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community partnerships, standardized policing procedures and protocols, and more significantly, the arming of campus police. The evolution of campus police forces into seemingly more professional entities was also made evident in changes to uniform policies. This took shape through the use of uniforms that were similar in fashion to military uniforms, in addition to the incorporation of bulletproof vests. The goal of making campus police more professional, similarly included the employment and recruitment of retired law enforcement officials.
259:. Under this model, officers served more or less as custodial figures whose responsibilities consisted of keeping a watchful eye over university property in the event of any defacements due to events such as water damage, fire, and other external threats. The 1950s and 1960s ushered in a shift from the custodial and “watchman” models of campus policing which emphasized the protection of property, and directly contributed to the shaping of campus police into more proactive and modern policing departments.
267:. Increases in enrollment helped to transform campuses into their own municipalities, and with this change in demographic came increased incidents of crime. University presidents soon sought to implement university police forces of their own to help control various crimes and other issues that arose due to large student populations. This was done primarily through the lobbying of several state legislatures. In addition to increases in enrollment, the
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universities continued to model the function of their police forces after city police departments, in what is known as a vocational policing. Under this model, the university would have direct oversight over the police force, and a more militarized structure of hierarchies would be at play. Similar trajectories would occur with the implementation of police officers, known as
320:. The Clery Act sought to further address and account for crime occurring on university campuses by requiring that colleges and universities that receive federal funding submit formal reports detailing the crimes that occur on their campuses. This ultimately led campuses to heighten policing efforts.
254:
is accredited with creating the first university police force in 1894, with the initial function of the removal and policing of homeless people from the university premises. However, the creation of the police force at Yale did not precipitate the implementation of nationwide campus police forces and
327:
of 2007, in which 32 people were killed and another 17 wounded, garnered media attention at the international level and consequently brought about various changes to how policing is conducted on college campuses. In the aftermath of the massacre, various task force reports were conducted to create
336:
special report was compiled in order to examine the role and data of campus police in their response to shootings such as the
Virginia Tech incident, and others. The report which analyzed the 2011-2012 school year, found that the percentage of campuses using armed police officers rose 7% from the
328:
policy recommendations for universities, the state, and specifically for campus police, in preparation for the next
Virginia Tech. These reports indicated the limited scope and resources of campus police, and in the case of Virginia Tech, campus police were tasked with enlisting the help of the
303:
With city police departments as a model, campus and public school police forces began to emerge as entities who operate on the basis mass surveillance on campuses. This was achieved through a myriad of mechanisms, including the solidifying of administrative systems, advocating for policing via
287:
similarly contributed to the development and evolution of campus policing as it is known today. It was during this time that colleges and universities began to hire former members of law enforcement and the military to control student protesters. With these political and social forces at play,
218:
In
Ontario, the term of 'campus police' is prohibited under Bill 68 of the Community Safety and Policing Act, 2019. If anyone other than a police service, including a peace officer service, wishes to address themselves as 'police', they must seek exemption from the province.
337:
2004-2005 school year, and roughly 94% of campus police officers were allowed to use other weapons such as pepper spray and batons. To date, there is little-to-no empirical evidence suggesting that the presence of armed police officers deters campus shootings.
262:
The development of the modern model for campus policing arose out of a variety of social, historical, and political factors. One of these factors included the growth of student enrollment in college campuses across the country at large, following
307:
Along with protest movements, there remains additional factors that ultimately contributed to the expansion, professionalization, and militarization of campus police forces. This included various federal legislative acts in response to
365:
of the campus police, citing a 2019 incident in which Yale police officers shot an unarmed Black couple. Calls for the disbandment of campus police forces is not specific to Yale, but is ongoing nationwide. As of 2020, over 85
348:
no different from their municipal counterparts. These issues have been made evident in the calls to action made by students, activists, and concerned community members alike in response to the murder of
255:
the proliferation of modern campus policing was still not yet feasible. The next few decades of campus policing mainly occurred through the designation of police officers on universities to serve as
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292:(SRO's) in U.S. public schools. As of 2016, 77% of schools in the U.S. with 1000 or more students reported having at least one SRO on their campus at least once a week.
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officers. Black student activists at Yale university (which is accredited for creating the first campus police force in the US) have since been advocating for the
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and surrounding areas and the people who live, work, and visit it. In instances where they are not technically police officers, they are often known as
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203:, handcuffs and a radio. Protective vests, similar to those of police, are worn. Notable examples of campus peace officer services include the
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School shootings would also have a huge impact on the shaping of modern campus police forces, as well as the justification to arm them. The
227:
In the 2004-05 school year, 87% of college campuses had sworn officers with the power to arrest, and 90% of these departments were armed.
494:
Wilson, Charles (2011). "Perceived Roles of Campus Law
Enforcement: A Cognitive Review of Attitudes and Beliefs of Campus Constituents".
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While modern conceptions and roles of campus policing are relatively new, their introduction into US colleges and universities is not.
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Expansion and militarization of campus policing on colleges and universities has taken place alongside an increase in incidents of
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Crime, Violence, Discipline, and Safety in U.S. Public
Schools: Findings from the School Survey on Crime and Safety - 2015-16
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414:, with officers still holding police powers, but in reality they only perform a security and stewarding role. The
695:"Between Surveillance and Sousveillance: Or, Why Campus Police Feel Vulnerable Precisely Because They Gain Power"
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842:"Mass Shootings at Virginia Tech April 16, 2007: Report of the Reviewing Panel presented to Governor Kaine"
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do not typically carry firearms like their police counterparts, so campus officers only carry a baton,
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Sloan, John J. "The modern campus police: An analysis of their evolution, structure, and function."
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measures, and general shifts in dealing with crime. Of significance is the implementation of the
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Horst, Megan; Hames-GarcĂa, Michael; Fichtenbaum, Rudy; Magee, Michael (2021-04-30).
402:. Both universities formerly maintained police forces, although Oxford disbanded the
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to end their associations with university and city police departments. Calls for the
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Some secondary public school districts maintain their own police, such as the
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A typical U.S. campus police car, with the name of the school appearing below
187:– giving them full police powers on their respective campuses to enforce the
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481:"University of Waterloo asks province to reconsider renaming campus police"
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Universities in the United
Kingdom do not have police forces. However, the
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941:"US students call on universities to dismantle and defund campus policing"
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Scholars for Social
Justice Statement on Police Violence and Universities
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969:"Students demand universities break ties with local police but few have"
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Policing: An
International Journal of Police Strategies & Management
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592:"Comparing campus and municipal police: the human resource dimension"
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in 2003, with responsibility for university policing transferred to
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International
Association of Campus Law Enforcement Administrators
378:, defunding or abolition of campus police continued through 2021.
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794:"Are Campus Police Forces Really Keeping College Students Safe?"
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902:"Whose University? When Police Pass the Baton to Campuses"
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19:"College police" redirects here. Not to be confused with
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New York City Police Department School Safety Division
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and The Southern Alberta Institute of Technology.
590:
Bromley, Max L.; Reaves, Brian A. (September 1998).
567:"Why nearly all colleges have an armed police force"
60:. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.
900:Summers, Lachlan; Gougelet, Kathryn (2020-12-01).
236:Miami-Dade County Public Schools Police Department
16:Type of police agency associated with a university
457:"Comprehensive Ontario Police Services Act, 2019"
163:to protect the private or public property of the
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818:"Virginia Tech shooting | United States history"
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370:and groups have made calls to their respective
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332:Police Department during the shooting. A 2015
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744:"Race, Violence, Justice, and Campus Police"
205:University of Toronto Campus Safety Division
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674:. American Institutes for Research.
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209:McMaster University Security Service
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1020:"The Movement to De-Cop the Campus"
792:Anderson, Melinda D. (2015-09-28).
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412:Cambridge University Constabulary
410:. Cambridge formally retains the
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1018:Rich, Emily (6 September 2021).
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629:Crank, John P. (1987-06-01).
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565:Nelson, Libby (2015-07-29).
246:History in the United States
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522:"On Campus Police Forces"
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631:"The idea of police"
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195:. Peace officers in
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1462:Intelligence agency
1159:Cathedral constable
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1435:Border guard
1305:Border guard
1274:Water police
1259:State police
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1027:. Retrieved
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947:. 2020-06-24
945:The Guardian
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798:The Atlantic
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