Byzantine–Ottoman wars

1571: 217: 277: 157: 764:, in the process causing great destruction to the Anatolian landscape. Once again these gains were thwarted by internal matters. Roger de Flor was assassinated and, in revenge, his company began pillaging the Anatolian countryside. When they finally left in 1307 to attack Byzantine Thrace, the locals welcomed the Ottomans who once again began blockading key fortresses in Asia Minor. The Ottomans were able to build on their military success due to the numerous divisions amongst their opponents. Many of the peasant classes in Anatolia saw the Ottomans as better masters. 1238:

Constantine XI threatened to rebel against Mehmed unless certain conditions were met by the Sultan regarding the status quo. Mehmed responded to these threats by building fortifications in the Bosporus and thus closed Constantinople from outside naval assistance. The Ottomans already controlled the land around Constantinople and so they began an assault on the city on 6 April 1453. Despite a union of the Catholic and Orthodox Churches, the Byzantines received no official aid from the Pope or Western Europe, with the exception of a few soldiers from Venice and Genoa.

289: 241: 204: 144: 129: 41: 1309:. As the Ottomans continued their seemingly unsuccessful and costly assaults, many in their camp began to doubt the success of the siege; history had shown the city to be invincible to Ottoman siege. In an effort to raise morale, the Sultan then made a speech reminding his troops of the vast wealth and pillaging of the city to come. An all-out assault captured the city on May 29, 1453. As the Ottomans fanned out to sack the city, their naval discipline began to collapse and many Genoans and Venetians escaped in vessels from the city, including 229: 1389:, whose attempts to drive the Latins out of Greece led to the abandonment of the Anatolian borders which allowed several beyliks, as well as the Turks of Osman I to raid and settle former Byzantine lands. Andronikos II's campaigns in Anatolia, though it obtained some military success, was constantly thwarted by events in the west of the Empire. In any event, the Byzantines were forced to choose between Papal and Latin threat of attack or an unpopular union, which was exploited by numerous rival claimants as cause for a 265: 844:. Nonetheless, these isolated Islands were isolated exceptions to the general trend of increasing Ottoman conquests. Furthermore, none of the Islands were a part of the Ottoman domain; their capture demonstrates the potential that the Byzantines had at the time of Andronikos III. Byzantine military ability would be further weakened by Serbian expansions into recent acquisitions by Andronikos III (Epirus) and finally by a devastating civil war that would subjugate the Byzantine Empire as a vassal to the Ottomans. 1329: 1461:

land formerly held by the overextended Byzantines, they were able to exploit the hardships of the peasant classes by recruiting their aid. Those that did not assist the Ottomans were raided themselves. Eventually, the cities in Asia Minor, isolated from the much more administrated cities of the western half of the Byzantine Empire, surrendered. During their conquests, the Ottomans were able to acquire a thorough grasp on the art of siege warfare due to a majority of those cities being walled.

253: 1453: 618: 1289: 1001: 768: 853: 1199: 1465:

themselves in the process. The exacting of tribute from conquered states in the form of children and money was effective in forcing subjugation over conquest. Coupled with this, the entire region was composed of disparate states (Bulgaria, Serbia, Latin states) who would just as soon fight each other as the Ottomans and realized too late that the Ottoman forces defeated them by integrating them in a network of subordinate states.

191: 1155: 1397: 810: 1444:

of Byzantium, occurring at a time (1341–1371) when the Ottomans were crossing into Europe through a devastated Gallipoli and surrounding the city, thus sealing its fate as a vassal. When attempts were made to break this vassalage, the Byzantines found themselves out-matched and at the mercy of Latin assistance, which despite two Crusades, ultimately amounted to nothing.

1285:, arrived to assist in the defense of the city. The city's entire defense fell to these mercenaries and 5,000 militia soldiers raised from a city whose population had been seriously eroded by heavy taxation, plague and civil conflict. Though poorly trained, the defenders were well armed with many weapons, except for any cannons to match the Ottoman's own artillery. 1464:

It was the Ottoman's laissez faire method of administrating new conquests that allowed them to expand so quickly. As opposed to the heavily centralized Byzantine method of governance, the Ottomans would subjugate their opponents as vassals rather than destroy them, otherwise they would have exhausted

1237:

succeeded John VIII. Constantine XI and Mehmed did not get along well; the former's successful conquests of Crusader territory in the Peloponnese alarmed the latter, who had since subjugated the crusaders in the region as vassals, thus, Mehmed had around 40,000 soldiers sent to nullify these gains.

934:

The civil war did not end there; Matthew Cantacuzenus now obtained troops from Orhan and began a bid for taking Constantinople. His capture in 1356 ended his dreams of becoming Emperor and with it came an ephemeral defeat for the Ottomans who had favored the overthrow of John V, Following the end of

1460:

Ottoman rule was auspicious to the Anatolian commoner due to the aforementioned Byzantine taxes. Thus, they were able to levy vast numbers of willing troops. Initially, their raiding gave them great support from other Turks near Osman's small domain. In time however, as the Turks began to settle in

1443:

After Michael VIII's death, the Byzantines suffered from constant civil strife early on. The Ottomans suffered civil conflict as well, but this occurred much later on in the 15th century; by that time, the Byzantines were too weak to reconquer much territory. This is in contrast to the civil strife

1103:

In 1394, relations between the Byzantines and the Ottomans changed for the worse and the war between the two resumed when the Ottoman Sultan Bayezid (ruled 1389–1402) ordered the execution of Manuel II, after the Emperor attempted to reconcile with his nephew John VII. The Ottoman Sultan then later

730:

in 1274, thereby further increasing hostilities between the Latins and the Byzantines. Andronikos II took a deep interest in preserving the Anatolian lands of Byzantium and ordered construction of forts in Asia Minor and vigorous training of the army. The Byzantine Emperor ordered that his court be

824:

Once again the Byzantines' military power was depleted and Andronikos III were forced into diplomacy as his grandfather was before him; in return for the safety of the remaining Byzantine settlements in Asia Minor, tribute would be paid to the Ottomans. Unfortunately for the Byzantine Empire, this

1173:

to the Byzantine throne led to a deteriorated change in relations between the two. Neither leader was content with the status quo. John VIII made the first and foolish move by inciting a rebellion in the Ottoman Empire: a certain Mustafa had been released by the Byzantines and claimed that he was

1044:

The death of Andronikos IV in 1385 and the capitulation of Thessalonika in 1387 to Hayreddin Pasha encouraged Manuel II Palaiologos to seek the forgiveness of the Sultan and John V. His increasingly close relationship with John V angered John VII who saw his right as the heir threatened. John VII

1028:

Palaiologos in September 1373. Andronikos escaped with his son and secured Murad's aid by promising a higher tribute than John V's. The civil strife continued as late as September 1390 though potential for conflict continued until 1408. John V eventually forgave Andronikos IV and his son in 1381,

1404:

Nonetheless, towards the mid and late 14th century, the Byzantines began to receive nominal aid from the West. This was little more than sympathy toward a fellow Christian power fighting a Muslim power and despite two Crusades, the Byzantines "received as much help from Rome as we did from the

1542:

and in the Middle East. Their power finally reached a peak in the mid 17th century. Their success through the Janissaries became their new weakness; due to their conservativism and power, Ottoman reform was difficult to implement whilst European armies became increasingly more resourceful and

980:

By now the Ottomans had essentially won the war; Byzantium was reduced to a few settlements other than Constantinople and was forced to recognize its vassal status to the Ottoman Sultan. This vassalage continued until 1394. However, whilst Constantinople had been neutralized, the surrounding

967:

leading to the end of Serbian power. The Ottomans were now poised to conquer Constantinople. In an attempt to stave off defeat, John V appealed to the Pope for support offering submission to Rome in return for military support. Despite publicly confessing the Roman Catholic Faith in

981:

Christian powers were still a threat to the Ottomans and Asia Minor was not under complete Ottoman control. The Ottomans continued their thrust into the Balkans, proving to be great conquerors in Europe as they were in Anatolia; in 1385 Sofia was captured from the Bulgarians and

1317:

All through the day the Turks made a great slaughter of Christians through the city. The blood flowed in the city like rainwater after a sudden storm, and the corpses of Turks and Christians were thrown into the Dardanelles, where they floated out to sea like melons along a

703:, heavy taxation and military expenditure placed a severe burden on the people. As the Ottoman Turks began taking land from the Empire, they were seen as liberators of Anatolians and many soon converted to Islam undermining the Byzantine's Orthodox power base. 1090:

Following John V's death, Manuel II Palaiologos was able to secure his throne and establish good relations with the Sultan, becoming his tributary. In return for Ottoman acceptance of his reign Manuel II was forced to dismantle the fortifications at the

902:

remained in Byzantine hands and only so by payment of a tribute. Throughout the civil war the Byzantines on both sides employed Turks and Serbs with mercenaries pillaging at will, leaving much of Macedonia in ruin and in the hands of the newly created

735:

to push back the Turks. Early successes were rendered useless when Alexios staged an unsuccessful coup, leading to his blinding and the end of his campaigns. This allowed the Ottomans to lay siege to Nicaea in 1301. A further defeat on Andronikos' son

1528:

Nonetheless, by 1529, Europe began to rise to the threat of the Ottomans. Martin Luther, changing his views, wrote that the "Scourge of God" had to be fought with great vigour by secular leaders rather than as Crusades initiated by the papacy.

972:, John V received no help. John V therefore was forced to turn to reason with his enemies, the Ottomans. Murad I and John V then came to an agreement whereby Byzantium would provide regular tribute in troops and money in exchange for security. 1146:

The Byzantines wasted no time exploiting the situation and signed a peace treaty with their Christian neighbours and with one of Bayezid's sons. By signing the treaty, they were able to recover Thessalonika and much of the Peloponnese. The

1489:

then ordered another crusade. Again, no substantial efforts were seen by any of Europe's major leaders of the time. This forced the Pope himself to lead a crusade. His death in 1464 led to the disbanding of the crusade at the port of

927:) in 1354 and gaining access to the European mainland. The arrival of the seemingly unbeatable Ottoman soldiers surrounding Constantinople caused a panic in Constantinople, capitalized by John V who, with the assistance of the 1190:, Murad II was forced to turn back his army and defeat Kucuk. With these defeats, the Byzantines were forced once more into vassalage – 300,000 coins of silver were to be delivered to the Sultan as tribute on an annual basis. 1126:

The defeat convinced Manuel II to escape the city and travel to Western Europe for aid. During this time the reconciled John VII led the city's successful defense against the Ottomans. The siege was finally broken when

962:

The Byzantine Empire was in no position to launch any decent counter-attack or defense of these lands; by now the Ottomans had become supremely powerful. Murad I crushed an army of Serbians on 26 September 1371 at the

1276:

and the Bosporus, thereby relieving the city, but the force was too small and arrived too late. The Ottomans would have overpowered any military assistance provided by one city, even one as large and powerful as the

914:

further diminishing what was left of Byzantium's integrity in the eyes of her troublesome neighbors. John VI Cantacuzenus emerged triumphant once again and replaced the now exiled John V Palaiologos with his son

1181:

and Constantinople. John VIII then turned to his aging father, Manuel II, for advice. The result was that he incited yet another rebellion in the Ottoman ranks — this time supporting Murad II brother's claim,

1304:

came about due to the combined weight of overwhelming odds stacked against the city – outnumbered by more than ten to one, the defenders were overcome by sheer attrition as well as the skill of the Ottoman

779:, was disinherited following the death of his father, Michael IX, the Emperor's son and heir apparent. The following year, Andronikos III retaliated by marching on Constantinople and was given Thrace as an 1400:

Romantic portrayal of the "Last Crusader". Increasing Muslim victories, Christian defeats and European transgressions coupled with the Reformation and Counter-Reformation led to the end of the Crusades.

695:

were taken in 1265 and 1289 respectively. Michael Palaiologos was unable to deal with these early setbacks due to the need to transfer troops to the West. In 1282, Michael Palaiologos died and his son

640:

in 1261, the Byzantine Empire was left in an isolated position. There was plenty of talk among the remaining Latin duchies of the Greek mainland and other regions of retaking Constantinople for the

1417:

Following the Fourth Crusade, the Byzantines were left in an unstable position. The capture of Constantinople in 1261 and subsequent campaigning did not come at a good time – the weakening of the

1082:

in 1390, marking the end of Byzantine rule in Anatolia, although by now the city had long been under only nominal Imperial rule and its fall was of little strategic consequence to the Byzantines.

1108:

and a Turkish colony be established in Constantinople. Manuel II not only refused this, he also refused to pay the Sultan tribute and went so far as to ignore the Sultan's messages, leading to a

1008:, the Ottomans (dark green) rapidly spread across the Balkans, annexing southern parts of Serbia in the northwest and giving them a major advantage over their Turkic (green) rivals in Anatolia. 1177:

Despite the odds, a sizable force had mustered in Europe under his banner, defeating Murad II's subordinates. Murad II's furious reply eventually smashed this upstart and, in 1422, began the

748:

in 1302. Despite this, Andronikos tried once more to strike a decisive blow back at the Turks, this time hiring Catalan mercenaries. Under the guidance of Michael IX and the leadership of

1409:

in the 13th century had been one of the most determined powers to remove Christian influence in the Middle East and raiding by Cyprus did not change this in the 14th and 15th centuries.

1436:

In order to implement these Greek re-conquests, Michael VIII was forced to levy crushing taxes on the Anatolian peasantry in order to pay for the expensive army that modeled around the

325: 1497:

The fall also had many implications in Europe: the influx of Greek science and culture into Europe by those escaping the Ottomans was a crucial factor in catalyzing the European

1456:

The Ottomans combined several different fighting methods and technologies. These Sipahis were exactly unique for western knights due to their weapons and battlefield experiments.

1143:, Timur's forces routed Bayezid I's forces, a shocking defeat for which no one was prepared. In the aftermath, the Ottoman Turks began fighting each other led by Bayezid's sons. 706:

Andronikos' rule was marked by incompetence and short-sighted decisions that in the long run would damage the Byzantine Empire beyond repair. He began to debase the Byzantine

2071:

Histoire de Constantinople depuis le regne de l'Ancien Justin, jusqu'a la fin de l'Empire, traduite sur les Originaux Grecs par Mr.Cousin, President de la Cour des Monnuyes

1064:

and the islands of the Archipelago. He destroyed every market town and village from Bithynia to Thrace on the outskirts of Constantinople and deported all the inhabitants.

791:

backed his grandson. Eventually Andronikos III emerged triumphant on May 23, 1328. As Andronikos III consolidated his hold on Byzantium, the Ottomans succeeded in taking

1272:. Genoa and Venice were both enemies of the Ottomans, but also of each other. The Venetians considered sending their fleet up to attack the fortifications guarding the 1524:

How shamefully ... the pope has this long time baited us with the war against the Turks, taken our money, destroyed so many Christians and made so much mischief!

1245:. The French did not wish to lose their advantage in the fight by sending knights and the English were in no position to do so. Spain was in the final stages of the 1202:

The Ottoman Empire in 1451. By this point all of Byzantium's major cities had fallen to the Ottomans who occupied almost half of Anatolia and most of the Balkans

1385:

The Latin presence in the Balkans seriously undermined the Byzantines' ability to coordinate their efforts against the Ottoman Turks. This is exemplified by

628:. Key: Dark green: Ottoman domain by the 1300s, dotted line indicates conquests up to 1326. Light red: Byzantine Empire. Light green: Turkic lands. Yellow: 318: 1300:

The city's fall was not a result of the Ottoman artillery nor their naval supremacy (many Italian ships were able to aid and then escape the city). The

1045:

launched a coup against John V but despite Ottoman and Genoese aid his reign lasted mere five months before he was toppled by Manuel II and his father.

1261:

seriously reduced the willingness of most to perform a crusade. Poland and Hungary were key participants at Varna and the defeat there along with the

1158:

Along with the humiliation, the Byzantine tribute to the Ottomans of 300,000 silver coins would have been all the more difficult with the economy

311: 497: 161: 102: 663:

river now threatened Constantinople itself. To solve these problems, Michael VIII began consolidating his rule; he had the younger co-emperor

1296:, was converted into a mosque. From 1935 to 2020 it served as a museum of Constantinopolitan legacy before being re-converted into a mosque. 1352:, the Ottoman threat to Europe and decreased interest in crusading forced European powers to recognize the Ottoman Empire as masters of 1668: 1648: 485: 583:. Within 90 years of Osman I's establishment of the Ottoman beylik, the Byzantines lost all of their Anatolian territory and by 1400, 538:

in 1261 by the Nicaean Empire. The position of the Byzantine Empire in Europe remained uncertain due to the presence of the rivals in

2319:

Constantinople and the West: Essays on the Late Byzantine (Palaeologan) and Italian Renaissances and the Byzantine and Roman Churches

1348:

continued to be recognized as the rightful emperors of Constantinople by the crowned heads of Europe until the 16th century when the

1226:

of 1444, which, despite much local support and deception – a peace treaty was unilaterally revoked by the Hungarians – was defeated.

1021: 821:

on 10 June 1329. In 1331, Nicaea surrendered, resulting in a massive blow due to its strategic position relative to Constantinople.

699:

took power. The death of the old Byzantine Emperor came as a relief for the society at large; his policy of Latin appeasement to the

500:. Thus, the Byzantines faced increasingly disastrous defeats at the hands of the Ottomans. Ultimately, they lost Constantinople in 2617: 1109: 863:. Byzantium has lost her cities in Asia Minor and Macedonia and Epirus have been conquered by Dushan's Serbia, while the nascent 683:

and to submit to the authority of Rome in order to alleviate the Latin threat. As the Byzantine Empire continued the conquest of

420: 2586:

The decline of medieval Hellenism in Asia Minor: And the process of Islamization from the eleventh through the fifteenth century

1229:

In 1448 and 1451, there was a change in the Byzantine and Ottoman leaderships, respectively. Murad II died and was succeeded by

668: 985:

was taken the following year. Meanwhile, various smaller states were subjugated as vassals, including the Serbs following the

2593: 2513: 2480: 2459: 2414: 2391: 1178: 435: 415: 1257:

to unite the principalities, had exhausted what could be spared at Varna. Further fighting among the German princes and the

1004:

Map of the Middle East c.1389. Byzantium (purple) consists of little other than Constantinople. Following the occupation of

1609: 1516:(without Byzantium the Crusades could not re-supply en route) and the lack of a genuine counter-attack led many, including 911: 891: 784: 2612: 828:

Despite these setbacks, Andronikos III was able to score a few successes against his opponents in Greece and Asia Minor;

599:

in 1444 allowed a ruined Constantinople to stave off defeat until it finally fell in 1453. After having taken the city,

2533: 756:

in the spring and summer of 1303 managed to drive back the Turks. The mercenaries' onslaught drove the Turks back from

489: 269: 2565: 2370: 2327: 1961: 1934: 1614: 571:

participated in the conquest of Byzantine and Seljuk territory, the territories under the control of one such bey,

554:(Byzantium's chief rival in Asia Minor) led to the removal of troops from Anatolia to maintain Byzantium's grip on 527: 931:, staged a coup and ousted John VI Cantacuzenus in November 1354. As a result, John VI would later become a monk. 775:

After these defeats, Andronikos was in no position to send substantial forces. In 1320, Andronikos II's grandson,

385: 32: 2437: 1187: 1159: 672: 561:

The decay of the Sultanate of Rum brought unexpected instability to the Anatolian frontier, as nobles known as

505: 430: 425: 405: 370: 1551:

attempts to contain the Ottoman threat became more and more a formality until the official dissolution of the

1116: 446: 1360:. Byzantine rule in its former sphere ended fully following the conquests of several major rump states: the 47:

Clockwise from top-left: Walls of Constantinople, Ottoman janissaries, Byzantine flag, Ottoman bronze cannon

1207: 1092: 645: 531: 530:

the Seljuk Turks from the remaining territories still under Byzantine rule. Eventually Constantinople was

1186:. The seemingly promising rebellion had its origins in Asia Minor with Bursa coming under siege. After a 969: 956: 629: 1477:

came as a shock to the papacy, which ordered an immediate counter-attack in the form of a crusade. Only

1165:

The rare amity established between the two states would not last; the death of Mehmed I and the rise of

935:

the civil conflict came a small lull in fighting between the expanding Ottomans and Byzantines. In 1361

1282: 1269: 1234: 612: 600: 28: 726:. To popularize his rule he repudiated the union of the Orthodox and Catholic Churches decreed by the 1604: 1361: 1012:

Ottoman advances into the Balkans were aided by further Byzantine civil conflict – this time between

451: 783:. He kept on pressing for his inheritance and, in 1322, was made co-emperor. This culminated in the 1406: 1386: 1365: 1262: 667:

blinded, which resulted in much resentment. To counter this, the Byzantine Emperor installed a new

257: 2405:

The late medieval Balkans: a critical survey from the late twelfth century to the Ottoman Conquest

1599: 1576: 1548: 1485:

responded but under the condition that a powerful monarch assist him; however, none would do so.

1440:. This led to much peasant support for the Turks whose system resulted in fewer taxes initially. 986: 825:

did not stop the Ottomans from laying siege to Nicomedia in 1333; the city finally fell in 1337.

788: 732: 547: 1211: 894:, in which Cantacuzenus emerged triumphant at Constantinople in February 1347. During this time 1539: 1474: 1301: 1151:

ended in 1413 when Mehmed I, with the support of the Byzantine Empire, defeated his opponents.

727: 712:, resulting in a reduction of the value of the Byzantine economy; taxes were decreased for the 501: 441: 169: 1170: 1034: 656: 350: 2426: 1505: 1230: 1073: 1025: 916: 680: 588: 410: 355: 8: 1369: 1345: 1341: 1148: 1120: 829: 818: 741: 539: 380: 245: 233: 156: 1664: 1644: 1337: 1278: 1113: 1013: 875: 804: 717: 390: 209: 40: 1520:, into believing that the Turks were God's punishment against the sins of Christians: 1310: 2589: 2561: 2509: 2476: 2455: 2433: 2410: 2403: 2387: 2366: 2323: 1957: 1930: 1250: 1242: 1078:

Whilst the civil war was raging, the Turks in Anatolia took the opportunity to seize

1005: 964: 928: 879: 745: 567:

began setting up fiefdoms at the expense of the Byzantine Empire. While many Turkish

395: 360: 293: 221: 196: 148: 1584: 1509: 1482: 1430: 1418: 1223: 1140: 1132: 887: 664: 596: 592: 551: 515: 477: 469: 400: 365: 93: 1538:

recognized by Europe's lack of action, the Ottomans went on to facilitate further

649: 128: 2546: 2503: 2470: 2381: 2317: 2069: 1951: 1924: 1685: 1478: 1426: 864: 753: 700: 676: 179: 174: 2447: 1589: 1552: 1544: 1437: 1041:, alarming the Ottoman Sultan in liberating parts of Greece from Ottoman rule. 904: 895: 776: 637: 584: 580: 523: 512: 493: 481: 375: 133: 106: 98: 1206:

The Ottomans faced numerous opponents between 1424 and 1453. Tied down by the

1112:

in 1394. Manuel II called for a Crusade, which came in 1396. Under the future

2606: 2452:

Constantinople and the Latins: The Foreign Policy of Andronicus II, 1282–1328

1517: 1328: 1183: 1030: 1017: 936: 883: 817:

The fate of Nicaea was sealed when the Byzantine relief army was defeated at

813:

The Ottoman Sultanate operated vast numbers of skilled troops and conscripts.

749: 696: 473: 731:

moved to Anatolia to oversee the campaigns there and instructed his General

688: 2499: 1594: 1486: 1452: 1293: 1258: 1254: 1215: 1038: 948: 684: 641: 535: 281: 276: 1673:

A History of the Crusades: Volume VI. The Impact of the Crusades on Europe

1653:

A History of the Crusades: Volume VI. The Impact of the Crusades on Europe

1344:

in 1461. With the fall of Trebizond came the end of the Roman Empire; the

692: 1950:

Bekker, Immanuel; Schopen, Ludwig; Gregoras, Nicephorus (February 2014).

1556: 1498: 1349: 1306: 1288: 1273: 1246: 1000: 907:. Following this victory, Cantacuzenus ruled as co-emperor with John V. 767: 617: 303: 2534:"The Fourth Crusade and the Sack of Constantinople | History Today" 1154: 1079: 899: 852: 757: 1219: 944: 737: 708: 1513: 1429:

founded by Osman I. This weakening of unified Turkish power gave the

1049: 990: 951:, Murad I left the taking of Byzantine territory to his vassals with 924: 809: 687:, the Turks under Osman I began their raids into Byzantine Anatolia; 1198: 943:

was more concerned with his Anatolian positions. However, just like

771:

Byzantine Empire at the time of Andronikos III's assumption of power

1534: 1353: 1166: 868: 833: 780: 519: 68: 1953:

Nicephori Gregorae Byzantina Historia: Graece Et Latine, Volume 2

1422: 1268:

Other than these major European powers, the only others were the

1136: 952: 940: 920: 761: 722: 572: 72: 1396: 1491: 1357: 1105: 1061: 1057: 975: 955:

falling after major campaigning between 1363–64 and Adrianople

919:

as junior co-emperor. However, the Turks, under Osman I's son,

841: 660: 576: 563: 555: 543: 982: 2383:

Traditions & Encounters: A Global Perspective on the Past

1797: 1795: 1128: 1053: 994: 837: 792: 1926:

Les Balkans au Moyen Age: la Bulgarie des Bogomils aux Turcs

1390: 1281:. In any case some 2,000 mercenaries, mostly Italian under 993:. By 1396 the Bulgarians had been entirely subjugated when 847: 2197: 2195: 2146: 2144: 2142: 2140: 2127: 2125: 1816: 1814: 1812: 1810: 1792: 1675:. Madison: The University of Wisconsin Press. pp. 311–353. 1669:

Chapter VII. The Ottoman Turks and the Crusades, 1451–1522

1649:

Chapter VII. The Ottoman Turks and the Crusades, 1329–1451

923:, now came into play by capturing the fort of Kallipolis ( 476:

and their allies that led to the final destruction of the

1770: 1768: 1766: 1655:. Madison: The University of Wisconsin Press. pp.175–221. 1332:

Byzantium's last years saw the loss of recent territories

679:

that had been placed against him by the former Patriarch

644:

whilst to the north another significant threat came from

568: 2341: 2339: 2299: 2297: 2100: 2098: 1831: 1829: 1708: 1706: 1704: 1702: 1700: 1698: 1425:

breaking away as autonomous states, such as the upstart

1241:

England and France were in the concluding stages of the

874:

Andronikos III died in 1341 leaving his 10-year-old son

2222: 2192: 2137: 2122: 2085: 2083: 2081: 2027: 2025: 2023: 2021: 2019: 2006: 2004: 1979: 1977: 1975: 1973: 1870: 1868: 1807: 1098: 898:, earthquakes and Ottoman raiding continued until only 2282: 1763: 1729: 1727: 1725: 1723: 1721: 1265:

kept them busy and unwilling for further commitments.

1135:

led an army into Anatolia, dismantling the network of

890:. Rivalries between Kalekas and Cantacuzenus led to a 740:

and the Byzantine general George Mouzalon occurred at

2336: 2294: 2095: 1989: 1949: 1826: 1695: 1313:, a Venetian surgeon present at the siege who wrote: 910:

This dual rule eventually failed and the two waged a

2428:

Battle a Visual Journey Through 5000 Years of Combat

2246: 2234: 2212: 2210: 2180: 2168: 2156: 2110: 2078: 2049: 2037: 2016: 2001: 1970: 1904: 1892: 1880: 1865: 1853: 1780: 1739: 1566: 1020:. With Ottoman aid from Murad I, John V was able to 2363:

The Late Byzantine Army: Arms and Society 1204–1453

2258: 1841: 1718: 1626: 1210:, the Ottomans had to contend with the Serbs under 2425: 2402: 2270: 1751: 606: 504:, formally ending the conflicts (however, several 16:Conflict between the Byzantine and Ottoman empires 2207: 1504:The failed attempts at defeating the Ottomans at 1375: 836:were retaken. In 1329, the Byzantines recaptured 550:. This, combined with the declining power of the 2604: 468:were a series of decisive conflicts between the 2380:Bentley, Jerry H.; Ziegler, Herbert F. (2006). 989:in 1389, much of Bulgaria was taken in 1393 by 798: 787:, in which Serbia backed Andronikos II and the 2379: 1801: 1671:". In Zacour, N. P., and Hazard, H. W. (ed.). 1651:". In Zacour, N. P., and Hazard, H. W. (ed.). 1336:After the siege, the Ottomans went on to take 601:Ottoman supremacy in the eastern Mediterranean 1956:. Creative Media Partners, LLC. p. 683. 1193: 1095:, something that he did not take lightly to. 319: 2558:A History of the Byzantine State and Society 976:Byzantine civil war and vassalage: 1371–1394 2315: 657:strong frontier under the Komnenian dynasty 484:. The Byzantines, already having been in a 2505:The Last Centuries of Byzantium, 1261–1453 1532:With the Ottomans' hold on Constantinople 333: 326: 312: 2555: 1104:changed his decision and demanded that a 720:and instead placed upon the Knight-class 498:under the rule of the Palaiologos dynasty 2574: 2544: 2531: 2360: 2288: 2228: 2201: 2131: 1632: 1451: 1395: 1327: 1287: 1197: 1153: 999: 851: 848:Balkan invasion and civil war: 1341–1371 808: 766: 616: 2583: 2469:Madden, Thomas F. (12 September 2005). 2401:Fine, John Van Antwerp (January 1987). 1922: 1372:(then under the Tocco family) in 1479. 1067: 511:Taking advantage of the situation, the 2605: 2522: 2468: 2345: 2303: 2276: 2104: 2067: 1995: 1835: 1745: 1712: 1253:, never centralized enough behind the 1222:. This resistance culminated into the 939:fell to the Turks. Orhan's successor, 636:Following the Byzantine reconquest of 2498: 2489: 2446: 2423: 2252: 2240: 2216: 2186: 2174: 2162: 2150: 2116: 2089: 2055: 2043: 2031: 2010: 1983: 1910: 1898: 1886: 1874: 1859: 1847: 1820: 1786: 1774: 1757: 1733: 1447: 1412: 1380: 307: 2400: 2365:. University of Pennsylvania Press. 2264: 1610:List of conflicts in the Middle East 1139:loyal to the Ottoman Sultan. At the 1099:Resumption of hostilities: 1394–1424 1169:in 1421 coupled with the ascent of 878:to rule. A regency was set up with 648:expansion into the Balkans by king 587:was also lost to the Ottomans. The 518:began seizing territory in western 13: 2588:. University of California Press. 1929:. Variorum Reprints. p. 242. 1923:Angelov, Dimitŭr Simeonov (1978). 1056:and the surrounding market towns, 39: 14: 2629: 2472:Crusades: The Illustrated History 2322:. University of Wisconsin Press. 1615:Ottoman claim to Roman succession 2475:. University of Michigan Press. 2409:. University of Michigan Press. 1569: 1188:failed assault on Constantinople 785:Byzantine civil war of 1321–1328 287: 275: 263: 251: 239: 227: 215: 202: 189: 155: 142: 127: 2492:The Oxford History of Byzantium 2316:Geanakoplos, Deno John (1989). 2309: 2061: 1943: 1916: 1468: 1393:against the Byzantine Emperor. 1292:The city's largest church, the 867:had consolidated its hold over 607:Rise of the Ottomans: 1265–1328 575:, posed the greatest threat to 33:Decline of the Byzantine Empire 2508:. Cambridge University Press. 2432:. London: Dorling Kindersley. 1678: 1658: 1638: 1376:Causes of the Byzantine defeat 882:, the young Emperor's mother, 1: 2560:. Stanford University Press. 2556:Treadgold, Warren T. (1997). 2354: 857: 795:from the Byzantines in 1326. 622: 2577:The Ottoman Empire 1326–1699 2548:Byzantium: Great Ages of Man 2532:Phillips, Johnathan (2004). 2525:Compact history of the world 2454:. Harvard University Press. 1692:. Online only. Updated 2010. 1433:a temporary upper hand in . 1085: 1029:angering his second son and 856:The Balkans and Anatolia in 799:Byzantium counter: 1328–1341 490:partitioning of their Empire 7: 2584:Vryonis, Speros S. (1971). 1562: 1220:George Kastrioti Skanderbeg 669:Patriarch of Constantinople 10: 2634: 2618:Christian–Islamic violence 2575:Turnbull, Stephen (2003). 2551:. Time-Life International. 2500:Nicol, Donald MacGillivray 2361:Bartusis, Mark C. (1997). 1802:Bentley & Ziegler 2006 1283:Giovanni Giustiniani Longo 1235:Constantine XI Palaiologos 1194:Ottoman victory: 1424–1453 1071: 1052:sent a fleet to burn down 1024:Andronikos IV and his son 802: 675:, ordering him to lift an 632:. Red/blue: Latin states 613:Rise of the Ottoman Empire 610: 496:, failed to recover fully 288: 264: 252: 240: 228: 143: 29:Rise of the Ottoman Empire 2545:Sherrard, Philip (1967). 2523:Parker, Geoffrey (2005). 1543:modernized. As a result, 1231:Mehmed II 'the Conqueror' 959:to the Ottomans in 1369. 345: 118: 51: 38: 26: 21: 1620: 1387:Michael VIII Palaiologos 1218:and the Albanians under 593:Timur's invasion of 1402 258:Principality of Theodoro 1577:Byzantine Empire portal 1214:, the Hungarians under 733:Alexios Philanthropenos 2613:Byzantine–Ottoman wars 2527:. London: Times Books. 2494:. New York: Oxford UP. 2068:Cousin, Louis (1671). 1526: 1475:Fall of Constantinople 1457: 1401: 1333: 1326: 1302:fall of Constantinople 1297: 1203: 1162: 1123:at Nicopolis in 1396. 1009: 871: 840:and, in 1335, secured 814: 772: 728:Second Council of Lyon 633: 466:Byzantine–Ottoman wars 337:Byzantine–Ottoman wars 170:Despotate of the Morea 44: 22:Byzantine–Ottoman wars 2490:Mango, Cyril (2002). 1605:Byzantine–Seljuq wars 1522: 1455: 1399: 1331: 1315: 1291: 1208:siege of Thessalonika 1201: 1179:Siege of Thessalonika 1157: 1035:Manuel II Palaiologos 1003: 892:destructive civil war 855: 812: 770: 620: 603:was largely secured. 43: 2538:www.historytoday.com 2424:Grant, R.G. (2005). 1690:Encyclopædia Iranica 1263:Polish–Teutonic Wars 1174:Bayezid's lost son. 1074:Fall of Philadelphia 1068:Fall of Philadelphia 970:St. Peter's Basilica 917:Matthew Cantacuzenus 886:, and the Patriarch 681:Arsenios Autoreianos 589:Crusade of Nicopolis 508:lasted until 1479). 480:and the rise of the 2579:. New York: Osprey. 1600:Arab–Byzantine wars 1540:conquests in Europe 1270:Italian city-states 1016:and his eldest son 752:, the 6,500-strong 621:East Mediterranean 246:Despotate of Epirus 234:Empire of Trebizond 175:Catalan mercenaries 2448:Laiou, Angeliki E. 2153:, pp. 274–76. 1823:, pp. 260–61. 1777:, pp. 255–57. 1512:, the loss of the 1458: 1448:Ottoman Advantages 1413:Byzantine weakness 1402: 1381:Latin intervention 1334: 1298: 1204: 1163: 1119:, the Crusade was 1114:Holy Roman Emperor 1048:In the year 1390, 1010: 872: 815: 805:Siege of Nicomedia 773: 718:landed aristocracy 634: 506:Byzantine Holdouts 442:4th Constantinople 431:3rd Constantinople 426:2nd Constantinople 421:1st Constantinople 270:Kingdom of Hungary 210:Republic of Venice 45: 2595:978-0-520-01597-5 2515:978-0-521-43991-6 2482:978-0-472-03127-6 2461:978-0-674-16535-9 2416:978-0-472-10079-8 2393:978-0-07-299835-1 1684:Andrew Peacock, " 1421:resulted in many 1362:Fall of Trebizond 1279:Venetian Republic 1251:Holy Roman Empire 1243:Hundred Years War 1149:Ottoman civil war 1110:siege of the city 965:Battle of Maritsa 880:John Cantacuzenus 461: 460: 302: 301: 294:Serbian Despotate 222:Kingdom of Sicily 197:Republic of Genoa 149:Serbian Despotate 114: 113: 2625: 2599: 2580: 2571: 2552: 2541: 2528: 2519: 2495: 2486: 2465: 2443: 2431: 2420: 2408: 2397: 2376: 2349: 2343: 2334: 2333: 2313: 2307: 2301: 2292: 2286: 2280: 2274: 2268: 2262: 2256: 2250: 2244: 2238: 2232: 2226: 2220: 2214: 2205: 2199: 2190: 2184: 2178: 2172: 2166: 2160: 2154: 2148: 2135: 2129: 2120: 2114: 2108: 2102: 2093: 2087: 2076: 2075: 2074:. p. 8:335. 2065: 2059: 2053: 2047: 2041: 2035: 2029: 2014: 2008: 1999: 1993: 1987: 1981: 1968: 1967: 1947: 1941: 1940: 1920: 1914: 1908: 1902: 1896: 1890: 1884: 1878: 1872: 1863: 1857: 1851: 1845: 1839: 1833: 1824: 1818: 1805: 1799: 1790: 1784: 1778: 1772: 1761: 1755: 1749: 1743: 1737: 1731: 1716: 1715:, pp. 70–1. 1710: 1693: 1682: 1676: 1662: 1656: 1642: 1636: 1630: 1585:Byzantine empire 1579: 1574: 1573: 1572: 1483:Duke of Burgundy 1431:Empire of Nicaea 1419:Sultanate of Rum 1407:Mamluk Sultanate 1324: 1224:Crusade of Varna 1212:George Brankovic 1141:Battle of Ankara 1133:Chagatai Mongols 987:Battle of Kosovo 888:John XIV Kalekas 862: 859: 655:What was once a 627: 624: 597:Crusade of Varna 585:Byzantine Thrace 552:Sultanate of Rum 516:Sultanate of Rum 488:even before the 478:Byzantine Empire 470:Byzantine Greeks 436:2nd Thessalonica 416:1st Thessalonica 401:Savoyard crusade 371:Catalan campaign 340: 338: 328: 321: 314: 305: 304: 292: 291: 290: 280: 279: 268: 267: 266: 256: 255: 254: 244: 243: 242: 232: 231: 230: 220: 219: 218: 208: 206: 205: 195: 193: 192: 162:Byzantine Empire 159: 147: 146: 145: 131: 103:Byzantine Empire 94:Byzantine Empire 53: 52: 19: 18: 2633: 2632: 2628: 2627: 2626: 2624: 2623: 2622: 2603: 2602: 2596: 2568: 2516: 2483: 2462: 2440: 2417: 2394: 2386:. McGraw-Hill. 2373: 2357: 2352: 2344: 2337: 2330: 2314: 2310: 2302: 2295: 2287: 2283: 2275: 2271: 2263: 2259: 2251: 2247: 2239: 2235: 2227: 2223: 2215: 2208: 2200: 2193: 2185: 2181: 2173: 2169: 2161: 2157: 2149: 2138: 2130: 2123: 2115: 2111: 2103: 2096: 2088: 2079: 2066: 2062: 2054: 2050: 2042: 2038: 2030: 2017: 2009: 2002: 1994: 1990: 1982: 1971: 1964: 1948: 1944: 1937: 1921: 1917: 1909: 1905: 1897: 1893: 1885: 1881: 1873: 1866: 1858: 1854: 1846: 1842: 1834: 1827: 1819: 1808: 1800: 1793: 1785: 1781: 1773: 1764: 1756: 1752: 1744: 1740: 1732: 1719: 1711: 1696: 1683: 1679: 1663: 1659: 1643: 1639: 1631: 1627: 1623: 1575: 1570: 1568: 1565: 1479:Philip the Good 1471: 1450: 1415: 1383: 1378: 1325: 1322: 1311:Niccolò Barbaro 1196: 1101: 1088: 1076: 1070: 978: 865:Ottoman Beyliks 860: 850: 807: 801: 754:Catalan Company 685:Latin territory 677:excommunication 625: 615: 609: 462: 457: 456: 440: 341: 336: 334: 332: 298: 286: 274: 262: 250: 238: 226: 216: 214: 203: 201: 190: 188: 166: 165: 141: 140: 139: 89: 86:Ottoman victory 75: 46: 17: 12: 11: 5: 2631: 2621: 2620: 2615: 2601: 2600: 2594: 2581: 2572: 2566: 2553: 2542: 2529: 2520: 2514: 2496: 2487: 2481: 2466: 2460: 2444: 2438: 2421: 2415: 2398: 2392: 2377: 2371: 2356: 2353: 2351: 2350: 2348:, p. 193. 2335: 2328: 2308: 2306:, p. 189. 2293: 2281: 2269: 2267:, p. 563. 2257: 2255:, p. 283. 2245: 2243:, p. 123. 2233: 2231:, p. 169. 2221: 2206: 2204:, p. 168. 2191: 2189:, p. 280. 2179: 2177:, p. 279. 2167: 2165:, p. 276. 2155: 2136: 2134:, p. 167. 2121: 2119:, p. 274. 2109: 2107:, p. 184. 2094: 2092:, p. 273. 2077: 2060: 2058:, p. 271. 2048: 2046:, p. 264. 2036: 2034:, p. 270. 2015: 2013:, p. 269. 2000: 1998:, p. 182. 1988: 1986:, p. 268. 1969: 1962: 1942: 1935: 1915: 1913:, p. 267. 1903: 1901:, p. 266. 1891: 1889:, p. 265. 1879: 1877:, p. 263. 1864: 1862:, p. 262. 1852: 1840: 1838:, p. 179. 1825: 1806: 1791: 1789:, p. 260. 1779: 1762: 1750: 1748:, p. 162. 1738: 1736:, p. 122. 1717: 1694: 1686:Saljuqs of Rum 1677: 1665:İnalcık, Halil 1657: 1645:İnalcık, Halil 1637: 1624: 1622: 1619: 1618: 1617: 1612: 1607: 1602: 1597: 1592: 1590:Ottoman empire 1587: 1581: 1580: 1564: 1561: 1470: 1467: 1449: 1446: 1438:Komnenian army 1414: 1411: 1405:sultan ". The 1382: 1379: 1377: 1374: 1320: 1195: 1192: 1100: 1097: 1087: 1084: 1072:Main article: 1069: 1066: 977: 974: 905:Serbian Empire 849: 846: 803:Main article: 800: 797: 777:Andronikos III 701:Church in Rome 638:Constantinople 611:Main article: 608: 605: 581:Constantinople 524:Nicaean Empire 492:following the 482:Ottoman Empire 459: 458: 455: 454: 449: 444: 438: 433: 428: 423: 418: 413: 408: 403: 398: 393: 388: 383: 378: 373: 368: 363: 358: 353: 347: 346: 343: 342: 331: 330: 323: 316: 308: 300: 299: 297: 296: 284: 272: 260: 248: 236: 224: 212: 199: 185: 184: 183: 177: 172: 154: 152: 138: 137: 134:Ottoman Empire 124: 121: 120: 116: 115: 112: 111: 110: 109: 96: 88: 87: 83: 81: 77: 76: 67: 65: 61: 60: 57: 49: 48: 36: 35: 24: 23: 15: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 2630: 2619: 2616: 2614: 2611: 2610: 2608: 2597: 2591: 2587: 2582: 2578: 2573: 2569: 2567:0-8047-2630-2 2563: 2559: 2554: 2550: 2549: 2543: 2539: 2535: 2530: 2526: 2521: 2517: 2511: 2507: 2506: 2501: 2497: 2493: 2488: 2484: 2478: 2474: 2473: 2467: 2463: 2457: 2453: 2449: 2445: 2441: 2435: 2430: 2429: 2422: 2418: 2412: 2407: 2406: 2399: 2395: 2389: 2385: 2384: 2378: 2374: 2372:0-8122-1620-2 2368: 2364: 2359: 2358: 2347: 2342: 2340: 2331: 2329:9780299118846 2325: 2321: 2320: 2312: 2305: 2300: 2298: 2291:, p. 12. 2290: 2289:Turnbull 2003 2285: 2278: 2273: 2266: 2261: 2254: 2249: 2242: 2237: 2230: 2229:Sherrard 1967 2225: 2218: 2213: 2211: 2203: 2202:Sherrard 1967 2198: 2196: 2188: 2183: 2176: 2171: 2164: 2159: 2152: 2147: 2145: 2143: 2141: 2133: 2132:Sherrard 1967 2128: 2126: 2118: 2113: 2106: 2101: 2099: 2091: 2086: 2084: 2082: 2073: 2072: 2064: 2057: 2052: 2045: 2040: 2033: 2028: 2026: 2024: 2022: 2020: 2012: 2007: 2005: 1997: 1992: 1985: 1980: 1978: 1976: 1974: 1965: 1963:9781293648346 1959: 1955: 1954: 1946: 1938: 1936:9780860780199 1932: 1928: 1927: 1919: 1912: 1907: 1900: 1895: 1888: 1883: 1876: 1871: 1869: 1861: 1856: 1850:, p. 41. 1849: 1844: 1837: 1832: 1830: 1822: 1817: 1815: 1813: 1811: 1803: 1798: 1796: 1788: 1783: 1776: 1771: 1769: 1767: 1760:, p. 93. 1759: 1754: 1747: 1742: 1735: 1730: 1728: 1726: 1724: 1722: 1714: 1709: 1707: 1705: 1703: 1701: 1699: 1691: 1687: 1681: 1674: 1670: 1666: 1661: 1654: 1650: 1646: 1641: 1634: 1633:Phillips 2004 1629: 1625: 1616: 1613: 1611: 1608: 1606: 1603: 1601: 1598: 1596: 1593: 1591: 1588: 1586: 1583: 1582: 1578: 1567: 1560: 1558: 1554: 1550: 1546: 1541: 1537: 1536: 1530: 1525: 1521: 1519: 1518:Martin Luther 1515: 1511: 1507: 1502: 1500: 1495: 1493: 1488: 1484: 1480: 1476: 1466: 1462: 1454: 1445: 1441: 1439: 1434: 1432: 1428: 1424: 1420: 1410: 1408: 1398: 1394: 1392: 1388: 1373: 1371: 1368:in 1475, and 1367: 1363: 1359: 1355: 1351: 1347: 1343: 1340:in 1460, and 1339: 1330: 1319: 1314: 1312: 1308: 1303: 1295: 1290: 1286: 1284: 1280: 1275: 1271: 1266: 1264: 1260: 1256: 1252: 1248: 1244: 1239: 1236: 1232: 1227: 1225: 1221: 1217: 1213: 1209: 1200: 1191: 1189: 1185: 1184:Kucuk Mustafa 1180: 1175: 1172: 1168: 1161: 1156: 1152: 1150: 1144: 1142: 1138: 1134: 1130: 1124: 1122: 1118: 1115: 1111: 1107: 1096: 1094: 1083: 1081: 1075: 1065: 1063: 1059: 1055: 1051: 1046: 1042: 1040: 1036: 1032: 1031:heir apparent 1027: 1023: 1019: 1018:Andronikos IV 1015: 1007: 1002: 998: 996: 992: 988: 984: 973: 971: 966: 960: 958: 954: 953:Philippopolis 950: 946: 942: 938: 937:Didymoteichon 932: 930: 926: 922: 918: 913: 912:new civil war 908: 906: 901: 897: 893: 889: 885: 884:Anna of Savoy 881: 877: 870: 866: 854: 845: 843: 839: 835: 831: 826: 822: 820: 811: 806: 796: 794: 790: 786: 782: 778: 769: 765: 763: 759: 755: 751: 750:Roger de Flor 747: 743: 739: 734: 729: 725: 724: 719: 715: 711: 710: 704: 702: 698: 697:Andronikos II 694: 690: 686: 682: 678: 674: 670: 666: 662: 658: 653: 651: 650:Stefan Uroš I 647: 643: 639: 631: 619: 614: 604: 602: 598: 594: 590: 586: 582: 578: 574: 570: 566: 565: 559: 557: 553: 549: 545: 541: 537: 533: 529: 525: 521: 517: 514: 509: 507: 503: 499: 495: 491: 487: 483: 479: 475: 474:Ottoman Turks 471: 467: 453: 450: 448: 445: 443: 439: 437: 434: 432: 429: 427: 424: 422: 419: 417: 414: 412: 409: 407: 404: 402: 399: 397: 394: 392: 389: 387: 384: 382: 379: 377: 374: 372: 369: 367: 364: 362: 359: 357: 354: 352: 349: 348: 344: 339: 329: 324: 322: 317: 315: 310: 309: 306: 295: 285: 283: 278: 273: 271: 261: 259: 249: 247: 237: 235: 225: 223: 213: 211: 200: 198: 187: 186: 181: 178: 176: 173: 171: 168: 167: 164: 163: 158: 153: 150: 136: 135: 130: 126: 125: 123: 122: 117: 108: 104: 101:annex entire 100: 97: 95: 91: 90: 85: 84: 82: 79: 78: 74: 70: 66: 63: 62: 58: 55: 54: 50: 42: 37: 34: 30: 25: 20: 2585: 2576: 2557: 2547: 2537: 2524: 2504: 2491: 2471: 2451: 2427: 2404: 2382: 2362: 2318: 2311: 2284: 2272: 2260: 2248: 2236: 2224: 2182: 2170: 2158: 2112: 2070: 2063: 2051: 2039: 1991: 1952: 1945: 1925: 1918: 1906: 1894: 1882: 1855: 1843: 1782: 1753: 1741: 1689: 1680: 1672: 1660: 1652: 1640: 1628: 1595:Ottoman Navy 1533: 1531: 1527: 1523: 1503: 1496: 1487:Pope Pius II 1472: 1469:Consequences 1463: 1459: 1442: 1435: 1416: 1403: 1384: 1335: 1316: 1299: 1294:Hagia Sophia 1267: 1259:Hussite wars 1255:Hohenstaufen 1240: 1228: 1216:John Hunyadi 1205: 1176: 1164: 1145: 1125: 1102: 1089: 1080:Philadelphia 1077: 1047: 1043: 1039:Thessalonika 1037:. 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" 1647:(1989). 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The 1121:routed 1106:mosque 1062:Attica 1058:Euboea 1014:John V 997:fell. 896:plague 876:John V 842:Lesbos 830:Epirus 661:Danube 577:Nicaea 564:ghazis 556:Thrace 544:Serbia 540:Epirus 513:Seljuk 386:Nicaea 366:Dimbos 356:İnegöl 207: 194: 80:Result 1621:Notes 1510:Varna 1338:Morea 1129:Timur 1054:Chios 1022:blind 995:Vidin 838:Chios 793:Bursa 689:Söğüt 447:Morea 376:Bursa 2590:ISBN 2562:ISBN 2510:ISBN 2477:ISBN 2456:ISBN 2434:ISBN 2411:ISBN 2388:ISBN 2367:ISBN 2324:ISBN 1958:ISBN 1931:ISBN 1547:and 1508:and 1473:The 1391:coup 744:and 691:and 569:beys 546:and 502:1453 472:and 464:The 107:Mani 56:Date 31:and 1688:". 983:Niš 760:to 2609:: 2536:. 2338:^ 2296:^ 2209:^ 2194:^ 2139:^ 2124:^ 2097:^ 2080:^ 2018:^ 2003:^ 1972:^ 1867:^ 1828:^ 1809:^ 1794:^ 1765:^ 1720:^ 1697:^ 1559:. 1501:. 1494:. 1481:, 1033:, 858:c. 671:, 652:. 623:c. 558:. 542:, 71:, 2598:. 2570:. 2540:. 2518:. 2485:. 2464:. 2442:. 2419:. 2396:. 2375:. 2332:. 2279:. 2219:. 1966:. 1939:. 1804:. 1635:. 327:e 320:t 313:v

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