2105:
poor and lower-middle-class peasants, was actually intended to destroy the old rural elite, replacing it with a new rural power structure dominated by those who had received parcels of land from the CCP and the new regime.4 The "suppression of counterrevolutionaries" campaign was designed to eliminate the bureaucratic bourgeoisie—those compradores, traders, and KMT functionaries who were seen by the party as economic parasites or political foes. The U.S. State
Department in 1976 estimated that there may have been a million killed in the land reform, 800,000 killed in the counterrevolutionary campaign.7 Maurice Meisner, who is sympathetic to the need for revolutionary terror, allowed that perhaps 2 million people were executed during the first three years of the PRC.8 Jacques Guillermaz, the distinguished French Sinologist, who served as French Military Attaché in Nanjing during the civil war and later in Beijing, estimated in his La Chine populaire, published in 1964, that a total of 1 to 3 million were executed.9 He later increased this estimate to 5 million, a figure that Fairbank has cited as the upper range of "sober" estimates.10 The highest estimate comes from Nationalist officials on Taiwan, who were not inclined to underestimate the ferocity of their victorious opponents. They alleged that 6 million urban residents and 4 million rural gentry had been killed during these years. 7. Stephen Rosskamm Shalom, Deaths in China Due to Communism, Occasional Paper No. 15., Center for Asian Studies (Tempe: Arizona State University, 1984), p. 24. 8. Maurice Meisner, Mao's China: A History of the People's Republic (New York: The Free Press, 1977), p. 81. 9. Jacques Guillermaz, La Chine populaire, (Paris: Presses Universitaires de France, 1959), p. 47. 10. Jacques Guillermaz, The Chinese Communist Party in Power, 1949— 1976 (Boulder, Colo.: Westview Press, 1976), p. 24, n. 6
2398:
reported "evidence and data obtained by the League; abstracts compiled by the league." No sources were cited which could be checked. It is highly probable that this report, which has provided the foundation for much scholarship, is bogus.10 The committee that released the report the Free Trade Union
Committee of the AFL — was funded substantially (if not entirely) by the U.S. Central Intelligence Agency's International Organization Division.11 One common activity of the CIA is the creation and spreading of propaganda and "disinformation" through a wide range of publications.12 All the connections cannot be demonstrated conclusively in this case, because the authorship and methodology of the original report remain obscured. In the case of Vietnam, it has been demonstrated convincingly that the CIA helped to finance writers, generate numbers, and spread stories which vastly overestimated the violence of land reform.13
2334:
subject only to "re-education."14 Using the government's figure of 800,000 counterrevolutionary trials during the first half of 1951, there were some 135,000 official executions during that 6-month period alone. The real figure is no doubt greater, and taking into account the much longer period involved and the considerable number of executions that took place outside of formal judicial procedures, the estimate of many relatively impartial observers that there were 2,000,000 people executed during the first three years of the People's
Republic is probably as accurate a guess as one can make on the basis of scanty information. That figure includes the semi-spontaneous "executions" in the countryside when the long-repressed hatreds of an oppressed peasantry were released during the land reform campaigns of 1950-1952. And many more than 2,000,000 were imprisoned or sent to forced labor camps during these years.
1548:
imprisoned, and 1,200,000 were subject to control at various times. Among those arrested, 380,000 guilty of minor crimes have been released after receiving education."61 After Mao began to slow down the campaign and even mildly criticize some regions for excessive killing in April 1951, what followed was the concealment of the real rate of executions by local officials. It is very likely that the actual number of executions was much larger than the reported 712,000.63 61 "Xu Zirong's report on several important statistics since zhenfan, 14 January 1954," original in the
Central Archives 63 Some evidence can be found in the monthly reports on executions of counterrevolutionaries filed by the court of Chuannan district, Sichuan. Two of the court's reports have exact the same dates but the numbers reported are different. See document no. Jiannan/010/61–65, 93–96, Archives of Sichuan Province.
2136:
killed officially after 1949. What portion of these were landlords and members of the rural power structure (including rural police. Nationalist Party (Kuomintang) troops and commanders, rent collectors, etc.) cannot be said for certain, but it is possible that the rural revolution could have cost 200,000 to 800,000 lives. The
Chinese Com¬ munist leadership had estimated that landlords and their families consti¬ tuted 4—5 per cent of the rural population — about 20 million people.23 This would imply that 1 to 4 per cent of landlords' families met death. If a half-million people were killed in land reform, this would be 0.1 per cent of the rural population or 2.5 per cent of the landlord class and would represent roughly one death in six landlord families.24
260:
206:
861:
181:
195:
131:
1099:"Once the gongs and drums of resisting the United States and assisting Korea begin to make a deafening sound, the gongs and drums of the land reform and suppression of counter-revolutionaries become barely audible, and the latter becomes much easier to implement. Without the loud gongs and drums of resisting the United States and assisting Korea, those of the land reform (and zhenfan) would make unbearable noise. Here a landlord is killed and there another is beaten; there would be fuss everywhere. Things would then become difficult."
116:
39:
1361:
became concerned with the excessive executions, and suggested for the executions to be reduced to 0.05 percent, with a limit of 0.1 percent, while that the rest of the accused criminals can be sentenced to life imprisonment or hard labor instead. Mao stated: "If we have such people executed, it will not be easily understood by the masses, nor will public figures be sympathetic; furthermore we would be deprived of a large pool of labor, and it would serve little use in dividing the enemy."
2267:
Zidong
Sixiang Wansui (Long Live Mao Tsetung Thought) 1969, pp. 38- 39. This collection presents texts of Mao's writings and talks from 1949 to 1968, as gathered by Red Guards. Many of these texts, including the one mentioned here, have not been officially published. They are generally believed to be authentic, but their accuracy is difficult to assess. Some of them are now available in Volume V of Mao Tsetung's Selected It'orks which presents an edited version of the original texts.
1141:"In a big city like Shanghai, probably it will take one to two thousand executions during this year to solve the problem. In the spring, three to five hundred executions will be needed to suppress the enemy’s arrogance and enhance the people’s morale. In Nanjing, the East China Bureau should direct the party’s municipality committee ... and strive to execute one to two hundred of the most important reactionaries in the spring."
1384:
death penalties to those with 'blood debts' or to have 'committed serious crimes'. Others who had received death penalties would have their sentences commuted by two years of manual labor, with their performance assessed as to determine whether the sentence would still be necessary. Despite the directive, while mass arrests and executions subsided in some regions, they still continued, albeit with much more secrecy.
1194:(KMT) underground forces. As a result, the various KMT sponsored assassination and sabotage campaigns across mainland China, which once posed a large threat to CCP authorities, was greatly reduced. Yang noted the suppressions successfully destroyed KMT's hopes of retaking mainland China, as well as achieving the goal of mass mobilization by inciting popular support of party policies.
1961:
1154:
rid of the worst counterrevolutionary elements, while avoiding killing innocents. However, in reality, many provinces did not have enough counterrevolutionaries to meet the quota, and lacked the facilities to implement the mass arrests. As a result, many people were arrested recklessly based on assumptions, and many cases were decided without thorough examination.
1093:"We must not miss this opportunity. Probably this is our only operation for suppressing counterrevolutionaries. This will not happen again in the future and therefore is a golden opportunity. Full advantage of this asset must be taken. The purpose is not just to kill several counterrevolutionaries. More importantly, this is for mass mobilization."
1072:"Having corrected a tendency of wanton beating and killing, our lenient policies in many places have deviated towards another mistake of lenience without bounds, lenience to an extent that has demoralized ourselves and emboldened the bandits and enemy agents ... that has swollen the enemy’s arrogance and alienated the people."
1211:
claims, finding that in various provinces, many of the accused counterrevolutionaries were falsely labelled because of local disputes, and many local officials used the campaign to rid themselves of political rivals. Furthermore, large number of former KMT personnel were targeted. Despite assurances by the CCP during the
2171:
2214:
were no errors; that group of people should have been killed. In all, how many were killed? Seven hundred thousand were killed, after that time probably over 70,000 more have been killed. But less than 80,000. Since last year, basically we have not killed people; only a small number of individuals have been killed.
2243:
rich peasant and landlord was vague, this involved millions of deaths. Zhou Enlai later estimated that 830,000 were killed between 1949 and 1956. Mao, who ordered leniency toward rich peasants because their skills were needed, estimated a much larger number of deaths during this period, from two to three million.
2366:
So how many were ultimately executed as a result of the movement to suppress counterrevolutionaries? From the quotas discussed above, we can begin to make a calculation, which is almost too frightening to consider. Of course an actual figure for the number of executions will always be classified, but
2266:
According to documents collected and circulated by Red Guards during the
Cultural .Revolution, Chairman Mao said in April 1956 at an enlarged meeting of the Party Politburo that "two to three million counter-revolutionaries had been executed, imprisoned or placed under control in the past".55 55 Mao
2213:
Have there been any people unjustly killed? Yes, at the time of the great to eliminate counterrevolutionaries , 1950, 1951, 1952, in those three years of the great sufan, there were. killing local bullies and evil gentry in the five types of counterrevolutionaries, there were. But basically there
1210:
Yang also noted the large number of wrongly convicted cases, which he attributed to the vagueness of the regulations, attempts by local officials to please superiors, lack of law enforcement in local government, personal grievances, and irrational crowds. In 1953, Xinhua News Agency investigated the
2135:
In these circumstances it is impossible to know how many people were officially executed in land reform, how many were lynched by enraged peasants, how many committed suicide. Rough orders of magnitude can, however, be suggested. It would appear that somewhere between 400,000 and 800,000 people were
2104:
The Terror—no other term will do—that began in 1950 was to last for three years and cost several million lives before it ended. It originated in two distinct political campaigns, each a ruthless effort to crush a particular class. The land reform, while nominally an effort to reapportion the land to
1360:
The large number of deaths did not go unnoticed by local officials. Yang
Kuisong noted that by May 1951, many provinces had called for a halt to the mass executions, but the killings had in fact increased due to acceptance of the suppression campaign as a means of settling local grievances. Mao also
1206:
that resulted in failure and more tragedies. In particular, it also led to the implementation of quotas in further CCP campaigns, which were assigned to local officials as a means of indicating the results of such campaigns. Yang argued that such measures later proved to be counterproductive and led
1153:
Yang noted that Mao implemented a quota for the executions in accordance with local populations. Mao argued that hardline counterrevolutionaries counted for less than 1 percent of the population in all regions, and that roughly 0.1 per cent of the population would have to be executed in order to get
1547:
The basis of Mao's numbers was a report submitted by Xu Zirong, Deputy Public
Security Minister, in January 1954. According to this, 2,620,000 people had been arrested in the country over the course of the zhenfan campaign. Among these, "712,000 counter-revolutionaries were executed, 1,290,000 were
1126:
However, by
January 1951, while the Chinese won major battles in the Korean War and public support at home began to rise, Mao became dissatisfied by the progress of the campaign. He argued that the power base of the former landlords and KMT officials had not been broken as a result of leniency, and
2397:
The original report was purported to have been compiled by an underground group in China calling itself "Democratic Revolutionary League," and to have been sent out of China by its secretary Way Min (Wei Min meaning "for the people"?) on July 24, 1952. For evidence and sources, the document merely
1165:
In spite of this, by March 1951, many large cities implemented the campaign upon the urgings of Mao. Mao argued that as long as the campaign targeted despised figures of society, the mass populace would be incited to support the campaign. Though he initially wanted to avoid inviting people outside
1105:
The Double-ten Directive stressed on the "educational" effects of the campaign, and cases of execution were publicized by the newspapers to inform the masses. However, following the implementation of the campaign, Liu Shaoqi became concerned that the campaign could become too excessive. He stated,
2242:
It was not as if the early stages of the land reform were peaceful. Far from it! The Party deliberated exacerbated class warfare in the villages in order to mobilize poor and middle peasant support. Public beheadings and beating landlords to death was common, and because the dividing line between
1161:
However, the charges were known for their vagueness and lack of concrete criteria, and many people were executed simply because of accusations or association with the former KMT government. The campaign's victims included not only former KMT officials but also landowners and landlords, critics of
2333:
In a speech delivered in 1957, Zhou Enlai stated that among an unspecified number of counterrevolutionary cases officially handled by the government through 1952, 16.8 percent were sentenced to death, 42.3 percent to "reform through labor," 32 percent placed under "surveillance," and 8.9 percent
1383:
By May 1951, the CCP Central Committee had issued a directive calling for a stop to the killings, giving the power of arrest and execution back to the central government. Furthermore, it clarified the procedures of dealing with accused counterrevolutionaries, as well as limiting the execution of
1157:
On February 21, 1951, the "Regulations of the People’s Republic of China on punishment of counterrevolutionaries" was issued, which sets out the various "counterrevolutionary" crimes, including "collaborating with imperialism", "bribing government officials", "participating in armed rebellion",
1262:
In 1954, Xu Zirong, the Deputy Public Security Minister, published a report concluding that, during zhenfan, "712,000 counter-revolutionaries were executed, 1,290,000 were imprisoned, and 1,200,000 were subject to control at various times", for a total of 2,620,000 arrested. In 2008, historian
1215:
that surrendering KMT troops would be forgiven for their past associations, many of them were nevertheless targeted by local officials to meet quotas. Following the subsequent investigations, around 150,000 former KMT personnel across the country had their 'counterrevolutionary' label removed.
2304:
There was Chou En-lai's statement several years ago that 830,000 "enemies of the people" had been "destroyed" during the war over land confiscation, mass trials of landlords, and the subsequent roundup of counterrevolutionaries which ended, as a "campaign," in 1954. (Incidentally, the term
969:
The campaign was implemented as a response to the rebellions that were commonplace in the early years of the People's Republic of China. Those targeted during the campaign were thereafter labeled as "counterrevolutionaries", and were publicly denounced in mass trials. Significant numbers of
1376:, more than 300 people died per day in one mine. Torture was commonplace and the suppression of revolts, which were quite numerous, resulted in "veritable massacres." One Chinese priest died after being interrogated for over 100 hours. Of the 20,000 inmates who worked in the oilfields of
1080:. On October 10, 1950, Mao issued a new "Directive on suppression of counterrevolutionary activities", also known as the "Double-ten Directive", initiating a large scale suppression of counterrevolutionaries, and personally oversaw the operations. He wrote that the campaign's goal was to
1158:"participating in spying or espionage", and "looting and sabotage". Death penalties or life imprisonment were given based on the seriousness of the crime. Later, the charges of "local tyrants", and "historical counterrevolutionaries" who had incurred "blood debts" were added.
1101:
Yang argued that the Campaign to Suppress Counterrevolutionaries was initiated in parallel with the Chinese entrance to the Korean War as a means of establishing its political authority amongst the Chinese populace via promoting patriotism and suppressing opposition elements.
1116:"If our cadres do not have a clear idea about this and stick strictly to it, opportunities will be created for counterrevolutionaries, democratic personages will become discontent, and the people will not support us. Then our Party may fall into a difficult situation."
1086:
Yang noted that the timeframe of the Korean War and the land reform campaign provided a short opportunity to initiate the campaign successfully, provided that it was implemented with care. Mao's decision to initiate the campaign was highlighted in a conversation with
1031:
In March 1950, the CCP Central Committee issued "Counter-Revolutionary Activities and instructions for Repression." Starting from December 1950, the large-scale suppression of the counter-revolutionary movement was carried out. The official focus of the campaign were
2051:
1267:
argued that "the actual number of executions was much larger than the reported 712,000" because local officials concealed executions after Mao mildly criticized excessive killing in 1951. In 2012, historian Xuezhi Guo accepted the official estimate of 712,000
1402:(肃反), was carried out in 1955 to 1957 to purge Party members, intellectuals, government bureaucrats, and military personnel who were claimed to be disloyal to the regime. During the movement, around 214,000 people were arrested and approximately 53,000 died.
1283:, claim that Mao Zedong estimated that 2,000,000 to 3,000,000 had been killed. However, Mao's full quote includes both deaths and repressions: "two to three million counter-revolutionaries had been executed, imprisoned or placed under control in the past",
1023:
According to Chinese historians, between January and October 1950, there were over 800 counter-revolutionary riots nationwide, and that more than 40,000 political activists and masses of cadres were killed as a result. The government alleged that in
1945:
1174:
alone there were some 30,000 rallies attended by over 3 million people, and in one such rally, 200 people were paraded and executed with their blood splattering out on bystanders, and trucks carrying blood-stained corpses drove through the streets.
1020:, after the victory of the CCP in the Chinese Civil War, remnants of the Kuomintang continued to gather intelligence, conduct sabotage, destroy transportation links, loot supplies, and entice armed rebellion through bandits and secret agents.
1108:"If every execution is to appear on the newspapers, then there would be too much of the news on executions. I am afraid there would be side effects, like someone might begin to show suspicion on us being 'kill too many' or 'overreact'"
1062:
members, and stressed that whoever was opposing the rule of CCP must be heavily suppressed and punished. As a result, numerous former KMT members were forced to register and identify themselves, and were promised leniency as a result.
1166:
the party, Mao's predictions was correct. Much of the trials of accused counterrevolutionaries had popular turnout, being heavily advertised on radio, and many of the invited civilians participated in the trials themselves.
1197:
The campaign highlighted Mao's beliefs of class struggle through the revolutionary class. The ensuing repression and mass executions also paved the way for a subsequent series campaigns against class enemies, such as the
2427:
1113:
Yang noted that initially, Mao agreed with Liu's suggestions, criticizing the "tactless" and "indiscriminate" purges in various provinces, which created an "excessively nervous atmosphere". Furthermore, Mao argued that
1334:, released a report allegedly compiled by Wei Min of the "Democratic Revolutionary League", which claimed that 14,000,000 to 15,000,000 were killed during land reform and zhenfen. The report cited no sources.
1368:, the harshness of the official prison system reached unprecedented levels, and the mortality rate until 1952 was "certainly in excess" of 5 percent per year, and reached 50 percent during six months in
1279:
to senior CPC officials in which he stated that 700,000 had been killed from 1950 and 1952, and another 70,000 to 80,000 from 1953 to 1956, for a total of 770,000-780,000. Some historians, such as
889:
1688:
Other scholars put the number of executed people during the Campaign to Suppress Counterrevolutionaries between 1 million and 2 million (Dikotter 2013: 83; Pye 1991: 235; Strauss: 2002: 87).
1052:, who was then in charge of the Central Committee, had issued a "Directive on elimination of bandits and establishment of revolutionary new order", ordering the Public Security Department (
1149:"It is very good that you have already killed more than 3,700. Another three to four thousand should be killed ... the target for this year’s executions may be eight or nine thousand."
3357:
2486:
1259:
In 1978, historian Benedict Stavis estimated that 200,000 to 800,000 were killed during land reform, part of an estimated 400,000 to 800,000 killed during land reform and zhenfan.
696:
616:
1219:
Mao admitted that mistakes had been made during the campaign and that innocent people had been killed. He stated that some people were "unjustly killed," but insisted that
1016:
noted the strong resistance against the Communist government during the early days of the People's Republic of China, mostly from remnants of the KMT. According to Chinese
516:
397:
269:
2636:
808:
1221:"basically there were no errors; that group of people should have been killed ... if they had not been killed the people would not have been able to raise their heads."
259:
1728:
Strauss, Julia C. (2002). "Paternalist Terror: The Campaign to Suppress Counterrevolutionaries and Regime Consolidation in the People's Republic of China, 1950-1953".
1276:
882:
2922:
2968:
2944:
1190:
As the Chinese Communist Party first major political campaign, the Campaign to Suppress Counterrevolutionaries was ultimately successful in eradicating bands of
3076:
2850:
2565:
875:
1671:
790:
2807:
1451:
1338:
Most of those killed were former Kuomintang officials, businessmen, former employees of Western companies, and intellectuals whose loyalty was suspect.
2677:
3312:
3241:
2603:
286:
2631:
2305:
hsiao-mieh, usually translated as "destroyed," literally means "reduced," "dispersed" or "obliterated," but not necessarily physically liquidated.)
951:
2411:
2817:
2351:
1600:
1587:
Among them, 712.000 counterrevolutionaries were executed, 1.29 million were imprisoned, and 1.2 million were subject to control at various times.
1441:
3352:
3053:
2048:
3029:
1861:
565:
1076:
Yang noted that while Mao did not initially respond to the calls for harsher punishment, his attitude changed following the outbreak of the
1066:
However, this initiative was criticized for being too lenient by many government officials, who called for harsher measures. In particular,
1004:. Scholars and researchers either accept the numbers of the executions, or give their own estimates ranging from 500,000 to 1 or 2 million.
2840:
1808:
1292:
829:
250:
1890:
1830:
1431:
503:
1651:
But the primarily urban campaign against counterrevolutionaries may have resulted in as many as 500,000 to 800,000 deaths (see Stavis,
1037:
633:
3152:
3047:
2882:
2835:
703:
461:
1704:
2692:
2663:
1249:(tugai), which occurred during the same years. As a result, most estimates below include deaths from both land reform and zhenfan:
2513:
996:(CCP) and the Chinese government in 1954, at least 2.6 million people were arrested in the campaign, some 1.3 million people were
1082:“wipe out all the bandits, special agents, local tyrants, and other counterrevolutionary elements that bring harm to the people.”
311:
3322:
3307:
3231:
3081:
2949:
638:
593:
1241:
Estimates for the number of deaths from 1949 to 1953 vary widely, with a total range of 200,000 to 5,000,000, which historian
3142:
3097:
2596:
2496:
2390:
2128:
2026:
1925:
1681:
1644:
1580:
1436:
598:
1245:
called the upper end of "sober" estimates. It is difficult to separate killings due to land reform from killings due to the
3347:
3147:
3071:
2697:
778:
471:
384:
2754:
2732:
2687:
2641:
785:
493:
379:
209:
1097:
Yang also noted Liu Shaoqi's explanation on why the war in Korea facilitated the suppression of counterrevolutionaries,
3186:
2999:
2887:
2872:
2812:
2768:
2682:
1028:
alone, counter-revolutionaries burned and destroyed more than 25,000 buildings and robbed over 200,000 head of cattle.
301:
2183:"For a careful review of the evidence and a cautious estimate of 200,000 two 800,000 executions, see Benedict Stavis,
1316:
estimated that 2,000,000 people were executed from in China from 1950 to 1952, including both land reform and zhenfen.
2802:
2783:
2578:
magazine, Beijing, 2005 Vol. 10. General Yang Chengwu, who took part in the campaign against Luo, recalls the events.
2472:
2421:
2326:
2297:
2235:
2165:
2097:
2067:
2003:
1955:
758:
603:
498:
431:
2589:
773:
533:
414:
359:
3261:
2877:
2722:
763:
748:
424:
3122:
2855:
2742:
2737:
1783:
1416:
1354:
1179:
959:
466:
135:
3317:
2912:
939:
481:
3342:
3337:
3181:
3132:
3127:
2963:
2934:
2865:
2827:
2759:
2670:
1246:
1236:
364:
306:
276:
3332:
3327:
3226:
3112:
2773:
2646:
2459:
623:
2380:
2118:
1131:, proposing that further executions should be carried out in areas with large concentration of bandits,
3236:
3211:
2727:
2612:
2200:
2157:
1636:
1426:
1323:
678:
1302:
that 830,000 "enemies of the people" had been "destroyed" before 1954, during land reform and zhenfan.
205:
3271:
3266:
3174:
3035:
1223:
Valentino argued that the biggest concern of the CCP during the campaigns was to urge local cadre to
753:
643:
578:
570:
3191:
2899:
2790:
2778:
2616:
2464:
2059:
733:
708:
683:
543:
476:
354:
326:
2358:
1865:
1607:
3302:
2973:
2927:
2749:
2581:
1601:"Mao's "Killing Quotas." Human Rights in China (HRIC). 26 September 2005, at Shandong University"
993:
947:
718:
648:
523:
199:
2352:"Mao's "Killing Quotas" Human Rights in China (HRIC). 26 September 2005, at Shandong University"
1816:
3297:
3292:
3196:
3011:
2860:
1993:
1886:
1199:
1110:, arguing that the campaign should be moderated to avoid creating a negative image of the CCP.
583:
419:
331:
2016:
1840:
3216:
3169:
3164:
3159:
2702:
2261:
2149:
1630:
1570:
1411:
1319:
In 2005, Li Changyu estimated that 2,000,000 to 3,000,000 were killed as a result of zhenfan.
768:
548:
1178:
By late 1951, the Campaign to Suppress Counterrevolutionaries was briefly superseded by the
2958:
2917:
2841:
Committee for Safeguarding National Security of the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region
2521:
1253:
935:
795:
658:
349:
281:
436:
8:
3117:
2255:
1700:
1521:
1365:
1203:
818:
528:
448:
443:
374:
369:
38:
3201:
3059:
2845:
1761:
1753:
1538:
1242:
1001:
844:
839:
813:
344:
316:
71:
2556:
2795:
2492:
2468:
2454:
2417:
2386:
2322:
2293:
2231:
2161:
2124:
2093:
2063:
2022:
1999:
1951:
1921:
1835:
1765:
1745:
1677:
1640:
1576:
1542:
1349:
noted that such estimates exclude the hundreds of thousands driven to suicide during
1212:
849:
560:
553:
2559:(See lines 1 through 101 for death tolls on the campaigns mentioned in this article)
3256:
3023:
2656:
2574:
2572:
discusses the true facts about the campaign to expose and criticise Luo Ruiqing"),
2548:
1788:
1737:
1530:
1350:
1306:
975:
907:
834:
743:
673:
148:
30:
2283:
2651:
2055:
1915:
1421:
1313:
1129:"If we are irresolute and tolerant to this evil, we will ... alienate the people"
723:
588:
409:
970:"counterrevolutionaries" were arrested and executed and even more sentenced to "
956:
Directive on elimination of bandits and establishment of revolutionary new order
3246:
3221:
3005:
2907:
2714:
1811:
Terrible Honeymoon: Struggling with the Problem of Terror in Early 1950s China.
1519:(March 2008). "Reconsidering the Campaign to Suppress Counterrevolutionaries".
1446:
1399:
1393:
1227:
and to punish those who were too lenient and practiced "peaceful land reform".
538:
453:
321:
1741:
1534:
1070:
argued that KMT agents took advantage of the policy to stage further attacks.
3286:
3065:
1749:
1280:
728:
3137:
3041:
2569:
2552:
2289:
1988:
1516:
1346:
1264:
1013:
997:
865:
713:
404:
3107:
2089:
1088:
1017:
738:
653:
488:
336:
158:
2319:
Mao's China and After: A History of the People's Republic, Third Edition
3102:
3017:
2279:
1984:
1757:
1299:
1295:
1272:
1191:
1167:
1077:
1059:
1049:
943:
628:
291:
140:
2152:. In Twitchett, Denis; John K. Fairbank; Roderick MacFarquhar (eds.).
3251:
1144:
1067:
663:
168:
1793:
1225:"not fear executing people only to fear mistakenly executing people"
2049:
Final Solutions: Mass Killing and Genocide in the Twentieth Century
1377:
1309:
estimated that "several million" died from land reform and zhenfan.
1136:
163:
2611:
2836:
Office for Safeguarding National Security of the CPG in the HKSAR
2018:
The People's Republic of China at 60: An International Assessment
1670:
Maguire, Edward R.; Brookman, Fiona; Maguire, Mike (2017-03-29).
1369:
1327:
1171:
1118:
As a result, many provinces ceased the executions in accordance.
1025:
3206:
2533:根據解密檔案：全國有140多萬知識分子和幹部在這場運動中遭受打擊，其中逮捕21.4萬人，槍決2.2萬人，非正常死亡5.3萬人。
1716:新中國成立后，國民黨有計劃地潛伏和殘留在大陸上的土匪、惡霸、特務、反動黨團骨干、反動會道門頭子和其他反革命分子約有３００余萬人
1373:
1342:
1135:. On 21 January 1951, Mao sent a telegram to party members in
1033:
983:
971:
915:
130:
121:
76:
1256:
estimates that 500,000–800,000 deaths occurred during zhenfan.
942:
designed to eradicate opposition elements, especially former
668:
186:
152:
2549:
China's Bloody Century: Chapter 1 Introduction and Overview
2228:
Modern Tyrants: The Power and Prevalence of Evil in Our Age
1572:
China's Security State: Philosophy, Evolution, and Politics
946:(KMT) functionaries accused of trying to undermine the new
2199:
MacFarquhar, Roderick; Cheek, Timothy; Wu, Eugene (1989).
2086:
China Misperceived: American Illusions and Chinese Reality
1341:
In addition, 1.5 million to 6 million people were sent to
1127:
that further executions are a necessary step. Mao stated,
2367:
various estimates put the figure at two to three million.
1331:
1143:
A day later, 22 January 1951, Mao told the communists in
2257:
Political Imprisonment in the Peoples Republic of China
1592:
1040:), as well as counter-revolutionary underground bands.
2385:. University of California: Cornell University Press.
2123:. University of California: Cornell University Press.
1669:
3358:
Massacres committed by the People's Republic of China
2187:(Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1978), 25–30.
1917:
Historical Dictionary of the Chinese Communist Party
95:
1,200,000 people subject to control at various times
2382:
The Politics of Agricultural Mechanization in China
2185:
The Politics of Agricultural Mechanization in China
2120:
The Politics of Agricultural Mechanization in China
2198:
1162:Mao's regime and urban businessmen and merchants.
3242:Residential Surveillance at a Designated Location
2450:
2448:
2446:
2444:
992:). According to the official statistics from the
3284:
2632:Central Committee of the Chinese Communist Party
1452:Thought reform in the People's Republic of China
952:Central Committee of the Chinese Communist Party
1939:
1937:
1909:
1907:
1632:The Politics of China: The Eras of Mao and Deng
1511:
1509:
1507:
1505:
1503:
1501:
1499:
1497:
1495:
1493:
1491:
1489:
1487:
3077:Information operations and information warfare
3054:Strike Hard Campaign Against Violent Terrorism
2441:
2345:
2343:
1485:
1483:
1481:
1479:
1477:
1475:
1473:
1471:
1469:
1467:
251:History of the People's Republic of China
2597:
2219:
2079:
2077:
2075:
1980:
1978:
1230:
1053:
883:
2285:Red China Today: The Other Side of the River
2042:
2040:
2038:
1934:
1904:
1515:
1442:Propaganda in the People's Republic of China
1357:, which also occurred around the same time.
1133:"As long as we do not kill the wrong people"
950:government. It began in March 1950 when the
2994:Campaign to Suppress Counterrevolutionaries
2340:
2230:. Princeton University Press. p. 187.
1665:
1663:
1628:
1464:
1432:Mass killings of landlords under Mao Zedong
1398:A further campaign of purges, known as the
1330:, which was funded in whole or part by the
904:Campaign to Suppress Counterrevolutionaries
504:1989 Tiananmen Square protests and massacre
297:Campaign to Suppress Counterrevolutionaries
22:Campaign to Suppress Counterrevolutionaries
2604:
2590:
2072:
1975:
1730:Comparative Studies in Society and History
1653:The politics of agricultural mechanization
1575:. Cambridge University Press. p. 62.
890:
876:
3153:List of Hong Kong national security cases
2851:Independent Commission Against Corruption
2488:半资本论: 半资本主义与中国 （Semi-Capitalism in China）
2035:
1121:
3313:Campaigns of the Chinese Communist Party
2693:National Defense Mobilization Commission
2310:
1913:
1839:(in Chinese). 2011-01-04. Archived from
1660:
2784:People's Procuratorates Judicial Police
2316:
1727:
312:Five Principles of Peaceful Coexistence
3285:
3232:Picking quarrels and provoking trouble
3030:1983 "Strike Hard" Anti-crime Campaign
2738:provincial Public Security Departments
2378:
2225:
2147:
2141:
2116:
2083:
1676:. John Wiley & Sons. p. 470.
1564:
1562:
1560:
1558:
1556:
3353:Persecution of intellectuals in China
2585:
2409:
2201:"The Secret Speeches of Chairman Mao"
2014:
1943:
1781:
1437:Mass killings under communist regimes
43:A poster promoting the campaign, 1951
2511:
2491:(in Chinese). 世界华语出版社. p. 178.
2278:
1998:Jonathan Cape, London, 2005. p 337.
1777:
1775:
1624:
1622:
1620:
1091:, then Minister of public security,
779:2020 Hong Kong national security law
472:Campaign against spiritual pollution
2743:city/county Public Security Bureaus
2557:Estimates, sources and calculations
2484:
2349:
1598:
1568:
1553:
1182:, but continued until August 1952.
1043:
494:1986 Chinese student demonstrations
89:712,000 - 2,000,000 people executed
13:
3187:Inciting subversion of state power
3000:Three-anti and Five-anti Campaigns
1380:, several thousand were executed.
1285:because he was citing Xu's report.
639:South–North Water Transfer Project
566:US bombing of the Belgrade embassy
462:Strike Hard Against Crime Campaign
302:Three-anti and Five-anti Campaigns
14:
3369:
2542:
2205:Harvard Contemporary China Series
2150:"Establishment of the New Regime"
1806:
1772:
1617:
1387:
604:Shanghai Cooperation Organisation
599:Forum on China–Africa Cooperation
499:Sino-Portuguese Joint Declaration
2015:Kirby, William C. (2020-10-26).
859:
415:1978 Truth Criterion Controversy
360:Seven Thousand Cadres Conference
258:
204:
193:
179:
129:
114:
37:
3262:Persecution of Uyghurs in China
3148:Hong Kong national security law
2779:People's Courts Judicial Police
2505:
2478:
2430:from the original on 2019-02-20
2403:
2372:
2272:
2248:
2192:
2174:from the original on 2019-02-20
2110:
2008:
1964:from the original on 2019-02-20
1920:. Scarecrow Press. p. 14.
1893:from the original on 2012-10-20
1879:
1854:
1823:
1707:from the original on 2018-07-31
1185:
764:China International Import Expo
3123:Central Case Examination Group
2856:Hong Kong Disciplined Services
2154:The Cambridge history of China
1914:Sullivan, Lawrence R. (2012).
1800:
1721:
1693:
1629:MacFarquhar, Roderick (1997).
1417:Anti-Bolshevik League incident
1355:three-anti/five-anti campaigns
1180:Three-anti/five-anti campaigns
988:
963:
930:
920:
467:Sino-British Joint Declaration
136:Republic of China Armed Forces
1:
3323:Political and cultural purges
3308:Political repression in China
2913:Commission Against Corruption
1007:
759:China–United States trade war
432:China–United States relations
3143:Grid-style social management
3133:Death sentence with reprieve
3128:Civil Servant-Family Pair Up
2964:Correctional Services Bureau
2866:National Security Department
2698:Ministry of National Defense
2671:United Front Work Department
2637:National Security Commission
2520:(in Chinese). Archived from
1457:
1345:camps, where many perished.
1298:told sympathetic journalist
1291:Some time before 1961, then-
1237:Land Reform Movement (China)
934:) was the first campaign of
774:2019–2020 Hong Kong protests
365:Socialist Education Movement
7:
3348:Man-made disasters in China
2688:Ministry of Public Security
2642:Central Military Commission
2485:Luo, William (2018-03-30).
2460:The Black Book of Communism
1405:
938:repression launched by the
210:Ministry of Public Security
92:1,290,000 people imprisoned
10:
3374:
3237:Re-education through labor
2774:Judicial Administrative PP
2683:Ministry of State Security
2416:. Owl Books. p. 437.
2321:. Free Press. p. 72.
2158:Cambridge University Press
1950:. Owl Books. p. 436.
1637:Cambridge University Press
1569:Guo, Xuezhi (2012-08-29).
1427:List of massacres in China
1391:
1324:Free Trade Union Committee
1305:In 1992, social scientist
1234:
1231:Estimated number of deaths
1000:, and 712,000 people were
940:People's Republic of China
187:People's Republic of China
16:Chinese political campaign
3272:Holistic security concept
3267:Xinjiang internment camps
3090:
3036:Persecution of Falun Gong
2986:
2898:
2826:
2713:
2624:
2379:Stavis, Benedict (1978).
2317:Meisner, Maurice (1999).
2148:Teiwes, Frederic (1987).
2117:Stavis, Benedict (1978).
1742:10.1017/S001041750200004X
1535:10.1017/S0305741008000064
1054:
979:
925:
911:
754:Xinjiang internment camps
729:Meeting with Ma Ying-Jeou
579:China Western Development
571:Persecution of Falun Gong
227:
222:
106:
101:
83:
66:
56:
48:
36:
26:
21:
3048:Anti-corruption campaign
2808:State Secrets Protection
2647:People's Liberation Army
2514:"日本侵略軍與中共暴政對中國人民造成傷害的比較"
2465:Harvard University Press
2060:Cornell University Press
1673:The Handbook of Homicide
921:zhènyā fǎngémìng yùndòng
734:2016 G20 Hangzhou summit
709:Belt and Road Initiative
704:Anti-corruption campaign
544:One country, two systems
477:Bourgeois liberalization
355:Two Bombs, One Satellite
327:Hundred Flowers Campaign
2723:Supervisory Commissions
2512:Wang, Gongbiao (2015).
2226:Chirot, Daniel (1996).
2084:Mosher, Steven (1992).
2046:Benjamin A. Valentino.
1343:"reform through labour"
994:Chinese Communist Party
948:Chinese Communist Party
654:Three Links with Taiwan
649:2008 Sichuan earthquake
624:2002–2004 SARS outbreak
524:Shanghai Stock Exchange
200:Chinese Communist Party
3197:Judiciary of Hong Kong
3012:Anti-Rightist Campaign
2935:Public Security Police
2923:Unitary Police Service
2846:PLA Hong Kong Garrison
2410:Short, Philip (2001).
2021:. BRILL. p. 189.
1994:Mao: The Unknown Story
1944:Short, Philip (2001).
1200:Anti-Rightist Movement
1122:Further implementation
966:), and ended in 1953.
791:2020–2021 reform spree
749:Persecution of Uyghurs
679:West–East Gas Pipeline
584:Hainan Island incident
425:Special economic zones
420:Reforms and Opening Up
332:Anti-Rightist Campaign
2969:Macau Customs Service
2791:People's Armed Police
2703:Taiwan Affairs Office
2262:Amnesty International
2062:, 2004. pp. 121-122.
1831:"新中国成立初期大镇反：乱世用重典(8)"
1782:Huang, Zhong (2014).
1412:White Terror (Taiwan)
1277:an influential speech
644:Qinghai–Tibet railway
549:Handover of Hong Kong
3318:Communist repression
2959:Fire Services Bureau
2918:Macau Security Force
1792:(12). Archived from
1254:Roderick MacFarquhar
1247:land reform movement
796:2022 Winter Olympics
697:2012–present: Xi era
659:2008 Summer Olympics
594:Accession to the WTO
534:Deng's southern tour
517:1989–2002: Jiang era
350:Great Chinese Famine
307:First five-year plan
282:Land Reform Movement
3343:Mass murder in 1951
3338:Mass murder in 1950
3182:Internet censorship
1522:The China Quarterly
1366:Jean-Louis Margolin
1351:"struggle sessions"
1312:In 1999, historian
1204:Cultural Revolution
529:Pudong New District
449:Sino-Vietnamese War
444:Four Modernizations
398:1976–1989: Deng era
385:Richard Nixon visit
375:Cultural Revolution
3333:Massacres in China
3328:Maoist terminology
3227:Political offences
3202:Judiciary of Macau
3113:Capital punishment
3060:Operation Fox Hunt
2908:PLA Macau Garrison
2733:Public Security PP
2054:2019-02-20 at the
1243:John King Fairbank
1058:) to list all the
634:Visit of Lien Chan
345:Great Leap Forward
317:Bandung Conference
270:1949–1976: Mao era
72:Capital punishment
3280:
3279:
3212:Life imprisonment
2939:Migration Service
2769:State Security PP
2613:National security
2498:978-1-940266-12-1
2455:Stephane Courtois
2392:978-0-8014-1087-1
2364:on 29 July 2009.
2130:978-0-8014-1087-1
2028:978-1-68417-121-7
1927:978-0-8108-7225-7
1683:978-1-118-92448-8
1646:978-0-521-58863-8
1582:978-1-107-02323-9
1213:Chinese Civil War
924:, abbreviated as
900:
899:
786:COVID-19 pandemic
617:2002–2012: Hu era
554:Handover of Macau
437:Three Communiqués
380:UN representation
244:
243:
240:
239:
218:
217:
124:remaining forces
122:Republic of China
3365:
3257:Two-faced person
3024:Shadian incident
2977:
2953:
2931:
2813:Cyberspace Admin
2657:Maritime Militia
2606:
2599:
2592:
2583:
2582:
2575:Yanhuang Chunqiu
2564:
2536:
2535:
2530:
2529:
2509:
2503:
2502:
2482:
2476:
2452:
2439:
2438:
2436:
2435:
2407:
2401:
2400:
2376:
2370:
2369:
2363:
2357:. Archived from
2356:
2347:
2338:
2336:
2314:
2308:
2307:
2276:
2270:
2269:
2252:
2246:
2245:
2223:
2217:
2216:
2196:
2190:
2189:
2180:
2179:
2145:
2139:
2138:
2114:
2108:
2107:
2081:
2070:
2044:
2033:
2032:
2012:
2006:
1982:
1973:
1972:
1970:
1969:
1941:
1932:
1931:
1911:
1902:
1901:
1899:
1898:
1883:
1877:
1876:
1874:
1873:
1864:. Archived from
1858:
1852:
1851:
1849:
1848:
1827:
1821:
1820:
1815:. Archived from
1804:
1798:
1797:
1789:Yanhuang Chunqiu
1784:"第一次镇反运动考察（含注释）"
1779:
1770:
1769:
1725:
1719:
1718:
1713:
1712:
1697:
1691:
1690:
1667:
1658:
1657:
1626:
1615:
1614:
1613:on 29 July 2009.
1612:
1606:. Archived from
1605:
1596:
1590:
1589:
1566:
1551:
1550:
1513:
1307:Steven W. Mosher
1286:
1057:
1056:
1044:Initial campaign
1026:Guangxi Province
990:
981:
965:
964:關於嚴厲鎮壓反革命分子活動的指示
932:
927:
922:
913:
892:
885:
878:
866:China portal
864:
863:
862:
744:9th BRICS summit
674:Three Gorges Dam
262:
253:
246:
245:
229:
228:
208:
198:
197:
196:
185:
183:
182:
149:Secret societies
134:
133:
120:
118:
117:
108:
107:
41:
31:Cold War in Asia
19:
18:
3373:
3372:
3368:
3367:
3366:
3364:
3363:
3362:
3283:
3282:
3281:
3276:
3192:Judicial system
3086:
2982:
2971:
2947:
2945:Judicial Police
2925:
2894:
2822:
2750:Internet police
2728:People's Police
2709:
2620:
2617:law enforcement
2610:
2562:
2545:
2540:
2539:
2527:
2525:
2524:on 23 June 2019
2510:
2506:
2499:
2483:
2479:
2453:
2442:
2433:
2431:
2424:
2408:
2404:
2393:
2377:
2373:
2361:
2354:
2348:
2341:
2329:
2315:
2311:
2300:
2292:. p. 346.
2277:
2273:
2254:
2253:
2249:
2238:
2224:
2220:
2197:
2193:
2177:
2175:
2168:
2146:
2142:
2131:
2115:
2111:
2100:
2082:
2073:
2056:Wayback Machine
2045:
2036:
2029:
2013:
2009:
1983:
1976:
1967:
1965:
1958:
1942:
1935:
1928:
1912:
1905:
1896:
1894:
1885:
1884:
1880:
1871:
1869:
1860:
1859:
1855:
1846:
1844:
1829:
1828:
1824:
1807:Brown, Jeremy.
1805:
1801:
1780:
1773:
1726:
1722:
1710:
1708:
1699:
1698:
1694:
1684:
1668:
1661:
1647:
1627:
1618:
1610:
1603:
1597:
1593:
1583:
1567:
1554:
1514:
1465:
1460:
1422:Futian incident
1408:
1396:
1390:
1314:Maurice Meisner
1284:
1239:
1233:
1188:
1124:
1048:In March 1950,
1046:
1010:
896:
860:
858:
801:
800:
724:APEC China 2014
699:
689:
688:
684:High-speed rail
619:
609:
608:
589:APEC China 2001
575:
519:
509:
508:
458:
410:Boluan Fanzheng
400:
390:
389:
341:
272:
249:
234:
214:
194:
192:
180:
178:
173:
147:
128:
115:
113:
62:
44:
28:
17:
12:
11:
5:
3371:
3361:
3360:
3355:
3350:
3345:
3340:
3335:
3330:
3325:
3320:
3315:
3310:
3305:
3303:1950s in China
3300:
3295:
3278:
3277:
3275:
3274:
3269:
3264:
3259:
3254:
3249:
3247:Soft detention
3244:
3239:
3234:
3229:
3224:
3222:PLA Unit 61398
3219:
3214:
3209:
3204:
3199:
3194:
3189:
3184:
3179:
3178:
3177:
3172:
3167:
3157:
3156:
3155:
3145:
3140:
3135:
3130:
3125:
3120:
3115:
3110:
3105:
3100:
3098:2011 crackdown
3094:
3092:
3088:
3087:
3085:
3084:
3079:
3074:
3069:
3063:
3057:
3051:
3045:
3039:
3033:
3027:
3021:
3015:
3009:
3006:Sufan movement
3003:
2997:
2990:
2988:
2984:
2983:
2981:
2980:
2979:
2978:
2966:
2961:
2956:
2955:
2954:
2942:
2915:
2910:
2904:
2902:
2896:
2895:
2893:
2892:
2891:
2890:
2885:
2880:
2875:
2870:
2869:
2868:
2853:
2848:
2843:
2838:
2832:
2830:
2824:
2823:
2821:
2820:
2815:
2810:
2805:
2800:
2799:
2798:
2788:
2787:
2786:
2781:
2776:
2771:
2766:
2765:
2764:
2763:
2762:
2752:
2747:
2746:
2745:
2725:
2719:
2717:
2711:
2710:
2708:
2707:
2706:
2705:
2700:
2695:
2690:
2685:
2675:
2674:
2673:
2668:
2667:
2666:
2661:
2660:
2659:
2649:
2639:
2628:
2626:
2622:
2621:
2609:
2608:
2601:
2594:
2586:
2580:
2579:
2560:
2544:
2543:External links
2541:
2538:
2537:
2504:
2497:
2477:
2440:
2422:
2402:
2391:
2371:
2339:
2327:
2309:
2298:
2271:
2247:
2236:
2218:
2191:
2166:
2160:. p. 87.
2140:
2129:
2109:
2098:
2092:. p. 74.
2071:
2034:
2027:
2007:
1974:
1956:
1933:
1926:
1903:
1878:
1853:
1822:
1819:on 2009-06-27.
1799:
1796:on 2020-09-21.
1771:
1720:
1692:
1682:
1659:
1645:
1639:. p. 37.
1616:
1591:
1581:
1552:
1462:
1461:
1459:
1456:
1455:
1454:
1449:
1447:Sufan Movement
1444:
1439:
1434:
1429:
1424:
1419:
1414:
1407:
1404:
1400:Sufan movement
1394:Sufan movement
1392:Main article:
1389:
1388:Sufan movement
1386:
1336:
1335:
1320:
1317:
1310:
1303:
1288:
1287:
1269:
1260:
1257:
1232:
1229:
1187:
1184:
1170:noted that in
1123:
1120:
1045:
1042:
1009:
1006:
989:láodòng gǎizào
898:
897:
895:
894:
887:
880:
872:
869:
868:
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854:
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783:
782:
781:
771:
766:
761:
756:
751:
746:
741:
736:
731:
726:
721:
719:Supercomputing
716:
711:
706:
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695:
694:
691:
690:
687:
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681:
676:
671:
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661:
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611:
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596:
591:
586:
581:
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568:
563:
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557:
556:
551:
541:
539:1992 consensus
536:
531:
526:
520:
515:
514:
511:
510:
507:
506:
501:
496:
491:
486:
485:
484:
474:
469:
464:
457:
456:
454:Beijing Spring
451:
446:
441:
440:
439:
429:
428:
427:
417:
412:
407:
401:
396:
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392:
391:
388:
387:
382:
377:
372:
367:
362:
357:
352:
347:
340:
339:
334:
329:
324:
322:Sufan movement
319:
314:
309:
304:
299:
294:
289:
284:
279:
273:
268:
267:
264:
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255:
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225:
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202:
176:
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145:
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138:
111:
104:
103:
99:
98:
97:
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85:
81:
80:
79:
74:
68:
64:
63:
60:
58:
54:
53:
50:
46:
45:
42:
34:
33:
24:
23:
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
3370:
3359:
3356:
3354:
3351:
3349:
3346:
3344:
3341:
3339:
3336:
3334:
3331:
3329:
3326:
3324:
3321:
3319:
3316:
3314:
3311:
3309:
3306:
3304:
3301:
3299:
3298:1951 in China
3296:
3294:
3293:1950 in China
3291:
3290:
3288:
3273:
3270:
3268:
3265:
3263:
3260:
3258:
3255:
3253:
3250:
3248:
3245:
3243:
3240:
3238:
3235:
3233:
3230:
3228:
3225:
3223:
3220:
3218:
3215:
3213:
3210:
3208:
3205:
3203:
3200:
3198:
3195:
3193:
3190:
3188:
3185:
3183:
3180:
3176:
3173:
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3168:
3166:
3163:
3162:
3161:
3158:
3154:
3151:
3150:
3149:
3146:
3144:
3141:
3139:
3136:
3134:
3131:
3129:
3126:
3124:
3121:
3119:
3116:
3114:
3111:
3109:
3106:
3104:
3101:
3099:
3096:
3095:
3093:
3089:
3083:
3082:United States
3080:
3078:
3075:
3073:
3070:
3067:
3066:709 crackdown
3064:
3061:
3058:
3055:
3052:
3049:
3046:
3043:
3040:
3037:
3034:
3031:
3028:
3025:
3022:
3019:
3016:
3013:
3010:
3007:
3004:
3001:
2998:
2995:
2992:
2991:
2989:
2985:
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2965:
2962:
2960:
2957:
2951:
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2924:
2921:
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2897:
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2844:
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2839:
2837:
2834:
2833:
2831:
2829:
2825:
2819:
2816:
2814:
2811:
2809:
2806:
2804:
2801:
2797:
2794:
2793:
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2772:
2770:
2767:
2761:
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2751:
2748:
2744:
2741:
2740:
2739:
2736:
2735:
2734:
2731:
2730:
2729:
2726:
2724:
2721:
2720:
2718:
2716:
2712:
2704:
2701:
2699:
2696:
2694:
2691:
2689:
2686:
2684:
2681:
2680:
2679:
2678:State Council
2676:
2672:
2669:
2665:
2662:
2658:
2655:
2654:
2653:
2650:
2648:
2645:
2644:
2643:
2640:
2638:
2635:
2634:
2633:
2630:
2629:
2627:
2623:
2618:
2614:
2607:
2602:
2600:
2595:
2593:
2588:
2587:
2584:
2577:
2576:
2571:
2567:
2561:
2558:
2554:
2550:
2547:
2546:
2534:
2523:
2519:
2515:
2508:
2500:
2494:
2490:
2489:
2481:
2474:
2473:0-674-07608-7
2470:
2466:
2463:
2461:
2456:
2451:
2449:
2447:
2445:
2429:
2425:
2423:0-8050-6638-1
2419:
2415:
2414:
2406:
2399:
2394:
2388:
2384:
2383:
2375:
2368:
2360:
2353:
2350:Changyu, Li.
2346:
2344:
2335:
2330:
2328:0-684-85635-2
2324:
2320:
2313:
2306:
2301:
2299:9780394716817
2295:
2291:
2287:
2286:
2281:
2275:
2268:
2263:
2259:
2258:
2251:
2244:
2239:
2237:0-691-02777-3
2233:
2229:
2222:
2215:
2210:
2206:
2202:
2195:
2188:
2186:
2173:
2169:
2167:0-521-24336-X
2163:
2159:
2155:
2151:
2144:
2137:
2132:
2126:
2122:
2121:
2113:
2106:
2101:
2099:0-465-09813-4
2095:
2091:
2087:
2080:
2078:
2076:
2069:
2068:0-8014-3965-5
2065:
2061:
2058:
2057:
2053:
2050:
2043:
2041:
2039:
2030:
2024:
2020:
2019:
2011:
2005:
2004:0-224-07126-2
2001:
1997:
1995:
1990:
1989:Halliday, Jon
1986:
1981:
1979:
1963:
1959:
1957:0-8050-6638-1
1953:
1949:
1948:
1940:
1938:
1929:
1923:
1919:
1918:
1910:
1908:
1892:
1888:
1882:
1868:on 2011-02-28
1867:
1863:
1857:
1843:on 2020-06-15
1842:
1838:
1837:
1832:
1826:
1818:
1814:
1812:
1803:
1795:
1791:
1790:
1785:
1778:
1776:
1767:
1763:
1759:
1755:
1751:
1747:
1743:
1739:
1736:(1): 80–105.
1735:
1731:
1724:
1717:
1706:
1702:
1696:
1689:
1685:
1679:
1675:
1674:
1666:
1664:
1656:
1654:
1648:
1642:
1638:
1634:
1633:
1625:
1623:
1621:
1609:
1602:
1599:Changyu, Li.
1595:
1588:
1584:
1578:
1574:
1573:
1565:
1563:
1561:
1559:
1557:
1549:
1544:
1540:
1536:
1532:
1528:
1524:
1523:
1518:
1512:
1510:
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1504:
1502:
1500:
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1463:
1453:
1450:
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1443:
1440:
1438:
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1433:
1430:
1428:
1425:
1423:
1420:
1418:
1415:
1413:
1410:
1409:
1403:
1401:
1395:
1385:
1381:
1379:
1375:
1371:
1367:
1364:According to
1362:
1358:
1356:
1352:
1348:
1344:
1339:
1333:
1329:
1325:
1322:In 1952, the
1321:
1318:
1315:
1311:
1308:
1304:
1301:
1297:
1294:
1290:
1289:
1282:
1281:Daniel Chirot
1278:
1274:
1270:
1266:
1261:
1258:
1255:
1252:
1251:
1250:
1248:
1244:
1238:
1228:
1226:
1222:
1217:
1214:
1208:
1207:to excesses.
1205:
1201:
1195:
1193:
1183:
1181:
1176:
1173:
1169:
1163:
1159:
1155:
1151:
1150:
1146:
1142:
1138:
1134:
1130:
1119:
1117:
1111:
1109:
1103:
1100:
1095:
1094:
1090:
1084:
1083:
1079:
1074:
1073:
1069:
1064:
1061:
1051:
1041:
1039:
1035:
1029:
1027:
1021:
1019:
1015:
1005:
1003:
999:
995:
991:
985:
977:
973:
967:
961:
957:
953:
949:
945:
941:
937:
933:
923:
917:
909:
905:
893:
888:
886:
881:
879:
874:
873:
871:
870:
867:
857:
856:
851:
848:
846:
843:
841:
838:
836:
833:
831:
828:
827:
826:
825:
820:
817:
815:
812:
810:
807:
806:
805:
804:
797:
794:
792:
789:
787:
784:
780:
777:
776:
775:
772:
770:
769:Space program
767:
765:
762:
760:
757:
755:
752:
750:
747:
745:
742:
740:
737:
735:
732:
730:
727:
725:
722:
720:
717:
715:
712:
710:
707:
705:
702:
701:
698:
693:
692:
685:
682:
680:
677:
675:
672:
670:
667:
665:
662:
660:
657:
655:
652:
650:
647:
645:
642:
640:
637:
635:
632:
630:
627:
625:
622:
621:
618:
613:
612:
605:
602:
600:
597:
595:
592:
590:
587:
585:
582:
580:
577:
576:
572:
569:
567:
564:
562:
559:
555:
552:
550:
547:
546:
545:
542:
540:
537:
535:
532:
530:
527:
525:
522:
521:
518:
513:
512:
505:
502:
500:
497:
495:
492:
490:
487:
483:
480:
479:
478:
475:
473:
470:
468:
465:
463:
460:
459:
455:
452:
450:
447:
445:
442:
438:
435:
434:
433:
430:
426:
423:
422:
421:
418:
416:
413:
411:
408:
406:
403:
402:
399:
394:
393:
386:
383:
381:
378:
376:
373:
371:
368:
366:
363:
361:
358:
356:
353:
351:
348:
346:
343:
342:
338:
335:
333:
330:
328:
325:
323:
320:
318:
315:
313:
310:
308:
305:
303:
300:
298:
295:
293:
290:
288:
285:
283:
280:
278:
275:
274:
271:
266:
265:
261:
257:
256:
252:
248:
247:
236:
231:
230:
226:
221:
211:
207:
203:
201:
191:
190:
189:
188:
175:
170:
167:
165:
162:
160:
157:
156:
155:
154:
150:
142:
139:
137:
132:
127:
126:
125:
123:
110:
109:
105:
100:
94:
91:
88:
87:
86:
82:
78:
75:
73:
70:
69:
65:
59:
55:
51:
47:
40:
35:
32:
25:
20:
3217:Penal system
3160:Human rights
3138:Great Cannon
3091:Other topics
3042:6521 Project
2993:
2938:
2573:
2570:Yang Chengwu
2563:(in Chinese)
2553:R. J. Rummel
2532:
2526:. Retrieved
2522:the original
2517:
2507:
2487:
2480:
2458:
2432:. Retrieved
2412:
2405:
2396:
2381:
2374:
2365:
2359:the original
2332:
2318:
2312:
2303:
2290:Random House
2288:. New York,
2284:
2274:
2265:
2256:
2250:
2241:
2227:
2221:
2212:
2208:
2204:
2194:
2184:
2182:
2176:. Retrieved
2153:
2143:
2134:
2119:
2112:
2103:
2085:
2047:
2017:
2010:
1992:
1966:. Retrieved
1946:
1916:
1895:. Retrieved
1887:"人民网--404页面"
1881:
1870:. Retrieved
1866:the original
1856:
1845:. Retrieved
1841:the original
1834:
1825:
1817:the original
1810:
1802:
1794:the original
1787:
1733:
1729:
1723:
1715:
1709:. Retrieved
1695:
1687:
1672:
1652:
1650:
1631:
1608:the original
1594:
1586:
1571:
1546:
1526:
1520:
1517:Yang Kuisong
1397:
1382:
1363:
1359:
1347:Philip Short
1340:
1337:
1265:Yang Kuisong
1240:
1224:
1220:
1218:
1209:
1196:
1189:
1186:Consequences
1177:
1164:
1160:
1156:
1152:
1148:
1140:
1132:
1128:
1125:
1115:
1112:
1107:
1104:
1098:
1096:
1092:
1085:
1081:
1075:
1071:
1065:
1047:
1030:
1022:
1014:Yang Kuisong
1011:
987:
972:labor reform
968:
955:
929:
919:
903:
901:
809:Constitution
405:Gang of Four
296:
287:Proclamation
177:
146:
112:
29:Part of the
3108:Black jails
2972: [
2948: [
2937:(including
2926: [
2888:Immigration
2818:Urban Admin
2796:Coast Guard
2755:Immigration
2566:杨成武谈揭批罗瑞卿实情
2475:pp. 481-482
2413:Mao: A Life
2280:Snow, Edgar
2090:Basic Books
1985:Chang, Jung
1947:Mao: A Life
1836:Renmin Wang
1529:: 102–121.
1089:Luo Ruiqing
1018:state media
954:issued the
561:1998 floods
489:863 Program
370:Third Front
337:Canton Fair
159:White Lotus
84:Resulted in
3287:Categories
3118:Censorship
3103:610 Office
3018:Red August
2987:Operations
2878:Correction
2760:Inspection
2555:See also:
2528:2020-04-05
2518:Yibao (议报)
2434:2016-10-10
2178:2008-08-23
1968:2016-10-10
1897:2010-12-28
1872:2010-06-25
1847:2020-02-17
1711:2018-07-31
1300:Edgar Snow
1296:Zhou Enlai
1273:Mao Zedong
1235:See also:
1192:Kuomintang
1168:Jung Chang
1078:Korean War
1060:Kuomintang
1050:Liu Shaoqi
1012:Professor
1008:Background
998:imprisoned
944:Kuomintang
629:Shenzhou 5
482:Opposition
292:Korean War
277:Revolution
3252:Shuanggui
3175:Hong Kong
3032:(1983–87)
3014:(1957–59)
3008:(1955–57)
3002:(1951–52)
2996:(1950–53)
2828:Hong Kong
2457:, et al.
1862:"镇压反革命运动"
1766:144001444
1750:0010-4175
1701:"鎮壓反革命運動"
1543:154927374
1458:Citations
1271:In 1957,
1145:Guangdong
1068:Peng Zhen
1036:(such as
936:political
845:Geography
840:Education
714:Chang'e 3
664:Expo 2010
233:3,000,000
169:Yiguandao
52:1950–1953
2715:Mainland
2625:National
2619:in China
2467:, 1999.
2428:Archived
2282:(1961).
2264:. 1978.
2172:Archived
2052:Archived
1962:Archived
1891:Archived
1705:Archived
1406:See also
1378:Yanchang
1202:and the
1137:Shanghai
1038:Guan Fei
1002:executed
850:Politics
819:Shanghai
739:Xiong'an
164:Gelaohui
57:Location
3062:(2014–)
3056:(2014–)
3050:(2012–)
2883:Customs
2803:Customs
2652:Militia
2211:: 142.
1758:3879401
1370:Guangxi
1353:of the
1328:AFL-CIO
1326:of the
1293:Premier
1268:deaths.
1172:Beijing
1034:bandits
976:Chinese
960:Chinese
931:zhènfǎn
912:鎮壓反革命運動
908:Chinese
835:Economy
830:Culture
814:Beijing
102:Parties
67:Methods
27:鎮壓反革命運動
3207:Laogai
3072:Abroad
3068:(2015)
3044:(2009)
3038:(1999)
3026:(1975)
3020:(1966)
2861:Police
2495:
2471:
2420:
2389:
2325:
2296:
2234:
2164:
2127:
2096:
2066:
2025:
2002:
1954:
1924:
1764:
1756:
1748:
1680:
1655:, 29).
1643:
1579:
1541:
1374:Shanxi
1372:. In
986::
984:pinyin
978::
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