459:
557:
362:. Fur trading continued to be the primary resource sold by Mobile. Mobile continued to have a very heterogeneous population, and Spain wanted more settlement in its Floridian colonies. It attracted British and American immigrants by adopting very liberal policies compared to those in other parts of the Spanish Empire. In Spanish colonies, all citizens were required to become Catholic, but the Spanish government in the Floridas allowed its inhabitants to worship as they pleased. The government also offered liberal land grants to potential settlers. In 1785, Spanish Mobile had 746 inhabitants. By 1788, Mobile had a population of over 1,400.
493:
396:
202:
310:
575:
728:
476:
237:
233:, which they named after the Maubilian Indians. The outpost was populated by French soldiers, French-Canadian trappers and fur traders, and a few merchants and artisans accompanied by their families. The French had easy access to the Indian fur trade, and furs were the primary economic resource of Mobile. Along with fur, some settlers also raised cattle as well as produced ships' timbers and naval stores.
696:
651:
social heritage. Creoles continued to maintain their own schools, churches, social clubs, and the fabled Creole Steam Fire
Company Number I. Creoles worked as doctors, lawyers, educators, and businessmen. They mirrored the customs and practices of Mobile's white elite, and formed their own mystic societies, creating a "Colored Mardi Gras" celebration.
646:
For
Creoles in Mobile, the following era was bleak. Poor economic conditions continued from reconstruction all the way until the first World War, and a rising tide of racism eroded many of the rights that Creoles once knew. A binary racial system took hold of Mobile; everyone was classified either as
629:
Nevertheless, in 1864, as Mobile needed defenders for the city, Creoles joined
Confederate cavalry units, and a company of Creoles in Confederate service, the Native Guards, formed from a Creole firefighting battalion. After Federal forces defeated the Confederates in Mobile, the Creole Native Guards
421:
Mobile experienced a dramatic growth as cotton flowed through its ports from plantations and farms in the
Alabama interior. Mobile also received a reputation for being quite unrefined, as young men and transients poured into the city, and made saloons, drinking, and prostitution a mainstay of life in
650:
In 1901, racist forces moved to permanently disenfranchise the black population of Mobile through the state constitution. The
Creoles of Mobile pleaded with the white leadership of the state, but it was of no use. Many Creoles turned inward, seeking solace in the glories of the past and their older
341:
The new colonial government enacted a harsher slave code that gave slaves very few legal rights and made emancipation much more difficult to obtain. Slaves became expensive, each one costing around 300 Spanish dollars. To counteract expensive slave labor, white indentured servants were imported and
654:
At the end of the 1930s, Mobile was essentially a small town where most people were comfortable and satisfied with the community institutions available. However, the city was deeply divided by race, and the lack of economic opportunity hampered the economic development of the city. Mobile's Creole
488:
Mobile contained approximately 40% of all of
Alabama's free black population. Mobile's free people of color were the Creoles. A people of diverse origins, the Creoles formed an elite with their own schools, churches, fire company, and social organizations. Many Creoles were the descendants of free
251:
Indian nations gathered annually at Mobile to be wined, dined, and showered with presents by the French. About 2,000 Indians descended on Mobile for as long as two weeks. Because of the close and friendly relationship between colonial French and Indian peoples, French colonists learned the Indian
1479:
Cajans were of varying racial mixtures; some under
Alabama's new racial laws were considered black, others were considered white, and others yet designated as Indians. Cajans were discriminated against due to their racial ambiguity, and many remained illiterate due to not having access to public
300:
By the mid-18th century, Mobile was populated by French
Creoles, European Frenchmen, French-Canadians, Africans, and Indians. This diverse group was united by Roman Catholicism, the exclusive religion of the colony. The town's inhabitants included 50 troops, a mixed group of approximately 400
526:
Southerners generally defended slavery as a positive institution for the benefit of the slaves. The large Creole community in Mobile posed serious practical and ideological problems for the proponents of slavery. How could slavery be a positive good for both whites and blacks when the Creole
638:
The Civil War completely destroyed Mobile as it once was. Prior to the Civil War, Mobile was
Alabama's most vital urban area, and it was the undisputed economic and social center of the state. In the years after the Civil War, Mobile's economy languished, and its population declined.
263:
Mobile was a melting pot of different peoples, and included continental
Frenchmen, French-Canadians, and various Indians mingled together in Mobile. The differences between continental Frenchmen and French-Canadians were so great that serious disputes occurred between the two groups.
538:
Although the antebellum period was the most colorful, exuberant period of Mobile's history, it was also short-lived. Young Alabama Creoles who began their careers in the 1820s lived to see their fortunes and the accomplishments of their city destroyed by a
489:
blacks at the time of Mobile's capture by American forces, and who retained their freedoms by treaty and treated by the American government as a unique people. Other Creoles were blood relatives of white Mobilians including those of prominent families.
445:... Here is a sailor just on shore with a pocket full of rocks ready for devilment of any kind and there is a beggar in rags. Pretty Creoles, pale-faced sewing girls, painted vice, big-headed and little-headed men, tall anatomies and short Falstaffs
535:(savannah liberty), although outlawed by Americans, many slaves hired themselves out and accumulated personal funds. Slaves in Mobile learned to read and write from the highly educated Creoles, and they gained freedom through their skilled labor.
614:
Creoles in Mobile also continuously petitioned to join the war effort. In November 1862, Alabama's General Assembly passed legislation allowing Creoles to enroll in the state militia, and a unit of Alabama Creole Guards was raised.
622:, requested that the Confederate War Department immediately accept Creole state militia into Confederate service, with the idea of making them heavy artillerists to man Mobile's shore batteries. Confederate Secretary of War
658:
World War II changed the economic outlook of Mobile. New industry appeared, and Mobile became an important port once more. After World War II, racial tension became inflamed again leading to the protests and riots of the
1571:(1st ed.). United States of America: Windsor Publications. pp. 12, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 24, 33, 34, 35, 36, 37, 38, 39, 41. 42, 43, 44, 45, 46, 49, 50, 51, 52, 53, 54, 55, 88, 92, 105, 119, 120, 123.
530:
Creoles maintained their own schools, churches, fire companies, and social institutions; urban slaves had access to money, as well as the company of other slaves and free blacks. Following the Creole custom
1750:
663:
that changed the situation of blacks in the United States. After the Civil Rights Movement, institutionalized segregation, discrimination, and disenfranchisement were finally abolished.
338:
Life changed very little for Alabama Creoles under British rule. The fur trade continued and British adopted the Creole practice of holding Indian congresses and inviting Indian guests.
514:
The Creoles of Mobile built a Catholic school run by and for Creoles. Mobilians supported several literary societies, numerous book stores, and number of book and music publishers.
508:
497:
441:"Clerks of all shapes and sizes, white and red haired men, staid thinking men and brainless flops. Here goes a staid, demeure-faced priest and behind him is a dashing gambler
267:
The French also established slavery in 1721. Slaves infused elements of African and French Creole culture into Mobile, as many of the slaves who came to Mobile worked in the
342:
they began to supply much of the town's labor. White indentured servants usually worked for two to four years and their masters provided them housing, food, and clothing.
922:
866:
507:
The Catholic community of primarily French Creole descent remained numerous and influential. In 1825, the Catholic community began the 15-year construction of the
376:
On April 11, 1813, an American force of 600 overwhelmed 60 Spanish troops stationed in Mobile. On April 13, the Spanish commander surrendered his 60 men and
1176:
281:, was instituted in French colonies which allowed slaves certain legal and religious rights not found in either British colonies or the United States. The
369:, and they claimed that the Spanish Floridas were part of the purchase. Americans within the Floridas plotted against the Spanish government. During the
883:
1633:
1604:
301:
civilians which included merchants, laborers, fur traders, artisans, and slaves. This mixed diverse group and its descendants are called Creoles.
1266:
418:
that had not yet developed a thriving mercantile community. As Mobile grew, it attracted medical and legal professionals as well as printers.
1735:
154:. They are the descendants of colonial French and Spanish settlers who arrived in Mobile in the 18th century. They are sometimes known as
1745:
1740:
980:
1755:
888:
604:
1407:
458:
1453:(Creole peasant), and the Cajans of Alabama adopted the Cajan name to distinguish themselves from the urban Creoles of Mobile.
1276:
900:
365:
As time went on, however, the Americans began desiring the Spanish lands. In 1803 the Americans bought French Louisiana from
62:
1730:
1379:
592:
647:
black or white. An informal, but rigid segregation code restricted the social and economic activities of the Creoles.
1725:
1359:
975:
596:
603:
to form military units to protect their homes, their cities, and their states. In New Orleans, Creoles formed the
210:
1428:
were designated as "Cajans" during the years after the Civil War. They gained their name from a corruption of
965:
600:
66:
556:
511:. For most of the antebellum era, friction between Protestants and Catholics was practically non-existent.
127:
123:
1400:
780:
387:
and held on to the territory that they had won. Mobile was thereafter administered by the United States.
655:
population was prevented from fully contributing its energy and talents towards building a better city.
1271:
945:
834:
785:
359:
1005:
854:
815:
58:
1720:
1068:
927:
878:
805:
667:
377:
666:
The Creoles of Alabama slowly disappeared, either emigrating to other states or assimilating into
1715:
608:
581:
332:
323:
where France relinquished all of its continental colonial territory to Britain and ceded half of
288:
278:
147:
1460:, which was all of the bayou country surrounding Mobile; to the north, it reached the hills of
1393:
849:
844:
839:
747:
711:
626:
denied Maury's request and stated that blacks could never be enlisted as Confederate soldiers.
431:
324:
17:
1681:
Mixed-blood Populations of Eastern United States as to Origins, Localizations, and Persistence
1760:
1461:
1425:
1354:
1198:
1124:
871:
660:
384:
320:
196:
119:
563:
328:
313:
293:
297:(ex-slaves) full citizenship and gave complete civil equality with other French subjects.
8:
1251:
991:
905:
640:
492:
415:
1627:
1598:
1188:
1026:
810:
540:
366:
1420:
Country Creoles who lived in the bayous outside of Mobile, in the forests surrounding
1336:
1296:
1289:
1236:
1224:
1171:
1151:
1146:
955:
915:
373:, the Americans finally had a justification to take Spanish Mobile and the Floridas.
99:
1326:
1246:
1166:
1161:
1110:
1103:
1082:
1075:
1061:
1041:
1033:
1019:
1012:
985:
674:
111:
1214:) can be considered as separate (ethnically) or French migration (by nationality).
1117:
422:
the city. Gradually Mobile evolved into the third most important port city in the
406:
The first Americans to arrive in Mobile after the War of 1812 were merchants from
1469:
1445:
1437:
1421:
1331:
1321:
1314:
1301:
1256:
1241:
1131:
1096:
970:
960:
765:
623:
619:
523:
501:
400:
395:
257:
245:
230:
163:
151:
139:
70:
522:
The institution of slavery presented white Alabamians with a serious challenge.
1261:
1156:
643:
replaced Mobile in its economic development and became Alabama's largest city.
87:
1654:. United States of America: Trinity University Press. pp. Tour 9:2, 3, 4.
1709:
1473:
1231:
751:
719:
700:
690:
427:
423:
253:
214:
1617:
1588:
355:
351:
226:
1683:. Berkley, United States of America: University of California. p. 73.
437:
In 1844, a Northern visitor described the diversity and beauty of Mobile:
201:
1089:
670:, replacing their Creole history, language, and heritage in the process.
411:
407:
370:
335:
at this time moved to Mobile, as they preferred British to Spanish rule.
268:
222:
309:
1465:
820:
793:
574:
475:
103:
1668:. United States of America: National Urban League. 1933. p. 312.
950:
800:
775:
283:
273:
175:
74:
1593:. United States of America: Hackett Publishing. pp. 56, 57, 58.
1622:. United States of America: John Benjamins Publishing. p. 346.
1429:
1374:
1193:
1047:
546:
241:
115:
1566:
1369:
1364:
1211:
727:
327:
to Spain, Britain merged the Southern Louisiana territories into
46:
1693:
1468:; to the east, it reached through the bayous and forests around
1433:
1207:
1054:
998:
742:
686:
466:
236:
218:
179:
171:
107:
1436:
of Louisiana. Creoles at this time used the term Cajun/Cajan (
695:
178:, and most do not trace their roots to the French settlers of
1649:
1480:
schools. Cajans tended to stay among their own communities.
1751:
Self-identification as Native American in the United States
1698:. United States of America: Time Incorporated. p. 51.
543:, which they more than other Alabamians, sought to avoid.
1645:
1643:
1501:. United States of America: Theatre Arts. p. 1027.
410:, and they recognized a unique opportunity compared to
1618:
Jacques Arends, Pieter Muysken, Norval Smith (1995).
1640:
1589:
Wesley Moody, Alfred J. Andrea, Andrew Holt (2017).
618:
In November 1863, the general in command of Mobile,
517:
1678:
673:The last speakers of Alabama Creole French died at
383:In 1815, the Americans defeated the British at the
1658:
1569:Mobile the life and times of a great Southern city
1562:
1560:
1558:
1556:
1554:
1552:
1550:
1548:
1546:
1544:
1542:
1540:
1538:
1536:
1534:
1532:
1530:
1528:
449:... a great country this is and make no mistake."
345:
304:
1707:
1672:
1526:
1524:
1522:
1520:
1518:
1516:
1514:
1512:
1510:
1508:
547:Alabama Creoles during the Civil War (1861–1864)
390:
1687:
1449:) interchangeably with the social designation
633:
611:forces ultimately dissolved the unit in 1862.
1584:
1582:
1580:
1578:
1505:
1456:Alabama Cajans inhabited a region called the
1401:
1652:The WPA Guide to Alabama: The Camellia State
1632:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
1611:
1603:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
1496:
527:population not only existed, but prospered?
1694:Briton Hadden; Henry Robinson Luce (1934).
1575:
1567:Melton McLaurin, Michael Thomason (1981).
1490:
1408:
1394:
225:to a wooded bluff on the west bank of the
694:
491:
394:
308:
235:
200:
14:
1708:
509:Cathedral of the Immaculate Conception
498:Cathedral of the Immaculate Conception
260:, and intermarried with Indian women.
170:) although they are distinct from the
1444:
591:Creoles during the Civil war in both
1620:Pidgins and Creoles: An Introduction
41:Regions with significant populations
1736:African-American history of Alabama
1380:Corsican immigration to Puerto Rico
24:
1746:Native American history of Alabama
1741:French-American culture in Alabama
350:In 1783, Spain took possession of
229:in early 1702, where they founded
150:group native to the region around
25:
1772:
1650:Federal Writers' Project (2013).
680:
518:Antebellum Alabama Creole society
1756:People of Louisiana (New France)
1203:Overseas parts of France proper
726:
573:
566:August 2, 1864 – August 23, 1864
555:
474:
457:
27:French Creoles of Mobile Alabama
1499:Theatre Arts Monthly, volume 14
346:Spanish occupation (1783–1815)
305:British occupation (1763–1783)
13:
1:
1666:Opportunity, Volumes 11 to 12
1483:
584:April 2, 1865 – April 9, 1865
391:Antebellum period (1815–1861)
1679:Edward Thomas Price (1950).
1591:Seven Myths of the Civil War
7:
1206:Migration of minorities in
634:Late 19th to 20th centuries
211:Pierre Le Moyne d'Iberville
10:
1777:
1731:History of Mobile, Alabama
684:
630:disappeared from service.
360:American Revolutionary War
194:
190:
185:
464:A Creole girl with a red
98:
93:
85:
80:
57:
52:
45:
40:
1726:Ethnic groups in Alabama
1360:People of French descent
668:African American culture
277:, a slave code based on
1277:Cultural Heritage sites
609:Confederate States Army
582:Battle of Fort Blakeley
481:A bourgeois Creole girl
205:Fort Louis de la Mobile
1424:, and in the hills of
704:
605:Louisiana Native Guard
504:
451:
432:New Orleans, Louisiana
403:
333:Creoles of New Orleans
316:
248:
206:
167:
143:
1497:Theatre Arts (1930).
1355:List of French people
1125:Franco-Newfoundlander
981:Saint Kitts and Nevis
698:
661:Civil Rights Movement
495:
439:
398:
385:Battle of New Orleans
321:French and Indian War
312:
239:
204:
197:Mississippian culture
195:Further information:
94:Related ethnic groups
34:Alabama Creole people
889:United Arab Emirates
564:Battle of Mobile Bay
329:British West Florida
314:British West Florida
144:Créoles de l'Alabama
36:Créoles de l'Alabama
992:French Louisianians
533:liberté des savanes
416:Louisiana Territory
319:In 1763, after the
209:Adventurers led by
37:
923:Germany (pre-1918)
737:Native communities
714:of articles on the
705:
607:in 1861, although
505:
404:
367:Napoleon Bonaparte
317:
269:French West Indies
249:
207:
33:
1446:[ka.dʒɛ̃]
1418:
1417:
1297:History of France
1134:
1127:
1120:
1113:
1106:
1099:
1092:
1085:
1078:
1071:
1064:
1057:
1050:
1036:
1029:
1022:
1015:
1008:
1001:
994:
919:
909:
824:
797:
601:state governments
599:petitioned their
256:of the area, the
133:
132:
128:African Americans
100:Louisiana Creoles
16:(Redirected from
1768:
1700:
1699:
1691:
1685:
1684:
1676:
1670:
1669:
1662:
1656:
1655:
1647:
1638:
1637:
1631:
1623:
1615:
1609:
1608:
1602:
1594:
1586:
1573:
1572:
1564:
1503:
1502:
1494:
1448:
1410:
1403:
1396:
1130:
1123:
1116:
1111:Franco-Yukonnais
1109:
1104:Franco-Columbian
1102:
1095:
1088:
1083:Franco-Manitoban
1081:
1076:Franco-Ontarians
1074:
1067:
1060:
1053:
1046:
1032:
1025:
1018:
1011:
1006:French Canadians
1004:
997:
990:
913:
903:
818:
791:
730:
707:
706:
675:Mon Louis Island
577:
559:
478:
461:
448:
444:
148:Louisiana French
112:Creoles of color
38:
32:
21:
1776:
1775:
1771:
1770:
1769:
1767:
1766:
1765:
1721:American Creole
1706:
1705:
1704:
1703:
1696:Time, Volume 24
1692:
1688:
1677:
1673:
1664:
1663:
1659:
1648:
1641:
1625:
1624:
1616:
1612:
1596:
1595:
1587:
1576:
1565:
1506:
1495:
1491:
1486:
1432:, matching the
1414:
1385:
1384:
1350:
1342:
1341:
1317:
1307:
1306:
1302:Napoleonic wars
1292:
1282:
1281:
1227:
1217:
1216:
1204:
1132:Franco-Nunavois
1097:Franco-Albertan
951:French Antilles
768:
758:
757:
738:
693:
683:
636:
624:James A. Seddon
620:Dabney H. Maury
589:
588:
587:
586:
585:
578:
569:
568:
567:
560:
549:
520:
502:Mobile, Alabama
486:
485:
484:
483:
482:
479:
471:
470:
462:
446:
442:
393:
348:
307:
291:also conferred
271:. In 1724, the
258:Mobilian Jargon
199:
193:
188:
152:Mobile, Alabama
136:Alabama Creoles
71:Mobilian Jargon
35:
31:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
1774:
1764:
1763:
1758:
1753:
1748:
1743:
1738:
1733:
1728:
1723:
1718:
1716:Creole peoples
1702:
1701:
1686:
1671:
1657:
1639:
1610:
1574:
1504:
1488:
1487:
1485:
1482:
1451:petit habitant
1416:
1415:
1413:
1412:
1405:
1398:
1390:
1387:
1386:
1383:
1382:
1377:
1372:
1367:
1362:
1357:
1351:
1348:
1347:
1344:
1343:
1340:
1339:
1334:
1329:
1324:
1318:
1313:
1312:
1309:
1308:
1305:
1304:
1299:
1293:
1288:
1287:
1284:
1283:
1280:
1279:
1274:
1269:
1264:
1259:
1254:
1249:
1244:
1239:
1234:
1228:
1223:
1222:
1219:
1218:
1202:
1201:
1196:
1191:
1180:
1179:
1174:
1169:
1164:
1159:
1154:
1149:
1138:
1137:
1136:
1135:
1128:
1121:
1114:
1107:
1100:
1093:
1086:
1079:
1072:
1065:
1058:
1051:
1039:
1038:
1037:
1030:
1023:
1016:
1009:
1002:
995:
983:
978:
973:
968:
963:
958:
953:
948:
937:
936:
933:
930:
925:
920:
910:
901:United Kingdom
892:
891:
886:
881:
876:
875:
874:
858:
857:
852:
847:
842:
837:
826:
825:
813:
808:
803:
798:
788:
783:
778:
769:
764:
763:
760:
759:
756:
755:
745:
739:
736:
735:
732:
731:
723:
722:
716:
715:
682:
681:Alabama Cajans
679:
677:in the 1990s.
635:
632:
579:
572:
571:
570:
561:
554:
553:
552:
551:
550:
548:
545:
524:Anglo-American
519:
516:
480:
473:
472:
463:
456:
455:
454:
453:
452:
424:American Union
392:
389:
378:Fort Charlotte
347:
344:
306:
303:
240:Portrait of a
192:
189:
187:
184:
131:
130:
96:
95:
91:
90:
88:Roman Catholic
86:Predominantly
83:
82:
78:
77:
55:
54:
50:
49:
43:
42:
29:
26:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
1773:
1762:
1759:
1757:
1754:
1752:
1749:
1747:
1744:
1742:
1739:
1737:
1734:
1732:
1729:
1727:
1724:
1722:
1719:
1717:
1714:
1713:
1711:
1697:
1690:
1682:
1675:
1667:
1661:
1653:
1646:
1644:
1635:
1629:
1621:
1614:
1606:
1600:
1592:
1585:
1583:
1581:
1579:
1570:
1563:
1561:
1559:
1557:
1555:
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174:of southern
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30:Ethnic group
1199:New Zealand
1090:Fransaskois
976:Puerto Rico
861:Middle East
412:New Orleans
408:New England
371:War of 1812
244:Woman from
223:Mississippi
213:moved from
1710:Categories
1484:References
1466:Citronelle
1237:Literature
821:Afrikaners
811:Seychelles
794:Afrikaners
781:Madagascar
703:of Alabama
685:See also:
641:Birmingham
358:after the
294:affranchis
289:Roman laws
279:Roman laws
1628:cite book
1599:cite book
1189:Australia
1177:Venezuela
1147:Argentina
1069:Québécois
1013:Huguenots
956:Guatemala
916:Huguenots
906:Huguenots
835:Hong Kong
786:Mauritius
593:Louisiana
541:civil war
399:American
325:Louisiana
287:based on
284:Code Noir
274:Code Noir
176:Louisiana
120:Québecois
75:Franglais
53:Languages
1375:Walloons
1315:Language
1232:Religion
1162:Colombia
1048:Acadians
1027:Corsican
935:Portugal
855:Pakistan
790:Namibia
766:Diaspora
712:a series
710:Part of
146:) are a
116:Acadians
81:Religion
1472:to the
1430:Acadian
1370:Bretons
1365:Basques
1337:Romance
1327:Walloon
1290:History
1272:Symbols
1262:Cuisine
1225:Culture
1212:Basques
1183:Oceania
1172:Uruguay
966:Jamaica
928:Hungary
879:Lebanon
806:Senegal
801:Réunion
776:Algeria
597:Alabama
426:behind
414:in the
331:. Some
242:Choctaw
191:Origins
186:History
168:Cadjins
104:Isleños
59:English
47:Alabama
1470:Daphne
1442:Cadjin
1438:French
1434:Cajuns
1422:Daphne
1332:Breton
1322:French
1247:Cinema
1210:(i.e.
1208:France
1152:Brazil
1062:Basque
1055:Brayon
1042:Canada
1034:Basque
1020:Breton
999:Cajuns
971:Mexico
895:Europe
884:Turkey
867:Israel
771:Africa
743:France
687:Cajuns
467:tignon
447:
443:
401:Mobile
246:Mobile
231:Mobile
219:Biloxi
180:Acadia
172:Cajuns
164:French
160:Cajuns
156:Cajans
140:French
108:Cajuns
63:French
18:Cajans
1349:Other
1267:Dress
1257:Sport
1242:Music
1157:Chile
961:Haiti
932:Spain
850:Korea
845:Japan
840:India
752:Aosta
748:Italy
1634:link
1605:link
1464:and
1167:Peru
946:Cuba
872:Jews
829:Asia
699:The
689:and
595:and
580:The
562:The
496:The
430:and
354:and
500:in
217:in
158:or
1712::
1642:^
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1626:{{
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1597:{{
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