Arab–Byzantine wars

2711: 2272: 2504: 2871: 1135: 2073: 1871: 52: 1975: 1779:

Islamic times the two countries were so remote that even the most basic information was unknown" (Kennedy). Muawiyah also initiated the first large-scale raids into Anatolia from 641 on. These expeditions, aiming both at plunder and at weakening and keeping the Byzantines at bay, as well as the corresponding retaliatory Byzantine raids, eventually became established as a fixture of Byzantine–Arab warfare for the next three centuries.

2421: 5672: 2805:, stretching northeast from Aleppo (a Byzantine protectorate) to Manzikert. Under the Theme system of military and administrative government, the Byzantines could raise a force at least 200,000 strong, though in practice these were strategically placed throughout the Empire. With Basil's rule, the Byzantine Empire reached its greatest height in nearly five centuries, and indeed for the next four centuries. 1474:, no governor of Heraclius shall enter the city of Homs unless we are first vanquished and exhausted!" The inhabitants of the other cities—Christian and Jews—that had capitulated to the Muslims, did the same When by Allah's help the "unbelievers" were defeated and the Muslims won, they opened the gates of their cities, went out with the singers and music players who began to play, and paid the kharaj." 2992:, and two 8th-century Spanish chronicles, all of which draw on some Byzantine and oriental historical traditions. As far as Byzantine military action against the initial Muslim invasions, Kaegi asserts that "Byzantine traditions ... attempt to deflect criticism of the Byzantine debacle from Heraclius to other persons, groups, and things". 1783: 2186:. This was still a time when Byzantium was fighting for survival, and "the frontier provinces, devastated by war, were a land of ruined cities and deserted villages where a scattered population looked to rocky castles or impenetrable mountains rather than the armies of the empire to provide a minimum of security" (Kennedy). 1545:. But this happened only after they developed a naval power of their own, and they conquered and destroyed the Byzantine stronghold of Carthage between 695 and 698. The loss of Africa meant that soon, Byzantine control of the Western Mediterranean was challenged by a new and expanding Arab fleet, operating from Tunisia. 2897:

in Western Asia were halted. The focus of the Byzantine Empire shifted from the western reconquests of Justinian to a primarily defensive position, against the Islamic armies on its eastern borders. Without Byzantine interference in the emerging Christian states of western Europe, the situation gave a huge stimulus to

1405:. The Byzantines, divided and shocked by the sudden loss of so much territory, agreed to give up the city by September 642. The fall of Alexandria extinguished Byzantine rule in Egypt, and allowed the Muslims to continue their military expansion into North Africa; between 643 and 644 'Amr completed the conquest of 2908:

The view of modern historians is that one of the most important effects was the strain it put on the relationship between Rome and Byzantium. While fighting for survival against the Islamic armies, the Empire was no longer able to provide the protection it had once offered to the Papacy; worse still,

2896:

As with any war of such length, the drawn-out Byzantine–Arab Wars had long-lasting effects for both the Byzantine Empire and the Arab world. The Byzantines experienced extensive territorial loss. However, while the invading Arabs gained strong control in the Middle East and Africa, further conquests

2387:

Continuing a trend started by his immediate predecessors, his reign also saw the development of far more regular contacts between the Abbasid court and Byzantium, with the exchange of embassies and letters being far more common than under the Umayyad rulers. Despite Harun's hostility, "the existence

2286:

Unlike their Umayyad predecessors, the Abbasid caliphs did not pursue active expansion: in general terms, they were content with the territorial limits achieved, and whatever external campaigns they waged were retaliatory or preemptive, meant to preserve their frontier and impress Abbasid might upon

3140:

describes the impact that the loss of Syria had on Heraclius with the following words: "His life's work collapsed before his eyes. The heroic struggle against Persia seemed to be utterly wasted, for his victories here had only prepared the way for the Arab conquest This cruel turn of fortune broke

2220:, which Leo did not take into account. In the words of Warren Treadgold: "He saw no need to consult the church, and he appears to have been surprised by the depth of the popular opposition he encountered". The controversy weakened the Byzantine Empire, and was a key factor in the schism between the 2084:

Following the failure to capture Constantinople in 717–718, the Umayyads for a time diverted their attention elsewhere, allowing the Byzantines to take to the offensive, making some gains in Armenia. From 720/721 however the Arab armies resumed their expeditions against Byzantine Anatolia, although

2040:

The first wave of the Muslim conquests ended with the siege of Constantinople in 718, and the border between the two empires became stabilized along the mountains of eastern Anatolia. Raids and counter-raids continued on both sides and became almost ritualized, but the prospect of outright conquest

1890:

The setback at Constantinople was followed by further reverses across the vast Muslim empire. As Gibbon writes, "this Mahometan Alexander, who sighed for new worlds, was unable to preserve his recent conquests. By the universal defection of the Greeks and Africans he was recalled from the shores of

1966:

began moving towards the imperial capital. The Caliphate's army and navy, led by Maslama, numbered some 120,000 men and 1,800 ships according to the sources. Whatever the real number, it was a huge force, far larger than the imperial army. Thankfully for Leo and the Empire, the capital's sea walls

1778:

Trade between the Muslim eastern and southern shores and the Christian northern shores almost ceased during this period, isolating Western Europe from developments in the Muslim world: "In antiquity, and again in the high Middle Ages, the voyage from Italy to Alexandria was commonplace; in early

3021:

from the beginning of the 7th century), and other non-literary sources, such as epigraphy, archeology, and numismatics. None of these sources contains a coherent account of any of the campaigns and conquests of the Muslim armies, but some do contain invaluable details that survive nowhere else.

1392:

By the time Heraclius died, much of Egypt had been lost, and by 637–638 the whole of Syria was in the hands of the armies of Islam. With 3,500–4,000 troops under his command, 'Amr ibn al-A'as first crossed into Egypt from Palestine at the end of 639 or the beginning of 640. He was progressively

974:, who were less expansionist than their predecessors and did not seek to eliminate the Byzantines; embassies were exchanged and there were several periods of truce. Nevertheless conflict remained the norm, with almost annual raids and counter-raids, either by the Abbasid government or by local 2984:

and those written in Syriac, which are short and terse while the important question of their sources and their use of sources remains unresolved. Kaegi concludes that scholars must also subject the Byzantine tradition to critical scrutiny, as it "contains bias and cannot serve as an objective

978:, which continued until the mid-10th century. Byzantine attempts to take back the lands they had lost only provoked Abbasid retaliation, in the form of destructive invasions of Asia Minor. Arab naval raids reached a peak in the 9th and early 10th centuries: their fleets attacked the coasts of 1957:

Justinian's first and second depositions were followed by internal disorder, with successive revolts and emperors lacking legitimacy or support. In this climate, the Umayyads consolidated their control of Armenia and Cilicia, and began preparing a renewed offensive against Constantinople. In

1085:

Nevertheless, neither empire was given any chance to recover, as within a few years they found themselves in conflict with the Arabs (newly united by Islam), which, according to Howard-Johnston, "can only be likened to a human tsunami". According to George Liska, the "unnecessarily prolonged

1307:

in 636, however, the Muslims, having studied the ground in detail, lured the Byzantines into pitched battle, which the Byzantines usually avoided, and into a series of costly assaults, before turning the deep valleys and cliffs into a catastrophic death-trap. Heraclius' farewell exclamation

1953:

lost in 698, Justinian returned to power from 705 to 711. His second reign was marked by Arab victories in Asia Minor and civil unrest. Reportedly, he ordered his guards to execute the only unit that had not deserted him after one battle, to prevent their desertion in the next.

1642:

In their struggle against the Byzantines and the Berbers, the Arab chieftains had greatly extended their African dominions, and as early as the year 682 Uqba had reached the shores of the Atlantic, but he was unable to occupy Tangier, for he was forced to turn back toward the

2964: 1762:

in 655 was of critical importance: it opened up the Mediterranean, hitherto a "Roman lake", to Arab expansion, and began a centuries-long series of naval conflicts over the control of the Mediterranean waterways. 500 Byzantine ships were destroyed in the battle, and Emperor

3119:) had sharpened the differences between the Byzantines and the Syrians. Also the high taxes, the power of the landowners over the peasants and the participation in the long and exhaustive wars with the Persians were some of the reasons why the Syrians welcomed the change. 1424:

welcomed the Arabs just as the Monophysites did in Jerusalem. The loss of this lucrative province deprived the Byzantines of their valuable wheat supply, thereby causing food shortages throughout the Byzantine Empire and weakening its armies in the following decades.

2527:

as a serious military threat. Umar died in battle and the remnants of his army was annihilated in subsequent clashes, allowing the Byzantines to celebrate the victory as revenge for the earlier Arab sacking of Amorion, while news of the defeats sparked riots in

1814:, the large territorial commands into which Anatolia, the major contiguous territory remaining to the Empire, was divided. The remains of the old field armies were settled in each of them, and soldiers were allocated land there in payment of their service. The 3158:. He was dressed in worn, filthy robes, and the army that followed him was rough and unkempt; but its discipline was perfect. At his side rode the Patriarch Sophronius as chief magistrate of the surrendered city. Omar rode straight to the site of the 1891:

the Atlantic." His forces were directed at putting down rebellions, and in one such battle he was surrounded by insurgents and killed. Then, the third governor of Africa, Zuheir, was overthrown by a powerful army, sent from Constantinople by

1863:, resulting in the lifting of the siege in 678. The returning Muslim fleet suffered further losses due to storms, while the army lost many men to the thematic armies who attacked them on their route back. Among those killed in the siege was 1469:

replied , "We like your rule and justice far better than the state of oppression and tyranny in which we were. The army of Heraclius we shall indeed, with your 'amil's' help, repulse from the city." The Jews rose and said, "We swear by the

1097:

under Muslim rule via conquest as well as making alliances with neighboring tribes, and it was under his leadership that the first Muslim–Byzantine skirmishes took place. Just a few months after Emperor Heraclius and the Persian general

2010:

against them; the Arab fleet kept well off the city walls, leaving Constantinople's supply routes open. Forced to extend the siege into winter, the besieging army suffered horrendous casualties from the cold and the lack of provisions.

1666:

As the first tide of the Muslim conquests in the Near East ebbed off, and a semi-permanent border between the two powers was established, a wide zone, unclaimed by either Byzantines or Arabs and virtually deserted (known in Arabic as

2975:

Walter Emil Kaegi states that extant Arabic sources have been given much scholarly attention for issues of obscurities and contradictions. However, he points out that Byzantine sources are also problematic, such as the chronicles of

1834:

during the winter. Four years later, a massive Muslim fleet reappeared in the Marmara and re-established a base at Cyzicus, from there they raided the Byzantine coasts almost at will. Finally in 676, Muawiyah sent an army to invest

2018:(r. 717–720), by sea from Africa and Egypt and over land through Asia Minor. The crews of the new fleets were composed mostly of Christians, who began defecting in large numbers, while the land forces were ambushed and defeated in 2263:, and continued scoring further victories. These successes were also interpreted by Leo III and his son Constantine as evidence of God's renewed favour, and strengthened the position of Iconoclasm within the Empire. 1194:

There is no contemporary Byzantine account of the Tabuk expedition, and many of the details come from much later Muslim sources. It has been argued that there is in one Byzantine source possibly referencing the

3162:, whence his friend Mahomet had ascended into Heaven. Watching him stand there, the Patriarch remembered the words of Christ and murmured through his tears: 'Behold the abomination of desolation, spoken of by 2022:. As famine and an epidemic continued to plague the Arab camp, the siege was abandoned on 15 August 718. On its return, the Arab fleet suffered further casualties to storms and an eruption of the volcano of 1712:

Nevertheless, the Umayyads still considered the complete subjugation of Byzantium as their ultimate objective. Their thinking was dominated by Islamic teaching, which placed the infidel Byzantines in the

1533:. Under the Umayyads the conquest of the remaining Byzantine and northern Berber territories in North Africa was completed and the Arabs were able to move across large parts of the Berber world, invading 2294:

As a symbol of the Caliph's ritual role as the leader of the Muslim community, they were closely paralleled in official propaganda by the leadership by Abbasid family members of the annual pilgrimage (

2287:

their neighbours. At the same time, the campaigns against Byzantium in particular remained important for domestic consumption. The annual raids, which had almost lapsed in the turmoil following the

2170:(r. 723–743), the Arab expeditions intensified for a time, and were led by some of the Caliphate's most capable generals, including princes of the Umayyad dynasty like Maslama ibn Abd al-Malik and 1179:

According to Muslim biographies, Muhammed, having received intelligence that Byzantine forces were concentrating in northern Arabia with intentions of invading Arabia, led a Muslim army north to

2088:

Under the late Umayyad and early Abbasid caliphs, the frontier between Byzantium and the Caliphate became stabilized along the line of the Taurus-Antitaurus mountain ranges. On the Arab side,

2163:

troops. The raids were also largely confined to the borderlands and the central Anatolian plateau, and only rarely reached the peripheral coastlands, which the Byzantines fortified heavily.

1808:(r. 641–668) used to shore up his defences, extend and consolidate his control over Armenia and most importantly, initiate a major army reform with lasting effect: the establishment of the 1723:, "the Muslims should attack whenever possible; rather than peace interrupted by occasional conflict, the normal pattern was seen to be conflict interrupted by occasional, temporary truce ( 2197:

concluded that the Empire had lost divine favour. Already in 722 he had tried to force the conversion of the Empire's Jews, but soon he began to turn his attention to the veneration of

2949:

of Charlemagne's successors would later come to the aid of the Byzantines under Louis II and during the Crusades, but relations between the two empires would be strained; based on the

1320:, is expressive of his disappointment: "Peace unto thee, O Syria, and what an excellent country this is for the enemy!" The impact of Syria's loss on the Byzantines is illustrated by 1826:

After his victory in the civil war, Muawiyah launched a series of attacks against Byzantine holdings in Africa, Sicily and the East. By 670, the Muslim fleet had penetrated into the

2304:. In addition, the constant warfare on the Syrian marches was useful to the Abbasids as it provided employment for the Syrian and Iraqi military elites and the various volunteers ( 889:. The frontier between the warring states remained almost static for three centuries of frequent warfare, before the Byzantines were able to recapture some of the lost territory. 2085:

now they were no longer aimed at conquest, but rather large-scale raids, plundering and devastating the countryside and only occasionally attacking forts or major settlements.

1199:

traditionally dated 629, but this is not certain. The first engagements may have started as conflicts with the Arab client states of the Byzantine and Sassanid empires: the

1191:

in the typical sense, nevertheless the event represented the first Arab encounter against the Byzantines. It did not, however, lead immediately to a military confrontation.

199: 1482: – According to the Muslim historians of the 9th century, local populations regarded Byzantine rule as oppressive, and preferred Muslim conquest instead. 4298: 2125:

Both the Umayyads and later the Abbasids continued to regard the annual expeditions against the Caliphate's "traditional enemy" as an integral part of the continuing

2041:

of Byzantium by the Caliphate receded. This led to far more regular, and often friendly, diplomatic contacts, as well as a reciprocal recognition of the two empires.

1020:

had replaced the Abassids as the major Arab power; they halted the Byzantine reconquests although border conflicts continued. The frontier remained stable until the

1742:

and raided the Byzantine islands and coasts. To stop the Byzantine harassment from the sea during the Arab-Byzantine Wars, in 649 Muawiyah set up a navy, manned by

4745: 4731: 3178:

notes that "the Muslim conquest of Syria does not seem to have been actively opposed by the towns, but it is striking that Antioch put up so little resistance.

1102:

agreed on terms for the withdrawal of Persian troops from occupied Byzantine eastern provinces in 629, Arab and Byzantine troops confronted each other at the

928:, which became a major battleground. Both sides launched raids and counter-raids against islands and coastal settlements. The Rashiduns were succeeded by the 5116: 3594: 1512:

was killed. Abdallah's booty-laden force returned to Egypt in 648 after Gregory's successor, Gennadius, promised them an annual tribute of some 300,000

3893: 3642: 2360:(r. 786–809) in particular was the most energetic of the early Abbasid rulers in his pursuit of warfare against Byzantium: he established his seat at 2582: 192: 2667:

the strongest of the Muslim border emirates, and advanced into Armenia in the 930s; the next three decades were dominated by the struggle of the

1867:, the standard bearer of Muhammed and the last of his companions; to Muslims today, his tomb is considered one of the holiest sites in Istanbul. 1001:, the Abbasid state entered a period of decline and fragmentation. Simultaneously, the Byzantines began a resurgence under their emperors of the 2733:

launched a counter-campaign against the Arabs in 995. The Byzantine civil wars had weakened the Empire's position in the east, and the gains of

5586:

Byzance et les Arabes, Tome II, 1ére partie: Les relations politiques de Byzance et des Arabes à L'époque de la dynastie macédonienne (867–959)

4716: 2388:

of embassies is a sign that the Abbasids accepted that the Byzantine empire was a power with which they had to deal on equal terms" (Kennedy).

2060:, the Byzantines gradually went on the offensive, and recovered much territory in the 10th century, which was lost however after 1071 to the 1187:, with the intention of pre-emptively engaging the Byzantine army, however, the Byzantine army had retreated beforehand. Though it was not a 2413:, the Empire's second largest city, it was quickly re-captured by the Byzantines. Thomas's 821 siege of Constantinople did not get past the 5707: 959:. The Umayyads launched frequent attacks across this frontier, which was heavily fortified by both sides and the surrounding region became 185: 5022: 3154:

describes the event: "On a February day in the year AD 638, the Caliph Omar entered Jerusalem along with a white camel which was ride by

2291:, were undertaken with renewed vigour from ca. 780 on, and were the only expeditions where the Caliph or his sons participated in person. 2116:

and Melitene (Malatya) became major military centers. These two regions came to form the two-halves of a new fortified frontier zone, the

1709:(r. 634–644) pursued a strategy of destruction within this zone, trying to transform it into an effective barrier between the two realms. 1296:. The Byzantine response involved the collection and dispatch of the maximum number of available troops under major commanders, including 967:

and preferring to retreat to their fortified strongholds. After 740 they began to launch their own raids across the frontier and by sea.

3971: 3011:, correspondence often of a patristic provenance, apologetical treatises, apocalypses, hagiography, military manuals (in particular the 2548:. These Byzantines victories marked a turning point which ushered in a century long Byzantine offensive eastward into Muslim territory. 1922:, "reflected the general chaos of the age". After a successful campaign he made a truce with the Arabs, agreeing on joint possession of 2559:

revived the Byzantine Empire into a regional power, during a period of territorial expansion, making the Empire the strongest power in

1738:(r. 661–680) was the driving force of the Muslim effort against Byzantium, especially by his creation of a fleet, which challenged the 1211:. In any case, Muslim Arabs after 634 certainly pursued a full-blown offensive against both empires, resulting in the conquest of the 2955:, we know the Emperor Basil had sent an angry letter to his western counterpart, reprimanding him for usurping the title of emperor. 2189:

In response to the renewal of Arab invasions, and to a sequence of natural disasters such as the eruptions of the volcanic island of

1049: 2555:

in 867, as well as a strong and unified Byzantine leadership; while the Abbasid empire had splintered into many factions after 861.

5676: 1324:' words: " since then the race of the Ishmaelites did not cease from invading and plundering the entire territory of the Romans". 3751: 3724: 2644:

opened a new period of Byzantine domination there. Above all, the Byzantines were beginning to establish a strong presence in the

5712: 3789: 3777: 17: 2455:

While a relative equilibrium reigned in the East, the situation in the western Mediterranean was irretrievably altered when the

3512: 3387: 3358: 2221: 2035: 2772:

had been able to hold these lands for any length of time, and the Empire would retain them for the next 110 years until 1078.

1962:(r. 717–741) had just seized the throne in March 717, when the massive Muslim army under the famed Umayyad prince and general 5394: 5375: 5356: 5254: 5230: 4990: 4967: 4860: 4820: 4449: 4422: 4392: 4362: 4308: 2800: 2401: 1991: 1840: 1772: 1012:

to 976, the Byzantines pushed Arab forces back, recovering some of their lost territories in northern Syria and Armenia. The

945: 941: 456: 441: 4875: 2381: 2348: 498: 483: 121: 2913:, the Emperors "routinely intervened in the life of the Church in areas lying clearly beyond the state's competence". The 3712: 1597:

plunged into the heart of the country, traversed the wilderness in which his successors erected the splendid capitals of

5045: 4897: 2827:

replaced the threat of either power. From the 11th and 12th centuries onwards, the Byzantine conflicts shifted into the

1560:

in 663. Then from 665 to 689 a new North African campaign was launched to protect Egypt "from flank attack by Byzantine

5660: 3799: 3761: 3734: 2450: 815: 539: 5619: 5535: 5507: 5479: 5467: 5456: 5434: 5334: 5300: 5277: 5194: 5170: 5147: 5126: 5102: 5078: 5055: 5034: 4948: 4797: 4603: 4589: 4565: 4542: 4523: 4472: 4281: 4141: 4119: 3931: 3910: 3677: 3616: 3583: 3155: 5692: 5650: 2002:

on the landward side, isolating the capital. Their attempt to complete the blockade by sea however failed when the

1751: 325: 5265: 4850: 5636: 1967:

had recently been repaired and strengthened. In addition, the emperor concluded an alliance with the Bulgar khan

1354:

to the Muslim armies in late 637, and by then the Muslims occupied the whole of northern Syria, except for upper

1332: 719: 647: 581: 546: 5324: 5288: 5158: 2995:

The range of non-historical Byzantine sources is vast: they range from papyri to sermons (most notable those of

1758:

in 655, opening up the Mediterranean. The shocking defeat of the imperial fleet by the young Muslim navy at the

1587:) was established as a base for further invasions; Kairouan would become the capital of the Islamic province of 5581: 5561: 5545: 2981: 1805: 1457: 921: 795: 396: 280: 4983:

The New Cambridge History of Islam, Volume 1: The Formation of the Islamic World, Sixth to Eleventh Centuries

2536:. In the following months the Byzantines successfully invaded Armenia killing the Muslim governor in Armenia 2483:

in 878. Separately, in around 827, a band of Andalusians expelled from Alexandria by the Abbasids arrived in

2255:

led to a pause in Arab attacks against the Empire. It also opened up the way for a more aggressive stance by

2105: 1240: 1053: 909: 833: 790: 699: 689: 248: 5589: 5569: 4384:

Byzantine Military Rhetoric in the Ninth Century: A Translation of the Anonymi Byzantini Rhetorica Militaris

1070:. The last of the wars between the Roman and Persian empires ended with victory for the Byzantines: Emperor 384: 5717: 5697: 4681: 3639: 2571: 729: 231: 4932: 2753:

valley, and raiding further south. Although he did not have the force to drive into Palestine and reclaim

1907:

and Syria resulting in a series of four caliphs between the death of Muawiyah in 680 and the ascension of

5066: 2941:

would probably never have existed without Islam, and Charlemagne without Mahomet would be inconceivable."

2625: 1059: 1045: 596: 5020: 3890: 3041: 2710: 2247:. Only in the late 730s did the Muslim raids again become a threat, but the great Byzantine victory at 1810: 714: 551: 255: 2205:. In 726, Leo published an edict condemning their use and showed himself increasingly critical of the 2052:, which was abandoned in 786 only to be readopted in the 820s and finally abandoned in 843. Under the 1272:

had fallen ill and was unable to personally lead his armies to resist the Arab conquests of Syria and

1066:) left both empires exhausted and vulnerable in the face of the sudden emergence and expansion of the 5527: 3046: 3031: 2814: 2668: 2460: 2380:

and leading a campaign into Anatolia, including the largest expedition assembled under the Abbasids,

1489: 1029: 669: 535: 374: 369: 340: 2725:, the Byzantine Empire became the strongest power in Europe, recovering territories lost in the war. 5702: 5426: 5310:

Makrypoulias, Christos G. (2000). "Byzantine Expeditions against the Emirate of Crete c. 825–949".

4806: 4723: 3200: 3163: 2977: 2491:, which later became their capital once they had subdued the Byzantine territory, establishing the 2044:

In response to the Muslim threat, which reached its peak in the first half of the 8th century, the

1963: 1387: 1328: 418: 403: 357: 295: 285: 5655: 4834: 4812:

The End of the Jihâd State: The Reign of Hishām ibn ʻAbd al-Malik and the Collapse of the Umayyads

5246:

The Prophet and the Age of the Caliphates: The Islamic Near East from the 6th to the 11th Century

4070: 3711:

European Naval and Maritime History, 300–1500 By Archibald Ross Lewis, Timothy J. Runyan Page 24

2996: 2537: 2515:, the Byzantine general Petronas defeated and routed an Arab invasion force under the command of 2414: 2231:

The Umayyad Caliphate however was increasingly distracted by conflicts elsewhere, especially its

2175: 2167: 1908: 1335: 1289: 1281: 724: 674: 627: 611: 606: 571: 320: 290: 2971:(right), an important commentator on the Crusades and the final stage of the Byzantine-Arab Wars 2391:

Civil war occurred in the Byzantine Empire, often with Arab support. With the support of Caliph

3187:

The Arab leadership realized early that to extend their conquests they would need a fleet. The

3051: 3013: 2951: 2160: 1946: 1927: 1648: 1350:

purchased an expensive truce, which lasted three years for Egypt and one year for Mesopotamia.

1142: 1041: 1024:

began to take territory from both the Arabs and Byzantines in the 1040s and 1050s, forming the

913: 893: 810: 755: 684: 513: 446: 260: 109: 43: 5222:

The Cambridge Ancient History, Volume XIV: Late Antiquity: Empire and Successors, A.D. 425–600

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as a major power. Meanwhile, the major Arab conflicts were in the Crusades, and later against

5118:

East Rome, Sasanian Persia And the End of Antiquity: Historiographical And Historical Studies

5112: 5021:

Warren Bowersock, Glen; Brown, Peter; Robert Lamont Brown, Peter; Grabar, Oleg, eds. (1999).

4382: 3965: 2918: 2828: 2585:

from the Arabs in 871. The city became Byzantine territory in 876. The Byzantine position on

2171: 2131:, and they quickly became organized in a regular fashion: one to two summer expeditions (pl. 1694: 1509: 1351: 1265:

welcomed the Arabs as liberators, as they were discontented with the rule of the Byzantines.

1228: 847: 828: 637: 586: 576: 528: 518: 461: 335: 305: 2433:

The Arabs did not relinquish their designs on Asia Minor and in 838 began another invasion,

2216:

This decision provoked major opposition both from the people and the church, especially the

4830: 2891: 2762: 2734: 2692: 2684: 2280: 2232: 2210: 2194: 2143:). The summer expeditions were usually two separate attacks, the "expedition of the left" ( 2049: 2015: 1565: 1126:, which resulted in the consolidation of a powerful Muslim state throughout the peninsula. 785: 775: 704: 616: 488: 364: 345: 315: 2151:

and consisting mostly of Syrian troops, and the usually larger "expedition of the right" (

8: 5549: 5344: 3192: 2902: 2839: 2789: 2637: 2602: 2524: 2507:

A map of the Byzantine-Arab naval competition in the Mediterranean, 7th to 11th centuries

2183: 1864: 1759: 1755: 1538: 1493: 1394: 1297: 1293: 1224: 1196: 1180: 1103: 1063: 917: 765: 659: 350: 226: 125: 1361:

At the expiration of this truce in 638–639, the Arabs overran Byzantine Mesopotamia and

5212: 4710: 4698: 3776:

Prophets and Princes: Saudi Arabia from Muhammad to the Present By Mark Weston Page 61

3208: 3137: 3133: 3000: 2917:

controversy of the 8th and 9th centuries can be taken as a key factor "which drove the

2777: 2722: 2704: 2568: 2552: 2520: 2288: 2252: 2248: 2179: 2053: 1945:, he removed a major obstacle for the Arabs in Syria, and in 692, after the disastrous 1870: 1534: 1300:

and the Armenian general Vahan, to eject the Muslims from their newly won territories.

1277: 1161: 1002: 998: 897: 664: 523: 466: 270: 130: 5408: 2356:

Wishing to emphasize his piety and role as the leader of the Muslim community, Caliph

1253:

composed of imperial troops as well as local levies. According to Islamic historians,

5615: 5531: 5503: 5475: 5452: 5430: 5390: 5371: 5352: 5330: 5296: 5273: 5250: 5226: 5190: 5166: 5143: 5122: 5098: 5074: 5051: 5030: 4986: 4978: 4963: 4944: 4907: 4856: 4816: 4793: 4599: 4585: 4561: 4538: 4519: 4468: 4445: 4418: 4388: 4358: 4304: 4277: 4137: 4115: 3927: 3906: 3902: 3795: 3757: 3730: 3673: 3612: 3579: 3159: 3018: 3004: 2946: 2645: 2641: 2594: 2271: 2057: 1919: 1875: 1698: 1638:

where he was finally halted. As the historian Luis Garcia de Valdeavellano explains:

1373:. In December 639, the Muslims departed from Palestine to invade Egypt in early 640. 1366: 1362: 1304: 1171: 1094: 1017: 971: 929: 925: 423: 408: 162: 146: 138: 134: 4937: 4691: 3509: 3384: 3362: 1821: 1754:

sailors and Muslim troops. This resulted in the defeat of the Byzantine navy at the

1448:

were captured in 653. However, Crete reverted to Eastern Roman rule until the 820s.

5517: 5009: 4846: 4776: 4754: 3095: 2887: 2851: 2738: 2696: 2492: 2480: 2426: 2045: 1979: 1959: 1768: 1690: 1433: 1398: 1273: 1188: 1013: 952: 870: 838: 805: 780: 709: 694: 679: 632: 622: 601: 561: 556: 493: 478: 379: 275: 241: 166: 158: 154: 117: 105: 5489:

Speck, Paul (1984). "Ikonoklasmus und die Anfänge der Makedonischen Renaissance".

2870: 963:. During this period, the Byzantines were usually on the defensive, avoiding open 5521: 5444: 5418: 5244: 5240: 5220: 5204: 5184: 5180: 5137: 5092: 5013: 4810: 4737: 4686: 4439: 4412: 3897: 3646: 3606: 3516: 3391: 3175: 3151: 3056: 3036: 2968: 2938: 2773: 2590: 2434: 2396: 2357: 2139:) sometimes accompanied by a naval attack and/or followed by winter expeditions ( 1999: 1995: 1818:

would form the backbone of the Byzantine defensive system for centuries to come.

1720: 1644: 1542: 1526: 1321: 901: 760: 642: 508: 503: 413: 330: 265: 236: 150: 5404: 4790:

The Sword of Allah: Khalid bin al-Waleed – His Life and Campaigns, third edition

4780: 4486: 2503: 1134: 5216: 5208: 4892: 4888: 4673: 3669: 3188: 3091: 2820: 2656: 2610: 2225: 2217: 2101: 2072: 2003: 1983: 1892: 1860: 1844: 1836: 1827: 1739: 1672: 1317: 1285: 1250: 886: 742: 592: 451: 434: 310: 300: 62: 1782: 5686: 5593: 5573: 4928: 4911: 4880: 4870: 4576: 3960: 3607:

Clark, Desmond J.; Roland Anthony Oliver; J. D. Fage; A. D. Roberts (1978) .

3112: 3108: 3008: 2750: 2714: 2680: 2370: 2256: 2240: 1847:(r. 661–685) however used a devastating new weapon that came to be known as " 1743: 1572: 1561: 1246: 1138: 1122:

with undisputed control of the entire Arabian Peninsula after the successful

1025: 750: 566: 170: 51: 5554:

The Cambridge Medieval History, Vol. IV: The Eastern Roman Empire (717–1453)

4839:

The Cambridge Medieval History, Vol. IV: The Eastern Roman Empire (717–1453)

2621:. Sicily would remain under Arab control until the Norman invasion in 1071. 1062:

of the 6th and 7th centuries and the recurring outbreaks of bubonic plague (

5000:

Foss, Clive (1975). "The Persians in Asia Minor and the End of Antiquity".

4553: 3129: 3116: 2910: 2832: 2781: 2761:

to the empire – including the larger city of Antioch which was the seat of

2649: 2575: 2516: 2410: 2392: 2276: 2067: 2061: 1915: 1900: 1631: 1598: 1497: 1479: 1309: 1254: 1184: 1021: 975: 964: 960: 5186:

The Armies of the Caliphs: Military and Society in the Early Islamic State

2239:, with whom Leo III had concluded an alliance, marrying his son and heir, 5596:, Brussels: Éditions de l'Institut de Philologie et d'Histoire Orientales 5576:, Brussels: Éditions de l'Institut de Philologie et d'Histoire Orientales 5088: 3571: 2989: 2926: 2879: 2847: 2831:

with the continuing Islamic invasion of Anatolia being taken over by the

2512: 2109: 1974: 1949:, the Muslims invaded and conquered all of Armenia. Deposed in 695, with 1801: 1793: 1764: 1715: 1592: 1522: 1355: 1347: 1343: 1262: 1216: 389: 4380: 3975:. Vol. 15 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 602. 2104:, were refortified and resettled under the early Abbasids. Likewise, in 1661: 3242:* Greatrex–Lieu (2002), II, 217–227; Haldon (1997), 46; Baynes (1912), 3083: 3076: 2988:

Among the few Latin sources of interest are the 7th-century history of

2985:

standard against which all Muslim sources may be confidently checked".

2914: 2406: 2206: 2097: 2077: 2007: 1935: 1879: 1848: 1735: 1635: 1552:

to the western border of Egypt. He put a governor in place in Egypt at

1530: 1429: 1402: 1200: 1123: 1107: 1106:

in response to the murder of Muhammad's ambassador at the hands of the

1099: 1075: 956: 937: 58: 1911:

in 685, and was ongoing until 692 with the death of the rebel leader.

1804:

in 656 bought a precious breathing pause for Byzantium, which Emperor

1731:) could only come when the enemy accepted Islam or tributary status." 948:, but were unable to capture the heavily fortified Byzantine capital. 885:

Byzantine empire and unsuccessfully attacked the Byzantine capital of

865:

were a series of wars from the 7th to 11th centuries between multiple

177: 5047:

The Roman Eastern Frontier and the Persian Wars (Part II, 363–630 AD)

3087: 2898: 2875: 2855: 2842:

by the Turks in 1071, the Byzantine Empire, with the help of Western

2793: 2769: 2754: 2700: 2541: 2456: 2190: 1938: 1874:

In spite of the turbulent reign of Justinian II, last emperor of the

1788: 1702: 1514: 1406: 1339: 1269: 1079: 1071: 933: 882: 878: 142: 113: 4764: 3964: 2368:

in 786 by forming a second defensive line along northern Syria, the

924:

between 647 and 670. From the 650s onwards, Arab navies entered the

4852:

The Arab Conquest of Egypt – And the Last Thirty Years of the Roman

4354:

The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Warfare: From Ancient Egypt to Iraq

2930: 2730: 2718: 2672: 2660: 2633: 2598: 2420: 2260: 2202: 2019: 1950: 1896: 1606: 1588: 1580: 1576: 1557: 1549: 1505: 1208: 1204: 1151: 1119: 1115: 1111: 1090: 983: 823: 430: 87: 5500:

Famine and Pestilence in the Late Roman and Early Byzantine Empire

4690:. See a translated excerpt ("The Battle of Yarmouk and after") in 4514:

See map depicting Byzantine territories from the 11th century on;

5071:

Byzantium in the Seventh Century: the Transformation of a Culture

4921:

The War of the Three Gods: Romans, Persians and the Rise of Islam

3199:

coast, when it was still the most powerful in the Mediterranean.

3079: 2843: 2824: 2688: 2664: 2629: 2606: 2556: 2545: 2533: 2529: 2488: 2472: 2468: 2464: 2438: 2244: 2236: 2156: 2118: 2089: 1942: 1923: 1856: 1852: 1831: 1822:

Attacks against Byzantine holdings in Africa, Sicily and the East

1686: 1627: 1619: 1602: 1584: 1501: 1370: 1313: 2745:

besieged and Antioch under threat. Basil won several battles in

951:

Following the failed second siege, the border stabilized at the

5671: 5289:"Projection contra Prediction: Alternative Futures and Options" 4332: 3204: 2922: 2874:

The Byzantine–Arab Wars provided the conditions that developed

2785: 2742: 2676: 2618: 2586: 2564: 2560: 2374:, and was reputed to be spending alternating years leading the 2113: 1968: 1931: 1904: 1623: 1610: 1441: 1437: 1410: 1220: 1212: 991: 905: 874: 5566:

Byzance et les Arabes, Tome I: La Dynastie d'Amorium (820–867)

4086: 4084: 3207:

while recounting the sale of the centuries-old remains of the

2563:, with an ecclesiastical policy marked by good relations with 2487:. The Andalusians established their main city and fortress at 2331: 5293:

Expanding Realism: The Historical Dimension of World Politics

4178: 4176: 3196: 2859: 2758: 2746: 2597:

in 878. Catania was lost in 900, and finally the fortress of

2484: 2361: 2337: 2301: 2198: 2127: 2093: 2023: 1719:, the "House of War", which, in the words of Islamic scholar 1676: 1591:, and one of the main Arabo-Islamic religious centers in the 1553: 1471: 1445: 1421: 1393:

joined by further reinforcements, notably 12,000 soldiers by

1067: 987: 979: 940:. Umayyad forces twice placed Constantinople under siege, in 908:

attacked and quickly overran Byzantium's southern provinces.

4703:

Chronique de Michel le Syrien Patriarche Jacobite d'Antioche

4376: 4374: 4190: 4188: 4098: 4096: 2963: 1342:, and, during the same period, the Byzantine authorities in 5094:

Warfare, State and Society in the Byzantine World, 565–1204

4985:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 269–304. 4081: 2476: 2376: 2296: 2014:

In spring, new reinforcements were sent by the new caliph,

1747: 1706: 1466: 1414: 1258: 1016:

was reconquered in 961. By the end of the 10th century the

866: 5550:"Chapter V. (B) The Struggle with the Saracens (867–1057)" 4977:

El-Hibri, Tayeb (2010). "The empire in Iraq, 763–861". In

4841:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 119–138. 4705:(in French and Syriac). Translated by J.–B. Chabot. Paris. 4491:

Odlomci iz državnoga práva hrvatskoga za narodne dynastie:

4300:

The World Muslim Population: Spatial and Temporal Analyses

4173: 2799:

Under Basil II, the Byzantines established a swath of new

2092:

was permanently occupied and its deserted cities, such as

1376: 5410:

Odlomci iz državnoga práva hrvatskoga za narodne dynastie

4835:"Chapter V. (A) The Struggle with the Saracens (717–867)" 4371: 4322: 4320: 4185: 4093: 2703:, but his death in 976 ended Byzantine expansion towards 2498: 2259:(r. 741–775), who in 741 attacked the major Arab base of 2029: 1859:, to decisively defeat the attacking Umayyad navy in the 1548:

Muawiyah began consolidating the Arab territory from the

1508:, and the governor and self-proclaimed Emperor of Africa 932:

in 661, who over the next fifty years captured Byzantine

5249:(2nd ed.). Abingdon, Oxon and New York: Routledge. 4815:. Albany, New York: State University of New York Press. 4582:

Mediaeval Cities: Their Origins and the Revival of Trade

3595:

The Islamic World to 1600: Umayyad Territorial Expansion

2776:

writes that by 1025, Byzantine land "stretched from the

2467:

as their launching pad, the Arabs started by conquering

2076:

Map of the Byzantine-Arab frontier zone in southeastern

2068:

Raids under the last Umayyads and the rise of Iconoclasm

1767:

was almost killed. Under the instructions of the caliph

1284:

achieved a decisive victory. After their victory at the

1234: 5159:"Egypt as a Province in the Islamic Caliphate, 641–868" 3664:

Quotes translated from the Spanish by Helen R. Lane in

3576:

The History of Civilization: Part IV – The Age of Faith

1365:, and terminated the conquest of Palestine by storming 5387:

The Age of the ΔΡΟΜΩΝ: The Byzantine Navy ca. 500–1204

4317: 1994:

by the Muslims, who built an extensive double line of

1451: 1086:

Byzantine–Persian conflict opened the way for Islam".

2399:

invaded, so that within a matter of months, only two

1662:

Arab attacks on Anatolia and sieges of Constantinople

4622:

Regesten der Kaiserurkunden des ostromischen Reiches

3136:

records only the phrase "Peace unto thee, O Syria".

2342:

unwillingly, perforce, out of hand in humiliation."

1541:, under the command of the allegedly Berber general 4437: 4381:Georgios Theotokis; Dimitrios Sidiropoulos (2021). 4271: 3636:

History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire

3107:Politico-religious events (such as the outbreak of 2958: 1647:by a man who became known to history and legend as 1432:in 645, but lost it again in 646 shortly after the 5027:Late Antiquity: A Guide to the Postclassical World 4936: 4874: 4697: 4558:How the Catholic Church Built Western Civilization 3698: 3696: 2056:, exploiting the decline and fragmentation of the 1420:According to Arab historians, the local Christian 1381: 1223:for Islam. The most successful Arab generals were 4518:, p. 1237. Oxford: Oxford University Press 1996. 3988: 3532: 2695:, and recovered Crete. His nephew and successor, 1697:mountain ranges, leaving Syria in Muslim and the 27:Series of wars between the 7th and 11th centuries 5684: 5207:(2000). "Syria, Palestine, and Mesopotamia". In 5067:"The East Roman World: the Politics of Survival" 4136:, p. 246. Oxford: Oxford University Press 1996. 4114:, p. 273. Oxford: Oxford University Press 1996. 3305: 3303: 3301: 3255:Foss (1975), 746–747; Howard-Johnston (2006), xv 3191:was first decisively defeated by the Arabs at a 2788:in the north, and to the cities of Melitene and 2323:the ropes of the Muslim state are firmly plaited 2213:of religious figures in a court council in 730. 1074:regained all lost territories, and restored the 5385:Pryor, John H.; Jeffreys, Elizabeth M. (2006). 5111: 5044:Greatrex, Geoffrey; Lieu, Samuel N. C. (2002). 4537:, p 257. Oxford: Oxford University Press 1996. 4417:. University of California Press. p. 311. 3726:History of the Jihad: Islam Versus Civilization 3693: 2551:Religious peace came with the emergence of the 1734:Both as governor of Syria and later as caliph, 1605:, and at length penetrated to the verge of the 1280:fought near Ajnadayn in the summer of 634, the 5556:, Cambridge University Press, pp. 138–150 5497: 4406: 4404: 4020: 4018: 3490:Haldon (1999), 167; Stathakopoulos (2004), 318 1918:(r. 685–695 and 705–711), last emperor of the 1338:. In the summer of 637, the Muslims conquered 5384: 4431: 3651: 3463: 3298: 3003:), poetry (especially that of Sophronius and 2780:and the northern Adriatic in the west to the 2729:After putting an end to the internal strife, 2699:, pushed even further south, almost reaching 2574:against the Arabs, and his fleet cleared the 2523:inflicting heavy casualties and removing the 193: 5523:A History of the Byzantine State and Society 5309: 5043: 4962:. Harvard Center of Middle Eastern Studies. 4501: 4499: 4441:A History of the Byzantine State and Society 4410: 4338: 4129: 4127: 3955: 3953: 3943: 3941: 3939: 3849: 3847: 3141:the aged Emperor both in spirit and in body. 1327:In April 637 the Arabs, after a long siege, 1129: 4906:. Leiden: E. J. Brill. pp. 1082–1086. 4805: 4765:"The restoration of the Cross at Jerusalem" 4401: 4015: 3611:. Cambridge University Press. p. 637. 2364:close to the frontier, he complemented the 2327:he has an army before which armies scatter. 2201:, which some bishops had come to regard as 1971:, who agreed to harass the invaders' rear. 1622:, Uqba Ibn Nafi took the coastal cities of 970:In 750 the Umayyads were overthrown by the 936:and launched repeated raids into Byzantine 4898:The Encyclopaedia of Islam, Second Edition 4715:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher ( 4508: 4482: 4480: 4444:. Stanford University Press. p. 452. 2659:, the Byzantines conquered the emirate of 2636:in 880, forming the nucleus for the later 2444: 1990:From July 717 to August 718, the city was 1878:, his coinage still bore the traditional " 200: 186: 5612:The Byzantine And Early Islamic Near East 5516: 5270:The Byzantine and Early Islamic Near East 5225:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 5161:. In Daly, M.W.; Petry, Calf. F. (eds.). 5139:Byzantium and the early Islamic conquests 4957: 4598:(London 1939) Dover Publications (2001). 4528: 4496: 4267: 4265: 4263: 4124: 4105: 3950: 3936: 3844: 3672:. 1974. New York: The Viking Press, Inc. 3630: 3628: 3477: 3475: 2819:The wars drew near to a closure when the 2424:The siege of Amorium, miniature from the 5580: 5560: 5544: 5443: 5365: 5203: 4976: 4918: 4467:. Oxford: Oxford University Press 1996. 4152:Blankinship (1994), pp. 20, 168–169, 200 4060:Blankinship (1994), pp. 119–121, 162–163 3959: 3891:The Walls of Constantinople, AD 324–1453 3787: 3510:The Battle of the Yarmuk (636) and after 3442:Kennedy (2001b), 611; Kennedy (2006), 87 3385:The Battle of the Yarmuk (636) and after 2962: 2869: 2709: 2502: 2419: 2405:in Asia Minor remained loyal to Emperor 2325:His banner is forever tied with victory; 2270: 2071: 1973: 1869: 1781: 1308:(according to the 9th-century historian 1133: 86:Levant (Syria/Lebanon), Egypt, Maghreb, 5609: 5343: 5322: 5263: 5239: 5179: 5156: 5091:(1999). "The Army at Wars: Campaigns". 4570: 4477: 4296: 3926:. New York: The Modern Library, , 2004 3749: 3335: 3333: 1689:, along the southern approaches of the 1377:Arab conquests of North Africa: 639–698 1358:, which they granted a one-year truce. 207: 14: 5685: 5087: 5064: 4927: 4869: 4845: 4829: 4762: 4458: 4344: 4326: 4260: 3625: 3578:. 1950. New York: Simon and Schuster. 3565: 3472: 3359:"Internet History Sourcebooks Project" 2671:clan and their dependants against the 2624:Although Sicily was lost, the general 2499:Byzantine resurgence, 863–11th century 2479:in 859, culminating in the capture of 2030:Stabilization of the frontier, 718–863 1630:, overwhelming what had once been the 1089:In the late 620s, the Islamic Prophet 999:political instability beginning in 861 5488: 5465: 5403: 5286: 5135: 4787: 4547: 4063: 3883: 3722: 3069: 2846:, re-established its position in the 2321:are blocked by Hārūn, and through him 1369:and effecting their final capture of 1235:Arab conquest of Roman Syria: 634–638 1093:had already managed to unify much of 181: 5417: 4999: 4560:, (Washington, DC: Regenery, 2005), 4387:. Taylor & Francis. p. 13. 3330: 3318:Read (2001), 50–51; Sahas (1972), 23 2757:, his victories did restore much of 2749:, relieving Aleppo, taking over the 2347:Poem in praise of Harun al-Rashid's 2308:) who flocked to participate in the 2279:sends an envoy to Byzantine Emperor 2243:(r. 741–775) to the Khazar princess 2100:(al-Massisa) and, most importantly, 1488:In 647, a Rashidun-Arab army led by 1428:The Byzantine navy briefly won back 1397:. 'Amr first besieged and conquered 904:. In the 630s, Rashidun forces from 5708:Wars involving the Byzantine Empire 5493:. Rudolf Halbelt. pp. 175–210. 3409:Quoted by Sahas (1972), 20 (note 1) 2683:. Al-Dawla was finally defeated by 2080:, along the Taurus-Antitaurus range 1504:, 150 miles (240 km) south of 1452:Conquest of the Exarchate of Africa 24: 5602: 5498:Stathakopoulos, Dionysios (2004). 5266:"Antioch: from Byzantium to Islam" 5189:. London and New York: Routledge. 4624:. I, p. 59, no. 487. Berlin, 1924. 4350: 3814:Pryor & Jeffreys (2006), p. 25 2691:and northern Syria, including the 2451:History of Islam in southern Italy 986:, while Abassid vassals conquered 50: 25: 5729: 5630: 4414:The Making of Byzantium, 600–1025 4071:"Geology of Santorini: volcanism" 2617:), which was a Byzantine town in 2605:apparently on 10 July 926 sacked 2266: 2166:Under the more aggressive Caliph 1839:from land as well, beginning the 1771:, Muawiyah then prepared for the 1701:in Byzantine hands. Both Emperor 1571:A vanguard of 10,000 Arabs under 1114:died in 632 and was succeeded by 1050:Byzantine–Sasanian War of 602–628 5670: 4654: 4645: 4636: 4627: 4611: 2959:Historiography and other sources 2925:." Thus it has been argued that 2417:, and he was forced to retreat. 2395:, Arabs under the leadership of 1685:, "the extremities") emerged in 1461: 4958:El-Cheikh, Nadia Maria (2004). 4290: 4251: 4248:cf. El-Cheikh (2004), pp. 90ff. 4242: 4233: 4224: 4215: 4206: 4197: 4164: 4155: 4146: 4054: 4045: 4036: 4027: 4024:Blankinship (1994), pp. 117–119 4006: 3997: 3979: 3916: 3874: 3865: 3856: 3835: 3826: 3817: 3808: 3781: 3770: 3743: 3723:Kroll, Leonard Michael (2005). 3716: 3705: 3684: 3609:The Cambridge History of Africa 3600: 3588: 3556: 3547: 3523: 3502: 3493: 3484: 3454: 3445: 3436: 3427: 3412: 3403: 3377: 3351: 3342: 3321: 3181: 3169: 3144: 3122: 3101: 2741:came close to being lost, with 1855:from Syria named Kallinikos of 1568:, defeating 30,000 Byzantines. 1564:". An Arab army of 40,000 took 1382:Conquest of Egypt and Cyrenaica 892:The conflicts began during the 90:, Crete, Sicily, Southern Italy 5451:. Cambridge University Press. 5349:Byzantium: The Early Centuries 5165:. Cambridge University Press. 5163:The Cambridge History of Egypt 5142:. Cambridge University Press. 4357:. DK Publishing. p. 375. 3657:Luis Garcia de Valdeavellano, 3312: 3285: 3276: 3267: 3258: 3249: 3230: 3111:, which disappointed both the 2581:With Byzantine help, Louis II 2036:Byzantine–Arab wars (780–1180) 1934:; however, by removing 12,000 1458:Muslim conquest of the Maghreb 1110:, a Byzantine vassal kingdom. 65:during the Arab–Byzantine wars 13: 1: 5491:Varia 1 (Poikila Byzantina 4) 5389:. Brill Academic Publishers. 5002:The English Historical Review 4960:Byzantium viewed by the Arabs 4769:The English Historical Review 4161:Treadgold (1997), pp. 354–355 4090:Treadgold (1997), pp. 350–353 4012:Treadgold (1997), pp. 347–349 3994:Treadgold (1997), pp. 346–347 3985:Treadgold (1997), pp. 337–345 3880:Treadgold (1997), pp. 325–327 3871:Treadgold (1997), pp. 318–324 3862:Treadgold (1997), pp. 314–318 3823:Treadgold (1997), pp. 313–314 3218: 3075:The Empire's levies included 2808: 2147:) launched from the Cilician 1241:Muslim conquest of the Levant 1141:region was just the start of 1058:The prolonged and escalating 1054:Siege of Constantinople (626) 1035: 1006: 881:conquered large parts of the 5661:Resources in other libraries 5295:. Rowman & Littlefield. 5029:. Harvard University Press. 4682:Ahmad ibn Yahya al-Baladhuri 4438:Warren T. Treadgold (1997). 4274:A Short History of Byzantium 4272:John Julius Norwich (1998). 4182:El Hibri (2011), pp. 278–279 4042:Kennedy (2004), pp. 143, 275 4033:Treadgold (1997), pp. 349ff. 3750:Gregory, Timothy E. (2011). 3223: 2145:al-ṣā'ifa al-yusrā/al-ṣughrā 1656:Luis Garcia de Valdeavellano 1436:. The Islamic forces raided 1292:in 634 under the command of 1245:In the Levant, the invading 1183:in present-day northwestern 143:Aghlabid Emirate of Abbasids 7: 5468:"Historical Considerations" 5368:Military history of Croatia 5272:. Ashgate Publishing, Ltd. 5136:Kaegi, Walter Emil (1995). 4943:. Oxford University Press. 4744:. See the original text in 4239:Kennedy (2004), pp. 143–144 4230:El-Cheikh (2004), pp. 89–90 4194:Kennedy (2001), pp. 105–106 4102:Whittow (1996), pp. 139–142 3853:El-Cheikh (2004), pp. 83–84 3832:Kennedy (2004) pp. 120, 122 3025: 2929:was an indirect product of 2768:No Byzantine emperor since 2626:Nikephoros Phokas the Elder 2511:In 863 during the reign of 2222:Patriarch of Constantinople 2153:al-ṣā'ifa al-yumnā/al-kubrā 1851:", invented by a Christian 1671:, "the outer lands" and in 1500:was conquered, followed by 1331:, which was surrendered by 1170: Expansion during the 1160: Expansion during the 597:Nikephoros Phokas the Elder 10: 5734: 5713:Christian–Islamic violence 5429:, Orion Publishing Group. 5014:10.1093/ehr/XC.CCCLVII.721 4763:Baynes, Norman H. (1912). 4667: 4297:Kettani, Houssain (2019). 2885: 2865: 2812: 2448: 2409:. When the Arabs captured 2211:formally banned depictions 2033: 1677: 1556:, and launched raids into 1455: 1385: 1238: 1039: 990:in 827 and gradually took 5656:Resources in your library 5610:Kennedy, Hugh N. (2006). 5588:(in French), French ed.: 5568:(in French), French ed.: 5528:Stanford University Press 5472:John of Damascus on Islam 5466:Sahas, Daniel J. (1972). 5449:A History of the Crusades 5427:Weidenfeld & Nicolson 5413:(in Croatian). F. Klemma. 4807:Blankinship, Khalid Yahya 4781:10.1093/ehr/XXVII.CVI.287 4732:Documenta Catholica Omnia 3896:27 September 2007 at the 3841:Kaegi (1995), pp. 246–247 3804:– via Google Books. 3766:– via Google Books. 3756:. John Wiley & Sons. 3739:– via Google Books. 3690:Kaegi (1995), pp. 236–244 3661:. 1968. Madrid: Alianza. 3032:Aegyptus (Roman province) 2903:economic self-sufficiency 2854:, especially that of the 1752:Jacobite Syrian Christian 1130:Muslim conquests, 629–718 643:George Maniakes in Sicily 219: 99: 69: 49: 41: 36: 5526:. Stanford, California: 4919:Crawford, Peter (2013). 4724:Theophanes the Confessor 4596:Mohammed and Charlemagne 4003:Treadgold (1997), p. 347 3794:. Boydell & Brewer. 3201:Theophanes the Confessor 3062: 2838:After the defeat at the 2567:. Basil allied with the 1992:besieged by land and sea 1964:Maslama ibn Abd al-Malik 1388:Muslim conquest of Egypt 5323:Nicolle, David (1994). 4730:. See original text in 4584:(Princeton, NJ, 1925). 4221:El-Cheikh (2004), p. 90 4203:El Hibri (2011), p. 279 4170:El Hibri (2011), p. 302 4051:El-Cheikh (2004), p. 83 3972:Encyclopædia Britannica 3515:11 October 2013 at the 3469:Davies (1996), 245, 252 3390:11 October 2013 at the 2763:its eponymous Patriarch 2640:. The successes in the 2445:Sicily, Italy and Crete 2251:and the turmoil of the 2168:Hisham ibn Abd al-Malik 1958:Byzantium, the general 1773:siege of Constantinople 1744:Monophysitise Christian 1618:In his conquest of the 1525:in the Arab Empire the 1282:Rashidun Caliphate army 1060:Byzantine–Sasanian wars 1046:Byzantine–Sasanian wars 896:under the expansionist 118:Armenian principalities 5614:. Ashgate Publishing. 5502:. Ashgate Publishing. 5366:Omrčanin, Ivo (1984). 5287:Liska, George (1998). 5264:Kennedy, Hugh (2006). 5157:Kennedy, Hugh (1998). 5121:. Ashgate Publishing. 5113:Howard-Johnston, James 4257:Kennedy (2004), p. 146 4212:Kennedy (2001), p. 106 3924:Islam: A Short History 3788:Bradbury, Jim (1992). 3753:A History of Byzantium 3499:Butler (2007), 465–483 3460:Butler (2007), 427–428 3394:; Michael the Syrian, 3052:Early Muslim conquests 3042:Byzantine–Ottoman Wars 2972: 2883: 2726: 2614: 2508: 2430: 2344: 2283: 2081: 2048:adopted the policy of 1987: 1947:Battle of Sebastopolis 1887: 1797: 1659: 1492:invaded the Byzantine 1176: 1150: Expansion under 900:, part of the initial 894:early Muslim conquests 55: 5329:. Osprey Publishing. 5097:. London: UCL Press. 5065:Haldon, John (1997). 4933:"The Birth of Europe" 4411:Mark Whittow (1996). 4075:www.decadevolcano.net 3966:"Justinian II." 3702:Kennedy (2004) p. 120 3553:Fage–Tordoff, 153–154 3529:Treadgold (1997), 312 3433:Runciman (1953), i, 3 3400:* Sahas (1972), 19–20 3327:Nicolle (1994), 47–49 3203:reported the loss of 3047:Byzantine–Seljuk wars 2966: 2921:into the arms of the 2886:Further information: 2873: 2829:Byzantine-Seljuk wars 2815:Byzantine–Seljuk wars 2713: 2648:, and especially the 2506: 2423: 2329:All the kings of the 2315: 2274: 2174:or Hisham's own sons 2172:al-Abbas ibn al-Walid 2075: 2034:Further information: 1977: 1901:second Arab civil war 1873: 1785: 1640: 1490:Abdallah ibn al-Sa’ad 1137: 1030:Byzantine–Seljuk wars 54: 5679:at Wikimedia Commons 5345:Norwich, John Julius 4788:Akram, A.I. (2004), 3645:21 July 2005 at the 3295:; Butler (2007), 145 2735:Nikephoros II Phokas 2685:Nikephoros II Phokas 2628:succeeded in taking 2195:Leo III the Isaurian 2016:Umar ibn Abd al-Aziz 1914:The Saracen Wars of 1800:The outbreak of the 1529:came to power under 1401:, and then attacked 736:Byzantine reconquest 61:, first used by the 5718:Religion-based wars 5698:Invasions of Europe 5693:Arab–Byzantine wars 5677:Arab–Byzantine wars 5642:Arab–Byzantine wars 5213:Ward-Perkins, Bryan 3562:Norwich (1990), 334 3544:* Haldon (1990), 55 3246:; Speck (1984), 178 2852:Mongolian invasions 2840:Battle of Manzikert 2721:(right). Under the 2638:Catepanate of Italy 2603:Michael of Zahumlje 2525:Emirate of Melitene 2463:in the 820s. Using 1760:Battle of the Masts 1756:Battle of the Masts 1539:Strait of Gibraltar 1494:Exarchate of Africa 1395:Zubayr ibn al-Awwam 1298:Theodore Trithyrius 1294:Khalid ibn al-Walid 1225:Khalid ibn al-Walid 1064:Plague of Justinian 918:Exarchate of Africa 914:Egypt was conquered 863:Arab–Byzantine wars 211:Arab–Byzantine wars 126:Italian city-states 37:Arab-Byzantine wars 18:Byzantine–Arab Wars 5326:Yarmuk AD 636 4979:Robinson, Chase F. 4699:Michael the Syrian 4505:Read (2001), 65–66 4341:, p. 349–350. 3947:Davies (1996), 245 3791:The Medieval Siege 3659:Historia de España 3520:* Sahas (1972), 23 3451:Kennedy (1998), 62 3424:* Sahas (1972), 20 3365:on 11 October 2013 3348:Nicolle (1994), 45 3282:Nicolle (1994), 14 3138:George Ostrogorsky 3134:Michael the Syrian 3001:Anastasius Sinaita 2973: 2884: 2778:Straits of Messina 2727: 2723:Macedonian dynasty 2589:deteriorated, and 2569:Holy Roman Emperor 2553:Macedonian dynasty 2538:Emir Ali ibn Yahya 2521:Battle of Lalakaon 2509: 2461:conquest of Sicily 2431: 2289:Abbasid Revolution 2284: 2253:Abbasid Revolution 2082: 2054:Macedonian dynasty 1988: 1941:from their native 1895:for the relief of 1888: 1798: 1329:captured Jerusalem 1312:) while departing 1290:conquered Damascus 1268:The Roman Emperor 1249:were engaged by a 1177: 1162:Rashidun Caliphate 1042:Roman–Persian Wars 1028:and beginning the 1003:Macedonian dynasty 922:gradually captured 910:Syria was captured 898:Rashidun Caliphate 869:dynasties and the 638:Straits of Messina 457:2nd Constantinople 442:1st Constantinople 131:Rashidun Caliphate 56: 5675:Media related to 5637:Library resources 5518:Treadgold, Warren 5396:978-90-04-15197-0 5377:978-0-8059-2893-8 5358:978-0-14-011447-8 5351:. Penguin Books. 5256:978-0-367-36690-2 5232:978-0-5213-2591-2 4992:978-0-521-83823-8 4969:978-0-932885-30-2 4862:978-1-4067-5238-0 4847:Butler, Alfred J. 4822:978-0-7914-1827-7 4755:Secondary sources 4746:Patrologia Graeca 4660:Kaegi (1995), 5–6 4651:Kaegi (1995), 4–5 4633:Kaegi (1995), 2–3 4535:Europe: A History 4516:Europe: A History 4465:Europe: A History 4451:978-0-8047-2630-6 4424:978-0-520-20496-6 4394:978-1-00-038999-9 4364:978-1-4654-0373-5 4339:Makrypoulias 2000 4310:978-0-429-74925-4 4134:Europe: A History 4112:Europe: A History 3922:Karen Armstrong: 3903:Osprey Publishing 3339:Kaegi (1995), 112 3264:Liska (1998), 170 3211:for scrap in 655. 3160:Temple of Solomon 3005:George of Pisidia 2967:The 12th-century 2952:Salerno Chronicle 2947:Holy Roman Empire 2646:Mediterranean Sea 2642:Italian Peninsula 2595:Emirate of Sicily 2459:began their slow 2351:against Byzantium 2106:Upper Mesopotamia 2058:Abbasid Caliphate 2046:Isaurian emperors 1920:Heraclian Dynasty 1876:Heraclian dynasty 1699:Anatolian plateau 1595:. Then ibn Nafi " 1486: 1485: 1417:after his death. 1413:succeeded Caliph 1367:Caesarea Maritima 1363:Byzantine Armenia 1305:Battle of Yarmouk 1172:Umayyad Caliphate 1018:Fatimid Caliphate 994:from 831 to 878. 972:Abbasid Caliphate 930:Umayyad Caliphate 926:Mediterranean Sea 856: 855: 176: 175: 163:Fatimid Caliphate 147:Emirate of Sicily 139:Abbasid Caliphate 135:Umayyad Caliphate 95: 94: 16:(Redirected from 5725: 5674: 5625: 5597: 5577: 5557: 5541: 5513: 5494: 5485: 5462: 5445:Runciman, Steven 5440: 5419:Read, Piers Paul 5414: 5400: 5381: 5362: 5340: 5319: 5306: 5283: 5260: 5236: 5200: 5176: 5153: 5132: 5108: 5084: 5061: 5040: 5017: 4996: 4973: 4954: 4942: 4924: 4923:. Pen and Sword. 4915: 4878: 4866: 4842: 4826: 4802: 4784: 4775:(106): 287–299. 4738:Zonaras, Joannes 4720: 4714: 4706: 4692:Medieval Sources 4661: 4658: 4652: 4649: 4643: 4640: 4634: 4631: 4625: 4615: 4609: 4574: 4568: 4551: 4545: 4532: 4526: 4512: 4506: 4503: 4494: 4484: 4475: 4462: 4456: 4455: 4435: 4429: 4428: 4408: 4399: 4398: 4378: 4369: 4368: 4348: 4342: 4336: 4330: 4324: 4315: 4314: 4294: 4288: 4287: 4269: 4258: 4255: 4249: 4246: 4240: 4237: 4231: 4228: 4222: 4219: 4213: 4210: 4204: 4201: 4195: 4192: 4183: 4180: 4171: 4168: 4162: 4159: 4153: 4150: 4144: 4131: 4122: 4109: 4103: 4100: 4091: 4088: 4079: 4078: 4067: 4061: 4058: 4052: 4049: 4043: 4040: 4034: 4031: 4025: 4022: 4013: 4010: 4004: 4001: 3995: 3992: 3986: 3983: 3977: 3976: 3968: 3957: 3948: 3945: 3934: 3920: 3914: 3887: 3881: 3878: 3872: 3869: 3863: 3860: 3854: 3851: 3842: 3839: 3833: 3830: 3824: 3821: 3815: 3812: 3806: 3805: 3785: 3779: 3774: 3768: 3767: 3747: 3741: 3740: 3720: 3714: 3709: 3703: 3700: 3691: 3688: 3682: 3655: 3649: 3632: 3623: 3622: 3604: 3598: 3592: 3586: 3569: 3563: 3560: 3554: 3551: 3545: 3536: 3530: 3527: 3521: 3506: 3500: 3497: 3491: 3488: 3482: 3479: 3470: 3467: 3461: 3458: 3452: 3449: 3443: 3440: 3434: 3431: 3425: 3416: 3410: 3407: 3401: 3381: 3375: 3374: 3372: 3370: 3361:. Archived from 3355: 3349: 3346: 3340: 3337: 3328: 3325: 3319: 3316: 3310: 3309:Kaegi (1995), 67 3307: 3296: 3289: 3283: 3280: 3274: 3273:Kaegi (1995), 66 3271: 3265: 3262: 3256: 3253: 3247: 3234: 3212: 3185: 3179: 3173: 3167: 3148: 3142: 3126: 3120: 3105: 3099: 3073: 3007:) including the 2892:East–West Schism 2888:Byzantine Papacy 2739:John I Tzimiskes 2717:and his stepson 2697:John I Tzimiskes 2687:, who conquered 2578:of their raids. 2493:Emirate of Crete 2427:Madrid Skylitzes 2352: 2159:and composed of 2155:) launched from 1980:Theodosian Walls 1960:Leo the Isaurian 1841:First Arab Siege 1802:Muslim Civil War 1769:Uthman ibn Affan 1705:and the Caliph ' 1680: 1679: 1657: 1535:Visigothic Spain 1462: 1434:Battle of Nikiou 1399:Babylon Fortress 1288:, Muslim forces 1274:Roman Paelestina 1197:Battle of Mu´tah 1169: 1159: 1149: 1104:Battle of Mu'tah 1014:Emirate of Crete 1011: 1008: 953:Taurus Mountains 871:Byzantine Empire 623:Marianos Argyros 499:Asia Minor (806) 484:Asia Minor (782) 473:Border conflicts 370:Babylon Fortress 214: 212: 202: 195: 188: 179: 178: 155:Emirate of Crete 122:Kingdom of Italy 110:Bulgarian Empire 106:Byzantine Empire 71: 70: 44:Muslim conquests 34: 33: 21: 5733: 5732: 5728: 5727: 5726: 5724: 5723: 5722: 5703:Spread of Islam 5683: 5682: 5667: 5666: 5665: 5645: 5644: 5640: 5633: 5628: 5622: 5605: 5603:Further reading 5600: 5538: 5510: 5482: 5459: 5437: 5397: 5378: 5359: 5337: 5303: 5280: 5257: 5233: 5217:Whitby, Michael 5209:Cameron, Averil 5197: 5173: 5150: 5129: 5105: 5081: 5058: 5037: 4993: 4970: 4951: 4863: 4823: 4800: 4751: 4708: 4707: 4687:Futuh al-Buldan 4674:Primary sources 4670: 4665: 4664: 4659: 4655: 4650: 4646: 4642:Kaegi (1995), 2 4641: 4637: 4632: 4628: 4616: 4612: 4575: 4571: 4552: 4548: 4533: 4529: 4513: 4509: 4504: 4497: 4485: 4478: 4463: 4459: 4452: 4436: 4432: 4425: 4409: 4402: 4395: 4379: 4372: 4365: 4349: 4345: 4337: 4333: 4329:, p. 1083. 4325: 4318: 4311: 4295: 4291: 4284: 4270: 4261: 4256: 4252: 4247: 4243: 4238: 4234: 4229: 4225: 4220: 4216: 4211: 4207: 4202: 4198: 4193: 4186: 4181: 4174: 4169: 4165: 4160: 4156: 4151: 4147: 4132: 4125: 4110: 4106: 4101: 4094: 4089: 4082: 4069: 4068: 4064: 4059: 4055: 4050: 4046: 4041: 4037: 4032: 4028: 4023: 4016: 4011: 4007: 4002: 3998: 3993: 3989: 3984: 3980: 3958: 3951: 3946: 3937: 3921: 3917: 3898:Wayback Machine 3888: 3884: 3879: 3875: 3870: 3866: 3861: 3857: 3852: 3845: 3840: 3836: 3831: 3827: 3822: 3818: 3813: 3809: 3802: 3786: 3782: 3775: 3771: 3764: 3748: 3744: 3737: 3729:. 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Kennedy 3174: 3170: 3152:Steven Runciman 3149: 3145: 3128:As recorded by 3127: 3123: 3106: 3102: 3074: 3070: 3065: 3057:Spread of Islam 3037:Battle of Tours 3028: 2969:William of Tyre 2961: 2939:Frankish Empire 2894: 2880:Medieval Europe 2868: 2825:Mongol invaders 2817: 2811: 2774:Piers Paul Read 2540:as well as the 2501: 2453: 2447: 2397:Thomas the Slav 2358:Harun al-Rashid 2354: 2346: 2341: 2328: 2326: 2324: 2322: 2275:Abbasid Caliph 2269: 2070: 2038: 2032: 2000:contravallation 1996:circumvallation 1899:. Meanwhile, a 1824: 1727:). True peace ( 1721:Hugh N. Kennedy 1664: 1658: 1655: 1645:Atlas Mountains 1543:Tariq ibn-Ziyad 1465:"The people of 1460: 1454: 1390: 1384: 1379: 1322:Joannes Zonaras 1243: 1237: 1229:'Amr ibn al-'As 1175: 1167: 1165: 1157: 1155: 1147: 1132: 1056: 1038: 1009: 902:spread of Islam 859: 858: 857: 852: 700:Gulf of Corinth 222:Early conflicts 215: 210: 208: 206: 169: 165: 161: 157: 153: 151:Emirate of Bari 149: 145: 141: 137: 133: 124: 120: 116: 112: 108: 91: 57: 28: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 5731: 5721: 5720: 5715: 5710: 5705: 5700: 5695: 5681: 5680: 5664: 5663: 5658: 5653: 5647: 5646: 5635: 5634: 5632: 5631:External links 5629: 5627: 5626: 5620: 5606: 5604: 5601: 5599: 5598: 5590:Henri Grégoire 5582:Vasiliev, A.A. 5578: 5570:Henri Grégoire 5562:Vasiliev, A.A. 5558: 5546:Vasiliev, A.A. 5542: 5536: 5514: 5508: 5495: 5486: 5480: 5463: 5457: 5441: 5435: 5415: 5401: 5395: 5382: 5376: 5363: 5357: 5341: 5335: 5320: 5312:Graeco-Arabica 5307: 5301: 5284: 5278: 5261: 5255: 5237: 5231: 5201: 5195: 5177: 5171: 5154: 5148: 5133: 5127: 5109: 5103: 5085: 5079: 5062: 5056: 5041: 5035: 5018: 4997: 4991: 4974: 4968: 4955: 4949: 4929:Davies, Norman 4925: 4916: 4867: 4861: 4855:. 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(1911). 3961:Chisholm, Hugh 3949: 3935: 3915: 3882: 3873: 3864: 3855: 3843: 3834: 3825: 3816: 3807: 3801:978-0851153575 3800: 3780: 3769: 3763:978-1444359978 3762: 3742: 3736:978-1463457303 3735: 3715: 3704: 3692: 3683: 3681: 3680: 3670:Juan Goytisolo 3650: 3624: 3617: 3599: 3587: 3564: 3555: 3546: 3531: 3522: 3508:Al-Baladhuri, 3501: 3492: 3483: 3471: 3462: 3453: 3444: 3435: 3426: 3422:, CXXXIV, 1288 3411: 3402: 3383:Al-Baladhuri, 3376: 3350: 3341: 3329: 3320: 3311: 3297: 3293:Late Antiquity 3284: 3275: 3266: 3257: 3248: 3228: 3227: 3225: 3222: 3220: 3217: 3214: 3213: 3189:Byzantine navy 3180: 3168: 3166:the prophet.'" 3143: 3121: 3100: 3067: 3066: 3064: 3061: 3060: 3059: 3054: 3049: 3044: 3039: 3034: 3027: 3024: 2960: 2957: 2943: 2942: 2867: 2864: 2810: 2807: 2796:in the east." 2693:sack of Aleppo 2665:Theodosiopolis 2657:John Kourkouas 2500: 2497: 2449:Main article: 2446: 2443: 2314: 2268: 2267:Early Abbasids 2265: 2226:Bishop of Rome 2218:Bishop of Rome 2193:, the Emperor 2108:, places like 2069: 2066: 2031: 2028: 2004:Byzantine navy 1984:Constantinople 1903:was raging in 1893:Constantine IV 1861:Sea of Marmara 1845:Constantine IV 1837:Constantinople 1830:and stayed at 1828:Sea of Marmara 1823: 1820: 1740:Byzantine navy 1663: 1660: 1653: 1575:followed from 1484: 1483: 1476: 1475: 1456:Main article: 1453: 1450: 1440:in 652, while 1386:Main article: 1383: 1380: 1378: 1375: 1318:Constantinople 1251:Byzantine army 1239:Main article: 1236: 1233: 1166: 1156: 1146: 1143:Arab expansion 1131: 1128: 1037: 1034: 887:Constantinople 854: 853: 851: 850: 844: 843: 842: 841: 836: 831: 820: 819: 818: 813: 801: 800: 799: 798: 793: 788: 783: 771: 770: 769: 768: 763: 758: 746: 745: 743:John Kourkouas 733: 732: 727: 722: 717: 712: 707: 702: 697: 692: 687: 682: 677: 672: 667: 662: 651: 650: 645: 640: 635: 630: 625: 619: 614: 609: 604: 599: 593:Leo Apostyppes 589: 584: 579: 574: 569: 564: 559: 554: 549: 540:Southern Italy 532: 531: 526: 521: 516: 511: 506: 501: 496: 491: 486: 481: 470: 469: 464: 459: 454: 449: 444: 435:Constantinople 427: 426: 421: 416: 411: 406: 393: 392: 387: 382: 377: 372: 367: 354: 353: 348: 343: 338: 333: 328: 323: 318: 313: 308: 303: 298: 296:Maraj-al-Debaj 293: 288: 286:Sanita-al-Uqab 283: 281:Marj al-Saffar 278: 273: 268: 263: 258: 245: 244: 239: 234: 229: 220: 217: 216: 205: 204: 197: 190: 182: 174: 173: 128: 102: 101: 97: 96: 93: 92: 85: 83: 79: 78: 75: 67: 66: 63:Byzantine Navy 47: 46: 39: 38: 32: 31: 26: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 5730: 5719: 5716: 5714: 5711: 5709: 5706: 5704: 5701: 5699: 5696: 5694: 5691: 5690: 5688: 5678: 5673: 5669: 5668: 5662: 5659: 5657: 5654: 5652: 5649: 5648: 5643: 5638: 5623: 5621:0-7546-5909-7 5617: 5613: 5608: 5607: 5595: 5594:Marius Canard 5591: 5587: 5583: 5579: 5575: 5574:Marius Canard 5571: 5567: 5563: 5559: 5555: 5551: 5547: 5543: 5539: 5537:0-8047-2630-2 5533: 5529: 5525: 5524: 5519: 5515: 5511: 5509:0-7546-3021-8 5505: 5501: 5496: 5492: 5487: 5483: 5481:90-04-03495-1 5477: 5473: 5469: 5464: 5460: 5458:0-521-34770-X 5454: 5450: 5446: 5442: 5438: 5436:0-297-84267-6 5432: 5428: 5424: 5420: 5416: 5412: 5411: 5406: 5405:Rački, Franjo 5402: 5398: 5392: 5388: 5383: 5379: 5373: 5369: 5364: 5360: 5354: 5350: 5346: 5342: 5338: 5336:1-85532-414-8 5332: 5328: 5327: 5321: 5317: 5313: 5308: 5304: 5302:0-8476-8680-9 5298: 5294: 5290: 5285: 5281: 5279:0-7546-5909-7 5275: 5271: 5267: 5262: 5258: 5252: 5248: 5247: 5242: 5241:Kennedy, Hugh 5238: 5234: 5228: 5224: 5223: 5218: 5214: 5210: 5206: 5205:Kennedy, Hugh 5202: 5198: 5196:0-415-25093-5 5192: 5188: 5187: 5182: 5181:Kennedy, Hugh 5178: 5174: 5172:0-521-47137-0 5168: 5164: 5160: 5155: 5151: 5149:0-521-48455-3 5145: 5141: 5140: 5134: 5130: 5128:0-86078-992-6 5124: 5120: 5119: 5114: 5110: 5106: 5104:1-85728-495-X 5100: 5096: 5095: 5090: 5086: 5082: 5080:0-521-31917-X 5076: 5073:. Cambridge. 5072: 5068: 5063: 5059: 5057:0-415-14687-9 5053: 5050:. Routledge. 5049: 5048: 5042: 5038: 5036:0-674-51173-5 5032: 5028: 5024: 5019: 5015: 5011: 5007: 5003: 4998: 4994: 4988: 4984: 4980: 4975: 4971: 4965: 4961: 4956: 4952: 4950:0-19-820171-0 4946: 4941: 4940: 4934: 4930: 4926: 4922: 4917: 4913: 4909: 4905: 4901: 4899: 4894: 4890: 4886: 4885:Ménage, V. L. 4882: 4877: 4872: 4868: 4864: 4858: 4854: 4853: 4848: 4844: 4840: 4836: 4832: 4831:Brooks, E. 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CRC Press. 4302: 4301: 4293: 4285: 4283:0-14-025960-0 4279: 4275: 4268: 4266: 4264: 4254: 4245: 4236: 4227: 4218: 4209: 4200: 4191: 4189: 4179: 4177: 4167: 4158: 4149: 4143: 4142:0-19-820171-0 4139: 4135: 4130: 4128: 4121: 4120:0-19-820171-0 4117: 4113: 4108: 4099: 4097: 4087: 4085: 4076: 4072: 4066: 4057: 4048: 4039: 4030: 4021: 4019: 4009: 4000: 3991: 3982: 3974: 3973: 3967: 3962: 3956: 3954: 3944: 3942: 3940: 3933: 3932:0-8129-6618-X 3929: 3925: 3919: 3912: 3911:1-84176-759-X 3908: 3904: 3900: 3899: 3895: 3892: 3886: 3877: 3868: 3859: 3850: 3848: 3838: 3829: 3820: 3811: 3803: 3797: 3793: 3792: 3784: 3778: 3773: 3765: 3759: 3755: 3754: 3746: 3738: 3732: 3728: 3727: 3719: 3713: 3708: 3699: 3697: 3687: 3679: 3678:0-670-24407-4 3675: 3671: 3667: 3663: 3662: 3660: 3654: 3648: 3644: 3641: 3637: 3631: 3629: 3620: 3618:0-521-21592-7 3614: 3610: 3603: 3596: 3591: 3585: 3584:0-671-01200-2 3581: 3577: 3573: 3568: 3559: 3550: 3541: 3535: 3526: 3518: 3514: 3511: 3505: 3496: 3487: 3478: 3476: 3466: 3457: 3448: 3439: 3430: 3421: 3415: 3406: 3397: 3393: 3389: 3386: 3380: 3364: 3360: 3354: 3345: 3336: 3334: 3324: 3315: 3306: 3304: 3302: 3294: 3288: 3279: 3270: 3261: 3252: 3245: 3239: 3233: 3229: 3210: 3206: 3202: 3198: 3194: 3190: 3184: 3177: 3172: 3165: 3161: 3157: 3153: 3147: 3139: 3135: 3131: 3125: 3118: 3117:Chalcedonians 3114: 3110: 3109:Monothelitism 3104: 3097: 3093: 3089: 3085: 3081: 3078: 3072: 3068: 3058: 3055: 3053: 3050: 3048: 3045: 3043: 3040: 3038: 3035: 3033: 3030: 3029: 3023: 3020: 3016: 3015: 3010: 3009:Acritic songs 3006: 3002: 2998: 2993: 2991: 2986: 2983: 2979: 2970: 2965: 2956: 2954: 2953: 2948: 2940: 2936: 2935: 2934: 2932: 2928: 2924: 2920: 2916: 2912: 2909:according to 2906: 2904: 2900: 2893: 2889: 2881: 2877: 2872: 2863: 2861: 2857: 2853: 2849: 2845: 2841: 2836: 2834: 2830: 2826: 2822: 2816: 2806: 2804: 2803: 2797: 2795: 2791: 2787: 2783: 2779: 2775: 2771: 2766: 2764: 2760: 2756: 2752: 2748: 2744: 2740: 2736: 2732: 2724: 2720: 2716: 2715:Nikephoros II 2712: 2708: 2706: 2702: 2698: 2694: 2690: 2686: 2682: 2681:Sayf al-Dawla 2678: 2674: 2670: 2666: 2663:, along with 2662: 2658: 2653: 2651: 2647: 2643: 2639: 2635: 2631: 2627: 2622: 2620: 2616: 2612: 2608: 2604: 2600: 2596: 2592: 2588: 2584: 2583:captured Bari 2579: 2577: 2573: 2570: 2566: 2562: 2558: 2554: 2549: 2547: 2543: 2539: 2535: 2531: 2526: 2522: 2518: 2514: 2505: 2496: 2494: 2490: 2486: 2482: 2478: 2474: 2470: 2466: 2462: 2458: 2452: 2442: 2440: 2436: 2429: 2428: 2422: 2418: 2416: 2412: 2408: 2404: 2403: 2398: 2394: 2389: 2385: 2383: 2379: 2378: 2373: 2372: 2367: 2363: 2359: 2353: 2350: 2343: 2340: 2339: 2334: 2333: 2320: 2313: 2311: 2307: 2303: 2299: 2298: 2292: 2290: 2282: 2278: 2273: 2264: 2262: 2258: 2257:Constantine V 2254: 2250: 2246: 2242: 2241:Constantine V 2238: 2234: 2233:confrontation 2229: 2227: 2223: 2219: 2214: 2212: 2208: 2204: 2200: 2196: 2192: 2187: 2185: 2181: 2177: 2173: 2169: 2164: 2162: 2158: 2154: 2150: 2146: 2142: 2138: 2134: 2130: 2129: 2123: 2121: 2120: 2115: 2111: 2107: 2103: 2099: 2095: 2091: 2086: 2079: 2074: 2065: 2063: 2059: 2055: 2051: 2047: 2042: 2037: 2027: 2025: 2021: 2017: 2012: 2009: 2005: 2001: 1997: 1993: 1985: 1981: 1976: 1972: 1970: 1965: 1961: 1955: 1952: 1948: 1944: 1940: 1937: 1933: 1929: 1925: 1921: 1917: 1912: 1910: 1906: 1902: 1898: 1894: 1885: 1881: 1877: 1872: 1868: 1866: 1862: 1858: 1854: 1850: 1846: 1843:of the city. 1842: 1838: 1833: 1829: 1819: 1817: 1813: 1812: 1807: 1803: 1795: 1791: 1790: 1784: 1780: 1776: 1774: 1770: 1766: 1761: 1757: 1753: 1749: 1745: 1741: 1737: 1732: 1730: 1726: 1722: 1718: 1717: 1710: 1708: 1704: 1700: 1696: 1692: 1688: 1684: 1674: 1670: 1652: 1650: 1646: 1639: 1637: 1633: 1629: 1625: 1621: 1616: 1614: 1612: 1608: 1604: 1600: 1594: 1590: 1586: 1582: 1578: 1574: 1573:Uqba ibn Nafi 1569: 1567: 1563: 1559: 1555: 1551: 1546: 1544: 1540: 1536: 1532: 1528: 1524: 1519: 1517: 1516: 1511: 1507: 1503: 1499: 1495: 1491: 1481: 1478: 1477: 1473: 1468: 1464: 1463: 1459: 1449: 1447: 1443: 1439: 1435: 1431: 1426: 1423: 1418: 1416: 1412: 1408: 1404: 1400: 1396: 1389: 1374: 1372: 1368: 1364: 1359: 1357: 1353: 1349: 1345: 1341: 1337: 1334: 1330: 1325: 1323: 1319: 1315: 1311: 1306: 1301: 1299: 1295: 1291: 1287: 1283: 1279: 1276:in 634. In a 1275: 1271: 1266: 1264: 1260: 1256: 1252: 1248: 1247:Rashidun army 1242: 1232: 1230: 1226: 1222: 1218: 1214: 1210: 1206: 1202: 1198: 1192: 1190: 1186: 1182: 1173: 1163: 1153: 1144: 1140: 1136: 1127: 1125: 1121: 1117: 1113: 1109: 1105: 1101: 1096: 1092: 1087: 1083: 1081: 1077: 1073: 1069: 1065: 1061: 1055: 1051: 1047: 1043: 1033: 1031: 1027: 1026:Seljuk Empire 1023: 1019: 1015: 1004: 1000: 995: 993: 989: 985: 981: 977: 976:client rulers 973: 968: 966: 965:field battles 962: 958: 954: 949: 947: 943: 939: 935: 931: 927: 923: 919: 915: 911: 907: 903: 899: 895: 890: 888: 884: 880: 876: 872: 868: 864: 849: 846: 845: 840: 837: 835: 832: 830: 827: 826: 825: 822:Campaigns of 821: 817: 814: 812: 809: 808: 807: 804:Campaigns of 803: 802: 797: 794: 792: 789: 787: 784: 782: 779: 778: 777: 776:Nikephoros II 774:Campaigns of 773: 772: 767: 764: 762: 759: 757: 754: 753: 752: 751:Sayf al-Dawla 749:Campaigns of 748: 747: 744: 741:Campaigns of 740: 739: 738: 737: 731: 728: 726: 723: 721: 718: 716: 713: 711: 708: 706: 703: 701: 698: 696: 693: 691: 688: 686: 683: 681: 678: 676: 673: 671: 668: 666: 663: 661: 658: 657: 656: 655: 654:Naval warfare 649: 646: 644: 641: 639: 636: 634: 631: 629: 626: 624: 621:Campaigns of 620: 618: 615: 613: 610: 608: 605: 603: 600: 598: 594: 591:Campaigns of 590: 588: 585: 583: 580: 578: 575: 573: 570: 568: 565: 563: 560: 558: 555: 553: 550: 548: 545: 544: 543: 542: 541: 537: 530: 527: 525: 522: 520: 517: 515: 512: 510: 507: 505: 502: 500: 497: 495: 492: 490: 487: 485: 482: 480: 477: 476: 475: 474: 468: 465: 463: 460: 458: 455: 453: 450: 448: 445: 443: 440: 439: 438: 437: 436: 432: 425: 422: 420: 417: 415: 412: 410: 407: 405: 402: 401: 400: 399: 398: 391: 388: 386: 383: 381: 378: 376: 373: 371: 368: 366: 363: 362: 361: 360: 359: 352: 349: 347: 344: 342: 339: 337: 334: 332: 329: 327: 324: 322: 319: 317: 314: 312: 309: 307: 304: 302: 299: 297: 294: 292: 289: 287: 284: 282: 279: 277: 274: 272: 269: 267: 264: 262: 259: 257: 254: 253: 252: 251: 250: 243: 240: 238: 235: 233: 230: 228: 225: 224: 223: 218: 213: 203: 198: 196: 191: 189: 184: 183: 180: 172: 171:Zirid dynasty 168: 164: 160: 156: 152: 148: 144: 140: 136: 132: 129: 127: 123: 119: 115: 111: 107: 104: 103: 98: 89: 84: 81: 80: 76: 73: 72: 68: 64: 60: 53: 48: 45: 40: 35: 30: 19: 5651:Online books 5641: 5611: 5585: 5565: 5553: 5522: 5499: 5490: 5471: 5448: 5423:The Templars 5422: 5409: 5386: 5370:. Dorrance. 5367: 5348: 5325: 5315: 5311: 5292: 5269: 5245: 5221: 5185: 5162: 5138: 5117: 5093: 5089:Haldon, John 5070: 5046: 5026: 5005: 5001: 4982: 4959: 4938: 4920: 4903: 4896: 4876:"Iḳrīṭis̲h̲" 4851: 4838: 4811: 4789: 4772: 4768: 4741: 4727: 4702: 4685: 4656: 4647: 4638: 4629: 4621: 4613: 4595: 4581: 4572: 4557: 4554:Thomas Woods 4549: 4534: 4530: 4515: 4510: 4490: 4464: 4460: 4440: 4433: 4413: 4383: 4353: 4346: 4334: 4299: 4292: 4273: 4253: 4244: 4235: 4226: 4217: 4208: 4199: 4166: 4157: 4148: 4133: 4111: 4107: 4074: 4065: 4056: 4047: 4038: 4029: 4008: 3999: 3990: 3981: 3970: 3923: 3918: 3889: 3885: 3876: 3867: 3858: 3837: 3828: 3819: 3810: 3790: 3783: 3772: 3752: 3745: 3725: 3718: 3707: 3686: 3666:Count Julian 3665: 3658: 3653: 3635: 3608: 3602: 3590: 3575: 3567: 3558: 3549: 3539: 3538:Theophanes, 3534: 3525: 3504: 3495: 3486: 3465: 3456: 3447: 3438: 3429: 3419: 3414: 3405: 3395: 3379: 3367:. Retrieved 3363:the original 3353: 3344: 3323: 3314: 3292: 3291:"Muhammad", 3287: 3278: 3269: 3260: 3251: 3243: 3237: 3236:Theophanes, 3232: 3183: 3171: 3146: 3130:Al-Baladhuri 3124: 3113:Monophysites 3103: 3071: 3012: 2994: 2987: 2974: 2950: 2944: 2919:Latin Church 2911:Thomas Woods 2907: 2895: 2837: 2833:Seljuk Turks 2823:and various 2818: 2801: 2798: 2782:River Danube 2767: 2728: 2654: 2632:and much of 2623: 2593:fell to the 2580: 2576:Adriatic Sea 2550: 2517:Umar al-Aqta 2510: 2454: 2437:the city of 2432: 2425: 2411:Thessalonica 2400: 2390: 2386: 2375: 2369: 2365: 2355: 2349:806 campaign 2345: 2336: 2330: 2318: 2316: 2309: 2305: 2295: 2293: 2285: 2230: 2215: 2188: 2165: 2161:Mesopotamian 2152: 2148: 2144: 2140: 2136: 2132: 2126: 2124: 2117: 2087: 2083: 2062:Seljuk Turks 2043: 2039: 2013: 1989: 1956: 1916:Justinian II 1913: 1909:Abd al-Malik 1889: 1883: 1825: 1815: 1809: 1799: 1787: 1777: 1733: 1728: 1724: 1714: 1711: 1682: 1668: 1665: 1649:Count Julian 1641: 1634:province of 1617: 1611:great desert 1596: 1570: 1547: 1537:through the 1521:Following a 1520: 1513: 1498:Tripolitania 1487: 1480:Al-Baladhuri 1427: 1419: 1391: 1360: 1352:Antioch fell 1326: 1310:Al-Baladhuri 1302: 1267: 1255:Monophysites 1244: 1193: 1185:Saudi Arabia 1178: 1118:, the first 1088: 1084: 1057: 1022:Seljuk Turks 996: 969: 950: 916:in 642. The 891: 862: 860: 811:Alexandretta 735: 734: 715:Thessalonica 653: 652: 628:2nd Taormina 612:1st Taormina 582:3rd Syracuse 572:2nd Syracuse 547:1st Syracuse 534: 533: 514:Mauropotamos 472: 471: 447:Sebastopolis 429: 428: 397:North Africa 395: 394: 356: 355: 261:al-Qaryatayn 247: 246: 221: 209: 100:Belligerents 42:Part of the 29: 5008:: 721–747. 4902:Volume III: 4893:Schacht, J. 4889:Pellat, Ch. 4351:DK (2012). 4327:Canard 1971 4276:. Penguin. 3640:Chapter 51. 3572:Will Durant 3014:Strategikon 2990:Fredegarius 2927:Charlemagne 2848:Middle East 2792:beyond the 2513:Michael III 2207:iconophiles 2112:(Mar'ash), 2110:Germanikeia 1806:Constans II 1794:Constans II 1765:Constans II 1716:Dār al-Ḥarb 1695:Anti-Taurus 1593:Middle Ages 1356:Mesopotamia 1348:Mesopotamia 1261:throughout 961:depopulated 912:in 639 and 607:2nd Milazzo 602:1st Milazzo 587:Caltavuturo 529:Bathys Ryax 341:Iron Bridge 306:Marj ar-Rum 5687:Categories 5318:: 347–362. 5023:"Muhammad" 4871:Canard, M. 3369:7 February 3219:References 3084:Ghassanids 2997:Sophronius 2982:Nicephorus 2978:Theophanes 2915:Iconoclast 2813:See also: 2809:Conclusion 2415:city walls 2407:Michael II 2371:al-'Awasim 2281:Theophilos 2203:idolatrous 2098:Mopsuestia 2078:Asia Minor 2050:Iconoclasm 2008:Greek fire 1857:Heliopolis 1849:Greek fire 1736:Muawiyah I 1636:Mauretania 1579:. In 670, 1531:Muawiyah I 1430:Alexandria 1403:Alexandria 1336:Sophronius 1201:Ghassanids 1124:Ridda wars 1108:Ghassanids 1100:Shahrbaraz 1076:True Cross 1040:See also: 1036:Background 1010: 920 957:Asia Minor 946:717 to 718 942:674 to 678 938:Asia Minor 879:Caliphates 834:2nd Aleppo 705:Cephalonia 617:Garigliano 519:Faruriyyah 489:Kopidnadon 375:Alexandria 365:Heliopolis 351:Germanicia 336:1st Aleppo 256:Marj Rahit 249:The Levant 59:Greek fire 5474:. Brill. 4912:495469525 4881:Lewis, B. 4728:Chronicle 4711:cite book 4618:Dolger F. 4594:See also 3542:, 645–646 3540:Chronicle 3418:Zonaras, 3398:, II, 424 3396:Chronicle 3240:, 317–327 3238:Chronicle 3224:Citations 3156:his slave 3088:Mardaites 3080:Armenians 3077:Christian 2899:feudalism 2876:feudalism 2856:Ilkhanate 2844:Crusaders 2794:Euphrates 2770:Heraclius 2755:Jerusalem 2705:Palestine 2701:Jerusalem 2542:Paulician 2457:Aghlabids 2393:Al-Ma'mun 2335:give him 2306:muṭṭawi‘a 2277:Al-Ma'mun 2235:with the 2176:Mu'awiyah 2006:employed 1939:Mardaites 1936:Christian 1789:tremissis 1703:Heraclius 1669:al-Ḍawāḥī 1554:al-Fustat 1523:civil war 1515:nomismata 1407:Cyrenaica 1333:Patriarch 1270:Heraclius 1174:, 661–750 1164:, 632–661 1154:, 622–632 1080:Jerusalem 1072:Heraclius 934:Cyrenaica 883:Christian 781:5th Crete 766:Andrassos 725:4th Crete 720:3rd Crete 675:2nd Crete 670:1st Crete 648:2nd Malta 577:1st Malta 385:Darishkur 346:2nd Emesa 326:Jerusalem 167:Mirdasids 159:Hamdanids 114:Mardaites 77:629–1050s 5584:(1968), 5564:(1935), 5548:(1923), 5520:(1997). 5447:(1987). 5421:(1999). 5407:(1861). 5347:(1990). 5243:(2023). 5219:(eds.). 5183:(2001). 5115:(2006). 4931:(1996). 4895:(eds.). 4873:(1971). 4849:(2007). 4833:(1923). 4809:(1994). 4701:(1899). 3894:Archived 3643:Archived 3513:Archived 3388:Archived 3209:Colossus 3115:and the 3026:See also 2931:Muhammad 2731:Basil II 2719:Basil II 2675:emir of 2673:Hamdanid 2661:Melitene 2650:Adriatic 2634:Calabria 2615:Sipontum 2601:in 902. 2599:Taormina 2591:Syracuse 2572:Louis II 2481:Syracuse 2475:in 842, 2471:in 831, 2261:Melitene 2249:Akroinon 2224:and the 2184:Sulayman 2135:, sing. 2020:Bithynia 1951:Carthage 1897:Carthage 1654:— 1609:and the 1607:Atlantic 1589:Ifriqiya 1583:(modern 1581:Kairouan 1577:Damascus 1558:Anatolia 1550:Aral Sea 1527:Umayyads 1506:Carthage 1502:Sufetula 1209:Al-Hirah 1205:Lakhmids 1203:and the 1152:Muhammad 1116:Abu Bakr 1112:Muhammad 1091:Muhammad 1082:in 629. 984:Dalmatia 824:Basil II 685:Damietta 665:Keramaia 524:Lalakaon 467:Akroinon 431:Anatolia 419:Carthage 404:Sufetula 321:Laodicea 291:Damascus 271:Ajnadayn 88:Anatolia 82:Location 4981:(ed.). 4742:Annales 4668:Sources 4493:, p. 15 3420:Annales 3082:, Arab 3019:Maurice 2866:Effects 2802:themata 2751:Orontes 2689:Cilicia 2630:Taranto 2607:Siponto 2557:Basil I 2546:Karbeas 2544:leader 2534:Samarra 2530:Baghdad 2519:at the 2489:Chandax 2473:Messina 2469:Palermo 2465:Tunisia 2439:Amorion 2435:sacking 2402:themata 2366:thughur 2319:thughūr 2245:Tzitzak 2237:Khazars 2180:Maslama 2157:Malatya 2149:thughur 2141:shawātī 2133:ṣawā'if 2119:thughur 2090:Cilicia 1943:Lebanon 1924:Armenia 1853:refugee 1832:Cyzicus 1816:themata 1811:themata 1687:Cilicia 1683:ta akra 1678:τὰ ἄκρα 1628:Tangier 1620:Maghreb 1603:Morocco 1585:Tunisia 1510:Gregory 1371:Ascalon 1314:Antioch 1303:At the 1005:. From 997:Due to 829:Orontes 796:Antioch 791:Cilicia 710:Euripos 660:Phoenix 633:Rometta 562:Lentini 552:Messina 509:Amorium 479:Kamacha 424:Tabarka 409:Vescera 390:Bahnasa 316:Yarmouk 5639:about 5618: 5534: 5506: 5478: 5455: 5433: 5393: 5374: 5355: 5333: 5299: 5276: 5253: 5229: 5193: 5169: 5146: 5125: 5101: 5077: 5054: 5033: 4989: 4966: 4947: 4939:Europe 4910: 4904:H–Iram 4891:& 4859: 4819: 4796: 4734:(PDF). 4602: 4588: 4564: 4541: 4522: 4471: 4448: 4421: 4391: 4361: 4307: 4280: 4140: 4118: 3930: 3909: 3798: 3760: 3733: 3676: 3615: 3582: 3244:passim 3205:Rhodes 3197:Lycian 3193:battle 3164:Daniel 3094:, and 2923:Franks 2790:Edessa 2786:Crimea 2743:Aleppo 2677:Aleppo 2669:Phokas 2655:Under 2619:Apulia 2587:Sicily 2561:Europe 2382:in 806 2137:ṣā'ifa 2114:Hadath 2102:Tarsus 1969:Tervel 1932:Cyprus 1928:Iberia 1905:Arabia 1691:Taurus 1624:Bejaia 1562:Cyrene 1442:Cyprus 1438:Sicily 1411:Uthman 1278:battle 1221:Persia 1213:Levant 1189:battle 1168: 1158: 1148: 1120:Caliph 1095:Arabia 1052:, and 992:Sicily 906:Arabia 875:Muslim 873:. The 839:Apamea 806:John I 786:Aleppo 756:Marash 695:Kardia 690:Ragusa 680:Thasos 595:& 557:Butera 536:Sicily 494:Krasos 462:Nicaea 433:& 380:Nikiou 276:Yaqusa 242:Dathin 227:Mu'tah 4879:. In 4487:Rački 3092:Slavs 3063:Notes 2937:"The 2860:Timur 2821:Turks 2759:Syria 2747:Syria 2611:Latin 2485:Crete 2362:Raqqa 2338:jizya 2317:"The 2310:jihad 2302:Mecca 2300:) to 2209:. He 2199:icons 2191:Thera 2128:jihad 2094:Adana 2024:Thera 1884:peace 1786:Gold 1725:hudna 1673:Greek 1632:Roman 1566:Barca 1472:Torah 1446:Crete 1422:Copts 1344:Egypt 1263:Syria 1217:Egypt 1181:Tabuk 1068:Arabs 988:Crete 980:Italy 877:Arab 816:Syria 761:Raban 504:Anzen 452:Tyana 414:Mamma 358:Egypt 331:Hazir 311:Emesa 266:Bosra 237:Firaz 232:Balqa 5616:ISBN 5532:ISBN 5504:ISBN 5476:ISBN 5453:ISBN 5431:ISBN 5391:ISBN 5372:ISBN 5353:ISBN 5331:ISBN 5297:ISBN 5274:ISBN 5251:ISBN 5227:ISBN 5191:ISBN 5167:ISBN 5144:ISBN 5123:ISBN 5099:ISBN 5075:ISBN 5052:ISBN 5031:ISBN 4987:ISBN 4964:ISBN 4945:ISBN 4908:OCLC 4857:ISBN 4817:ISBN 4794:ISBN 4717:link 4600:ISBN 4586:ISBN 4562:ISBN 4539:ISBN 4520:ISBN 4469:ISBN 4446:ISBN 4419:ISBN 4389:ISBN 4359:ISBN 4305:ISBN 4278:ISBN 4138:ISBN 4116:ISBN 3928:ISBN 3907:ISBN 3796:ISBN 3758:ISBN 3731:ISBN 3674:ISBN 3613:ISBN 3580:ISBN 3371:2016 3096:Rus' 2999:and 2980:and 2945:The 2901:and 2890:and 2858:and 2784:and 2737:and 2565:Rome 2532:and 2477:Enna 2377:Hajj 2297:hajj 2182:and 1998:and 1978:The 1930:and 1865:Eyup 1750:and 1748:Copt 1729:ṣulḥ 1707:Umar 1693:and 1626:and 1601:and 1467:Homs 1444:and 1415:Umar 1346:and 1340:Gaza 1316:for 1286:Fahl 1259:Jews 1257:and 1227:and 1219:and 1139:Sham 982:and 944:and 920:was 867:Arab 861:The 848:Azaz 730:Tyre 567:Enna 538:and 301:Fahl 74:Date 5316:7–8 5010:doi 4777:doi 3668:by 3638:, 3150:As 3017:of 2878:in 2332:Rūm 1982:of 1882:", 1880:PAX 1792:of 1675:as 1599:Fes 1207:of 1078:to 955:in 5689:: 5592:, 5572:, 5552:, 5530:. 5470:. 5425:. 5314:. 5291:. 5268:. 5215:; 5211:; 5069:. 5025:. 5006:90 5004:. 4935:. 4900:. 4887:; 4883:; 4837:. 4792:, 4773:27 4771:. 4767:. 4740:, 4726:. 4713:}} 4709:{{ 4684:. 4620:, 4556:, 4498:^ 4489:, 4479:^ 4403:^ 4373:^ 4319:^ 4262:^ 4187:^ 4175:^ 4126:^ 4095:^ 4083:^ 4073:. 4017:^ 3969:. 3952:^ 3938:^ 3905:, 3901:, 3846:^ 3695:^ 3627:^ 3574:, 3474:^ 3332:^ 3300:^ 3132:. 3090:, 3086:, 2933:: 2905:. 2862:. 2835:. 2765:. 2707:. 2679:, 2652:. 2613:: 2495:. 2441:. 2384:. 2312:. 2228:. 2178:, 2122:. 2096:, 2064:. 2026:. 1926:, 1775:. 1746:, 1681:, 1651:. 1615:. 1518:. 1496:. 1409:. 1231:. 1215:, 1145:. 1048:, 1044:, 1032:. 1007:c. 5624:. 5540:. 5512:. 5484:. 5461:. 5439:. 5399:. 5380:. 5361:. 5339:. 5305:. 5282:. 5259:. 5235:. 5199:. 5175:. 5152:. 5131:. 5107:. 5083:. 5060:. 5039:. 5016:. 5012:: 4995:. 4972:. 4953:. 4914:. 4865:. 4825:. 4783:. 4779:: 4748:. 4719:) 4694:. 4606:. 4454:. 4427:. 4397:. 4367:. 4313:. 4286:. 4077:. 3913:. 3621:. 3597:. 3373:. 3098:. 2882:. 2609:( 1986:. 1886:. 1796:. 1613:" 201:e 194:t 187:v 20:)

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