607:, foraging success increases with an increase in group size then declines once the optimal size is exceeded. A myriad number of factors affect the group sizes in different species. For example, lionesses (female lions) do not make decisions about foraging in a vacuum. They make decisions that reflect a balance between obtaining food, defending their territory and protecting their young. In fact, we see that lion foraging behavior does not maximize their energy gain. They are not behaving optimally with respect to foraging because they have to defend their territory and protect young so they hunt in small groups to reduce the risk of being caught alone. Another factor that may influence group size is the cost of hunting. To understand the behavior of wild dogs and the average group size we must incorporate the distance the dogs run.
481:, which analyzes the behavior of a forager that encounters different types of prey and must choose which to attack. This model is also known as the prey model or the attack model. In this model the predator encounters different prey items and decides whether to spend time handling or eating the prey. It predicts that foragers should ignore low profitability prey items when more profitable items are present and abundant. The objective of this model is to identify the choice that will maximize fitness. How profitable a prey item is depends on ecological variables such as the time required to find, capture, and consume the prey in addition to the energy it provides. It is likely that an individual will settle for a trade off between maximizing the intake rate while eating and minimising the search interval between prey.
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sex pheromones. Animals may choose to forage on their own when the resources are abundant, which can occur when the habitat is rich or when the number of conspecifics foraging are few. In these cases there may be no need for group foraging. In addition, foraging alone can result in less interaction with other foragers, which can decrease the amount of competition and dominance interactions an animal deals with. It will also ensure that a solitary forager is less conspicuous to predators. Solitary foraging strategies characterize many of the phocids (the true seals) such as the elephant and harbor seals. An example of an exclusive solitary forager is the South
American species of the harvester ant,
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to come up with a new foraging strategy and introduce something it has never used before to maximize his or her fitness (survival). Forebrain size has been associated with learning behavior. Animals with larger brain sizes are expected to learn better. A higher ability to innovate has been linked to larger forebrain sizes in North
American and British Isle birds according to Lefebvre et al. (1997). In this study, bird orders that contained individuals with larger forebrain sizes displayed a higher amount of foraging innovation. Examples of innovations recorded in birds include following tractors and eating frogs or other insects killed by it and using swaying trees to catch their prey.
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as an aggregation economy. The second situation occurs when a group of animals forage together but it may not be in an animal's best interest to do so known as a dispersion economy. Think of a cardinal at a bird feeder for the dispersion economy. We might see a group of birds foraging at that bird feeder but it is not in the best interest of the cardinal for any of the other birds to be there too. The amount of food the cardinal can get from that bird feeder depends on how much it can take from the bird feeder but also depends on how much the other birds take as well.
223:
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639:. This is the null model for thinking about what would draw animals into groups to forage and how they would behave in the process. This model predicts that animals will make an instantaneous decision about where to forage based on the quality (prey availability) of the patches available at that time and will choose the most profitable patch, the one that maximizes their energy intake. This quality depends on the starting quality of the patch and the number of predators already there consuming the prey.
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importantly reduction of predation threat. With regard to costs, however, group foraging results in competition for available resources by other group members. Competition for resources can be characterized by either scramble competition whereby each individual strives to get a portion of the shared resource, or by interference competition whereby the presence of competitors prevents a forager's accessibility to resources. Group foraging can thus reduce an animal's foraging payoff.
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618:(2001) defined the forager performing the activity to the optimal efficiency when the individual is having considered the balance of costs for search and pursuit of prey in considerations of prey selection. Also in selecting an area to work within the individual would have had to decide the correct time to move to another location corresponding to perception of yield remaining and potential yields of any given area available.
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should stay at a patch or move to a new one, think of a bear in a patch of berry bushes. The longer a bear stays at the patch of berry bushes the less berries there are for that bear to eat. The bear must decide how long to stay and thus when to leave that patch and move to a new patch. Movement depends on the travel time between patches and the energy gained from one patch versus another. This is based on the
245:. Studies using quantitative trait loci (QTL) mapping have associated the following loci with the matched functions; Pln-1 and Pln-4 with onset of foraging age, Pln-1 and 2 with the size of the pollen loads collected by workers, and Pln-2 and pln-3 were shown to influence the sugar concentration of the nectar collected.
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activity should be dependent upon the density of juvenile fishes, and the risk of predation within the area. A balance between the growth and mortality of these juvenile fishes is reliant consequent to the duration of foraging performed by said juvenile fish. These components vary with regards to the habitat.
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willing to take, and the efficiency of their foraging patterns. For example, in environments with abundant resources, foragers may adopt less risky and energy-efficient strategies. Conversely, in resource-scarce or high-risk environments, more complex and risky foraging behaviors may evolve. For instance,
565:, the foraging process is divided between three different types of workers: nest patrollers, trail patrollers, and foragers. These workers can utilize many different methods of communicating while foraging in a group, such as guiding flights, scent paths, and "jostling runs", as seen in the eusocial bee
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Solitary foraging includes the variety of foraging in which animals find, capture and consume their prey alone. Individuals can manually exploit patches or they can use tools to exploit their prey. For example, Bolas spiders attack their prey by luring them with a scent identical to the female moth's
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mechanism where the loss of time and energy in avoiding food patches is traded with the decrease in risk of contracting a parasite. Adaptations in diet also help in the prevention of parasitic infection. By avoiding foods that have high potential for parasitic contamination, as well as including food
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Behavioral ecologists use economic models and categories to understand foraging; many of these models are a type of optimal model. Thus foraging theory is discussed in terms of optimizing a payoff from a foraging decision. The payoff for many of these models is the amount of energy an animal receives
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algorithms that try to follow the main concepts of group foraging by autonomous agents. An important note here is that group foraging can emerge in two types of situations. The first situation is frequently thought of and occurs when foraging in a group is beneficial and brings greater rewards known
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which describes the behavior of a forager whose prey is concentrated in small areas known as patches with a significant travel time between them. The model seeks to find out how much time an individual will spend on one patch before deciding to move to the next patch. To understand whether an animal
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Foraging behavior can also be influenced by genetics. The genes associated with foraging behavior have been widely studied in honeybees with reference to the following; onset of foraging behavior, task division between foragers and workers, and bias in foraging for either pollen or nectar. Honey bee
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repertoire, or in the environment, that had not previously been suspected. With those constraints identified, foraging behavior often does approach the optimal pattern even if it is not identical to it. In other words, we know from optimal foraging theory that animals are not foraging randomly even
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Foraging can be categorized into two main types. The first is solitary foraging, when animals forage by themselves. The second is group foraging. Group foraging includes when animals can be seen foraging together when it is beneficial for them to do so (called an aggregation economy) and when it is
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One measure of learning is 'foraging innovation'—an animal consuming new food, or using a new foraging technique in response to their dynamic living environment. Foraging innovation is considered learning because it involves behavioral plasticity on the animal's part. The animal recognizes the need
192:, young individuals learn foraging behavior from their peers and elders by watching other group members forage and by copying their behavior. Observing and learning from other members of the group ensure that the younger members of the group learn what is safe to eat and become proficient foragers.
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to determine the behavior that an "optimal forager" would exhibit. Such a forager has perfect knowledge of what to do to maximize usable food intake. While the behavior of real animals inevitably departs from that of the optimal forager, optimal foraging theory has proved very useful in developing
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Animals can typically be classified into two categories by their pattern of movement exhibited through foraging behaviors. These categories are "cruise" searchers and "ambush" searchers. Cruise searchers forage by continuously hunting for prey at the outer borders of the area being searched, while
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Interactions with the environment significantly influence foraging behavior by dictating the availability of resources, the competition among others, the presence of predators, and the complexity of the landscape. These factors can affect the strategies animals use to find food, the risks they're
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A quantitative model that allows for the evaluation of trade-off decisions that occur in aquatic ecosystems. 'Foraging arenas' are the areas in which a juvenile fish can forage closer to their home while also providing an easier escape from potential predators. This theory predicts that feeding
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is defined as an adaptive change or modification of a behavior based on a previous experience. Since an animal's environment is constantly changing, the ability to adjust foraging behavior is essential for maximization of fitness. Studies in social insects have shown that there is a significant
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per unit time, more specifically, the highest ratio of energetic gain to cost while foraging. Foraging theory predicts that the decisions that maximize energy per unit time and thus deliver the highest payoff will be selected for and persist. Key words used to describe foraging behavior include
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d'Ivoire also engage in foraging for meats when they can, which is achieved through group foraging. Positive correlation has been observed between the success of the hunt and the size of the foraging group. The chimps have also been observed implying rules with their foraging, where there is a
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As already mentioned, group foraging brings both costs and benefits to the members of that group. Some of the benefits of group foraging include being able to capture larger prey, being able to create aggregations of prey, being able to capture prey that are difficult or dangerous and most
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Group foraging is when animals find, capture and consume prey in the presence of other individuals. In other words, it is foraging when success depends not only on your own foraging behaviors but the behaviors of others as well. The biological behavior also inspired the development of
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strains were produced by crossing the rovers with rovers and sitters with sitters. Using the method of hybridization - crossing rovers with sitters - all of the offspring displayed the rover foraging behavior, thus demonstrating that it is an allele of complete dominance.
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Behavioral ecologists first tackled this topic in the 1960s and 1970s. Their goal was to quantify and formalize a set of models to test their null hypothesis that animals forage randomly. Important contributions to foraging theory have been made by:
254:), there were two types of foraging strategies: rovers and sitters. Rovers used the strategy of moving across multiple patches in search for food, while sitters remained in one patch with no inclination to go searching. Both of these strategies are
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Torres-Contreras, Hugo; Ruby
Olivares-Donoso; Hermann M. Niemeyer (2007). "Solitary Foraging in the Ancestral South American Ant, Pogonomyrmex vermiculatus. Is it Due to Constraints in the Production or Perception of Trail Pheromones?".
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can affect the way in which animals forage. For an organism to counteract the procurement of a parasite, they may display avoidance towards certain areas where parasites have previously been discovered. This avoidance behavior is a
203:), which refers to an individual's ability to associate the time of an event with the place of that event. This type of learning has been documented in the foraging behaviors of individuals of the stingless bee species
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Hrncir, Michael; Jarau, Stefan; Zucchi, Ronaldo; Barth, Friedrich G. (January 2000). "Recruitment behavior in stingless bees, Melipona scutellaris and M. quadrifasciata . II. Possible mechanisms of communication".
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Hutchings, Michael R.; Judge, Johanna; Gordon, Iain J.; Athanasiadou, Spiridoula; Kyriazakis, Ilias (January 2006). "Use of trade-off theory to advance understanding of herbivore–parasite interactions".
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There are many versions of optimal foraging theory that are relevant to different foraging situations. These models generally possess the following components according to
Stephens et al. 2007;
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Roch, S.; von Ammon, L.; Geist, J.; Brinker, A. (2018). "Foraging habits of invasive three-spined sticklebacks ( Gasterosteus aculeatus ) – impacts on fisheries yield in Upper Lake
Constance".
432:, and by J. Merritt Emlen. This theory argues that because of the key importance of successful foraging to an individual's survival, it should be possible to predict foraging behavior by using
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theory is a version of the patch model. This model describes the behavior of a forager that must return to a particular place to consume food, or perhaps to hoard food or feed it to a
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Tupper, Mark; Juanes, Francis (February 2017). "Testing foraging arena theory: The effects of conspecific density and habitat type on time and energy budgets of juvenile cunner".
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le Roux, Aliza; Michael I. Cherry; Lorenz Gygax (5 May 2009). "Vigilance behaviour and fitness consequences: comparing a solitary foraging and an obligate group-foraging mammal".
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traits that naturally occur within the larval stages of fruit flies. The gene responsible for major effects on foraging behavior in
Drosophila melanogaster larvae is the chaser (
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individuals learned the locations and times of feeding events, and arrived to those locations up to thirty minutes before the feeding event in anticipation of the food reward.
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ambush searchers forage by sitting and waiting. They remain motionless for long durations as they wait on the prey to pass by, therefore initiating the ambusher to attack.
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with their needs, thus deviating from the foraging behaviour that would be expected in the absence of predators. An example of this balanced risk can be observed in the
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differ in their behavior based on the food resources available in their environment. They will take on a more solitary or active role depending on their environment.
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Murphy, Christina M.; Breed, Michael D. (April 2008). "Time-Place
Learning in a Neotropical Stingless Bee, Trigona fulviventris Guérin (Hymenoptera: Apidae)".
509:. Chipmunks are a good example of this model. As travel time between the patch and their hiding place increased, the chipmunks stayed longer at the patch.
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foraging activity occurs both inside and outside the hive for either pollen or nectar. Similar behavior is seen in many social wasps, such as the species
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Cruz-Rivera, Edwin; Hay, Mark E. (January 2000). "Can quantity replace quality? food choice, compensatory feeding, and fitness of marine mesograzers".
557:. Birds feeding at a bird feeder is an example of a dispersion economy. This is when it may not be in an animal's best interest to forage in a group.
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hypotheses for describing real foraging behavior. Departures from optimality often help to identify constraints either in the animal's behavioral or
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Rapaport, L.G.; Brown, G.R. (2008). "Social influences on foraging behavior in young nonhuman primates:learning what, where and how to eat".
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make foraging decisions and more specifically decisions about hunting group size with protection of their cubs and territory defense in mind.
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Lefebvre, Louis; Whittle, Patrick; Lascaris, Evan; Finkelstein, Adam (March 1997). "Feeding innovations and forebrain size in birds".
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The emergence and stability of cooperative fishing on Ifaluk Atoll, for Human
Behavior and Adaptation: an Anthropological Perspective
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469:: "an organism's choices are constrained by genetics, physiology, neurology, morphology and the laws of chemistry and physics"
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The presence of predators while a (prey) animal is foraging affects its behaviour. In general, foragers balance the risk of
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Benoit-Bird, Kelly J.; Au, Whitlow W. L. (2009). "Cooperative prey herding by the pelagic dolphin, Stenella longirostris".
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234:. According to Hunt (2007), two genes have been associated with the sugar concentration of the nectar honey bees collect.
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Creel, Scott; Creel, Nancy
Marusha (1995). "Communal hunting and pack size in African wild dogs, Lycaon pictus".
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items that contain anti-parasitic properties in the diet. These anti-parasitic properties can be used in a
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1530:"The Ecological Conditions That Favor Tool Use and Innovation in Wild Bottlenose Dolphins (Tursiops sp.)"
457:: an objective function, what we want to maximize, in this case energy over time as a currency of fitness
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516:. Although this is controversial, coming under some of the same kinds of attack as the application of
424:. Optimal foraging theory (OFT) was first proposed in 1966, in two papers published independently, by
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that studies the foraging behavior of animals in response to the environment where the animal lives.
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In recent decades, optimal foraging theory has often been applied to the foraging behavior of human
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Rutz, C.; et al. (2010). "The ecological significance of tool use in New
Caledonian Crows".
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Hutchings, Michael R.; Athanasiadou, Spiridoula; Kyriazakis, Ilias; J. Gordon, Iain (May 2003).
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Ahrens, Robert N M; Walters, Carl J; Christensen, Villy (March 2012). "Foraging arena theory".
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1 Gomes 2 Boesch, 1 CM 2 C (2011). "Reciprocity and trades in wild west African chimpanzees".
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benefit to becoming involved through allowing successful hunters first access to their kills.
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South West Outdoor Travelers- Wild Edibles, Medicinals, Foraging, Primitive Skills & More
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The Association of Foragers: An international association for teachers of foraging skills.
463:: set of choices under the organism's control, or the decisions that the organism exhibits
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Packer, C.; Scheel, D.; Pusey, A.E. (1990). "Why lions form groups: food is not enough".
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1057:"Chaser (Csr), a new gene affecting larval foraging behavior in Drosophila melanogaster"
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Group foraging may be influenced by the size of a group. In some species like lions and
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because it plays an important role in an animal's ability to survive and reproduce.
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1641:(1964). "Tool-using and aimed throwing in a community of free-living chimpanzees".
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1266:"Evolution of innate behavioral strategies through competitive population dynamics"
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Some behaviors are more dominant than others. In a study using fruit fly larvae (
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770:"The correlation of learning speed and natural foraging success in bumble-bees'"
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MacArthur RH, Pianka ER (1966), "On the optimal use of a patchy environment.",
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Pereira, H S; MacDonald, D E; Hilliker, A J; Sokolowski, M B (September 1995).
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136:, who first tested the optimal diet model against behavior in the field, using
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ISBN The pinnipeds: seals, sea lions, and walruses By Marianne Riedman 1990.
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theory to human behavior, it does represent a convergence of ideas from
169:. Young primates learn from elders in their group about proper foraging.
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Emlen, J. M. (1966), "The role of time and energy in food preference",
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27:. For another prominent forager from the United States of America, see
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The theory scientists use to understand group foraging is called the
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Another measure of learning is spatio-temporal learning (also called
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if their behavior doesn't perfectly match what is predicted by OFT.
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The theory scientists use to understand solitary foraging is called
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31:. For the study of indigenous uses of plants around the world, see
2316:, edited by L. Cronk, N. Chagnon, and B. Iro ns, pp. 437–472.
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Institute for the Study of Edible Wild Plants and Other Foragables
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de Belle, J S; Hilliker, A J; Sokolowski, M B (September 1989).
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140:, and then proceeded to an extensive study of foraging in the
1898:"Wild chimpanzees exchange meat for sex on a long term basis"
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Boesch, C (1994). "Cooperative hunting in wild Chimpanzees".
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detrimental for them to do so (called a dispersion economy).
96:, an organism that is eaten in part or whole by another, and
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is searching for wild food resources. It affects an animal's
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10.1890/0012-9658(2000)081[0201:CQRQFC]2.0.CO;2
948:"Behavioral genomics of honeybee foraging and nest defense"
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35:. For the material that is eaten by foraging animals, see
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Search and Foraging: Individual Motion and Swarm Dynamics
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Stephens, D.W.; Brown, J.S. & Ydenberg, R.C. (2007).
1189:"Can animals use foraging behaviour to combat parasites?"
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2139:. Interdisciplinary Contributions to Archaeology. 2002.
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1493:
774:
Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences
185:
correlation between learning and foraging performance.
1832:
767:
582:
396:
to feed on fish that bury themselves in the sediment,
1264:
Liang, Tong; Brinkman, Braden A. W. (14 March 2022).
707:
Danchin, E.; Giraldeau, L. & Cezilly, F. (2008).
122:, with work on the optimal diet model in relation to
819:
Evolutionary Anthropology: Issues, News, and Reviews
2238:Stephens, D.W. (2008). "Optimal Foraging Theory".
2205:Journal of Experimental Marine Biology and Ecology
1895:
1494:O'Brien, W.J.; Browman, H.I.; Evans, B.I. (1990).
1348:
115:to predict the behavior of foragers using patches;
408:that similarly use sticks to capture and consume
308:way, either prophylactically or therapeutically.
3885:
2060:The Journal of the Acoustical Society of America
1968:
1528:Patterson, Eric M.; Mann, Janet (20 July 2011).
357:
311:
2094:
2018:
2016:
2014:
1691:
810:
1471:Harvesting Nature's Bounty, One Step at a Time
1146:
631:Group foraging and the ideal free distribution
3082:
2335:
2057:
1527:
1351:The pinnipeds: seals, sea lions, and walruses
1263:
416:Solitary foraging and optimal foraging theory
2202:
2011:
1807:
1735:
1355:. Berkeley: University of California Press.
2051:
2003:: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (
1954:: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (
918:Journal of the Kansas Entomological Society
915:
3303:Latitudinal gradients in species diversity
3089:
3075:
2342:
2328:
2294:The Big Green Idea Wild Foraging Factsheet
2100:
945:
854:
852:
850:
848:
610:Theorizing on hominid foraging during the
528:that has proved fruitful and interesting.
1931:
1921:
1729:
1563:
1553:
1521:
1299:
1289:
1204:
1168:
1080:
1031:
979:
793:
725:
702:
700:
698:
696:
694:
3201:Predator–prey (Lotka–Volterra) equations
2840:Tritrophic interactions in plant defense
2237:
1896:1. Gomes 2. Boesch, 1. C M 2. C (2009).
1788:
1786:
1784:
1782:
1780:
1778:
1776:
1774:
1586:
1324:"Foraging Strategies | Encyclopedia.com"
858:
734:Behavioural Mechanisms of Food Selection
621:
586:
544:
367:
270:
221:
152:
41:
23:. For a prominent American forager, see
3233:Random generalized Lotka–Volterra model
1797:. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
1637:
1631:
1496:"Search Strategies of Foraging Animals"
1372:
1346:
1340:
877:
845:
763:
761:
3886:
3041:Herbivore adaptations to plant defense
1860:
1407:
1182:
1180:
941:
939:
731:
691:
3070:
2323:
1808:Kagan, Eugene; Ben-Gal, Irad (2015).
1771:
1489:
1487:
1001:
999:
711:. New York: Oxford University Press.
149:Factors influencing foraging behavior
92:, any organism that consumes others,
3056:Predator avoidance in schooling fish
1580:
1193:Proceedings of the Nutrition Society
911:
909:
907:
758:
335:
326:
3506:Intermediate disturbance hypothesis
1971:Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology
1381:Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology
1177:
936:
583:Cost and benefits of group foraging
13:
3259:Ecological effects of biodiversity
1484:
996:
445:
348:
14:
3910:
2595:Generalist and specialist species
2267:
904:
768:Raine, N.E.; Chittka, L. (2008).
531:
16:Searching for wild food resources
3318:Occupancy–abundance relationship
2248:10.1016/B978-008045405-4.00026-4
2190:10.1111/j.1467-2979.2011.00432.x
1251:10.1111/j.1365-2907.2006.00080.x
946:Hunt, G.J.; et al. (2007).
473:Some of these versions include:
3338:Relative abundance distribution
3051:Plant defense against herbivory
2918:Competitive exclusion principle
2630:Mesopredator release hypothesis
2231:
2196:
2161:
2129:
1962:
1889:
1854:
1826:
1801:
1459:
1316:
1257:
1229:
1140:
1097:
1048:
675:LĂ©vy flight foraging hypothesis
100:, concentrations of resources.
2923:Consumer–resource interactions
1795:Foraging: Behavior and Ecology
732:Hughes, Roger N., ed. (1990).
53:) mother and cubs foraging in
1:
3769:Biological data visualization
3596:Environmental niche modelling
3323:Population viability analysis
1126:10.1016/j.fishres.2018.02.014
861:Principles of Animal Behavior
685:
380:with a tool, a prepared stick
358:Tool use in solitary foraging
312:Interactions with environment
290:
3254:Density-dependent inhibition
2279:Forager's Buddy GPS Foraging
2115:10.1016/0003-3472(95)80048-4
1923:10.1371/journal.pone.0005116
1555:10.1371/journal.pone.0022243
1291:10.1371/journal.pcbi.1009934
19:For foraging by humans, see
7:
3723:Liebig's law of the minimum
3558:Resource selection function
2449:Metabolic theory of ecology
2225:10.1016/j.jembe.2016.12.001
1417:Journal of Chemical Ecology
859:Dugatkin, Lee Alan (2004).
642:
217:
176:
10:
3915:
3623:Niche apportionment models
3343:Relative species abundance
2547:Primary nutritional groups
2444:List of feeding behaviours
2137:Aurignacian Lithic Economy
1347:Riedman, Marianne (1990).
1270:PLOS Computational Biology
1073:10.1093/genetics/141.1.263
1024:10.1093/genetics/123.1.157
361:
343:Pogonomyrmex vermiculatus
262:) gene. During the study,
18:
3872:
3804:Ecosystem based fisheries
3746:
3646:
3571:
3444:
3416:Interspecific competition
3381:
3308:Minimum viable population
3241:
3166:Maximum sustainable yield
3151:Intraspecific competition
3146:Effective population size
3109:
3026:Anti-predator adaptations
3011:
2890:
2817:
2774:
2696:
2663:
2560:
2537:Photosynthetic efficiency
2472:
2366:
2305:Caress, Badiday. (2000),
1983:10.1007/s00265-011-1227-x
1437:10.1007/s10886-006-9240-7
1393:10.1007/s00265-009-0762-1
972:10.1007/s00114-006-0183-1
742:10.1007/978-3-642-75118-9
649:List of forageable plants
142:common pied oystercatcher
3794:Ecological stoichiometry
3759:Alternative stable state
3638:Ontogenetic niche shift
3501:Ideal free distribution
3411:Ecological facilitation
3161:Malthusian growth model
3131:Consumer-resource model
2988:Paradox of the plankton
2953:Energy systems language
2673:Chemoorganoheterotrophy
2640:Optimal foraging theory
2615:Heterotrophic nutrition
2240:Encyclopedia of Ecology
1738:The American Naturalist
1609:10.1126/science.1192053
637:Ideal free distribution
539:Artificial Intelligence
422:optimal foraging theory
400:that use sticks to get
251:Drosophila melanogaster
51:Ursus arctos horribilis
3784:Ecological forecasting
3728:Marginal value theorem
3526:Landscape epidemiology
3461:Cross-boundary subsidy
3396:Biological interaction
2746:Microbial intelligence
2434:Green world hypothesis
2242:. pp. 2561–2566.
1875:10.1006/anbe.1994.1285
1467:"About Forest to Food"
898:10.1006/anbe.1996.0330
786:10.1098/rspb.2007.1652
596:
558:
499:Central place foraging
493:marginal value theorem
486:Patch selection theory
478:The optimal diet model
381:
235:
170:
113:marginal value theorem
62:
3789:Ecological humanities
3688:Ecological energetics
3633:Niche differentiation
3496:Habitat fragmentation
3264:Ecological extinction
3211:Small population size
2963:Feed conversion ratio
2943:Ecological succession
2875:San Francisco Estuary
2789:Ecological efficiency
2731:Microbial cooperation
1848:10.1051/apido:2000109
930:10.2317/JKES-704.23.1
622:Foraging Arena Theory
590:
548:
526:economic anthropology
371:
271:Presence of predators
225:
156:
45:
3814:Evolutionary ecology
3779:Ecological footprint
3774:Ecological economics
3698:Ecological threshold
3693:Ecological indicator
3563:Source–sink dynamics
3516:Land change modeling
3511:Insular biogeography
3363:Species distribution
3102:Modelling ecosystems
2761:Microbial metabolism
2600:Intraguild predation
2389:Biogeochemical cycle
2355:Modelling ecosystems
1328:www.encyclopedia.com
568:Melipona scutellaris
398:New Caledonian crows
210:Studies showed that
206:Trigona fulviventris
111:, who developed the
55:Denali National Park
3864:Theoretical ecology
3839:Natural environment
3703:Ecosystem diversity
3673:Ecological collapse
3663:Bateman's principle
3618:Limiting similarity
3531:Landscape limnology
3353:Species homogeneity
3191:Population modeling
3186:Population dynamics
3003:Trophic state index
2217:2017JEMBE.487...86T
2182:2012AqFF...13...41A
2072:2009ASAJ..125..125B
2025:American Naturalist
1914:2009PLoSO...4.5116G
1695:American Naturalist
1655:1964Natur.201.1264G
1601:2010Sci...329.1523R
1546:2011PLoSO...622243P
1515:1990AmSci..78..152O
1429:2007JCEco..33..435T
1282:2022PLSCB..18E9934L
1118:2018FishR.204..172R
964:2007NW.....94..247H
952:Naturwissenschaften
709:Behavioural Ecology
574:Chimpanzees in the
364:Tool use by animals
201:time-place learning
3875:Outline of ecology
3824:Industrial ecology
3819:Functional ecology
3683:Ecological deficit
3628:Niche construction
3591:Ecosystem engineer
3368:Species–area curve
3289:Introduced species
3104:: Other components
3036:Deimatic behaviour
2938:Ecological network
2870:North Pacific Gyre
2855:hydrothermal vents
2794:Ecological pyramid
2741:Microbial food web
2552:Primary production
2497:Foundation species
2312:2013-05-31 at the
2299:2009-02-25 at the
2170:Fish and Fisheries
1503:American Scientist
1206:10.1079/pns2003243
1106:Fisheries Research
831:10.1002/evan.20180
651:(edible by humans)
597:
576:TaĂŻ Forest in CĂ´te
563:red harvester ants
559:
404:out of trees, and
382:
236:
228:European honey bee
171:
78:behavioral ecology
63:
3881:
3880:
3764:Balance of nature
3521:Landscape ecology
3406:Community ecology
3348:Species diversity
3284:Indicator species
3279:Gradient analysis
3156:Logistic function
3064:
3063:
3021:Animal coloration
2998:Trophic mutualism
2736:Microbial ecology
2527:Photoheterotrophs
2512:Myco-heterotrophy
2424:Ecosystem ecology
2409:Carrying capacity
2374:Abiotic component
2257:978-0-08-045405-4
2154:978-0-306-46334-1
2080:10.1121/1.2967480
1819:978-1-4822-4210-2
1663:10.1038/2011264a0
1649:(4926): 1264–66.
1595:(5998): 1523–26.
1362:978-0-520-06497-3
870:978-0-393-97659-5
751:978-3-642-75120-2
718:978-0-19-920629-2
551:northern cardinal
384:Some examples of
336:Solitary foraging
327:Types of foraging
281:foraging behavior
242:Apoica flavissima
134:John Goss-Custard
3906:
3899:Eating behaviors
3581:Ecological niche
3553:selection theory
3373:Umbrella species
3358:Species richness
3294:Invasive species
3274:Flagship species
3181:Population cycle
3176:Overexploitation
3141:Ecological yield
3091:
3084:
3077:
3068:
3067:
2973:Mesotrophic soil
2913:Climax community
2845:Marine food webs
2784:Biomagnification
2585:Chemoorganotroph
2439:Keystone species
2399:Biotic component
2344:
2337:
2330:
2321:
2320:
2262:
2261:
2235:
2229:
2228:
2200:
2194:
2193:
2165:
2159:
2158:
2133:
2127:
2126:
2109:(5): 1325–1339.
2103:Animal Behaviour
2098:
2092:
2091:
2055:
2049:
2048:
2020:
2009:
2008:
2002:
1994:
1966:
1960:
1959:
1953:
1945:
1935:
1925:
1893:
1887:
1886:
1863:Animal Behaviour
1858:
1852:
1851:
1830:
1824:
1823:
1805:
1799:
1798:
1790:
1769:
1768:
1733:
1727:
1726:
1689:
1683:
1682:
1635:
1629:
1628:
1584:
1578:
1577:
1567:
1557:
1525:
1519:
1518:
1500:
1491:
1482:
1481:
1479:
1478:
1463:
1457:
1456:
1411:
1405:
1404:
1387:(8): 1097–1107.
1376:
1370:
1369:
1354:
1344:
1338:
1337:
1335:
1334:
1320:
1314:
1313:
1303:
1293:
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1101:
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1045:
1035:
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993:
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943:
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913:
902:
901:
886:Animal Behaviour
881:
875:
874:
856:
843:
842:
814:
808:
807:
797:
780:(1636): 803–08.
765:
756:
755:
729:
723:
722:
704:
514:hunter-gatherers
426:Robert MacArthur
320:Blepharida rhois
3914:
3913:
3909:
3908:
3907:
3905:
3904:
3903:
3884:
3883:
3882:
3877:
3868:
3854:Systems ecology
3742:
3713:Extinction debt
3678:Ecological debt
3668:Bioluminescence
3649:
3642:
3611:marine habitats
3586:Ecological trap
3567:
3447:
3440:
3383:
3377:
3333:Rapoport's rule
3328:Priority effect
3269:Endemic species
3237:
3196:Population size
3112:
3105:
3095:
3065:
3060:
3013:
3007:
2993:Trophic cascade
2903:Bioaccumulation
2886:
2813:
2770:
2692:
2659:
2556:
2468:
2429:Ecosystem model
2362:
2348:
2314:Wayback Machine
2301:Wayback Machine
2270:
2265:
2258:
2236:
2232:
2201:
2197:
2166:
2162:
2155:
2145:10.1007/b110584
2135:
2134:
2130:
2099:
2095:
2056:
2052:
2021:
2012:
1996:
1995:
1977:(11): 2183–96.
1967:
1963:
1947:
1946:
1894:
1890:
1859:
1855:
1831:
1827:
1820:
1806:
1802:
1791:
1772:
1744:(916): 611–17,
1734:
1730:
1702:(916): 603–09,
1690:
1686:
1636:
1632:
1585:
1581:
1526:
1522:
1498:
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1485:
1476:
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1412:
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1377:
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1332:
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1322:
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1317:
1276:(3): e1009934.
1262:
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1185:
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1102:
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1049:
1004:
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944:
937:
914:
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882:
878:
871:
863:. W.W. Norton.
857:
846:
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752:
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692:
688:
655:Chesson's index
645:
633:
624:
585:
534:
518:sociobiological
448:
446:Versions of OFT
434:decision theory
418:
366:
360:
351:
349:Search Behavior
338:
329:
314:
306:self-medicating
293:
273:
220:
212:T. fulviventris
179:
167:Laikipia, Kenya
151:
76:is a branch of
74:Foraging theory
40:
21:Hunter-gatherer
17:
12:
11:
5:
3912:
3902:
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3873:
3870:
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3836:
3834:Microecosystem
3831:
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3771:
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3733:Thorson's rule
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3710:
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3700:
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3690:
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3680:
3675:
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3658:Assembly rules
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3577:
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3568:
3566:
3565:
3560:
3555:
3543:
3541:Patch dynamics
3538:
3536:Metapopulation
3533:
3528:
3523:
3518:
3513:
3508:
3503:
3498:
3493:
3488:
3483:
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3473:
3468:
3463:
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3442:
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3433:
3431:Storage effect
3428:
3423:
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3413:
3408:
3403:
3398:
3393:
3387:
3385:
3379:
3378:
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3365:
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3340:
3335:
3330:
3325:
3320:
3315:
3313:Neutral theory
3310:
3305:
3300:
3298:Native species
3291:
3286:
3281:
3276:
3271:
3266:
3261:
3256:
3251:
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3238:
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3229:
3228:
3223:
3213:
3208:
3203:
3198:
3193:
3188:
3183:
3178:
3173:
3171:Overpopulation
3168:
3163:
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3143:
3138:
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3115:
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3017:
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3009:
3008:
3006:
3005:
3000:
2995:
2990:
2985:
2980:
2978:Nutrient cycle
2975:
2970:
2968:Feeding frenzy
2965:
2960:
2955:
2950:
2948:Energy quality
2945:
2940:
2935:
2930:
2925:
2920:
2915:
2910:
2908:Cascade effect
2905:
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2763:
2758:
2753:
2751:Microbial loop
2748:
2743:
2738:
2733:
2728:
2723:
2718:
2716:Lithoautotroph
2713:
2708:
2702:
2700:
2698:Microorganisms
2694:
2693:
2691:
2690:
2685:
2680:
2675:
2669:
2667:
2661:
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2655:Prey switching
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2534:
2532:Photosynthesis
2529:
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2504:
2499:
2494:
2489:
2487:Chemosynthesis
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2379:Abiotic stress
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2268:External links
2266:
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2093:
2066:(1): 125–137.
2050:
2037:10.1086/285079
2010:
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1750:10.1086/282455
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1708:10.1086/282454
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1579:
1520:
1509:(2): 152–160.
1483:
1458:
1406:
1371:
1361:
1339:
1315:
1256:
1228:
1199:(2): 361–370.
1176:
1155:(1): 201–219.
1139:
1096:
1067:(1): 263–270.
1047:
1018:(1): 157–163.
995:
935:
903:
892:(3): 549–560.
876:
869:
844:
825:(4): 189–201.
809:
757:
750:
724:
717:
689:
687:
684:
683:
682:
677:
672:
667:
665:Avian foraging
662:
657:
652:
644:
641:
632:
629:
623:
620:
584:
581:
533:
532:Group foraging
530:
471:
470:
464:
458:
447:
444:
417:
414:
359:
356:
350:
347:
337:
334:
328:
325:
313:
310:
292:
289:
272:
269:
219:
216:
178:
175:
165:) foraging in
150:
147:
146:
145:
131:
116:
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
3911:
3900:
3897:
3895:
3892:
3891:
3889:
3876:
3871:
3865:
3862:
3860:
3859:Urban ecology
3857:
3855:
3852:
3850:
3847:
3845:
3842:
3840:
3837:
3835:
3832:
3830:
3827:
3825:
3822:
3820:
3817:
3815:
3812:
3810:
3807:
3805:
3802:
3800:
3797:
3795:
3792:
3790:
3787:
3785:
3782:
3780:
3777:
3775:
3772:
3770:
3767:
3765:
3762:
3760:
3757:
3755:
3752:
3751:
3749:
3745:
3739:
3736:
3734:
3731:
3729:
3726:
3724:
3721:
3719:
3718:Kleiber's law
3716:
3714:
3711:
3709:
3706:
3704:
3701:
3699:
3696:
3694:
3691:
3689:
3686:
3684:
3681:
3679:
3676:
3674:
3671:
3669:
3666:
3664:
3661:
3659:
3656:
3655:
3653:
3651:
3645:
3639:
3636:
3634:
3631:
3629:
3626:
3624:
3621:
3619:
3616:
3612:
3609:
3608:
3607:
3604:
3602:
3599:
3597:
3594:
3592:
3589:
3587:
3584:
3582:
3579:
3578:
3576:
3574:
3570:
3564:
3561:
3559:
3556:
3554:
3552:
3548:
3544:
3542:
3539:
3537:
3534:
3532:
3529:
3527:
3524:
3522:
3519:
3517:
3514:
3512:
3509:
3507:
3504:
3502:
3499:
3497:
3494:
3492:
3491:Foster's rule
3489:
3487:
3484:
3482:
3479:
3477:
3474:
3472:
3469:
3467:
3464:
3462:
3459:
3457:
3454:
3453:
3451:
3449:
3443:
3437:
3434:
3432:
3429:
3427:
3424:
3422:
3419:
3417:
3414:
3412:
3409:
3407:
3404:
3402:
3399:
3397:
3394:
3392:
3389:
3388:
3386:
3380:
3374:
3371:
3369:
3366:
3364:
3361:
3359:
3356:
3354:
3351:
3349:
3346:
3344:
3341:
3339:
3336:
3334:
3331:
3329:
3326:
3324:
3321:
3319:
3316:
3314:
3311:
3309:
3306:
3304:
3301:
3299:
3295:
3292:
3290:
3287:
3285:
3282:
3280:
3277:
3275:
3272:
3270:
3267:
3265:
3262:
3260:
3257:
3255:
3252:
3250:
3247:
3246:
3244:
3240:
3234:
3231:
3227:
3224:
3222:
3219:
3218:
3217:
3214:
3212:
3209:
3207:
3204:
3202:
3199:
3197:
3194:
3192:
3189:
3187:
3184:
3182:
3179:
3177:
3174:
3172:
3169:
3167:
3164:
3162:
3159:
3157:
3154:
3152:
3149:
3147:
3144:
3142:
3139:
3137:
3134:
3132:
3129:
3127:
3124:
3122:
3119:
3118:
3116:
3114:
3108:
3103:
3099:
3092:
3087:
3085:
3080:
3078:
3073:
3072:
3069:
3057:
3054:
3052:
3049:
3047:
3044:
3042:
3039:
3037:
3034:
3032:
3029:
3027:
3024:
3022:
3019:
3018:
3016:
3010:
3004:
3001:
2999:
2996:
2994:
2991:
2989:
2986:
2984:
2981:
2979:
2976:
2974:
2971:
2969:
2966:
2964:
2961:
2959:
2956:
2954:
2951:
2949:
2946:
2944:
2941:
2939:
2936:
2934:
2931:
2929:
2926:
2924:
2921:
2919:
2916:
2914:
2911:
2909:
2906:
2904:
2901:
2899:
2896:
2895:
2893:
2889:
2881:
2878:
2876:
2873:
2871:
2868:
2866:
2863:
2861:
2858:
2856:
2853:
2851:
2848:
2847:
2846:
2843:
2841:
2838:
2836:
2833:
2831:
2828:
2826:
2823:
2822:
2820:
2816:
2810:
2809:Trophic level
2807:
2805:
2802:
2800:
2797:
2795:
2792:
2790:
2787:
2785:
2782:
2781:
2779:
2777:
2773:
2767:
2766:Phage ecology
2764:
2762:
2759:
2757:
2756:Microbial mat
2754:
2752:
2749:
2747:
2744:
2742:
2739:
2737:
2734:
2732:
2729:
2727:
2724:
2722:
2719:
2717:
2714:
2712:
2711:Bacteriophage
2709:
2707:
2704:
2703:
2701:
2699:
2695:
2689:
2686:
2684:
2681:
2679:
2678:Decomposition
2676:
2674:
2671:
2670:
2668:
2666:
2662:
2656:
2653:
2651:
2648:
2646:
2643:
2641:
2638:
2636:
2633:
2631:
2628:
2626:
2625:Mesopredators
2623:
2621:
2618:
2616:
2613:
2611:
2608:
2606:
2603:
2601:
2598:
2596:
2593:
2591:
2588:
2586:
2583:
2581:
2578:
2576:
2573:
2571:
2570:Apex predator
2568:
2567:
2565:
2563:
2559:
2553:
2550:
2548:
2545:
2543:
2540:
2538:
2535:
2533:
2530:
2528:
2525:
2523:
2520:
2518:
2515:
2513:
2510:
2508:
2505:
2503:
2500:
2498:
2495:
2493:
2490:
2488:
2485:
2483:
2480:
2479:
2477:
2475:
2471:
2465:
2462:
2460:
2457:
2455:
2452:
2450:
2447:
2445:
2442:
2440:
2437:
2435:
2432:
2430:
2427:
2425:
2422:
2420:
2417:
2415:
2412:
2410:
2407:
2405:
2404:Biotic stress
2402:
2400:
2397:
2395:
2392:
2390:
2387:
2385:
2382:
2380:
2377:
2375:
2372:
2371:
2369:
2365:
2360:
2356:
2352:
2345:
2340:
2338:
2333:
2331:
2326:
2325:
2322:
2315:
2311:
2308:
2304:
2302:
2298:
2295:
2292:
2290:
2287:
2285:
2282:
2280:
2277:
2275:
2272:
2271:
2259:
2253:
2249:
2245:
2241:
2234:
2226:
2222:
2218:
2214:
2210:
2206:
2199:
2191:
2187:
2183:
2179:
2175:
2171:
2164:
2156:
2150:
2146:
2142:
2138:
2132:
2124:
2120:
2116:
2112:
2108:
2104:
2097:
2089:
2085:
2081:
2077:
2073:
2069:
2065:
2061:
2054:
2046:
2042:
2038:
2034:
2030:
2026:
2019:
2017:
2015:
2006:
2000:
1992:
1988:
1984:
1980:
1976:
1972:
1965:
1957:
1951:
1943:
1939:
1934:
1929:
1924:
1919:
1915:
1911:
1907:
1903:
1899:
1892:
1884:
1880:
1876:
1872:
1869:(3): 653–67.
1868:
1864:
1857:
1849:
1845:
1842:(1): 93–113.
1841:
1837:
1829:
1821:
1815:
1812:. CRC Press.
1811:
1804:
1796:
1789:
1787:
1785:
1783:
1781:
1779:
1777:
1775:
1767:
1763:
1759:
1755:
1751:
1747:
1743:
1739:
1732:
1725:
1721:
1717:
1713:
1709:
1705:
1701:
1697:
1696:
1688:
1680:
1676:
1672:
1668:
1664:
1660:
1656:
1652:
1648:
1644:
1640:
1639:Goodall, Jane
1634:
1626:
1622:
1618:
1614:
1610:
1606:
1602:
1598:
1594:
1590:
1583:
1575:
1571:
1566:
1561:
1556:
1551:
1547:
1543:
1540:(7): e22243.
1539:
1535:
1531:
1524:
1516:
1512:
1508:
1504:
1497:
1490:
1488:
1472:
1468:
1462:
1454:
1450:
1446:
1442:
1438:
1434:
1430:
1426:
1423:(2): 435–40.
1422:
1418:
1410:
1402:
1398:
1394:
1390:
1386:
1382:
1375:
1368:
1364:
1358:
1353:
1352:
1343:
1329:
1325:
1319:
1311:
1307:
1302:
1297:
1292:
1287:
1283:
1279:
1275:
1271:
1267:
1260:
1252:
1248:
1244:
1240:
1239:Mammal Review
1232:
1224:
1220:
1216:
1212:
1207:
1202:
1198:
1194:
1190:
1183:
1181:
1171:
1166:
1162:
1158:
1154:
1150:
1143:
1135:
1131:
1127:
1123:
1119:
1115:
1111:
1107:
1100:
1092:
1088:
1083:
1078:
1074:
1070:
1066:
1062:
1058:
1051:
1043:
1039:
1034:
1029:
1025:
1021:
1017:
1013:
1009:
1002:
1000:
991:
987:
982:
977:
973:
969:
965:
961:
958:(4): 247–67.
957:
953:
949:
942:
940:
931:
927:
923:
919:
912:
910:
908:
899:
895:
891:
887:
880:
872:
866:
862:
855:
853:
851:
849:
840:
836:
832:
828:
824:
820:
813:
805:
801:
796:
791:
787:
783:
779:
775:
771:
764:
762:
753:
747:
743:
739:
735:
728:
720:
714:
710:
703:
701:
699:
697:
695:
690:
681:
678:
676:
673:
671:
668:
666:
663:
661:
658:
656:
653:
650:
647:
646:
640:
638:
628:
619:
617:
613:
608:
606:
601:
594:
589:
580:
577:
572:
570:
569:
564:
556:
552:
547:
543:
540:
529:
527:
523:
522:human ecology
519:
515:
510:
508:
504:
500:
496:
494:
489:
487:
482:
480:
479:
474:
468:
465:
462:
459:
456:
453:
452:
451:
443:
440:
435:
431:
427:
423:
413:
411:
407:
403:
399:
395:
391:
387:
379:
375:
370:
365:
355:
346:
344:
333:
324:
322:
321:
309:
307:
302:
297:
288:
286:
282:
278:
268:
265:
261:
257:
253:
252:
246:
244:
243:
233:
229:
224:
215:
213:
209:
207:
202:
197:
193:
191:
186:
183:
174:
168:
164:
160:
159:olive baboons
155:
143:
139:
135:
132:
129:
125:
121:
117:
114:
110:
107:
106:
105:
101:
99:
95:
91:
87:
81:
79:
75:
71:
67:
60:
56:
52:
48:
44:
38:
34:
30:
29:Samuel Thayer
26:
25:Euell Gibbons
22:
3844:Regime shift
3829:Macroecology
3550:
3546:
3486:Edge effects
3456:Biogeography
3401:Commensalism
3249:Biodiversity
3126:Allee effect
2865:kelp forests
2818:Example webs
2683:Detritivores
2589:
2522:Organotrophs
2502:Kinetotrophs
2454:Productivity
2239:
2233:
2208:
2204:
2198:
2176:(1): 41–59.
2173:
2169:
2163:
2136:
2131:
2106:
2102:
2096:
2063:
2059:
2053:
2028:
2024:
1999:cite journal
1974:
1970:
1964:
1950:cite journal
1908:(4): e5116.
1905:
1901:
1891:
1866:
1862:
1856:
1839:
1835:
1828:
1809:
1803:
1794:
1741:
1737:
1731:
1699:
1693:
1687:
1646:
1642:
1633:
1592:
1588:
1582:
1537:
1533:
1523:
1506:
1502:
1475:. Retrieved
1473:. 2023-06-05
1470:
1461:
1420:
1416:
1409:
1384:
1380:
1374:
1366:
1350:
1342:
1331:. Retrieved
1327:
1318:
1273:
1269:
1259:
1242:
1238:
1231:
1196:
1192:
1152:
1148:
1142:
1109:
1105:
1099:
1064:
1060:
1050:
1015:
1011:
955:
951:
924:(1): 73–76.
921:
917:
889:
885:
879:
860:
822:
818:
812:
777:
773:
733:
727:
708:
634:
625:
615:
609:
602:
598:
573:
566:
560:
535:
511:
497:
485:
484:
483:
477:
476:
475:
472:
466:
460:
454:
449:
419:
383:
376:fishing for
352:
342:
339:
330:
318:
315:
294:
285:A. longimana
284:
274:
259:
249:
247:
240:
237:
211:
204:
198:
194:
188:In nonhuman
187:
180:
172:
163:Papio anubis
162:
109:Eric Charnov
102:
97:
93:
89:
85:
82:
65:
64:
50:
47:Grizzly bear
3481:Disturbance
3384:interaction
3206:Recruitment
3136:Depensation
2928:Copiotrophs
2799:Energy flow
2721:Lithotrophy
2665:Decomposers
2645:Planktivore
2620:Insectivore
2610:Heterotroph
2575:Bacterivore
2542:Phototrophs
2492:Chemotrophs
2464:Restoration
2414:Competition
1245:(1): 1–16.
670:Forage fish
612:Aurignacian
555:bird feeder
467:Constraints
430:Eric Pianka
406:chimpanzees
256:polymorphic
157:A troop of
33:Ethnobotany
3888:Categories
3849:Sexecology
3426:Parasitism
3391:Antibiosis
3226:Resistance
3221:Resilience
3111:Population
3031:Camouflage
2983:Oligotroph
2898:Ascendency
2860:intertidal
2850:cold seeps
2804:Food chain
2605:Herbivores
2580:Carnivores
2507:Mixotrophs
2482:Autotrophs
2361:components
1836:Apidologie
1477:2023-06-29
1333:2021-09-26
1170:1853/36755
1112:: 172–80.
686:References
680:Scavenging
362:See also:
296:Parasitism
291:Parasitism
264:homozygous
128:chickadees
120:John Krebs
3754:Allometry
3708:Emergence
3436:Symbiosis
3421:Mutualism
3216:Stability
3121:Abundance
2933:Dominance
2891:Processes
2880:tide pool
2776:Food webs
2650:Predation
2635:Omnivores
2562:Consumers
2517:Mycotroph
2474:Producers
2419:Ecosystem
2384:Behaviour
2211:: 86–93.
605:wild dogs
507:offspring
439:cognitive
301:trade-off
277:predation
230:extracts
86:resources
3894:Foraging
3809:Endolith
3738:Xerosere
3650:networks
3466:Ecocline
3012:Defense,
2688:Detritus
2590:Foraging
2459:Resource
2310:Archived
2297:Archived
2123:53180378
2088:19173400
2045:85145653
2031:: 1–19.
1991:37432514
1942:19352509
1902:PLOS ONE
1883:53177700
1766:85723900
1724:86675558
1671:14151401
1617:20847272
1574:21799801
1534:PLOS ONE
1453:23930353
1445:17187299
1401:21961356
1310:35286315
1223:26061375
1215:14506883
1134:90936923
1061:Genetics
1012:Genetics
990:17171388
839:86010867
804:18198141
643:See also
461:Decision
455:Currency
410:termites
390:dolphins
388:include
386:tool use
378:termites
218:Genetics
190:primates
182:Learning
177:Learning
138:redshank
90:predator
66:Foraging
3799:Ecopath
3606:Habitat
3476:Ecotype
3471:Ecotone
3448:ecology
3446:Spatial
3382:Species
3242:Species
3113:ecology
3098:Ecology
3046:Mimicry
3014:counter
2958:f-ratio
2706:Archaea
2394:Biomass
2367:General
2359:Trophic
2351:Ecology
2213:Bibcode
2178:Bibcode
2068:Bibcode
1933:2663035
1910:Bibcode
1758:2459299
1716:2459298
1679:7967438
1651:Bibcode
1625:8888382
1597:Bibcode
1589:Science
1565:3140497
1542:Bibcode
1511:Bibcode
1425:Bibcode
1301:8947601
1278:Bibcode
1149:Ecology
1114:Bibcode
1091:8536975
1082:1206725
1042:2509284
1033:1203778
981:1829419
960:Bibcode
795:2596909
614:Blades
591:Female
549:A male
394:sponges
98:patches
70:fitness
2830:Rivers
2726:Marine
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