:and data encryption). 904: 879: 812: 787:finite state machines 492:human-readable format 327:Xerox Network Systems 315:proprietary protocols 265:PARC Universal Packet 259:outlined the idea of 224:network, designed by 144:Further information: 135:Communicating systems 27:communications system 6336:Concurrent computing 6308:Ubiquitous computing 6280:Application security 6275:Information security 6104:Discrete mathematics 6080:Randomized algorithm 6032:Computability theory 6017:Model of computation 5989:Software maintenance 5984:Software engineering 5946:Software development 5896:Programming language 5891:Programming paradigm 5808:Network architecture 5183:Vladimir K. Zworykin 5143:Almon Brown Strowger 5113:Charles Grafton Page 4768:Prepaid mobile phone 4696:Electrical telegraph 2506:. 30 November 2013. 1931:end-to-end principle 1921:and evolvability of 1738:service access point 1726:structured protocols 1113:, and ultimately an 983:Protocol development 977:Finite-state machine 953:Formal specification 731:media access control 429:abstraction layering 230:end-to-end principle 211:application software 79:programming language 6611:Document management 6601:Operations research 6526:Enterprise software 6442:Multi-task learning 6427:Supervised learning 6149:Information systems 5979:Software deployment 5936:Software repository 5790:Real-time computing 5133:Johann Philipp Reis 4892:Wireless revolution 4854:The Telephone Cases 4711:Hydraulic telegraph 4231:Andrew S. Tanenbaum 3232:on 27 December 2009 2818:Russell, Andrew L. 2626:10.1109/MAHC.2011.9 1954:transport protocols 1829:In contrast to the 1121:OSI standardization 1090:monotone decreasing 918:Program translation 770:Systems engineering 729:. This is known as 488:plain text protocol 484:text-based protocol 464:transport protocols 406:transmission medium 309:standard, based on 243:best-effort service 6394:Search methodology 6341:Parallel computing 6298:Interaction design 6207:Computing platform 6134:Numerical analysis 6124:Information theory 5916:Software framework 5879:Software notations 5818:Network components 5715:Integrated circuit 5331:Frequency-division 5308:Telephone exchange 5178:Charles Wheatstone 5108:Jun-ichi Nishizawa 5083:Innocenzo Manzetti 5018:Reginald Fessenden 4753:Optical telegraphy 4586:Telecommunications 4068:Gerard J. Holzmann 3946:, p. 620-621. 3910:, 3. Further Work. 3466:Journal of the ACM 1990:tunneling protocol 1804:network congestion 1768:presentation layer 1254:Presentation layer 1092:to prevent stable 1066:marine electronics 1017:de facto standards 988:interoperability. 908: 882: 815: 603:Basic requirements 121:telecommunications 91:are to computation 75:technical standard 6680:Network protocols 6675:Data transmission 6657: 6656: 6586:Electronic voting 6516:Quantum Computing 6509:Applied computing 6495:Image compression 6265:Hardware security 6255:Security services 6212:Digital marketing 5999:Open-source model 5911:Modeling language 5823:Network scheduler 5644: 5643: 5382:Store and forward 5377:Data transmission 5291:Network switching 5242:Transmission line 5088:Guglielmo Marconi 5053:Internet pioneers 4918:Mohamed M. Atalla 4887:Whistled language 4530:978-1-57607-118-2 4076:. Prentice Hall. 3908:Arkko et al. 2023 3896:Arkko et al. 2023 3884:Arkko et al. 2023 3872:Arkko et al. 2023 3860:Arkko et al. 2023 3848:Arkko et al. 2023 3836:Arkko et al. 2023 3763:, 7. Conclusions. 3426:Computer Networks 2753:978-1-4669-3935-6 2452:978-0-262-51115-5 2311:(11): 1320–1329. 2282:978-1-953953-36-0 2272:The Dream Machine 2246:Pelkey, James L. 2193:978-1-4746-0277-8 2004:Internet layering 1923:network protocols 1880:of the protocol. 1754:Application layer 1718: 1717: 1146:Application layer 897:Software layering 890:data flow diagram 872:Protocol layering 839:Internet Protocol 658:addressing scheme 215:protocol layering 172:Roger Scantlebury 35:physical quantity 6687: 6647: 6646: 6637: 6636: 6627: 6626: 6447:Cross-validation 6419:Machine learning 6303:Social computing 6270:Network security 6065:Algorithm design 5994:Programming team 5954:Control variable 5931:Software library 5869:Software quality 5864:Operating system 5813:Network protocol 5678:Computer science 5671: 5664: 5657: 5648: 5647: 5634: 5633: 5624: 5623: 5614: 5613: 5604: 5603: 5602: 5475:Notable networks 5465:Wireless network 5405:Cellular network 5397:Types of network 5372:Computer network 5259:Network topology 5173:Thomas A. Watson 5028:Oliver Heaviside 5013:Philo Farnsworth 4988:Daniel Davis Jr. 4963:Charles Bourseul 4923:John Logie Baird 4632:Data compression 4627:Computer network 4579: 4572: 4565: 4556: 4555: 4534: 4513: 4503: 4471: 4469: 4444: 4435: 4433:10.17487/RFC9419 4416: 4407: 4405:10.17487/RFC9170 4388: 4379: 4377:10.17487/RFC9065 4360: 4351: 4349:10.17487/RFC8558 4332: 4323: 4321:10.17487/RFC8546 4304: 4295: 4293:10.17487/RFC7258 4276: 4267: 4265:10.17487/RFC5704 4248: 4226: 4207: 4188: 4164: 4141: 4132: 4130:10.17487/RFC1122 4109: 4092:Douglas E. Comer 4087: 4062:available online 4059: 4028: 4025: 4019: 4013: 4007: 4006:, 3. Active Use. 4001: 3995: 3989: 3983: 3977: 3971: 3965: 3959: 3958:, p. 623-4. 3953: 3947: 3941: 3935: 3929: 3923: 3917: 3911: 3905: 3899: 3893: 3887: 3881: 3875: 3869: 3863: 3857: 3851: 3845: 3839: 3833: 3827: 3821: 3812: 3806: 3800: 3794: 3788: 3782: 3776: 3770: 3764: 3758: 3749: 3743: 3737: 3731: 3722: 3716: 3707: 3704: 3698: 3697: 3688: 3682: 3679: 3673: 3672: 3663: 3657: 3656: 3644: 3638: 3635: 3629: 3626: 3620: 3617: 3611: 3608: 3602: 3599: 3593: 3590: 3584: 3581: 3575: 3572: 3566: 3563: 3557: 3554: 3548: 3547: 3545: 3543: 3528: 3522: 3519: 3513: 3507: 3501: 3498: 3492: 3491: 3481: 3457: 3451: 3448: 3442: 3441: 3432:(4–5): 361–372. 3421: 3415: 3412: 3406: 3405: 3384: 3378: 3377: 3369: 3363: 3362: 3354: 3348: 3347: 3345: 3343: 3338:on 18 March 2017 3334:. Archived from 3327: 3321: 3320: 3312: 3306: 3305: 3297: 3291: 3288: 3282: 3279: 3273: 3270: 3264: 3261: 3255: 3252: 3246: 3243: 3234: 3233: 3219: 3213: 3210: 3204: 3201: 3195: 3192: 3186: 3183: 3177: 3174: 3168: 3165: 3159: 3156: 3150: 3147: 3141: 3138: 3132: 3129: 3123: 3120: 3114: 3111: 3105: 3102: 3096: 3095: 3093: 3091: 3072: 3066: 3065: 3063: 3061: 3052:. Archived from 3045: 3039: 3038: 3036: 3034: 3025:. Archived from 3018: 3012: 3011: 3009: 3007: 2998:. Archived from 2991: 2985: 2984: 2982: 2980: 2961: 2955: 2952: 2946: 2943: 2937: 2934: 2925: 2922: 2913: 2910: 2904: 2901: 2892: 2889: 2883: 2880: 2874: 2873: 2871: 2869: 2863: 2856: 2852:"Standards Wars" 2848: 2842: 2841: 2839: 2837: 2831: 2824: 2815: 2809: 2808: 2794: 2788: 2787: 2785: 2783: 2764: 2758: 2757: 2738: 2732: 2731: 2695: 2689: 2688: 2652: 2646: 2645: 2609: 2603: 2602: 2596: 2594: 2588: 2557: 2548: 2542: 2536:Moschovitis 1999 2533: 2527: 2526: 2520: 2518: 2496: 2490: 2489: 2466: 2460: 2459: 2433: 2427: 2426: 2424: 2422: 2416: 2407: 2401: 2400: 2398: 2396: 2377: 2371: 2370: 2360: 2354: 2353: 2347: 2339: 2333: 2332: 2296: 2290: 2289: 2266: 2260: 2259: 2243: 2237: 2236: 2219:(3/4): 221–247. 2204: 2198: 2197: 2177: 2171: 2168: 2157: 2154: 2145: 2144: 2143: 2141: 2120: 2114: 2113: 2112: 2108: 2094: 2077: 2073: 2056:Protocol Builder 1710: 1703: 1696: 1137: 1125: 1124: 1052:(IEEE), and the 744:Sequence control 697:Acknowledgements 508:Intel hex format 414:operating system 311:virtual circuits 164:packet switching 162:, who pioneered 6695: 6694: 6690: 6689: 6688: 6686: 6685: 6684: 6660: 6659: 6658: 6653: 6644: 6615: 6596:Word processing 6504: 6490:Virtual reality 6451: 6413: 6384:Computer vision 6360: 6356:Multiprocessing 6322: 6284: 6250:Security hacker 6226: 6202:Digital library 6143: 6094:Mathematics of 6089: 6051: 6027:Automata theory 6022:Formal language 6003: 5969:Software design 5940: 5873: 5859:Virtual machine 5837: 5833:Network service 5794: 5785:Embedded system 5758: 5691: 5680: 5675: 5645: 5640: 5600: 5598: 5590: 5532: 5469: 5391: 5355: 5312: 5261: 5253: 5194: 5187: 5093:Robert Metcalfe 4948:Tim Berners-Lee 4896: 4716:Information Age 4588: 4583: 4541: 4531: 4245: 4223: 4204: 4185: 4161: 4106: 4084: 4056: 4037: 4032: 4031: 4026: 4022: 4014: 4010: 4002: 3998: 3990: 3986: 3978: 3974: 3966: 3962: 3954: 3950: 3942: 3938: 3930: 3926: 3918: 3914: 3906: 3902: 3894: 3890: 3882: 3878: 3870: 3866: 3858: 3854: 3846: 3842: 3834: 3830: 3822: 3815: 3807: 3803: 3795: 3791: 3783: 3779: 3771: 3767: 3759: 3752: 3744: 3740: 3732: 3725: 3717: 3710: 3705: 3701: 3690: 3689: 3685: 3680: 3676: 3665: 3664: 3660: 3646: 3645: 3641: 3636: 3632: 3627: 3623: 3618: 3614: 3609: 3605: 3600: 3596: 3591: 3587: 3582: 3578: 3573: 3569: 3564: 3560: 3555: 3551: 3541: 3539: 3530: 3529: 3525: 3520: 3516: 3508: 3504: 3499: 3495: 3458: 3454: 3449: 3445: 3422: 3418: 3413: 3409: 3402: 3385: 3381: 3370: 3366: 3355: 3351: 3341: 3339: 3328: 3324: 3313: 3309: 3298: 3294: 3289: 3285: 3280: 3276: 3271: 3267: 3262: 3258: 3253: 3249: 3244: 3237: 3222:S. Srinivasan, 3220: 3216: 3211: 3207: 3202: 3198: 3193: 3189: 3184: 3180: 3175: 3171: 3166: 3162: 3157: 3153: 3148: 3144: 3139: 3135: 3130: 3126: 3121: 3117: 3112: 3108: 3103: 3099: 3089: 3087: 3074: 3073: 3069: 3059: 3057: 3056:on 5 March 2006 3046: 3042: 3032: 3030: 3019: 3015: 3005: 3003: 2992: 2988: 2978: 2976: 2963: 2962: 2958: 2953: 2949: 2944: 2940: 2935: 2928: 2923: 2916: 2911: 2907: 2902: 2895: 2890: 2886: 2881: 2877: 2867: 2865: 2861: 2854: 2850: 2849: 2845: 2835: 2833: 2829: 2822: 2816: 2812: 2795: 2791: 2781: 2779: 2772:Living Internet 2766: 2765: 2761: 2754: 2740: 2739: 2735: 2696: 2692: 2653: 2649: 2610: 2606: 2592: 2590: 2586: 2555: 2549: 2545: 2534: 2530: 2516: 2514: 2498: 2497: 2493: 2483: 2467: 2463: 2453: 2434: 2430: 2420: 2418: 2414: 2408: 2404: 2394: 2392: 2385:Living Internet 2379: 2378: 2374: 2361: 2357: 2345: 2341: 2340: 2336: 2297: 2293: 2283: 2267: 2263: 2244: 2240: 2205: 2201: 2194: 2178: 2174: 2169: 2160: 2155: 2148: 2139: 2137: 2122: 2121: 2117: 2110: 2095: 2091: 2086: 2081: 2080: 2074: 2070: 2065: 2047: 2008:TCP/IP layering 1998:layering scheme 1978: 1912: 1906: 1861: 1855: 1812:data link layer 1788:transport layer 1714: 1685: 1684: 1590: 1579: 1578: 1475: 1473:Data link layer 1464: 1463: 1397: 1386: 1385: 1351: 1349:Transport layer 1340: 1339: 1302: 1291: 1290: 1256: 1245: 1244: 1148: 1132: 1131: 1123: 1102: 1034: 1001: 985: 955: 943: 941:Design patterns 930: 928:Strict layering 899: 874: 868:(ATM) network. 807: 767: 765:Protocol design 684:internetworking 669:address mapping 663:Address mapping 605: 569:binary protocol 565: 550:finger protocol 480: 472: 394:data structures 381: 239:virtual circuit 232:, and make the 148: 142: 137: 47:synchronization 17: 12: 11: 5: 6693: 6683: 6682: 6677: 6672: 6655: 6654: 6652: 6651: 6641: 6631: 6620: 6617: 6616: 6614: 6613: 6608: 6603: 6598: 6593: 6588: 6583: 6578: 6573: 6568: 6563: 6558: 6553: 6548: 6543: 6538: 6533: 6528: 6523: 6518: 6512: 6510: 6506: 6505: 6503: 6502: 6500:Solid modeling 6497: 6492: 6487: 6482: 6477: 6472: 6467: 6461: 6459: 6453: 6452: 6450: 6449: 6444: 6439: 6434: 6429: 6423: 6421: 6415: 6414: 6412: 6411: 6406: 6401: 6399:Control method 6396: 6391: 6386: 6381: 6376: 6370: 6368: 6362: 6361: 6359: 6358: 6353: 6351:Multithreading 6348: 6343: 6338: 6332: 6330: 6324: 6323: 6321: 6320: 6315: 6310: 6305: 6300: 6294: 6292: 6286: 6285: 6283: 6282: 6277: 6272: 6267: 6262: 6257: 6252: 6247: 6245:Formal methods 6242: 6236: 6234: 6228: 6227: 6225: 6224: 6219: 6217:World Wide Web 6214: 6209: 6204: 6199: 6194: 6189: 6184: 6179: 6174: 6169: 6164: 6159: 6153: 6151: 6145: 6144: 6142: 6141: 6136: 6131: 6126: 6121: 6116: 6111: 6106: 6100: 6098: 6091: 6090: 6088: 6087: 6082: 6077: 6072: 6067: 6061: 6059: 6053: 6052: 6050: 6049: 6044: 6039: 6034: 6029: 6024: 6019: 6013: 6011: 6005: 6004: 6002: 6001: 5996: 5991: 5986: 5981: 5976: 5971: 5966: 5961: 5956: 5950: 5948: 5942: 5941: 5939: 5938: 5933: 5928: 5923: 5918: 5913: 5908: 5903: 5898: 5893: 5887: 5885: 5875: 5874: 5872: 5871: 5866: 5861: 5856: 5851: 5845: 5843: 5839: 5838: 5836: 5835: 5830: 5825: 5820: 5815: 5810: 5804: 5802: 5796: 5795: 5793: 5792: 5787: 5782: 5777: 5772: 5766: 5764: 5760: 5759: 5757: 5756: 5747: 5742: 5737: 5732: 5727: 5722: 5717: 5712: 5707: 5701: 5699: 5693: 5692: 5685: 5682: 5681: 5674: 5673: 5666: 5659: 5651: 5642: 5641: 5639: 5638: 5628: 5618: 5608: 5595: 5592: 5591: 5589: 5588: 5581: 5576: 5571: 5566: 5561: 5560: 5559: 5554: 5546: 5540: 5538: 5534: 5533: 5531: 5530: 5525: 5520: 5515: 5510: 5505: 5500: 5495: 5490: 5485: 5479: 5477: 5471: 5470: 5468: 5467: 5462: 5457: 5452: 5447: 5442: 5437: 5432: 5427: 5422: 5417: 5412: 5407: 5401: 5399: 5393: 5392: 5390: 5389: 5384: 5379: 5374: 5369: 5363: 5361: 5357: 5356: 5354: 5353: 5348: 5343: 5338: 5333: 5328: 5326:Space-division 5322: 5320: 5314: 5313: 5311: 5310: 5305: 5304: 5303: 5298: 5288: 5287: 5286: 5276: 5271: 5265: 5263: 5255: 5254: 5252: 5251: 5250: 5249: 5239: 5238: 5237: 5227: 5222: 5217: 5216: 5215: 5205: 5199: 5197: 5189: 5188: 5186: 5185: 5180: 5175: 5170: 5165: 5163:Camille Tissot 5160: 5155: 5150: 5145: 5140: 5138:Claude Shannon 5135: 5130: 5128:Tivadar Puskás 5125: 5120: 5115: 5110: 5105: 5100: 5098:Antonio Meucci 5095: 5090: 5085: 5080: 5075: 5070: 5068:Charles K. Kao 5065: 5060: 5055: 5050: 5045: 5043:Harold Hopkins 5040: 5035: 5030: 5025: 5020: 5015: 5010: 5005: 5000: 4995: 4990: 4985: 4980: 4975: 4970: 4965: 4960: 4955: 4950: 4945: 4943:Emile Berliner 4940: 4935: 4930: 4925: 4920: 4915: 4910: 4904: 4902: 4898: 4897: 4895: 4894: 4889: 4884: 4882:Videotelephony 4879: 4874: 4873: 4872: 4867: 4857: 4850: 4845: 4839: 4834: 4829: 4824: 4819: 4818: 4817: 4812: 4807: 4797: 4796: 4795: 4785: 4780: 4778:Radiotelephone 4775: 4770: 4765: 4760: 4755: 4750: 4745: 4744: 4743: 4733: 4728: 4723: 4718: 4713: 4708: 4703: 4698: 4693: 4688: 4683: 4682: 4681: 4676: 4671: 4666: 4664:Internet video 4656: 4655: 4654: 4649: 4644: 4639: 4629: 4624: 4619: 4614: 4609: 4604: 4598: 4596: 4590: 4589: 4582: 4581: 4574: 4567: 4559: 4553: 4552: 4547: 4540: 4539:External links 4537: 4536: 4535: 4529: 4514: 4472: 4445: 4417: 4389: 4361: 4333: 4305: 4277: 4249: 4243: 4227: 4221: 4208: 4202: 4189: 4183: 4165: 4159: 4143: 4117:, ed. (1989). 4111: 4104: 4088: 4082: 4064: 4054: 4036: 4033: 4030: 4029: 4020: 4008: 3996: 3994:, p. 7-8. 3984: 3972: 3960: 3948: 3936: 3934:, p. 620. 3924: 3922:, p. 619. 3912: 3900: 3888: 3876: 3864: 3852: 3840: 3828: 3813: 3801: 3799:, p. 7-8. 3789: 3777: 3765: 3750: 3738: 3723: 3708: 3699: 3683: 3674: 3658: 3639: 3630: 3621: 3612: 3603: 3594: 3585: 3576: 3567: 3558: 3549: 3523: 3514: 3502: 3493: 3452: 3443: 3416: 3407: 3400: 3379: 3364: 3349: 3322: 3307: 3292: 3283: 3274: 3265: 3256: 3247: 3235: 3214: 3205: 3196: 3187: 3178: 3169: 3160: 3151: 3142: 3133: 3124: 3115: 3106: 3097: 3067: 3040: 3029:on 30 May 2010 3013: 3002:on 30 May 2010 2986: 2956: 2947: 2938: 2926: 2914: 2905: 2893: 2884: 2875: 2843: 2810: 2789: 2759: 2752: 2733: 2690: 2647: 2604: 2566:(5): 637–648. 2543: 2528: 2491: 2481: 2461: 2451: 2428: 2402: 2372: 2355: 2334: 2291: 2281: 2261: 2238: 2199: 2192: 2172: 2158: 2146: 2115: 2088: 2087: 2085: 2082: 2079: 2078: 2067: 2066: 2064: 2061: 2060: 2059: 2053: 2046: 2043: 1977: 1974: 1908:Main article: 1905: 1902: 1857:Main article: 1854: 1851: 1827: 1826: 1822:physical layer 1817: 1807: 1793: 1783: 1773: 1763: 1760:data integrity 1716: 1715: 1713: 1712: 1705: 1698: 1690: 1687: 1686: 1683: 1682: 1677: 1672: 1670:ITU-T G.hn PHY 1667: 1662: 1657: 1652: 1647: 1642: 1637: 1632: 1627: 1622: 1617: 1612: 1607: 1605:ITU-T V-Series 1602: 1597: 1591: 1588:Physical layer 1585: 1584: 1581: 1580: 1577: 1576: 1571: 1566: 1557: 1552: 1550:ITU-T G.hn DLL 1547: 1542: 1537: 1532: 1527: 1522: 1517: 1512: 1507: 1502: 1497: 1492: 1487: 1482: 1476: 1470: 1469: 1466: 1465: 1462: 1461: 1456: 1451: 1446: 1441: 1436: 1431: 1426: 1416: 1415: 1414: 1409: 1398: 1392: 1391: 1388: 1387: 1384: 1383: 1378: 1373: 1368: 1363: 1358: 1352: 1346: 1345: 1342: 1341: 1338: 1337: 1334: 1329: 1324: 1319: 1314: 1309: 1303: 1297: 1296: 1293: 1292: 1289: 1288: 1283: 1278: 1273: 1268: 1263: 1257: 1251: 1250: 1247: 1246: 1243: 1242: 1235: 1230: 1225: 1220: 1215: 1210: 1205: 1200: 1195: 1190: 1180: 1175: 1170: 1165: 1160: 1155: 1149: 1143: 1142: 1139: 1138: 1122: 1119: 1107:draft proposal 1101: 1098: 1033: 1030: 1000: 997: 984: 981: 965:standard) and 954: 951: 942: 939: 929: 926: 898: 895: 873: 870: 854:connectionless 837:(TCP) and the 806: 803: 795:Moore machines 766: 763: 762: 761: 758: 755: 752: 749: 745: 742: 719: 716: 708: 705: 698: 695: 691: 688: 675: 672: 664: 661: 644: 641: 625: 604: 601: 564: 561: 479: 476: 471: 468: 437:protocol suite 380: 377: 317:such as IBM's 255:and others at 141: 138: 136: 133: 98:protocol stack 15: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 6692: 6681: 6678: 6676: 6673: 6671: 6668: 6667: 6665: 6650: 6642: 6640: 6632: 6630: 6622: 6621: 6618: 6612: 6609: 6607: 6604: 6602: 6599: 6597: 6594: 6592: 6589: 6587: 6584: 6582: 6579: 6577: 6574: 6572: 6569: 6567: 6564: 6562: 6559: 6557: 6554: 6552: 6549: 6547: 6544: 6542: 6539: 6537: 6534: 6532: 6529: 6527: 6524: 6522: 6519: 6517: 6514: 6513: 6511: 6507: 6501: 6498: 6496: 6493: 6491: 6488: 6486: 6485:Mixed reality 6483: 6481: 6478: 6476: 6473: 6471: 6468: 6466: 6463: 6462: 6460: 6458: 6454: 6448: 6445: 6443: 6440: 6438: 6435: 6433: 6430: 6428: 6425: 6424: 6422: 6420: 6416: 6410: 6407: 6405: 6402: 6400: 6397: 6395: 6392: 6390: 6387: 6385: 6382: 6380: 6377: 6375: 6372: 6371: 6369: 6367: 6363: 6357: 6354: 6352: 6349: 6347: 6344: 6342: 6339: 6337: 6334: 6333: 6331: 6329: 6325: 6319: 6318:Accessibility 6316: 6314: 6313:Visualization 6311: 6309: 6306: 6304: 6301: 6299: 6296: 6295: 6293: 6291: 6287: 6281: 6278: 6276: 6273: 6271: 6268: 6266: 6263: 6261: 6258: 6256: 6253: 6251: 6248: 6246: 6243: 6241: 6238: 6237: 6235: 6233: 6229: 6223: 6220: 6218: 6215: 6213: 6210: 6208: 6205: 6203: 6200: 6198: 6195: 6193: 6190: 6188: 6185: 6183: 6180: 6178: 6175: 6173: 6170: 6168: 6165: 6163: 6160: 6158: 6155: 6154: 6152: 6150: 6146: 6140: 6137: 6135: 6132: 6130: 6127: 6125: 6122: 6120: 6117: 6115: 6112: 6110: 6107: 6105: 6102: 6101: 6099: 6097: 6092: 6086: 6083: 6081: 6078: 6076: 6073: 6071: 6068: 6066: 6063: 6062: 6060: 6058: 6054: 6048: 6045: 6043: 6040: 6038: 6035: 6033: 6030: 6028: 6025: 6023: 6020: 6018: 6015: 6014: 6012: 6010: 6006: 6000: 5997: 5995: 5992: 5990: 5987: 5985: 5982: 5980: 5977: 5975: 5972: 5970: 5967: 5965: 5962: 5960: 5957: 5955: 5952: 5951: 5949: 5947: 5943: 5937: 5934: 5932: 5929: 5927: 5924: 5922: 5919: 5917: 5914: 5912: 5909: 5907: 5904: 5902: 5899: 5897: 5894: 5892: 5889: 5888: 5886: 5884: 5880: 5876: 5870: 5867: 5865: 5862: 5860: 5857: 5855: 5852: 5850: 5847: 5846: 5844: 5840: 5834: 5831: 5829: 5826: 5824: 5821: 5819: 5816: 5814: 5811: 5809: 5806: 5805: 5803: 5801: 5797: 5791: 5788: 5786: 5783: 5781: 5780:Dependability 5778: 5776: 5773: 5771: 5768: 5767: 5765: 5761: 5755: 5751: 5748: 5746: 5743: 5741: 5738: 5736: 5733: 5731: 5728: 5726: 5723: 5721: 5718: 5716: 5713: 5711: 5708: 5706: 5703: 5702: 5700: 5698: 5694: 5689: 5683: 5679: 5672: 5667: 5665: 5660: 5658: 5653: 5652: 5649: 5637: 5629: 5627: 5619: 5617: 5609: 5607: 5597: 5596: 5593: 5586: 5582: 5580: 5577: 5575: 5572: 5570: 5567: 5565: 5562: 5558: 5555: 5553: 5550: 5549: 5547: 5545: 5542: 5541: 5539: 5535: 5529: 5526: 5524: 5521: 5519: 5516: 5514: 5511: 5509: 5506: 5504: 5501: 5499: 5496: 5494: 5491: 5489: 5486: 5484: 5481: 5480: 5478: 5476: 5472: 5466: 5463: 5461: 5458: 5456: 5453: 5451: 5448: 5446: 5443: 5441: 5438: 5436: 5433: 5431: 5428: 5426: 5423: 5421: 5418: 5416: 5413: 5411: 5408: 5406: 5403: 5402: 5400: 5398: 5394: 5388: 5385: 5383: 5380: 5378: 5375: 5373: 5370: 5368: 5365: 5364: 5362: 5358: 5352: 5351:Code-division 5349: 5347: 5344: 5342: 5339: 5337: 5336:Time-division 5334: 5332: 5329: 5327: 5324: 5323: 5321: 5319: 5315: 5309: 5306: 5302: 5299: 5297: 5294: 5293: 5292: 5289: 5285: 5282: 5281: 5280: 5277: 5275: 5272: 5270: 5267: 5266: 5264: 5262:and switching 5260: 5256: 5248: 5245: 5244: 5243: 5240: 5236: 5233: 5232: 5231: 5228: 5226: 5223: 5221: 5218: 5214: 5213:optical fiber 5211: 5210: 5209: 5206: 5204: 5203:Coaxial cable 5201: 5200: 5198: 5196: 5190: 5184: 5181: 5179: 5176: 5174: 5171: 5169: 5166: 5164: 5161: 5159: 5156: 5154: 5151: 5149: 5146: 5144: 5141: 5139: 5136: 5134: 5131: 5129: 5126: 5124: 5121: 5119: 5118:Radia Perlman 5116: 5114: 5111: 5109: 5106: 5104: 5101: 5099: 5096: 5094: 5091: 5089: 5086: 5084: 5081: 5079: 5076: 5074: 5071: 5069: 5066: 5064: 5061: 5059: 5056: 5054: 5051: 5049: 5046: 5044: 5041: 5039: 5036: 5034: 5031: 5029: 5026: 5024: 5021: 5019: 5016: 5014: 5011: 5009: 5008:Lee de Forest 5006: 5004: 5003:Thomas Edison 5001: 4999: 4996: 4994: 4993:Donald Davies 4991: 4989: 4986: 4984: 4981: 4979: 4978:Claude Chappe 4976: 4974: 4971: 4969: 4966: 4964: 4961: 4959: 4956: 4954: 4951: 4949: 4946: 4944: 4941: 4939: 4936: 4934: 4931: 4929: 4926: 4924: 4921: 4919: 4916: 4914: 4911: 4909: 4906: 4905: 4903: 4899: 4893: 4890: 4888: 4885: 4883: 4880: 4878: 4875: 4871: 4868: 4866: 4863: 4862: 4861: 4858: 4856: 4855: 4851: 4849: 4846: 4843: 4840: 4838: 4835: 4833: 4830: 4828: 4825: 4823: 4822:Smoke signals 4820: 4816: 4813: 4811: 4808: 4806: 4803: 4802: 4801: 4800:Semiconductor 4798: 4794: 4791: 4790: 4789: 4786: 4784: 4781: 4779: 4776: 4774: 4771: 4769: 4766: 4764: 4761: 4759: 4756: 4754: 4751: 4749: 4746: 4742: 4739: 4738: 4737: 4734: 4732: 4729: 4727: 4724: 4722: 4719: 4717: 4714: 4712: 4709: 4707: 4704: 4702: 4699: 4697: 4694: 4692: 4689: 4687: 4684: 4680: 4677: 4675: 4672: 4670: 4667: 4665: 4662: 4661: 4660: 4659:Digital media 4657: 4653: 4650: 4648: 4645: 4643: 4640: 4638: 4635: 4634: 4633: 4630: 4628: 4625: 4623: 4620: 4618: 4615: 4613: 4610: 4608: 4605: 4603: 4600: 4599: 4597: 4595: 4591: 4587: 4580: 4575: 4573: 4568: 4566: 4561: 4560: 4557: 4551: 4548: 4546: 4543: 4542: 4532: 4526: 4522: 4521: 4515: 4511: 4507: 4502: 4497: 4493: 4489: 4485: 4481: 4480: 4473: 4468: 4463: 4459: 4455: 4451: 4446: 4442: 4439: 4434: 4429: 4425: 4424: 4418: 4414: 4411: 4406: 4401: 4397: 4396: 4390: 4386: 4383: 4378: 4373: 4369: 4368: 4362: 4358: 4355: 4350: 4345: 4341: 4340: 4334: 4330: 4327: 4322: 4317: 4313: 4312: 4306: 4302: 4299: 4294: 4289: 4285: 4284: 4278: 4274: 4271: 4266: 4261: 4257: 4256: 4250: 4246: 4244:0-13-854605-3 4240: 4236: 4232: 4228: 4224: 4222:0-86238-106-1 4218: 4214: 4209: 4205: 4203:0-13-709873-1 4199: 4195: 4190: 4186: 4184:0-13-153271-5 4180: 4176: 4175: 4170: 4166: 4162: 4160:0-13-701078-8 4156: 4152: 4148: 4144: 4139: 4136: 4131: 4126: 4122: 4121: 4116: 4112: 4107: 4105:0-13-018380-6 4101: 4097: 4093: 4089: 4085: 4083:0-13-539925-4 4079: 4075: 4074: 4069: 4065: 4063: 4057: 4055:0-201-63448-1 4051: 4047: 4043: 4042:Radia Perlman 4039: 4038: 4024: 4017: 4012: 4005: 4000: 3993: 3988: 3981: 3976: 3969: 3964: 3957: 3952: 3945: 3940: 3933: 3928: 3921: 3916: 3909: 3904: 3897: 3892: 3885: 3880: 3873: 3868: 3861: 3856: 3849: 3844: 3837: 3832: 3825: 3820: 3818: 3810: 3805: 3798: 3793: 3786: 3781: 3774: 3769: 3762: 3757: 3755: 3747: 3742: 3735: 3730: 3728: 3720: 3715: 3713: 3703: 3695: 3694: 3687: 3678: 3670: 3669: 3662: 3655: 3652:. p. 5. 3651: 3650: 3643: 3634: 3625: 3616: 3607: 3598: 3589: 3580: 3571: 3562: 3553: 3537: 3533: 3527: 3518: 3511: 3506: 3497: 3489: 3485: 3480: 3475: 3471: 3467: 3463: 3456: 3447: 3439: 3435: 3431: 3427: 3420: 3411: 3403: 3401:0-321-12742-0 3397: 3393: 3389: 3383: 3375: 3368: 3360: 3353: 3337: 3333: 3326: 3318: 3311: 3303: 3296: 3287: 3278: 3269: 3260: 3251: 3242: 3240: 3231: 3227: 3226: 3218: 3209: 3200: 3191: 3182: 3173: 3164: 3155: 3146: 3137: 3128: 3119: 3110: 3101: 3085: 3081: 3077: 3071: 3055: 3051: 3044: 3028: 3024: 3017: 3001: 2997: 2990: 2974: 2970: 2966: 2960: 2951: 2942: 2933: 2931: 2921: 2919: 2909: 2900: 2898: 2888: 2879: 2860: 2853: 2847: 2828: 2821: 2814: 2806: 2805: 2804:IEEE Spectrum 2800: 2793: 2777: 2773: 2769: 2763: 2755: 2749: 2745: 2744: 2737: 2729: 2725: 2721: 2717: 2713: 2709: 2706:(12): 26–31. 2705: 2701: 2694: 2686: 2682: 2678: 2674: 2670: 2666: 2663:(11): 40–46. 2662: 2658: 2651: 2643: 2639: 2635: 2631: 2627: 2623: 2619: 2615: 2608: 2601: 2585: 2581: 2577: 2573: 2569: 2565: 2561: 2554: 2547: 2541: 2537: 2532: 2525: 2513: 2509: 2505: 2504:The Economist 2501: 2495: 2488: 2484: 2478: 2474: 2473: 2465: 2458: 2454: 2448: 2444: 2443: 2438: 2437:Abbate, Janet 2432: 2413: 2406: 2390: 2386: 2382: 2376: 2368: 2367: 2359: 2351: 2344: 2338: 2331: 2326: 2322: 2318: 2314: 2310: 2306: 2302: 2295: 2288: 2284: 2278: 2274: 2273: 2265: 2258: 2253: 2249: 2242: 2234: 2230: 2226: 2222: 2218: 2214: 2210: 2203: 2195: 2189: 2185: 2184: 2176: 2167: 2165: 2163: 2153: 2151: 2135: 2131: 2127: 2126: 2119: 2107: 2103: 2099: 2093: 2089: 2072: 2068: 2057: 2054: 2052: 2049: 2048: 2042: 2040: 2036: 2032: 2028: 2024: 2019: 2017: 2013: 2012:the OSI model 2009: 2005: 2000: 1999: 1993: 1991: 1987: 1983: 1973: 1971: 1968:is the first 1967: 1962: 1957: 1955: 1951: 1947: 1943: 1939: 1934: 1932: 1928: 1924: 1920: 1919:extensibility 1916: 1911: 1901: 1898: 1892: 1890: 1886: 1885:authenticated 1881: 1879: 1878:extensibility 1875: 1871: 1870:side-channels 1866: 1860: 1850: 1846: 1844: 1840: 1834: 1832: 1824: 1823: 1818: 1814: 1813: 1808: 1805: 1800: 1799: 1798:network layer 1794: 1790: 1789: 1784: 1780: 1779: 1778:session layer 1774: 1770: 1769: 1764: 1761: 1756: 1755: 1750: 1749: 1748: 1745: 1743: 1742:peer entities 1739: 1733: 1731: 1727: 1723: 1711: 1706: 1704: 1699: 1697: 1692: 1691: 1689: 1688: 1681: 1678: 1676: 1673: 1671: 1668: 1666: 1663: 1661: 1658: 1656: 1653: 1651: 1648: 1646: 1643: 1641: 1638: 1636: 1633: 1631: 1628: 1626: 1623: 1621: 1618: 1616: 1613: 1611: 1608: 1606: 1603: 1601: 1598: 1596: 1593: 1592: 1589: 1583: 1582: 1575: 1572: 1570: 1567: 1565: 1561: 1558: 1556: 1553: 1551: 1548: 1546: 1543: 1541: 1538: 1536: 1533: 1531: 1528: 1526: 1523: 1521: 1518: 1516: 1513: 1511: 1508: 1506: 1503: 1501: 1498: 1496: 1493: 1491: 1488: 1486: 1483: 1481: 1478: 1477: 1474: 1468: 1467: 1460: 1457: 1455: 1452: 1450: 1447: 1445: 1442: 1440: 1437: 1435: 1432: 1430: 1427: 1424: 1420: 1417: 1413: 1410: 1408: 1405: 1404: 1403: 1400: 1399: 1396: 1395:Network layer 1390: 1389: 1382: 1379: 1377: 1374: 1372: 1369: 1367: 1364: 1362: 1359: 1357: 1354: 1353: 1350: 1344: 1343: 1335: 1333: 1330: 1328: 1325: 1323: 1320: 1318: 1315: 1313: 1310: 1308: 1305: 1304: 1301: 1300:Session layer 1295: 1294: 1287: 1284: 1282: 1279: 1277: 1274: 1272: 1269: 1267: 1264: 1262: 1259: 1258: 1255: 1249: 1248: 1241: 1240: 1236: 1234: 1231: 1229: 1226: 1224: 1221: 1219: 1216: 1214: 1211: 1209: 1206: 1204: 1201: 1199: 1196: 1194: 1191: 1188: 1184: 1181: 1179: 1176: 1174: 1171: 1169: 1166: 1164: 1161: 1159: 1156: 1154: 1151: 1150: 1147: 1141: 1140: 1136: 1130: 1127: 1126: 1118: 1116: 1112: 1108: 1097: 1095: 1094:routing loops 1091: 1087: 1081: 1077: 1075: 1071: 1067: 1063: 1059: 1055: 1051: 1047: 1043: 1039: 1029: 1027: 1023: 1019: 1018: 1012: 1010: 1006: 996: 994: 989: 980: 978: 974: 972: 968: 964: 960: 950: 948: 938: 934: 925: 921: 919: 915: 911: 903: 894: 891: 886: 878: 869: 867: 863: 859: 855: 850: 847: 842: 840: 836: 832: 828: 823: 821: 811: 802: 798: 796: 792: 788: 784: 779: 774: 771: 759: 756: 753: 750: 746: 743: 740: 736: 732: 728: 727:shared medium 724: 720: 717: 714: 709: 706: 703: 699: 696: 692: 689: 686: 685: 680: 676: 673: 670: 665: 662: 659: 654: 650: 645: 642: 639: 635: 631: 626: 623: 622: 621: 617: 615: 611: 600: 598: 594: 590: 586: 581: 578: 574: 570: 560: 558: 553: 551: 547: 543: 539: 535: 530: 528: 524: 519: 517: 513: 509: 505: 501: 497: 493: 489: 485: 475: 467: 465: 460: 458: 454: 450: 446: 442: 438: 433: 430: 425: 423: 419: 415: 409: 407: 403: 402:shared memory 397: 395: 391: 387: 376: 374: 370: 365: 363: 359: 355: 351: 347: 343: 339: 335: 330: 328: 324: 320: 316: 312: 308: 304: 300: 296: 292: 287: 285: 281: 277: 273: 268: 266: 262: 258: 254: 250: 248: 244: 240: 235: 231: 227: 223: 218: 216: 212: 208: 204: 200: 199:Steve Crocker 196: 192: 189:, written by 188: 187:1822 protocol 184: 179: 177: 173: 169: 165: 161: 160:Donald Davies 157: 153: 147: 146:Protocol Wars 132: 130: 126: 122: 118: 114: 110: 106: 101: 99: 94: 92: 90: 84: 80: 76: 72: 66: 64: 60: 56: 53:and possible 52: 51:communication 48: 44: 40: 36: 32: 28: 24: 19: 6581:Cyberwarfare 6240:Cryptography 5366: 5318:Multiplexing 5193:Transmission 5158:Nikola Tesla 5148:Henry Sutton 5103:Samuel Morse 5033:Robert Hooke 4998:Amos Dolbear 4933:John Bardeen 4852: 4832:Telautograph 4736:Mobile phone 4691:Edholm's law 4674:social media 4607:Broadcasting 4523:. ABC-CLIO. 4519: 4483: 4477: 4449: 4422: 4394: 4366: 4338: 4310: 4282: 4254: 4234: 4212: 4193: 4173: 4169:C.A.R. Hoare 4150: 4119: 4095: 4072: 4045: 4035:Bibliography 4023: 4011: 3999: 3987: 3975: 3970:, p. 1. 3963: 3951: 3939: 3927: 3915: 3903: 3891: 3879: 3867: 3855: 3843: 3831: 3826:, p. 3. 3811:, p. 2. 3804: 3792: 3787:, p. 6. 3780: 3775:, p. 5. 3768: 3748:, p. 4. 3741: 3736:, p. 3. 3721:, p. 2. 3702: 3692: 3686: 3677: 3667: 3661: 3653: 3648: 3642: 3633: 3624: 3615: 3606: 3597: 3588: 3579: 3570: 3561: 3552: 3540:. Retrieved 3526: 3517: 3512:, p. 4. 3505: 3496: 3469: 3465: 3455: 3446: 3429: 3425: 3419: 3410: 3391: 3382: 3373: 3367: 3358: 3352: 3340:. Retrieved 3336:the original 3325: 3316: 3310: 3302:IEEE Network 3301: 3295: 3286: 3277: 3268: 3259: 3250: 3230:the original 3224: 3217: 3208: 3199: 3190: 3181: 3172: 3163: 3154: 3145: 3136: 3127: 3118: 3109: 3100: 3088:. Retrieved 3079: 3070: 3058:. Retrieved 3054:the original 3043: 3031:. Retrieved 3027:the original 3016: 3004:. Retrieved 3000:the original 2989: 2977:. Retrieved 2968: 2959: 2950: 2941: 2908: 2887: 2878: 2866:. Retrieved 2846: 2834:. Retrieved 2813: 2802: 2792: 2780:. Retrieved 2771: 2762: 2742: 2736: 2703: 2699: 2693: 2660: 2656: 2650: 2620:(1): 66–71. 2617: 2613: 2607: 2598: 2591:. Retrieved 2563: 2559: 2546: 2531: 2522: 2515:. Retrieved 2503: 2494: 2486: 2471: 2464: 2456: 2441: 2431: 2421:11 September 2419:. Retrieved 2405: 2393:. Retrieved 2384: 2375: 2365: 2358: 2337: 2328: 2308: 2304: 2294: 2286: 2271: 2264: 2255: 2251: 2241: 2216: 2212: 2202: 2182: 2175: 2140:24 September 2138:, retrieved 2124: 2118: 2092: 2071: 2038: 2034: 2030: 2026: 2022: 2020: 2016:ISO layering 2015: 2011: 2007: 2003: 1997: 1994: 1979: 1958: 1942:encapsulated 1935: 1913: 1904:Ossification 1893: 1882: 1864: 1862: 1847: 1835: 1828: 1820: 1810: 1796: 1792:connections. 1786: 1776: 1766: 1752: 1746: 1741: 1737: 1734: 1725: 1719: 1237: 1114: 1110: 1106: 1103: 1086:time-to-live 1082: 1078: 1036:Some of the 1035: 1026:oligopolized 1015: 1013: 1002: 990: 986: 975: 956: 944: 935: 931: 922: 916: 912: 909: 887: 883: 851: 843: 824: 816: 799: 775: 768: 751:Flow control 682: 678: 668: 657: 652: 648: 633: 629: 618: 613: 609: 606: 582: 568: 566: 554: 531: 520: 487: 483: 481: 473: 461: 434: 426: 418:TCP/IP model 410: 398: 382: 366: 333: 331: 303:Rémi Després 288: 269: 253:Bob Metcalfe 251: 226:Louis Pouzin 219: 214: 180: 155: 151: 149: 107:(IETF). The 102: 95: 86: 82: 67: 29:to transmit 22: 20: 18: 6591:Video games 6571:Digital art 6328:Concurrency 6197:Data mining 6109:Probability 5849:Interpreter 5518:NPL network 5230:Radio waves 5168:Alfred Vail 5078:Hedy Lamarr 5063:Dawon Kahng 5023:Elisha Gray 4983:Yogen Dalal 4908:Nasir Ahmed 4842:Teleprinter 4706:Heliographs 4486:: 619–639. 3992:Hardie 2019 3982:, A.5. TCP. 2868:23 February 2836:23 February 2593:23 February 2039:application 1927:middleboxes 1889:middleboxes 1660:IEEE 802.16 1655:IEEE 802.15 1650:IEEE 802.11 1574:IEEE 802.11 1545:Frame Relay 1088:values are 1048:(ITU), the 1044:(ISO), the 1022:monopolized 973:standard). 906:boundaries. 723:half-duplex 548:), and the 494:, often in 284:Yogen Dalal 274:(TCP). Its 176:NPL network 71:implemented 31:information 6664:Categories 6649:Glossaries 6521:E-commerce 6114:Statistics 6057:Algorithms 5854:Middleware 5710:Peripheral 5564:Antarctica 5523:Toasternet 5445:Television 4928:Paul Baran 4860:Television 4844:(teletype) 4837:Telegraphy 4815:transistor 4793:Phryctoria 4763:Photophone 4741:Smartphone 4731:Mass media 4467:1893/26111 4147:M. Ben-ari 3472:(2): 323. 3388:Fowler, M. 3319:. Pearson. 3090:15 January 3006:21 October 2538:, p. 2482:1845426754 2348:(Report). 2098:US 7529565 2084:References 1976:Taxonomies 1961:encrypting 1948:(TCP) and 1865:wire image 1853:Wire image 1645:IEEE 802.3 1569:Q.922 LAPF 1540:IEEE 802.3 1520:IEEE 802.2 1307:Named pipe 789:, such as 739:contention 496:plain text 478:Text-based 390:algorithms 257:Xerox PARC 203:Jon Postel 89:algorithms 6470:Rendering 6465:Animation 6096:computing 6047:Semantics 5745:Processor 5548:Americas 5537:Locations 5508:Internet2 5269:Bandwidth 4973:Vint Cerf 4870:streaming 4848:Telephone 4788:Semaphore 4679:streaming 4501:2164/8317 4115:R. Braden 2782:8 October 2720:1558-1896 2677:1558-1896 2642:206443072 2634:1934-1547 2580:1558-0857 2512:0013-0613 2395:8 October 2325:0018-9219 2186:. 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