20:
474:, were no longer allowed to operate in the country. Only permitted was aid from a government-to-government basis. In addition, the teaching of the English language was reformed and moved to secondary schools, whereas previously it had started as early as kindergarten. The government also implemented extensive visa restrictions for Burmese citizens, especially when their destinations were Western countries. Instead, the government sponsored the travel of students, scientists and technicians to the
583:, an economic plan divided into five increments of implementation, was introduced, in order to develop the country's natural resources, including agriculture, forestry, oil and natural gas, through state development. These reforms brought living standards back to pre-World War II levels and stimulated economic growth. However, by 1988, foreign debt had ballooned to $ 4.9 billion, about three-fourths of the national GDP, and Ne Win's later attempt to make the
2087:
2111:
2099:
445:
Road to
Socialism policies were an attempt to "Burmanize" the substantial ethnic populations of Myanmar via a nationalized school system, popular culture and the military. In the context of Burmanization, military officers supervised the spread of Burmeses language, culture, and Buddhism. Resistance to such policies resulted in ethnic insurgencies, and violent responses of the Burmese military known as "
786:
782:
555:
became a major feature of
Burmese society, representing about 80% of the national economy during the Burmese Way period. Moreover, income disparity became a major socioeconomic issue. Throughout the 1960s, Burma's foreign exchange reserves declined from $ 214 million in 1964 to $ 50 million in 1971,
444:
Especially after the 1990s, ethnic activists referred to
General Ne Win's policies of the 1960s as "Burmanization." This term referred to the policies of the Burmese Road to Socialism, with its emphasis on Burmese culture, military control, and Burmese Buddhism. Such critique claimed that Burmese
440:
According to a 1981 scholarly analysis, "there is little evidence that Burma either is now, or is in the process of becoming a socialist society". The study also stated that "the leadership, although demonstrating a certain social concern, clearly lacks the ability and the will necessary to build a
325:
as corrupt, inept at ruling the country, and unable to restore law and order, while the
Burmese military were popular from stability created by Ne Win's caretaker government. On 2 March 1962, less than two years after returning to civilian rule, Ne Win launched a second military-backed coup d'état,
432:
The subsequent discussion of the nature of ownership, planning and development strategy in Burma between 1962 and the mid-1970s indicates that while Burma formally established the structures of a socialist economy, it did not effectively implement those structures. Furthermore, since the mid-1970s
427:
The
Revolutionary Council will diligently seek all ways and means whereby it can formulate and carry out such programmes as are of real and practical value for the well-being of the nation. In doing so it will critically observe, study and avail itself of the opportunities provided by progressive
415:
In setting forth their programmes as well as in their execution the
Revolutionary Council will study and appraise the concrete realities and also the natural conditions peculiar to Burma objectively. On the basis of the actual findings derived from such study and appraisal it will develop its own
520:
in 1963, nationalized all major industries, including import-export trade, rice, banking, mining, teak and rubber on 1 June 1963. In total, around 15,000 private firms were nationalized. Furthermore, industrialists were prohibited from establishing new factories with private capital. This was
270:
which returned U Nu's Clean AFPFL, renamed as the Union Party, with a large majority. Ne Win officially handed back power to the victorious U Nu on 4 April 1960. However, the situation in Burma did not remain stable for long due to petitions from the Shan federalist movement started by
497:(now the Press Scrutiny and Registration Division), which censors all publications to this day, including newspapers, journals, advertisements and cartoons, was established by the RC through the Printers' and Publishers' Registration Act in August 1962. The RC set up the
912:. London and New Jersey: Zed Books. pp. 49, 91, 50, 53, 54, 56, 57, 58–9, 60, 61, 60, 66, 65, 68, 69, 77, 78, 64, 70, 103, 92, 120, 176, 168–9, 177, 178, 180, 186, 195–7, 193, 202, 204, 199, 200, 270, 269, 275–276, 292–3, 318–320, 25, 24, 1, 4–16, 365, 375–377, 414.
174:
economic and welfare policies, although economic growth remained slow throughout the 1950s. By 1958, Burma was largely beginning to recover economically, but was beginning to fall apart politically due to a split in the ruling AFPFL into two factions: the
423:
In whatever situations and difficulties the
Revolutionary Council may find itself it will strive for advancement in accordance with the times, conditions, environment and the ever-changing circumstances, keeping at heart the basic interests of the
563:
rate grew from 60% to 80% between the late 1960s and 1980s, and the number enrolled in primary schools as a percentage of the age group increased from 44% to 54% during the same period. In the health sector, life expectancy rose from 44% to 54%,
385:
leaders' phraseology being socialist, their actions were those of ardent nationalists seeking to maximize the power of their state. In
January 1963, the "Burmese Way to Socialism" was further elaborated in a political public policy called
419:
In its activities the
Revolutionary Council will strive for self-improvement by way of self-criticism. Having learnt from contemporary history the evils of deviation towards right or left the Council will with vigilance avoid any such
548:, both of whom had been influential in the economic sector as entrepreneurs and industrialists. By mid-1963, 2,500 foreigners a week were leaving Burma. By September 1964, approximately 100,000 Indian nationals had left the country.
461:
The "Burmese Way to
Socialism," while making significant strides in education and healthcare, also negatively affected the economy and the living standards of the Burmese people. Foreign aid organisations, like the American-based
537:, which monopolized oil extraction and production. In August 1963, the nationalization of basic industries, including department stores, warehouses and wholesale shops, followed. Price control boards were also introduced.
532:
The oil industry, which was previously controlled by American and British companies, such as the General Exploration Company and East Asiatic Burma Oil, were forced to end operations. In its place was the government-owned
575:(BSPP) Congress in 1971, several minor economic reforms were made, in light of the failures of the economic policy pursued throughout the 1960s. The Burmese government asked to rejoin the World Bank, joined the
353:
in Burma, respectively. In April, the Union Revolutionary Council government adopted "Burmese Way to Socialism" as its official political and economic ideology for governing Burma. In July, the
381:
in nature, characterised also by an extensive dependence on the military, emphasis on the rural populace, and Burmese (or more specifically, Burman) nationalism. Despite the
223:, the Army Chief of Staff, to serve as interim prime minister to restore order in Burma. Over 400 "communist sympathizers" were arrested, of which 153 were deported to a
1008:
The phraseology of their political goal is socialist, even Marxist, but their actions are those of ardent nationalists seeking to maximize the power of their state.
587:
based in denominations divisible by 9, a number he considered to be auspicious, led to the wiping of millions of savings of the Burmese people, resulting in the
690:
482:, in order to receive training and to "counter years of Western influence" in the country. Similarly, visas for foreigners were limited to just 24 hours.
1165:
580:
1341:
501:(BNA) to serve as a news distribution service in the country, thus effectively replacing the work of foreign news agencies. In September 1963,
396:), published as the philosophical and political basis for the Burmese approach to society and what Ne Win deemed as socialism, influenced by
199:
groups, but more significantly by the PVO surrendering their arms. The Union Parliament became very unstable, with U Nu barely surviving a
493:
was extensively restricted. Foreign language publications were prohibited, as were newspapers that printed "false propagandist news." The
183:
and Kyaw Nyein. This situation persisted despite the unexpected success of U Nu's "Arms for Democracy" offer taken up by U Seinda in the
1028:
509:, two Burmese newspapers, were nationalized. In December 1965, publication of privately owned newspapers was banned by the government.
123:(constant 2000 US$ ) increased from $ 159.18 in 1962 to $ 219.20 in 1987, or about 1.3% per year – one of the weakest growth rates in
1546:
1397:
494:
51:
357:(BSPP) was founded as part of the Burmese Way to Socialism to be Burma's sole legal political party. The BSPP became the official
307:
powers in exchange for comfortable pensions for life in 1959, but the unresolved issues of federalism and social order continued.
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159:
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ideas, theories and experiences at home, or abroad without discrimination between one country of origin and another.
2167:
1903:
1138:
19:
1898:
572:
354:
59:
24:
1660:
1541:
1241:
783:"World Development Indicators, GDP per capita (constant 2000 US$ ) for Myanmar, East Asia & Pacific region"
568:
declined from 129 to 50, and the number of persons per physician, from 15,560 to 3,900 during the same period.
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1356:
316:
100:. However, the Tatmadaw instigated a coup d'état shortly afterwards and established a new military junta, the
89:
2142:
1837:
1782:
1625:
267:
1210:
General Ne Win's Legacy of Burmanization, by Saw Eh Htoo and Tony Waters, Palgrave Macmillan Singapore, 2024
1118:
Saw Eh Htoo and Tony Waters (2024). Genera Ne Win's Legacy of Burmanization in Myanmar. Palgrave MacMillan
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1913:
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1711:
1665:
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1511:
1390:
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1971:
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1605:
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for insisting on the Burmese government honouring the right to secession in 10 years provided for by the
66:
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434:
82:
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due to economic failure, Burma had to accept policies that imply more private activity, including
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1933:
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1052:
Mental culture in Burmese crisis politics: Aung San Suu Kyi and the National League for Democracy
605:
1822:
1721:
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219:(CPB) coming to an agreement with U Nu through the NUF, and resulted in U Nu inviting General
1986:
1966:
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263:
163:
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The fundamentals of the "Burmese Way to Socialism", as outlined in 1963, were as follows:
8:
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1615:
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1494:
1436:
1410:
1315:
1286:
1193:
999:
982:
Badgley, John H. (1963). "Burma: The Nexus of Socialism and Two Political Traditions".
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The Enterprise Nationalization Law directly affected foreigners in Burma, particularly
350:
276:
200:
97:
1081:
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2110:
2016:
1991:
1908:
1464:
1237:
1101:
1097:
1055:
933:
818:
711:
684:
534:
228:
179:(သန့်ရှင်းဖဆပလ) led by U Nu and Thakin Tin, and the Stable AFPFL (တည်မြဲဖဆပလ) led by
139:
and keep Burma from being as entangled in the Cold War struggles that affected other
1298:
Holmes, Robert A. (1967). "Burmese Domestic Policy: The Politics of Burmanization".
862:
Holmes, Robert A. (1967). "Burmese Domestic Policy: The Politics of Burmanization".
345:
as both the Chairman of the Union Revolutionary Council and the Prime Minister, the
255:
108:
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2011:
1996:
1976:
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35:
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2001:
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541:
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513:
467:
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330:
327:
140:
81:(Burmese military) after they overthrew the democratically elected government of
55:
2115:
1981:
1956:
1526:
1479:
1454:
560:
479:
272:
120:
70:
1282:
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and the British, who were disproportionately represented in these industries.
341:
replacing the Union Parliament as the supreme governing body. Ne Win became a
2136:
2006:
1551:
1484:
1469:
1459:
1269:
Aung-Thwin, Maureen; Thant, Myint-U (1992). "The Burmese Ways to Socialism".
1105:
747:
Aung-Thwin, Maureen; Thant, Myint-U (1992). "The Burmese Ways to Socialism".
588:
522:
346:
93:
1961:
1842:
1176:
Butwell, Richard (1972). "Ne Win's Burma: At the End of the First Decade".
552:
475:
374:
358:
224:
212:
112:
1521:
232:
196:
128:
92:. It ceased to be Burma's state ideology in 1988, when the pro-democracy
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883:
768:
471:
288:
192:
666:"THE BURMESE ECONOMY AND THE WITHDRAWAL OF EUROPEAN TRADE PREFERENCES"
369:
The "Burmese Way to Socialism" has been described by some scholars as
446:
378:
171:
132:
124:
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1189:
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1743:
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401:
397:
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78:
47:
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1371:"The Burmese Way to Socialism" by the Union Revolutionary Council
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was extensive. The Enterprise Nationalization Law, passed by the
405:
326:
this time without U Nu's blessing. Ne Win established Burma as a
304:
300:
280:
220:
184:
180:
127:
over this period. Despite this, significant gains were made in
74:
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under the auspices of U Nu and successfully restored Burma's
151:
235:. Among them was the NUF leader Aung Than, older brother of
584:
559:
Significant gains were made in some of the social sectors.
188:
155:
111:, and has been described as "disastrous". For example, the
85:
287:. The Shan federalists were aspiring to create a "loose"
1340:. Information Department for the Revolutionary Council.
135:. The program also may have served to increase domestic
1021:"The System of Correlation of Man and His Environment"
707:
Economic Development of Burma: A Vision and a Strategy
1335:
449:" policies, denial of citizenship to groups like the
299:. Ne Win had already succeeded in stripping the Shan
817:. Institute of Southeast Asian Studies. p. 86.
388:
The System of Correlation of Man and His Environment
1255:
General Ne Win's Legacy of Burmanization in Myanmar
955:
General Ne Win’s Legacy of Burmanization in Myanmar
65:The Burmese Way to Socialism was introduced by the
1422:
1236:(1st ed.). London and New Jersey: Zed Books.
1139:"Myanmar: The Anomalies of Politics and Economics"
579:, and sought more foreign aid and assistance. The
321:By 1962, the Burmese public perceived the elected
1080:Fenichel, Allen; Khan, Azfar (1 September 1981).
2134:
922:
910:Burma – Insurgency and the Politics of Ethnicity
689:: CS1 maint: bot: original URL status unknown (
1268:
1233:Burma: Insurgency and the politics of ethnicity
1184:(10). University of California Press: 901–912.
746:
96:pressured BSPP officials to resign and adopt a
1306:(3). University of California Press: 188–197.
870:(3). University of California Press: 188–197.
671:. Archived from the original on 13 August 2011
254:On 28 October 1958, Ne Win staged an internal
1391:
391:
1132:
1130:
1128:
1126:
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1079:
990:(2). University of California Press: 89–95.
1359:Foreign Policy in Focus, 11 September 2007.
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107:The Burmese Way to Socialism led Burma to
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1121:
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16:State ideology of Burma from 1962 to 1988
1277:(1). Taylor & Francis, Ltd.: 67–75.
1146:The Asia Foundation Working Paper Series
857:
855:
853:
851:
849:
847:
845:
843:
841:
755:(1). Taylor & Francis, Ltd.: 67–75.
731:
704:(U.), Khan Mon Krann (16 January 2018).
203:only with the support of the opposition
52:Socialist Republic of the Union of Burma
18:
1336:Revolutionary Council (28 April 1962).
1175:
1169:
1049:
981:
970:
929:The Cambridge History of Southeast Asia
628:
364:
102:State Law and Order Restoration Council
2135:
1297:
1253:Eh Htoo, Saw and Tony Waters (2024).
861:
393:လူနှင့် ပတ်ဝန်းကျင်တို့၏ အညမည သဘောတရား
1379:
1344:from the original on 14 December 2012
1229:
1075:
1073:
1071:
1031:from the original on 13 November 2019
907:
838:
810:
789:from the original on 27 February 2019
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1405:
1148:(5). Asia Foundation. Archived from
903:
901:
899:
897:
895:
893:
806:
804:
703:
664:Collignon, Stefan (13 August 2011).
40:မြန်မာ့နည်းမြန်မာ့ဟန် ဆိုရှယ်လစ်စနစ်
1557:State Peace and Development Council
1261:
645:from the original on 9 January 2021
13:
1068:
119:became major issues. Burma's real
14:
2179:
1364:
1257:. Singapore: Palgrave Macmillan.
984:A Survey of Asia in 1962: Part II
890:
801:
573:Burmese Socialist Programme Party
2109:
2097:
2086:
2085:
1082:"The Burmese way to 'socialism'"
521:particularly detrimental to the
262:, a period known as the "Ne Win
211:amongst them. Hardliners in the
1204:
1159:
1112:
1043:
1013:
946:
814:Economic Development of Myanmar
811:Thein, Myat (16 January 2018).
355:Burma Socialist Programme Party
215:viewed this as a threat of the
60:Burma Socialist Programme Party
25:Burma Socialist Programme Party
1338:"THE BURMESE WAY TO SOCIALISM"
916:
775:
697:
657:
556:while inflation skyrocketed.
268:February 1960 general election
1:
616:
361:with Ne Win as its Chairman.
291:in Burma, and were seen as a
146:
1766:State Administration Council
1512:Restored Hanthawaddy Kingdom
1137:Steinberg, David I. (1997).
1098:10.1016/0305-750X(81)90043-7
621:
7:
1567:2011–2015 political reforms
594:
416:ways and means to progress.
383:Union Revolutionary Council
339:Union Revolutionary Council
90:coup d'état on 2 March 1962
67:Union Revolutionary Council
10:
2184:
1217:
314:
279:from 1948 to 1952 and the
62:(BSPP) from 1962 to 1988.
2081:
1947:
1879:
1870:
1818:
1809:
1687:
1678:
1601:
1592:
1435:
1423:Myanmar is also known as
1421:
1417:
1357:Burma—Growing Ever Darker
1283:10.1080/01436599208420262
1050:Houtman, Gustaaf (1999).
964:10.1007/978-981-97-1270-0
834:– via Google Books.
761:10.1080/01436599208420262
727:– via Google Books.
456:
392:
44:Burmese Road to Socialism
39:
1692:Administrative divisions
1328:
1222:
641:. BBC. 5 December 2002.
317:1962 Burmese coup d'état
311:1962 Burmese coup d'état
251:were also closed down.
217:Communist Party of Burma
207:(NUF), believed to have
32:Burmese Way to Socialism
2168:Totalitarian ideologies
2062:Twelve Auspicious Rites
1843:Myanmar kyat (currency)
606:Human rights in Myanmar
109:international isolation
1230:Smith, Martin (1991).
908:Smith, Martin (1991).
577:Asian Development Bank
77:and his allies in the
27:
1271:Third World Quarterly
749:Third World Quarterly
566:infant mortality rate
518:Revolutionary Council
487:freedom of expression
205:National United Front
154:under Prime Minister
42:), also known as the
22:
2143:Socialism in Myanmar
1899:Environmental issues
1858:Units of measurement
1505:First Toungoo Empire
499:News Agency of Burma
495:Press Scrutiny Board
491:freedom of the press
441:socialist society".
365:Ideological features
264:caretaker government
164:coalition government
2148:Burmese nationalism
1537:Japanese occupation
1490:Hanthawaddy Kingdom
797:– via Google.
601:Politics of Myanmar
335:military government
323:civilian government
293:separatist movement
260:political stability
2153:Political theories
2122:Outline of Myanmar
1838:Telecommunications
1754:commander-in-chief
1547:Socialist Republic
1495:Kingdom of Mrauk U
639:"Obituary: Ne Win"
611:Economy of Myanmar
512:The impact on the
435:foreign investment
351:head of government
277:President of Burma
239:. Newspapers like
201:no-confidence vote
98:multi-party system
28:
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2076:
1914:Human trafficking
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1865:
1805:
1804:
1773:Political parties
1712:Foreign relations
1674:
1673:
1465:Myinsaing Kingdom
1431:
1430:
1092:(9–10): 813–824.
1086:World Development
1061:978-4-87297-748-6
535:Burma Oil Company
470:, as well as the
297:1947 Constitution
229:Great Coco Island
209:crypto-communists
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2100:
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2047:National symbols
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1025:Burmalibrary.org
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170:had implemented
168:Union Parliament
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58:governed by the
46:, was the state
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2052:Public holidays
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1939:Sex trafficking
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1801:
1739:Law enforcement
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1646:Protected areas
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1500:Toungoo dynasty
1475:Sagaing Kingdom
1450:Pyu city-states
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542:Burmese Indians
527:Burmese Indians
514:Burmese economy
468:Asia Foundation
464:Ford Foundation
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367:
331:socialist state
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