212:
frequencies expressed in the alpha range, increased alpha band power, and an overall slowing (reduction in frequency) in EEG activity in experienced meditators versus less experienced meditators while meditating. The alpha blocking phenomenon, observed as a state change in brain function, was investigated as a possible trait change as well. One study that examined a variety of meditation techniques tried to show that alpha blocking was affected by the long term practice of meditation by testing response to auditory stimuli. Review works, however, comment on inconsistent findings as well as a lack of repeated results in this, and other studies. They further remark that, similar to observations in brain state changes, only general assertions can be made about brain trait changes: some change in the electroencephalographic profile exists but with some inconsistency. It is also important to note that these trait changes were observed during meditation, and although it does indicate that a practitioner's electroencephalographic profile is modified by the practice of meditation, these EEG studies have not yet shown changes in non-meditating brains, even of experienced meditators.
346:, Flanagan presents a more conservative viewpoint of current scientific research and cautions readers against the seemingly exciting results of recent studies. Flanagan does not believe current science supports the idea that positive emotion can be strengthened in the same way that stroke victims can recover use of limbs with use. Flanagan does acknowledge that meditation may be beneficial in some way, but the mechanism of how meditation affects the brain is still clouded. Similarly, Awasthi argues that meditation is non-specific to the research studies showing clinical efficacy in some cases, though mechanisms remain unclear. Flanagan and Hanson use many of the same scientific studies to attempt to support their differing viewpoint, but both authors identify the need and importance of future studies investigating meditation. Meditation research is still in its early stages and a lot more replicable results need to be established before the science community can back its efficiency.
152:(fMRI) is another highly utilized methodology for studying state changes in meditating brains. fMRI detects subtle increases in blood flow to areas of the brain with higher metabolic activity. Thus these areas of increased metabolic activity indicate which regions of the brain are currently being used to process whatever stimuli presented. Counter to EEG, the advantage of fMRI is its spatial resolution, with the ability to produce detailed spatial maps of brain activity. It suffers, however, in temporal resolution and cannot measure progressive activity, like the EEG, with much detail.
109:. Specifically, EEG measures the electric fields of large groups of neurons. EEG has the benefit of excellent temporal resolution and is able to measure aggregate activity of portions or the entire cortex down to the millisecond scale. Unlike other imaging based methods, EEG does not have good spatial resolution and is more appropriately used to evaluate the running spontaneous activity of the cortex. This spontaneous activity is classified into four main classifications based on the frequency of the activity, ranging from low frequency
133:
129:
activity. Alpha blocking is a phenomenon where the active brain, normally presenting beta wave activity, cannot as easily switch to alpha wave activity often involved in memory recall. These findings would suggest that in a meditative state a person is more relaxed but maintains a sharp awareness. Two large, comprehensive review works, however, point to poor control and statistical analyses in these early studies and comment that it can only be said with confidence that increased alpha and theta wave activity exists.
28:
1716:
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al. found "consistent differences in prefrontal cortex and body awareness regions" in "areas key to meta-awareness..., exteroceptive and interoceptive body awareness..., memory consolidation and reconsolidation..., self and emotion regulation..., and intra- and interhemispheric communication..." and that changes were significant with "moderate" global median effect size and "consistent and medium-sized brain structure differences."
216:
334:
results. Hanson's main argument is that positive emotions, like love can be strengthened through meditation in a neuroplastic manner, citing dozens of scientific studies to support this claim. Hanson's viewpoint is representative of a larger popular movement to study and embrace
Eastern phenomena including meditation in the Western world.
333:
in books targeted for general audiences. One such book, Buddha's Brain by Rick Hanson, PhD shares the current scientific research and investigations into meditation. Hanson, a neuroscientist and researcher, explains to readers the scientific studies in plain language and discuss the impact of the
312:
In the meta-analysis performed by Fox et al., several sources of bias were indicated which bring into question the validity of meditation studies which use neuroimaging. Fox et al. suggests a publication bias may be leading to the over-reporting of significant results. Despite this, however, Fox et
299:
The brain state changes found in meditators are almost exclusively found in higher-order executive and association cortices. This supports the notion that meditation increases self-regulation and attentiveness. Recent studies have also investigated how these changes may alter the functionality and
180:
areas were shown to have increased activity during Zen meditation. Both studies comment on the possibility that these findings could indicate some state of heightened voluntary control over attention during mindfulness meditation. Review works by Cahn and Chiesa state that these results indicate
840:
Fox, Kieran C.R.; Nijeboer, Savannah; Dixon, Matthew L.; Floman, James L.; Ellamil, Melissa; Rumak, Samuel P.; Sedlmeier, Peter; Christoff, Kalina (June 2014). "Is meditation associated with altered brain structure? A systematic review and meta-analysis of morphometric neuroimaging in meditation
128:
Many studies on mindfulness meditation, assessed in a review by Cahn and Polich in 2006, have linked lower frequency alpha waves, as well as theta waves, to meditation. Much older studies report more specific findings, such as decreased alpha blocking and increased frontal lobe specific theta
211:
Similar to research into state changes in brain function, older studies make more specific claims about trait changes in meditators versus non-meditators. Changes to the alpha wave were indicated to be a trait, as well as state and phenomena. Studies have reported an increase in the specific
1060:
Fox, Kieran C.R.; Nijeboer, Savannah; Dixon, Matthew L.; Floman, James L.; Ellamil, Melissa; Rumak, Samuel P.; Sedlmeier, Peter; Christoff, Kalina (2014). "Is meditation associated with altered brain structure? A systematic review and meta-analysis of morphometric neuroimaging in meditation
189:
The review by Cahn also notes findings describing a heightened emotional state of meditators. A more complex study, conducted in 2008 by Lutz et al., focused on emotional response during meditation. This investigation involved the creation of a "compassion meditation" state by novice and
287:
Long-term meditation practitioners have also shown to have a higher tolerance for pain. This effect has been correlated to altered function and structure in somatosensory cortices and an increased ability to decouple regions in the brain associated with the cognitive appraisal of pain
105:(EEG) has been used in many studies as a primary method for evaluating the meditating brain. Electroencephalography uses electrical leads placed all over the scalp to measure the collective electrical activity of the
66:
on the brain can be broken up into two categories: state changes and trait changes, respectively alterations in brain activities during the act of meditating and changes that are the outcome of long-term practice.
970:
Grant, Joshua A.; Courtemanche, Jérôme; Rainville, Pierre (January 2011). "A non-elaborative mental stance and decoupling of executive and pain-related cortices predicts low pain sensitivity in Zen meditators".
181:
consistency in meditation's effect on these regions of the brain, citing a multitude of other studies spanning other meditative disciplines, but mention the need for further investigation with better controls.
272:
pathways in the brains of individuals who meditate in comparison to individuals who do not. Of all areas with reported findings, a greater number of structural changes were found in the left hemisphere.
1014:
Jang, Joon Hwan; Jung, Wi Hoon; Kang, Do-Hyung; Byun, Min Soo; Kwon, Soo Jin; Choi, Chi-Hoon; Kwon, Jun Soo (January 2011). "Increased default mode network connectivity associated with meditation".
584:
Holzel BK, Ott U, Hempel H, Hackl A, Wolf K, Stark R, Vaitl D (2007). "Differential engagement of anterior cingulate and adjacent medial frontal cortex in adept meditators and non-meditators".
198:
in response to the emotional sounds. The authors of this study believe this indicates greater sensitivity to emotional expression and positive emotion due to the neural circuitry activated.
748:
Stigsby B, Rodenberg JC, Moth HB (1981). "Electroencephalographic findings during mantra meditation (transcendental meditation). A controlled, quantitative study of experienced meditators".
190:
experienced meditators and testing the meditators response to emotionally charged sounds. fMRI results indicated heightened activity in the cingulate cortex but also in the
284:
which plays a role in learning, cognitive flexibility and attentional processing This could suggest a better attentiveness in aging meditators versus non-meditators.
160:
As a relatively new technology, fMRI has only recently been used to assess brain state changes during meditation. Studies have shown heightened activity in the
280:
volume associated with aging. One study found evidence that Zen meditators experienced a slower age related decline rate for cerebral gray matter volume in the
927:
Grant, J. A.; Rainville, P. (5 January 2009). "Pain
Sensitivity and Analgesic Effects of Mindful States in Zen Meditators: A Cross-Sectional Study".
342:
Critics, like Owen
Flanagan, PhD, believe that Hanson, and those like him, are overextending the results of current scientific studies. In his book
236:
of 21 neuroimaging studies, eight brain regions were found to be consistently altered, including areas key to meta-awareness (frontopolar cortex/
355:
304:, which is a hypothesized network of brain regions that are active when an individual is engaged in internal tasks such as daydreaming.
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149:
62:
during the latter half of the 20th century. Research on meditation sought to define and characterize various practices. The
1234:
16:
This article is about the specific effects of meditation on the human brain. For general information about meditation, see
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Chiesa A, Serretti, A (2010). "A systematic review of neurobiological and clinical features of mindfulness meditations".
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293:
884:
Pagnoni G, Cekic M (2007). "Age effects on gray matter volume and attentional performance in Zen meditation".
818:
Andersen J (2000). "Meditation meets behavioural medicine: The story of experimental research on meditation".
1267:
1272:
691:"Regulation of the Neural Circuitry of Emotion by Compassion Meditation: Effects of Meditative Expertise"
1665:
1585:
783:
Becker DE, Shapiro D (1981). "Physiological responses to clicks during Zen, yoga, and TM meditation".
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There is also evidence to suggest meditation plays a protective role against the natural reduction in
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253:
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Brain trait changes have also been observed in neuroimaging studies, most often employing fMRI. In a
161:
32:
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Cahn BR, Polich J (2006). "Meditation states and traits : EEG, ERP, and neuroimaging studies".
1755:
1227:
629:"' Thinking about not- thinking': neural correlates of conceptual processing during Zen meditation"
195:
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172:, specifically in the dorsal medial prefrontal area during Vipassana meditation. Similarly, the
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Kasamatsu KH, Hirai T (1966). "An electroencephalographic study on the zen meditation (Zazen)".
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which had been shown to have heightened activity during meditation by experienced meditators.
117:(13–30 Hz) associated with an awake and alert brain. In between these two extremes are
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describes mindfulness meditation as complete, unbiased attention to the current moment.
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Wherever You Go, There You Are : Mindfulness
Meditation in Everyday Life
233:
1168:"Issues and perspectives in meditation research: in search for a definition"
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Besides scientific literature, some authors have written of the promising
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Buddha's Brain: The
Practical Neuroscience of Happiness, Love, and Wisdom
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More research will be needed before any firm conclusions can be made.
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35:, a region of the brain shown to be activated during meditation.
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689:
Lutz A, Brefczynski-Lewis J, Johnstone T, Davidson RJ (2008).
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264:) These changes were distinguished by density increases in
396:
Vipassana : A Universal
Buddhist Meditation Technique
78:
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Electroencephalography and
Clinical Neurophysiology
240:), exteroceptive and interoceptive body awareness (
1108:
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1053:
926:
184:
194:, temporo-parietal junction, and right posterior
1732:
113:(< 4 Hz) commonly found during sleep to
1115:. Oakland, CA: New Harbinger Publication, INC.
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626:
540:
494:
202:Changes in brain due to the prolonged practice
1228:
782:
248:), memory consolidation and reconsolidation (
20:. For the overall effects of meditation, see
883:
835:
833:
426:"Which Frequency/Hz Is Good For Meditation?"
50:became a focus of collaborative research in
1381:Shikantaza (Zen Buddhist seated meditation)
1294:Anapanasati (Buddhist breathing meditation)
1136:
1134:
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490:
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356:Neural mechanisms of mindfulness meditation
206:
1685:The Varieties of the Meditative Experience
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1143:Bodhisattva's Brain: Buddhism Naturalized
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344:Bodhisattva's Brain: Buddhism Naturalized
155:
97:
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1063:Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews
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843:Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews
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26:
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1411:Zazen (Zen Buddhist seated meditation)
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398:. New Delhi: Sri Satguru Publications.
378:
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497:Psychiatry and Clinical Neurosciences
324:
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150:Functional magnetic resonance imaging
898:10.1016/j.neurobiolaging.2007.06.008
679:
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1371:Pranayama (yoga breathing practice)
443:
13:
797:10.1111/j.1469-8986.1981.tb01846.x
627:Pagnoni G, Cekic M, Guo Y (2008).
509:10.1111/j.1440-1819.1966.tb02646.x
383:. Tokyo: Kosei Publishing Company.
219:Red region of the brain shows the
14:
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423:
227:
1715:
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1329:Henosis (Neoplatonic meditation)
1145:. Cambridge, MA: The MIT Press.
820:Journal of Consciousness Studies
252:), self and emotion regulation (
1075:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2014.03.016
1007:
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855:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2014.03.016
185:Study on meditation and emotion
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1396:Transcendental meditation (TM)
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294:dorsolateral prefrontal cortex
1:
1419:(tai chi standing meditation)
1401:Vipassanā (Silent meditation)
1359:Naam Japo (Sikism meditation)
1268:Meditation in popular culture
1258:Brain activity and meditation
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31:Highlighted region shows the
1319:Dhyāna (Buddhist meditation)
1028:10.1016/j.neulet.2010.10.056
941:10.1097/psy.0b013e31818f52ee
762:10.1016/0013-4694(81)90107-3
716:10.1371/journal.pone.0001897
654:10.1371/journal.pone.0003083
598:10.1016/j.neulet.2007.04.074
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1349:Muraqabah (Sufi meditation)
471:10.1037/0033-2909.132.2.180
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1324:Dhyāna (Hindu meditation)
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555:10.1017/S0033291709991747
290:anterior cingulate cortex
254:anterior cingulate cortex
162:anterior cingulate cortex
85:, is frequently studied.
33:anterior cingulate cortex
1751:Mindfulness (psychology)
1185:10.3389/fpsyg.2012.00613
409:Kabat-Zinn, Jon (1998).
196:superior temporal sulcus
1741:Behavioral neuroscience
1273:Mind–body interventions
1172:Frontiers in Psychology
1141:Flanagan, Owen (2011).
1278:Research on meditation
929:Psychosomatic Medicine
543:Psychological Medicine
459:Psychological Bulletin
381:Essentials of Buddhism
379:Mizuno, Kogen (1972).
331:research on meditation
224:
207:Electroencephalography
156:Topographical findings
141:
103:Electroencephalography
98:Electroencephalography
93:Changes in brain state
48:central nervous system
36:
1445:Brainwave entrainment
1263:History of meditation
1107:Hanson, Rick (2009).
886:Neurobiology of Aging
413:. New York: Hyperion.
361:Effects of meditation
218:
135:
64:effects of meditation
30:
22:Effects of meditation
1485:Higher consciousness
1304:Christian meditation
1016:Neuroscience Letters
586:Neuroscience Letters
308:Validity of findings
302:default mode network
300:connectivity of the
258:orbitofrontal cortex
1702:Meditation and pain
1465:Conscious breathing
1299:Buddhist meditation
707:2008PLoSO...3.1897L
645:2008PLoSO...3.3083P
394:Ahir, D.C. (1999).
75:Buddhist meditation
1582:Focused attention
1354:New Age meditation
1334:Islamic meditation
1166:Awasthi B (2013).
325:Positive portrayal
320:Popular literature
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121:(4–8 Hz) and
77:approach found in
42:and its effect on
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1728:
1727:
1666:Stephen Batchelor
1661:Martine Batchelor
1607:Multiple methods
1480:Guided meditation
1344:Jewish meditation
1309:Taoist meditation
892:(10): 1623–1627.
170:prefrontal cortex
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549:(8): 1239–1252.
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174:cingulate cortex
125:(8–12 Hz).
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1756:Neuropsychology
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1646:Sharon Salzberg
1641:Matthieu Ricard
1636:14th Dalai Lama
1592:Open awareness
1586:Thich Nhat Hanh
1571:
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1339:Jain meditation
1314:Dancemeditation
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1022:(3): 358–362.
1006:
979:(1): 150–156.
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791:(6): 694–699.
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1631:Yuval Harari
1621:S. N. Goenka
1611:Pema Chödrön
1500:Mindful Yoga
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592:(1): 16–21.
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268:regions and
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228:Neuroimaging
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145:Neuroimaging
136:A statue of
127:
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60:neurobiology
52:neuroscience
43:
39:
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1616:Susan Piver
1547:Tantric sex
1495:Mindfulness
1440:Biofeedback
1417:Zhan zhuang
1251:Main topics
278:grey matter
266:grey matter
250:hippocampus
221:hippocampus
140:meditating.
123:alpha waves
119:theta waves
111:delta waves
71:Mindfulness
1746:Meditation
1735:Categories
1601:Sam Harris
1537:Relaxation
1433:Techniques
1287:Traditions
1244:Meditation
367:References
115:beta waves
56:psychology
40:Meditation
18:Meditation
1475:Emptiness
1450:Breathing
1091:207090878
1069:: 48–73.
871:207090878
849:: 48–73.
435:16 August
338:Criticism
83:Vipassana
1720:Category
1527:Postures
1470:Counting
1455:Chanting
1424:5Rhythms
1204:23335908
1083:24705269
1036:21034792
1001:24114284
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863:24705269
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735:18365029
695:PLOS ONE
673:18769538
633:PLOS ONE
606:17548160
563:19941676
525:18861855
479:16536641
350:See also
192:amygdala
138:Amitābha
46:and the
1695:Related
1576:Leaders
1552:Silence
1542:Samyama
1517:Oneness
1365:Neigong
1195:3541715
1178:: 613.
1044:8169221
805:7031742
770:6164542
726:2267490
703:Bibcode
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641:Bibcode
614:3195263
571:5818378
517:6013341
282:putamen
1562:Trance
1532:Prayer
1522:Poetry
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1391:Tantra
1376:Qigong
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997:S2CID
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910:S2CID
867:S2CID
610:S2CID
567:S2CID
521:S2CID
1406:Yoga
1200:PMID
1147:ISBN
1117:ISBN
1079:PMID
1032:PMID
989:PMID
973:Pain
945:PMID
902:PMID
859:PMID
801:PMID
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602:PMID
559:PMID
513:PMID
475:PMID
437:2020
292:and
256:and
244:and
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