113:. In addition to humans' broad abilities supporting positive social interaction, Stone et al. (2002) put forth evidence for more specific specializations including "cheater detection" and "precautionary reasoning," both of which appear to serve strong adaptive purposes by allowing humans to share resources with only those who are likely to share with them in the future, and avoid sharing resources with untrustworthy individuals. Overall, the adaptiveness of social communication has been examined in children, adults, and older adults, across cultures, and in
246:" against non-human primates. As a behavior selected for over the long term, with many successful "intermediary stages," human language differs from all other social behaviors among chimpanzees, which are thought to be more gradual in their evolutionary development. Further evidence for language as a cognitive specialization includes Ferreira et al.'s finding that some parts of language (for instance,
130:. This performance indicates that social communication, at least in the domain of cheater detection, is not determined by one's culture. According to Sugiyama, Tooby, and Cosimdes, the social "algorithms" discussed above are present in both Western and non-Western populations, providing strong evidence for the universality of such a skill.
74:, which examines the specific parts of the brain that are engaged during specific behaviors or processes, cognitive specialization is focused on characteristics of the mind (an internal entity), which in turn affects external behaviors. Most of these specializations are thought to have developed in areas of the
282:
argument). All humans—and only humans—have this biological trait, but building blocks of universal grammar have been reported in other species. Jackendoff argues that
Universal Grammar is itself a "pre-existing cognitive specialization": rather than needing explicit instruction on how to speak their
431:
may show signs of understanding human behavior and communication, indicating a social-cognitive specialization that is argued to make them more likely to receive food, shelter and love from their human owners. Being receptive to human behavioral indicators and responding accordingly has allowed dogs
171:
in (or absence of) theory of mind can impair social functioning—a skill imperative in the survival of the human species—is argued to be evidence for theory of mind as an adaptive cognitive specialization. Understanding that others may be thinking different thoughts than I am (colloquially, "putting
150:
and Guy
Woodruff in 1978 brought it to the forefront of psychological inquiry, though true theory of mind is only thought to exist in humans. This phenomenon has been analyzed in many fields, and it is thought to be among the most beneficial specializations for survival of the human species, due to
145:
and purposeful actions, to make judgments about others' internal states, and to determine how another's thoughts may differ from our own. The acquisition of theory of mind in humans mostly takes place during early childhood, and is thought to be fully developed by the early school years. Theory of
414:
have also been shown to realize when they remember certain events and items, which is considered to be an instrumental building block in the formation of social relationships, as one must remember who owes him favors, who he can trust, and who he should avoid in order to prosper in the community.
208:
but maintain many other cognitive abilities exemplify Pinker's idea that language and general cognition are not always perfectly overlapping in human behavior. Using language "multiplies the benefit of knowledge" in multiple domains, including technology, tool use, and intentions of ourselves and
125:
If social behavior is to be considered a cognitive specialization unique to human neural architecture, it should be present in every human society. To provide cross-cultural evidence that cognitive adaptations specifically support social communication, Sugiyama, Tooby, and
Cosmides investigated
405:
noted between human and non-human animals in the biological domain is matched by a "profound discontinuity" between human and non-human animal minds. In contrast, in addition to cognitive-behavioral adaptations, it is possible that chimpanzees have acquired more socially advanced skills through
348:
components: humor facilitates social bonding if shared extrinsically, and provides pleasure if enjoyed in one's own mind. In addition, Johnson-Frey (2003) proposed a unique human specialization for tool use. According to
Johnson-Frey, humans' ability to use tools is based on complex cognitive
295:
language. Complementary to the connection made between area F5 in macaques' brains, the theory of
Universal Grammar allows for an evolutionary perspective on language use as a cognitive specialization. There is some controversy, however, on whether or not Universal Grammar can have evolved by
141:, or the ability to attribute mental states to other people, is thought to be a cognitive specialization unique to humans, with a few possible exceptions discussed below. Theory of mind is thought to be critical in social cognition and communication because it allows us to distinguish between
225:
in humans (which is analogous to F5 in monkeys), Arbib claims, we could not have evolved a specialization for language—which is used to explain why non-human animals do not have linguistic capabilities. In addition, Meguerditchian and
Vauclair have argued that our evolutionary ancestors'
24:
purpose for an organism by allowing the organism to be better suited for its habitat. Over time, specializations often become essential to the species' continued survival. Cognitive specialization in humans has been thought to underlie the acquisition, development, and evolution of
126:
social reasoning in a tribe in the
Ecuadorian Amazon. The Shiwiar, who are a hunter-horticulturalist group previously unexposed to the presented psychological stimuli, were "as highly proficient" in determining who cheated in a given situation as their counterparts in the
308:(that is, returning of favors), and no way to cooperate with one another for a greater good. Some have argued that unique aspects of human language have evolved for unexpectedly beneficial reasons, besides simply asking for help or sharing information about the world.
234:) established a foundation on which to build human language skills. This behavior was selected for, built upon, and modified, leading to the capabilities humans have today. Early theories explained early language as an adaptive way to communicate during a
312:, viewed by many to be a superfluous aspect of human communication, may even serve an adaptive purpose. The spread of information about other people, even if it is malicious, may serve as an indicator of social intelligence and a way to deter
65:
First studied as an adaptive mechanism specific to humans, cognitive specialization has since evolved to encompass many behaviors in the social realm. Organisms have evolved over millions of years to become well-adapted to their
1372:
Meguerditchian, A; Vauclair, J (2009). "Contrast of hand preferences between communicative gestures and non-communicative actions in baboons: implications for the origins of hemispheric specialization for language".
19:
suggests that certain behaviors, often in the domain of social communication, are passed on to offspring and refined to be maximally beneficial by the process of natural selection. Specializations serve an
444:
have also been shown to pass the "mirror test" explained above. This indication of some elementary self-awareness provides more evidence for foundational theory of mind skills in organisms throughout the
924:
Povinelli, D. J., Prince, C. G., & Preuss, T. M. (2005). Parent-Offspring
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41:. These specializations are considered to be critical to the survival of the species, even though there are successful individuals who lack certain specializations, including those diagnosed with
1251:
369:. Krueger et al. (2007) have argued that trust, which may form the foundation for helping and altruism and thus the basis of human social interaction, is also a cognitive specialization.
78:
unique to humans. The most significant cognitive specializations among humans include theory of mind and language acquisition and production, while non-human animals may specialize in
192:
argues that it is, on its own, an adaptive mechanism. Drawing on existing literature and theory, he proposes several types of evidence for this claim, including the universality and
1652:
Kurland, Jeffrey A. (2001). "The Mating Mind: How Sexual Choice Shaped the
Evolution of the Human Mind:The Mating Mind: How Sexual Choice Shaped the Evolution of the Human Mind".
304:
According to Nowak and
Sigmund, language is essential to human life as we know it. Without the ability to verbally communicate with members of our social group, there would be no
258:
retention) are drastically reduced. This and similar dissociations support the theory that specific neural architecture, which has evolved over time, supports language function.
410:"). This task—in which a successful trial is simply one in which an animal recognizes itself in a mirror—is thought to be a basic building block of theory of mind development.
180:: humankind has unique and beneficial communication skills, and this is partially due to our ability to recognize that other people may not think or know the same things we do.
320:, it appears to be an overall benefit of the ability to produce verbal language. Without an overall specialization for language (including such sub-specializations as gossip),
90:
Social communication is critical to effective human interaction, and has evolved over time to support the complex exchange of ideas. Some social behaviors, such as helping and
105:
argue that the human mind contains "specialized mechanisms" that were designed by natural selection to facilitate social communication and exchange. Without this specialized "
457:' ability to group objects (which is argued to support their processing of and adaptation to novel environments), problem solving and "creative" tool modification among
2109:
Marten, K; Psarakos, S (1995). "Using self-view television to distinguish between self-examination and social behavior in the bottlenose dolphin (Tursiops truncatus)".
1419:
Flinn, M. V.; Geary, D. C.; Ward, C. V. (2005). "Ecological dominance, social competition, and coalitionary arms races: Why humans evolved extraordinary intelligence".
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thought and behavior" is a specialization that originally developed as a by-product of brain function, and its adaptive purposes led to its continued evolution by
278:
is hard-wired into the human brain. This allows language to be produced with or without specific linguistic instruction (which is closely associated with the
2238:
Kirsch, J. A.; Kabanova, A.; Güntürkün, O. (2008). "Grouping of artificial objects in pigeons: an inquiry into the cognitive architecture of an avian mind".
167:, and this deficit is thought to be a major contributor to frequent impairments in some areas of social understanding in people with autism. The fact that a
401:
have evolved to walk on their knuckles. However, in considering non-behavioral specializations, Penn et al. (2008) argue that the "profound continuity"
70:; this requires becoming specialized in behaviors that improve an organism's likelihood of survival and reproduction. Not to be confused with
357:
of the brain, Johnson-Frey argues that tool use should be classified as a cognitive phenomenon due to its foundation in cognition. On a more
188:
Though some (including Bates et al.) have argued that language arose as a byproduct of the evolution of humans' general cognitive abilities,
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between general intelligence and language to argue for language as a specific adaptation. Those who lose language capabilities due to
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970:10.1073/pnas.122352999
893:10.1073/pnas.122352699
831:10.1073/pnas.122352999
202:traumatic brain injury
1914:Heyes, C. M. (1998).
1698:10.1093/cercor/bhj149
1455:Psychological Science
768:10.4161/cib.3.6.12604
662:MDE Manage Decis Econ
378:In non-human primates
2455:Cognitive psychology
2332:Hunt, G. R. (2000).
1002:Heyes, C.M. (1998).
151:its facilitation of
2405:(5598): 1569–1579.
2293:(25): 10370–10375.
2164:(45): 17053–17057.
2025:2001PNAS...98.5359H
1830:2007PNAS..10420084K
1824:(50): 20084–20089.
1618:10.1038/nature04131
1610:2005Natur.437.1291N
1604:(7063): 1291–1298.
1518:(5598): 1569–1579.
1171:1999NYASA.882..119P
1054:Brain and Cognition
961:2002PNAS...9911537S
955:(17): 11537–11542.
884:2002PNAS...9911531S
878:(17): 11531–11536.
822:2002PNAS...9911537S
438:Bottlenose dolphins
276:language processing
250:) can be spared in
198:double dissociation
169:developmental delay
55:bottlenose dolphins
756:Commun Integr Biol
619:Trends in Genetics
461:, and tool use in
2460:Cognitive science
2344:(1441): 403–413.
1559:Language Sciences
1097:Child Development
707:Discourse Studies
367:natural selection
272:Universal Grammar
262:Universal Grammar
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668:(2–3): 103–129.
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571:(3–4): 147–155.
552:
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419:In other animals
291:pre-disposed to
115:neuropsychiatric
2475:
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331:
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268:Noam Chomsky
265:
223:Broca's area
216:
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408:mirror test
395:chimpanzees
355:motor areas
306:reciprocity
289:genetically
153:cooperation
39:reciprocity
2449:Categories
2390:, 207–233.
1375:Brain Lang
1146:: 515–526.
491:References
391:orangutans
387:great apes
285:vocabulary
240:ecological
143:accidental
103:John Tooby
61:Background
51:navigation
1295:: 16–37.
1225:: 37–46.
1214:Cognition
1195:222083447
1140:Behav Sci
737:145542956
442:elephants
383:Humankind
363:religious
346:intrinsic
342:extrinsic
322:linguists
266:Linguist
244:arms race
213:Evolution
159:In autism
107:algorithm
76:neocortex
2419:12446899
2368:10722223
2319:19478068
2268:12759880
2260:18331919
2225:17509723
2190:19514017
2139:44372881
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1943:10097012
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1858:18056800
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1707:16514105
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1532:12446899
1485:18947361
1403:14539576
1395:19091390
1351:16201457
1247:14955234
1223:Elsevier
1187:10415890
1125:11269306
1117:11405571
1082:12580222
1074:11041992
1031:10097012
989:12177409
912:12177408
850:12177409
786:21331228
692:23814325
639:17509723
595:22185234
559:(2011).
542:35128639
469:See also
425:primates
399:gorillas
338:adaptive
300:Benefits
228:gestures
209:others.
194:ontogeny
184:Language
92:altruism
80:foraging
68:habitats
27:language
22:adaptive
2399:Science
2359:1690543
2310:2700937
2181:1636577
2131:8521259
2096:9311402
2021:Bibcode
1994:8795292
1986:1166159
1951:6469633
1849:2148426
1826:Bibcode
1799:1935122
1634:3153895
1606:Bibcode
1512:Science
1476:2659624
1359:2379278
1239:2934210
1167:Bibcode
1039:6469633
957:Bibcode
880:Bibcode
818:Bibcode
777:3038052
683:3693395
586:3964597
534:7482808
455:pigeons
434:species
314:illicit
252:amnesia
232:baboons
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336:. Its
310:Gossip
256:memory
248:syntax
206:stroke
2264:S2CID
2135:S2CID
2092:S2CID
2044:33214
1982:JSTOR
1947:S2CID
1919:(PDF)
1897:S2CID
1795:S2CID
1752:S2CID
1630:S2CID
1594:(PDF)
1399:S2CID
1355:S2CID
1271:: 66.
1243:S2CID
1221:(1).
1191:S2CID
1121:S2CID
1078:S2CID
1035:S2CID
1007:(PDF)
733:S2CID
538:S2CID
463:crows
459:rooks
334:humor
293:learn
35:trust
2415:PMID
2364:PMID
2315:PMID
2256:PMID
2221:PMID
2186:PMID
2127:PMID
2084:PMID
2049:PMID
1990:PMID
1939:PMID
1889:PMID
1854:PMID
1787:PMID
1744:PMID
1703:PMID
1622:PMID
1528:PMID
1481:PMID
1391:PMID
1347:PMID
1305:ISBN
1252:Pdf.
1235:PMID
1183:PMID
1113:PMID
1070:PMID
1027:PMID
985:PMID
908:PMID
846:PMID
810:PNAS
782:PMID
688:PMID
635:PMID
591:PMID
530:PMID
440:and
429:dogs
397:and
344:and
236:hunt
111:apes
101:and
37:and
2407:doi
2403:298
2354:PMC
2346:doi
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2305:PMC
2295:doi
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2248:doi
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2119:doi
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1974:doi
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1779:doi
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1614:doi
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1567:doi
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1471:PMC
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1379:108
1339:doi
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1227:doi
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1163:882
1105:doi
1062:doi
1019:doi
975:PMC
965:doi
898:PMC
888:doi
836:PMC
826:doi
772:PMC
764:doi
723:hdl
715:doi
678:PMC
670:doi
627:doi
581:PMC
573:doi
522:doi
204:or
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