2116:
834:
495:
1155:
1064:
2247:
2085:
1501:
1880:
shell case, adding 200–250 ft/second to the existing velocity of 750–1200 ft/second. The shell body dropped to the ground mostly intact and the bullets continued in an expanding cone shape before striking the ground over an area approximately 250 yards × 30 yards in the case of the US 3-inch shell. The effect was of a large shotgun blast just in front of and above the target, and was deadly against troops in the open. A trained gun team could fire 20 such shells per minute, with a total of 6,000 balls, which compared very favorably with rifles and machine-guns.
663:
1302:
1619:
2232:
291:
1733:, or CP were a type of common shell used in naval service from the 1890s – 1910s which had a solid nose and a percussion fuze in the base rather than the common shell's nose fuze. The ogival two C.R.H. solid pointed nose was considered suitable for attacking shipping but was not armour-piercing – the main function was still explosive. They were of cast or forged (three- and six-pounder) steel and contained a gunpowder bursting charge slightly smaller than that of a common shell, a trade off for the longer heavier nose.
1717:
2217:
1241:
2266:
1753:
56:
96:
1689:
2365:
1942:
2184:
filling) and is often a solid unit, although water, sand or iron powder filled versions may be used for testing the gun mounting. Although the proof shot resembles a functioning shell (of whatever sort), so that it behaves as a real shell in the barrel, it is not aerodynamic as its job is over once it has left the muzzle of the gun. Consequently, it travels a much shorter distance and is usually stopped by an earth bank for safety measures.
1841:
384:
2296:
1121:
2134:. Infrared illumination is a more recent development used to enhance the performance of night-vision devices. Both white- and black-light illuminating shells may be used to provide continuous illumination over an area for a period of time and may use several dispersed aimpoints to illuminate a large area. Alternatively, firing single illuminating shells may be coordinated with the adjustment of HE shell fire onto a target.
2398:
piezoelectric element, and others, depending on the type of fuze used, can be detonated by even a small movement. The battlefields of the First World War still claim casualties today from leftover munitions. Modern electrical and mechanical fuzes are highly reliable: if they do not arm correctly, they keep the initiation train out of line or (if electrical in nature) discharge any stored electrical energy.
1136:(BB) to increase range. The first has a small rocket motor built into its base to provide additional thrust. The second has a pyrotechnic device in its base that bleeds gas to fill the partial vacuum created behind the shell and hence reduce base-drag. These shell designs usually have reduced high-explosive filling to remain within the permitted mass for the projectile, and hence less lethality.
40:
761:
463:. In 1819, a committee of British artillery officers recognized that they were essential stores and in 1830 Britain standardized sabot thickness as a half-inch. The sabot was also intended to reduce jamming during loading. Despite the use of exploding shells, the use of smoothbore cannons firing spherical projectiles of shot remained the dominant artillery method until the 1850s.
915:
wear. Cordite could be made to burn more slowly which reduced maximum pressure in the chamber (hence lighter breeches, etc.), but longer high pressure – significant improvements over gunpowder. Cordite could be made in any desired shape or size. The creation of cordite led to a lengthy court battle between Nobel, Maxim, and another inventor over alleged
British
358:. These were two hollowed hemispheres of stone or bronze held together by an iron hoop. At least since the 16th century grenades made of ceramics or glass were in use in Central Europe. A hoard of several hundred ceramic grenades dated to the 17th century was discovered during building works in front of a bastion of the Bavarian city of
1093:
fired. Advantages include easier handling for larger caliber rounds, while range and velocity can easily be varied by increasing or decreasing the number of propellant charges. Disadvantages include more complexity, slower loading, less safety, less moisture resistance, and the metal cases can still be a material resource issue.
336:" which "consisted of gunpowder put into an iron container ... then when the fuse was lit (and the projectile shot off) there was a great explosion the noise whereof was like thunder, audible for more than thirty miles, and the vegetation was scorched and blasted by the heat over an area of more than
1787:
Lyddite presented a major safety problem because it reacted dangerously with metal bases. This required that the interior of shells had to be varnished, the exterior had to be painted with leadless paint and the fuze-hole had to be made of a leadless alloy. Fuzes containing any lead could not be used
1590:
was less readily available than phenol, and TNT is less powerful than picric acid, but the improved safety of munitions manufacturing and storage caused the replacement of picric acid by TNT for most military purposes between the World Wars. However, pure TNT was expensive to produce and most nations
276:) or time delayed. Percussion fuses with a spherical projectile presented a challenge because there was no way of ensuring that the impact mechanism contacted the target. Therefore, ball shells needed a time fuse that was ignited before or during firing and burned until the shell reached its target.
2020:
Not all shells are designed to kill or destroy. The following types are designed to achieve particular non-lethal effects. They are not completely harmless: smoke and illumination shells can accidentally start fires, and impact by the discarded carrier of all three types can wound or kill personnel,
1879:
so that it was timed to burst as it was angling down towards the ground just before it reached its target (ideally about 150 yards before, and 60–100 feet above the ground). The fuze then ignited a small "bursting charge" in the base of the shell which fired the balls forward out of the front of the
1791:
When World War I began
Britain was replacing lyddite with modern "high explosive" (HE) such as TNT. After World War I the term "common lyddite" was dropped, and remaining stocks of lyddite-filled shells were referred to as HE (high explosive) shell filled lyddite. Hence "common" faded from use,
1280:
Some were named after the weights of obsolete projectile types of the same caliber, or even obsolete types that were considered to have been functionally equivalent. Also, projectiles fired from the same gun, but of non-standard weight, took their name from the gun. Thus, conversion from "pounds" to
1054:
of the gun and prevents propellant gasses from escaping. Sliding block breeches can be horizontal or vertical. Advantages of fixed ammunition are simplicity, safety, moisture resistance and speed of loading. Disadvantages are eventually a fixed round becomes too long or too heavy to load by a gun
982:
Smoke balls also date back to the 17th century, British ones contained a mix of saltpetre, coal, pitch, tar, resin, sawdust, crude antimony and sulphur. They produced a "noisome smoke in abundance that is impossible to bear". In 19th-century
British service, they were made of concentric paper with a
914:
Mark 1. Its main composition was 58% nitro-glycerine, 37% guncotton and 3% mineral jelly. A modified version, Cordite MD, entered service in 1901, this increased guncotton to 65% and reduced nitro-glycerine to 30%, this change reduced the combustion temperature and hence erosion and barrel
475:
weapons. The new methods resulted in the reshaping of the spherical shell into its modern recognizable cylindro-conoidal form. This shape greatly improved the in-flight stability of the projectile and meant that the primitive time fuzes could be replaced with the percussion fuze situated in the nose
1809:
The mine shell is a particular form of HE shell developed for use in small caliber weapons such as 20 mm to 30 mm cannon. Small HE shells of conventional design can contain only a limited amount of explosive. By using a thin-walled steel casing of high tensile strength, a larger explosive
1783:
Proper detonation of a lyddite shell would show black to grey smoke, or white from the steam of a water detonation. Yellow smoke indicated simple explosion rather than detonation, and failure to reliably detonate was a problem with lyddite, especially in its earlier usage. To improve the detonation
1367:
shells of 75 mm caliber and larger due to the similarity with the much larger naval armour piercing shells already in common use. As the war progressed, ordnance design evolved so that the bursting charges in APHE became ever smaller to non-existent, especially in smaller caliber shells, e.g.
1350:
Britain also deployed
Palliser shells in the 1870s–1880s. In the shell, the cavity was slightly larger than in the shot and was filled with 1.5% gunpowder instead of being empty, to provide a small explosive effect after penetrating armour plating. The shell was correspondingly slightly longer than
1101:
In separate loading bagged charge ammunition there are three main components: the fuzed projectile, the bagged charges and the primer. Like separate loading cased charge ammunition, the number of propellant charges can be varied. However, this style of ammunition does not use a cartridge case and
2183:
is not used in combat but to confirm that a new gun barrel can withstand operational stresses. The proof shot is heavier than a normal shot or shell, and an oversize propelling charge is used, subjecting the barrel to greater than normal stress. The proof shot is inert (no explosive or functioning
829:
leading to a manufacturing process that eliminated the impurities in nitrocellulose making it safer to produce and a stable product safer to handle. Abel patented this process in 1865, when the second
Austrian guncotton factory exploded. After the Stowmarket factory exploded in 1871, Waltham Abbey
670:
Although an early percussion fuze appeared in 1650 that used a flint to create sparks to ignite the powder, the shell had to fall in a particular way for this to work and this did not work with spherical projectiles. An additional problem was finding a suitably stable "percussion powder". Progress
1883:
However, shrapnel's relatively flat trajectory (it depended mainly on the shell's velocity for its lethality, and was lethal only in the forward direction) meant that it could not strike trained troops who avoided open spaces and instead used dead ground (dips), shelters, trenches, buildings, and
1871:
at ranges far greater than rifles or machine guns could attain – up to 6,500 yards by 1914. A typical shrapnel shell as used in World War I was streamlined, 75 mm (3 in) in diameter and contained approximately 300 lead–antimony balls (bullets), each around 1/2-inch in diameter. Shrapnel
1707:
In 1914, common shells with a diameter of 6-inches and larger were of cast steel, while smaller diameter shells were of forged steel for service and cast iron for practice. They were replaced by "common lyddite" shells in the late 1890s but some stocks remained as late as 1914. In
British service
2380:
Sometimes, one or more of these arming mechanisms fail, resulting in a projectile that is unable to detonate. More worrying (and potentially far more hazardous) are fully armed shells on which the fuze fails to initiate the HE firing. This may be due to a shallow trajectory of fire, low-velocity
2360:
of a shell has to keep the shell safe from accidental functioning during storage, due to (possibly) rough handling, fire, etc. It also has to survive the violent launch through the barrel, then reliably function at the appropriate moment. To do this it has a number of arming mechanisms which are
1092:
ammunition. With semi-fixed ammunition the round comes as a complete package but the projectile and its case can be separated. The case holds a set number of bagged charges and the gun crew can add or subtract propellant to change range and velocity. The round is then reassembled, loaded, and
682:
The percussion fuze was adopted by
Britain in 1842. Many designs were jointly examined by the army and navy, but were unsatisfactory, probably because of the safety and arming features. However, in 1846 the design by Quartermaster Freeburn of the Royal Artillery was adopted by the army. It was a
1932:
have accepted restrictions on the use of cluster munitions, including artillery shells: the treaty requires that a weapon so defined must contain nine or fewer submunitions, which must each weigh more than 4 kilograms, be capable of detecting and engaging a single target, and contain electronic
1075:
Separate loading cased charge ammunition has three main components: the fuzed projectile, the casing to hold the propellants and primer, and the bagged propellant charges. The components are usually separated into two or more parts. In
British ordnance terms, this type of ammunition is called
479:
During the 20th century, shells became increasingly streamlined. In World War I, ogives were typically two circular radius head (crh) – the curve was a segment of a circle having a radius of twice the shell caliber. After that war, ogive shapes became more complex and elongated. From the 1960s,
259:
In a gunpowder-based shell, the casing was intrinsic to generating the explosion, and thus had to be strong and thick. Its fragments could do considerable damage, but each shell broke into only a few large pieces. Further developments led to shells which would fragment into smaller pieces. The
2397:
detonate.) Blind shells often litter old battlefields; depending on the impact velocity, they may be buried some distance into the earth, all the while remaining potentially hazardous. For example, antitank ammunition with a piezoelectric fuze can be detonated by relatively light impact to the
2033:
to mask movements of friendly forces or disorient enemies, or to mark specific areas. The main types are bursting (using a payload powdered chemicals) and base ejection (delivering three or four smoke canisters which are deployed from the rear of the shell prior to impact, or a single canister
1699:
designated in the early (i.e. 1800s) British explosive shells were filled with "low explosives" such as "P mixture" (gunpowder) and usually with a fuze in the nose. Common shells on bursting (non-detonating) tended to break into relatively large fragments which continued along the shell's
1771:
fused at 280 °F (138 °C) and allowed to solidify, producing a much denser dark-yellow form which is not affected by moisture and is easier to detonate than the liquid form. Its French equivalent was "melinite", Japanese equivalent was "shimose". Common lyddite shells "detonated" and
1261:
The weight of shells increases by and large with caliber. A typical 155 mm (6.1 in) shell weighs about 50 kg (110 lbs), a common 203 mm (8 in) shell about 100 kg (220 lbs), a concrete demolition 203 mm (8 in) shell 146 kg (322 lbs), a 280 mm
1111:
tend to use bagged charges and projectiles because the weight and size of the projectiles and propelling charges can be more than a gun crew can manage. Advantages include easier handling for large rounds, decreased metal usage, while range and velocity can be varied by using more or fewer
1253:
allied countries. Shells of 122, 130, and 152 mm for artillery with 100, 115, and 125 mm for tank guns, remain in common usage among the regions of
Eastern Europe, Western Asia, Northern Africa, and Eastern Asia. Most common calibers have been in use for many decades, since it is
1884:
trees for cover. It was of no use in destroying buildings or shelters. Hence, it was replaced during World War I by the high-explosive shell, which exploded its fragments in all directions (and thus more difficult to avoid) and could be fired by high-angle weapons, such as howitzers.
1736:
In
British service common pointed shells were typically painted black, except 12-pounder shells specific for QF guns which were painted lead colour to distinguish them from 12-pounder shells usable with both BL and QF guns. A red ring behind the nose indicated the shell was filled.
2209:
Guided or "smart" ammunition features some method of guiding itself post-launch, usually through the addition of steering fins that alter its trajectory in an unpowered glide. Due to their much higher cost, they have yet to supplant unguided munitions in all applications.
1666:), or after penetrating a short distance into the ground (percussion with delay, either to transmit more ground shock to covered positions, or to reduce the spread of fragments). Projectiles with enhanced fragmentation are called high-explosive fragmentation (HE-FRAG).
683:
wooden fuze about 6 inches long and used shear wire to hold blocks between the fuze magazine and a burning match. The match was ignited by propellant flash and the shear wire broke on impact. A British naval percussion fuze made of metal did not appear until 1861.
1703:
In the late 19th century "double common shells" were developed, lengthened so as to approach twice the standard shell weight, to carry more powder and hence increase explosive effect. They suffered from instability in flight and low velocity and were not widely used.
370:
measuring the time to detonation – reliable fuses did not yet exist, and the burning time of the powder fuse was subject to considerable trial and error. Early powder-burning fuses had to be loaded fuse down to be ignited by firing or a portfire or
1106:
instead of a sliding block. Sometimes when reading about artillery the term separate loading ammunition will be used without clarification of whether a cartridge case is used or not, in which case it refers to the type of breech used. Heavy artillery pieces and
2011:
Nuclear artillery shells are used to provide battlefield scale nuclear weapons for tactical use. These range from the relatively small 155 mm shell to the 406 mm shell used by heavy battleship cannon and shore defense units equipped with the same guns.
417:
The use of exploding shells from field artillery became relatively commonplace from early in the 19th century. Until the mid 19th century, shells remained as simple exploding spheres that used gunpowder, set off by a slow burning fuse. They were usually made of
805:
built two guncotton plants producing artillery propellant, but it was dangerous under field conditions, and guns that could fire thousands of rounds using gunpowder would reach their service life after only a few hundred shots with the more powerful guncotton.
1272:
During the 19th century, the British adopted a particular form of designating artillery. Field guns were designated by nominal standard projectile weight, while howitzers were designated by barrel caliber. British guns and their ammunition were designated in
1248:
Gun calibers have standardized around a few common sizes, especially in the larger range, mainly due to the uniformity required for efficient military logistics. Shells of 105 and 155 mm for artillery with 105 and 120 mm for tank guns are common in
1055:
crew. Another issue is the inability to vary propellant charges to achieve different velocities and ranges. Lastly, there is the issue of resource usage since a fixed round uses a case, which can be an issue in a prolonged war if there are metal shortages.
268:
removed the need for a pressure-holding casing, so the casing of later shells only needs to contain the munition, and, if desired, to produce shrapnel. The term "shell," however, was sufficiently established that it remained as the term for such munitions.
1872:
used the principle that the bullets encountered much less air resistance if they travelled most of their journey packed together in a single streamlined shell than they would if they travelled individually, and could hence attain a far greater range.
584:
The gun was also a breech-loader. Although attempts at breech-loading mechanisms had been made since medieval times, the essential engineering problem was that the mechanism could not withstand the explosive charge. It was only with the advances in
1351:
the shot to compensate for the lighter cavity. The powder filling was ignited by the shock of impact and hence did not require a fuze. However, ship armour rapidly improved during the 1880s and 1890s, and it was realised that explosive shells with
480:
higher quality steels were introduced by some countries for their HE shells, this enabled thinner shell walls with less weight of metal and hence a greater weight of explosive. Ogives were further elongated to improve their ballistic performance.
1784:"exploders" with a small quantity of picric powder or even of TNT (in smaller shells, 3 pdr, 12 pdr – 4.7 inch) was loaded between the fuze and the main lyddite filling or in a thin tube running through most of the shell's length.
1817:
concept was invented by the Germans in the Second World War primarily for use in aircraft guns intended to be fired at opposing aircraft. Mine shells produced relatively little damage due to fragments, but a much more powerful blast. The
968:
Similar to incendiary shells were star shells, designed for illumination rather than arson. Sometimes called lightballs they were in use from the 17th century onwards. The British adopted parachute lightballs in 1866 for 10-, 8- and
1775:
Early shells had walls of the same thickness for the whole length, later shells had walls thicker at the base and thinning towards the nose. This was found to give greater strength and provide more space for explosive. Later shells had
635:
as part of the projectile. The driving band rotated the projectile, centered it in the bore and prevented gas escaping forwards. A driving band has to be soft but tough enough to prevent stripping by rotational and engraving stresses.
983:
thickness about 1/15th of the total diameter and filled with powder, saltpeter, pitch, coal and tallow. They were used to 'suffocate or expel the enemy in casemates, mines or between decks; for concealing operations; and as signals.
557:, which allowed for a much more accurate and powerful action. Although rifling had been tried on small arms since the 15th century, the necessary machinery to accurately rifle artillery only became available in the mid-19th century.
2099:
A modern illumination shell has a time fuze that ejects a flare "package" through the base of the carrier shell at a standard height above ground (typically about 600 metres), from where it slowly falls beneath a non-flammable
366:. Many of the grenades contained their original black-powder loads and igniters. Most probably the grenades were intentionally dumped in the moat of the bastion before the year 1723. An early problem was that there was no means of
1213:(.78 in) or larger. International Law precludes the use of explosive ammunition for use against individual persons, but not against vehicles and aircraft. The largest shells ever fired during war were those from the German super-
1334:
in the 1850s and 1860s, it became clear that shells had to be designed to effectively pierce the ship armour. A series of British tests in 1863 demonstrated that the way forward lay with high-velocity lighter shells. The first
909:
and W. Kellner patented (No. 5614 and No. 11,664 in the names of Abel and Dewar) a new formulation that was manufactured at the Royal Gunpowder Factory at Waltham Abbey. It entered British service in 1891 as
1610:
purposes, based on the recognition that far smaller fragments than hitherto would give a better effect. This guideline was achieved by the 1960s with the 155 mm L15 shell, developed as part of the German-British
957:
after its inventor. The shell was filled with molten iron and was intended to break up on impact with an enemy ship, splashing molten iron on the target. It was used by the Royal Navy between 1860 and 1869, replacing
1924:
into the path of the enemy without placing engineering units at risk, but artillery delivery may lead to an irregular and unpredictable minefield with more unexploded ordnance than if mines were individually placed.
873:
and 2% paraffin. This was adopted for the Lebel rifle. Vieille's powder revolutionized the effectiveness of small guns, because it gave off almost no smoke and was three times more powerful than black powder. Higher
1277:, e.g., as "two-pounder" shortened to "2-pr" or "2-pdr". Usually, this referred to the actual weight of the standard projectile (shot, shrapnel, or high explosive), but, confusingly, this was not always the case.
1912:
than simple high-explosive shells, since the multiple munitions create a larger kill zone and increase the chance of achieving the direct hit necessary to kill armour. Many modern armies make significant use of
1650:) at high velocity. Most of the damage to soft targets, such as unprotected personnel, is caused by shell pieces rather than by the blast. The term "shrapnel" is sometimes used to describe the shell pieces, but
379:
cloth, which would ignite during the firing and in turn ignite a powder fuse. Nevertheless, shells came into regular use in the 16th century, for example, a 1543 English mortar shell was filled with "wildfire."
1996:
being the most modern treaty which also outlaws production, stockpiling and transfer of such weapons. All signatories have renounced the use of both lethal chemical agents and incapacitating agents in warfare.
2246:
1358:
AP shells containing an explosive filling were initially distinguished from their non-HE counterparts by being called a "shell" as opposed to "shot". By the time of the Second World War, AP shells with a
1680:. The introduction of "insensitive munition" requirements, agreements and regulations in the 1990s caused modern western designs to use various types of plastic bonded explosives (PBX) based on RDX.
2439:
Needham, Joseph. (1986). Science and Civilization in China: Volume 5, Chemistry and Chemical Technology, Part 7, Military Technology; the Gunpowder Epic. Taipei: Caves Books Ltd. Pages 24–25, 264.
901:
Britain conducted trials on all the various types of propellant brought to their attention, but were dissatisfied with them all and sought something superior to all existing types. In 1889, Sir
631:" at the base of their studded projectiles and in 1879 tried a rotating gas check to replace the studs, leading to the 1881 automatic gas-check. This was soon followed by the Vavaseur copper
882:
and less wind drift and bullet drop, making 1000 meter shots practicable. Other European countries swiftly followed and started using their own versions of Poudre B, the first being
1615:
program. The key requirement for increasing the HE content without increasing shell weight was to reduce the thickness of shell walls, which required improvements in high tensile steel.
1772:
fragmented into small pieces in all directions, with no incendiary effect. For maximum destructive effect the explosion needed to be delayed until the shell had penetrated its target.
1390:
624:, but were not satisfactory so studded projectiles were adopted. However, these did not seal the gap between shell and barrel. Wads at the shell base were also tried without success.
1088:
Germany predominantly used fixed or separate loading cased charges and sliding block breeches even for their largest guns. A variant of separate loading cased charge ammunition is
1969:
Sarin gas shell, the payload is stored as two precursor chemicals which are mixed after the shell is fired. Some examples designed to deliver powdered chemical agents, such as the
797:. Guncotton was more powerful than gunpowder, but at the same time was somewhat more unstable. John Taylor obtained an English patent for guncotton; and John Hall & Sons began
928:
2149:(see external links), but can be filled with anything that meets the weight restrictions and is able to withstand the shock of firing. Famously, on Christmas Day 1899 during the
454:
is obsolete. Typically, the thickness of the metal body was about a sixth of their diameter, and they were about two-thirds the weight of solid shot of the same caliber.
2096:
Modern illuminating shells are a type of carrier shell or cargo munition. Those used in World War I were shrapnel pattern shells ejecting small burning "pots".
1564:. In 1889, a similar material, a mixture of ammonium cresylate with trinitrocresol, or an ammonium salt of trinitrocresol, started to be manufactured under the name
1281:
an actual barrel diameter requires consulting a historical reference. A mixture of designations were in use for land artillery from the First World War (such as the
1515:
Although smokeless powders were used as a propellant, they could not be used as the substance for the explosive warhead, because shock sensitivity sometimes caused
1602:
The percentage of shell weight taken up by its explosive fill increased steadily throughout the 20th Century. Less than 10% was usual in the first few decades; by
2115:
1437:
Hard shell with explosives – a mostly solid shell with an explosive element that detonates, after the shell has penetrated the armour using its impact velocity
601:; the 6 inches of the bore at the muzzle end was of slightly smaller diameter, which centered the shell before it left the barrel and at the same time slightly
248:
were hollow cast-iron balls filled with gunpowder, and "shells" were similar devices designed to be shot from artillery in place of solid cannonballs ("shot").
3063: (archived 30 September 2007): A website about airdropped, shelled or rocket fired propaganda leaflets. Example artillery shells for spreading propaganda.
2191:" are added to the barrel. The gun can be expected to handle normal ammunition, which subjects it to less stress than the proof shot, without being damaged.
581:
as a result of the tight fit, enabled the gun to achieve greater range and accuracy than existing smooth-bore muzzle-loaders with a smaller powder charge.
2231:
347:
was quite pierced through." Archeological examples of these shells from the 13th century Mongol invasions of Japan have been recovered from a shipwreck.
2187:
The gun, operated remotely for safety in case it fails, fires the proof shot, and is then inspected for damage. If the barrel passes the examination, "
1145:
2265:
994:
and explosive shells inflicted terrible casualties on infantry, accounting for nearly 70% of all war casualties and leading to the adoption of steel
1591:
made some use of mixtures using cruder TNT and ammonium nitrate, some with other compounds included. These fills included Ammonal, Schneiderite and
162:, so called because of the similarity of shape and that the multi-seeded fruit resembles the powder-filled, fragmentizing bomb. Words cognate with
303:
Cast iron shells packed with gunpowder have been used in warfare since at least early 13th century China. Hollow, gunpowder-packed shells made of
1767:
were initially designated "common lyddite" and beginning in 1896 were the first British generation of modern "high explosive" shells. Lyddite is
1429:
1402:
597:
that Armstrong was able to construct a viable solution. Another innovative feature was what Armstrong called its "grip", which was essentially a
620:
in the United States. However, rifled barrels required some means of engaging the shell with the rifling. Lead coated shells were used with the
565:
independently produced rifled cannons in the 1840s, but it was Armstrong's gun that was first to see widespread use during the Crimean War. The
1262:(11 in) battleship shell about 300 kg (661 lbs), and a 460 mm (18 in) battleship shell over 1,500 kg (3,307 lbs). The
1209:
mm have been used on aircraft and armoured vehicles, but their small explosive yields have led some nations to limit their explosive rounds to
1198:
is 50 calibers long, that is, 16"Ă—50=800"=66.7 feet long. Some guns, mainly British, were specified by the weight of their shells (see below).
1293:, 17-pounder tank gun), but the majority of naval guns were by caliber. After the end of World War II, field guns were designated by caliber.
666:
Early British "direct action" nose impact fuze of 1900 with no safety or arming mechanism, relying on heavy direct physical impact to detonate
1459:
890:
which introduced new weapons in 1888. Subsequently, Poudre B was modified several times with various compounds being added and removed.
781:
would have their view obscured by a huge cloud of smoke and concealed shooters were given away by a cloud of smoke over the firing position.
2530:
Bastable, Marshall J. (1992). "From Breechloaders to Monster Guns: Sir William Armstrong and the Invention of Modern Artillery, 1854–1880".
2145:
The carrier shell is simply a hollow carrier equipped with a fuze that ejects the contents at a calculated time. They are often filled with
833:
217:
2591:
2037:
Base ejection smoke is usually white, however, colored smoke has been used for marking purposes. The original canisters typically used
1760:
1795:
Common lyddite shells in British service were painted yellow, with a red ring behind the nose to indicate the shell had been filled.
950:
in an iron frame (with poor ballistic properties) it evolved into a spherical shell. Their use continued well into the 19th century.
1696:
2462:
1077:
1662:
used the HE shell can be set to burst on the ground (percussion), in the air above the ground, which is called air burst (time or
2815:
2034:
containing submunitions distributed via a bursting charge). Base ejection shells are a type of carrier shell or cargo munition.
1720:
1039:
535:
3056:
1450:
2983:
2964:
2945:
2906:
2740:
2216:
1038:, and the single propellant charge. Everything is included in a ready-to-use package and in British ordnance terms is called
938:
A variety of fillings have been used in shells throughout history. An incendiary shell was invented by Valturio in 1460. The
494:
398:
By the 18th century, it was known that if loaded toward the muzzle instead, the fuse could be lit by the flash through the
1606:, leading designs were around 15%. However, British researchers in that war identified 25% as being the optimal design for
2706:
1730:
1355:
had advantages including better fragmentation and resistance to the stresses of firing. These were cast and forged steel.
809:
Small arms could not withstand the pressures generated by guncotton. After one of the Austrian factories blew up in 1862,
2895:
Marc Garlasco; Fred Abrahams; Bill van Esveld; Fares Akram; Darryl Li (2009). Joe Stock; James Ross; Iain Levine (eds.).
2317:
1347:, the head being chilled in casting to harden it, using composite molds with a metal, water cooled portion for the head.
826:
1080:. Often guns which use separate loading cased charge ammunition use sliding-block or sliding-wedge breeches and during
965:
Two patterns of incendiary shell were used by the British in World War I, one designed for use against Zeppelins.
1112:
propellant charges. Disadvantages include more complexity, slower loading, less safety and less moisture resistance.
2869:
2343:
2200:
1154:
2325:
1810:
charge can be used. Most commonly the explosive charge also was a more expensive but higher-detonation-energy type.
1740:
By World War II they were superseded in Royal Navy service by common pointed capped (CPC) and semi-armour piercing (
1440:
1414:
1984:. Use of chemical agents of all kinds has been forbidden by numerous international treaties starting with the 1925
1473:
1423:
573:
and had a thin lead coating which made it fractionally larger than the gun's bore and which engaged with the gun's
2046:
1470:
Indirect-penetration shell – a shell with a mechanism that is triggered upon impact to cause damage behind armour
1063:
790:
457:
To ensure that shells were loaded with their fuses toward the muzzle, they were attached to wooden bottoms called
2049:
because of its multi-spectral properties. However, other compounds have been used; in World War II, Germany used
1929:
1408:
1309:
1190:
and shells (naval) is frequently quoted in terms of the ratio of the barrel length to the bore size, also called
17:
1018:
Artillery shells are differentiated by how the shell is loaded and propelled, and the type of breech mechanism.
337:
3092:
2791:
2321:
1723:
1149:
538:
was awarded a contract by the government to design a new piece of artillery. Production started in 1855 at the
3087:
1933:
self-destruct and self-deactivation systems. Submunitions which weigh 20 kg or more are not restricted.
1708:
common shells were typically painted black with a red band behind the nose to indicate the shell was filled.
1336:
1043:
798:
2922:
1195:
51:, 120 mm pig iron incendiary shell, 77/14 model – 75 mm high-explosive shell, model 16–75 mm shrapnel shell.
2485:
Franzkowiak, Andreas; Wenzel, Chris (2018). "Keramikgranaten aus Ingolstadt - Ein außergewöhnlicher Fund".
2271:
1363:
were sometimes distinguished by appending the suffix "HE". At the beginning of the war, APHE was common in
810:
3097:
2415:
2146:
1993:
1574:. By 1894, Russia was manufacturing artillery shells filled with picric acid. Ammonium picrate (known as
735:
1479:
1129:
802:
578:
399:
1642:. The fuse detonates the bursting charge which shatters the case and scatters hot, sharp case pieces (
1508:
1507:
was used in the first high-explosive shells. Cut out section of a high-explosive shell belonging to a
1124:
XM1113 extended-range artillery round, shown here at a range demonstration, uses a rocket-assist motor
414:
charge and, in 1779, experiments demonstrated that they could be used from guns with heavier charges.
2204:
1957:
Chemical shells contain just a small explosive charge to burst the shell, and a larger quantity of a
1286:
777:
was used as the only form of explosive up until the end of the 19th century. Guns using black powder
740:
801:. British interest waned after an explosion destroyed the Faversham factory in 1847. Austrian Baron
2710:
2306:
1905:
1381:
Solid shell ("shot") - a solid penetrator that uses only initial impact energy to penetrate armour
698:
539:
446:
174:
3036:
Hogg, O. F. G. (1970). "Artillery: Its Origin, Heyday and Decline". London: C. Hurst and Company.
2310:
2165:
and the message "compliments of the season". The shell is still kept in the museum at Ladysmith.
1340:
1305:
1266:
1202:
471:
The mid–19th century saw a revolution in artillery, with the introduction of the first practical
68:
693:
273:
2845:
2084:
1582:) was used by the United States beginning in 1906. Germany began filling artillery shells with
1543:. In 1887, the French government adopted a mixture of picric acid and guncotton under the name
1396:
1290:
1007:
953:
A modern version of the incendiary shell was developed in 1857 by the British and was known as
730:
676:
609:
558:
367:
2730:
1500:
720:
1384:
1325:
1269:
fired shells that weighed between 4,800 kg (10,582 lbs) and 7,100 kg (15,653 lbs).
1051:
672:
605:
down its lead coating, reducing its diameter and slightly improving its ballistic qualities.
594:
590:
2896:
2595:
2381:
firing or soft impact conditions. Whatever the reason for failure, such a shell is called a
1896:, an artillery shell may be used to scatter smaller sub-munitions, including anti-personnel
1221:, which were 800 mm (31.5 in) in caliber. Very large shells have been replaced by
476:
of the shell. The new shape also meant that further, armour-piercing designs could be used.
1970:
1343:
was an improvement over the ordinary elongated shot of the time. Palliser shot was made of
1187:
1031:
939:
932:
708:
703:
519:
503:
489:
472:
285:
241:
84:
3066:
2137:
Colored flare shells have also been used for target marking and other signaling purposes.
2089:
1876:
1289:, 4 inch gun, 4.5 inch howitzer) through to the end of World War II (5.5 inch medium gun,
793:
in 1846. He promoted its use as a blasting explosive and sold manufacturing rights to the
725:
713:
8:
3030:
3023:
2715:
2285:
1301:
1191:
1159:
1003:
943:
662:
213:
198:
2450:
1654:
functioned very differently and are long obsolete. The speed of fragments is limited by
1618:
1174:. Depending on the historical period and national preferences, this may be specified in
3102:
2555:
2547:
2150:
1962:
1206:
351:
333:
2126:
Typically illumination flares burn for about 60 seconds. These are also known as
402:
between the shell and the barrel. At about this time, shells began to be employed for
2902:
2865:
2823:
2797:
2787:
2736:
2559:
2494:
2158:
2069:
2006:
1989:
1282:
1103:
140:
128:
64:
2894:
2050:
290:
272:
Hollow shells filled with gunpowder needed a fuse that was either impact triggered (
2971:
2539:
2065:
2038:
1974:
1950:
1914:
1655:
1524:
1369:
768:
755:
562:
459:
139:, but "shell" has come to be unambiguous in a military context. A shell can hold a
55:
2573:
2072:
weapons, though they are not as effective in this role as dedicated weapons using
1532:
354:
at Jadra in 1376. Shells with fuses were used at the 1421 siege of St Boniface in
30:
This article is about the artillery projectile. For the small arms cartridge, see
3060:
3046:
2256:
2237:
1985:
1981:
1958:
1716:
1583:
1571:
1540:
1494:
1360:
1263:
1218:
1108:
998:
on both sides. Frequent problems with shells led to many military disasters with
987:
875:
794:
577:
grooves to impart spin to the shell. This spin, together with the elimination of
531:
523:
388:
261:
155:
147:
100:
72:
44:
1965:
of some kind, in either liquid, gas or powdered form. In some cases such as the
1953:
chemical weapons storage facility – Note the colour-coding scheme on each shell.
608:
Rifled guns were also developed elsewhere – by Major Giovanni Cavalli and Baron
2933:
2357:
2222:
1864:
1835:
1663:
1659:
1651:
1639:
1631:
1607:
1560:
1240:
991:
902:
866:
822:
657:
344:
186:
48:
3071:
3081:
2498:
2120:
2054:
1673:
1536:
1128:
Extended-range shells are sometimes used. These special shell designs may be
1068:
995:
979:-inch calibers. The 10-inch was not officially declared obsolete until 1920.
895:
870:
645:
621:
543:
518:
Advances in metallurgy in the industrial era allowed for the construction of
499:
229:
88:
31:
1527:
widely considered suitable to withstand the shock of firing in conventional
1446:
Armour-piercing high-explosive tracer (APHE-T) - an APHE with tracer in base
570:
2105:
2030:
1893:
1752:
1603:
1596:
1418:
1274:
1085:
850:
786:
632:
598:
308:
2801:
2732:
Royal Artillery Glossary of Terms and Abbreviations: Historical and Modern
2092:(orange, top), illuminating compound (green) and parachute (white, bottom)
1688:
95:
2487:
Waffen- und KostĂĽmkunde - Zeitschrift fĂĽr Waffen- und Kleidungsgeschichte
2393:(the older term, "dud", is discouraged because it implies that the shell
2364:
1946:
1780:, more pointed and hence streamlined than earlier 2 c.r.h. designs.
1768:
1579:
1520:
1504:
1214:
1081:
959:
906:
838:
641:
617:
527:
403:
316:
296:
210:
182:
159:
1941:
675:
in 1800, leading to priming mixtures for small arms patented by the Rev
2551:
2188:
2180:
2174:
2162:
2157:
fired into Ladysmith a carrier shell without a fuze, which contained a
1973:, were later repurposed as smoke/incendiary rounds containing powdered
1804:
1516:
1179:
1175:
1133:
1047:
879:
818:
814:
778:
586:
511:
411:
392:
372:
359:
194:
120:
1316:
There are many different types of shells. The principal ones include:
1158:
British gun crew preparing 155 mm shells at Vergato, Italy during the
502:
was a pivotal development for modern artillery as the first practical
2952:
2369:
2252:
2154:
2104:, illuminating the area below. The ejection process also initiates a
2101:
1921:
1901:
1819:
1528:
1364:
1344:
1255:
1035:
947:
862:
782:
774:
628:
566:
419:
304:
237:
206:
167:
124:
2543:
2295:
383:
375:
put down the barrel to light the fuse. Other shells were wrapped in
2435:
2433:
2373:
2109:
2088:
British World War II 4-inch naval illuminating shell, showing
2073:
1909:
1892:
Cluster shells are a type of carrier shell or cargo munition. Like
1823:
1700:
trajectory rather than laterally. They had some incendiary effect.
1677:
1623:
1566:
1547:. In 1888, Britain started manufacturing a very similar mixture in
1331:
1226:
1171:
1120:
854:
764:
547:
407:
324:《金史》 (compiled by 1345) states that in 1232, as the Mongol general
307:
used during the Song dynasty (960-1279) are described in the early
253:
249:
245:
233:
146:
All explosive- and incendiary-filled projectiles, particularly for
132:
116:
80:
2361:
successively enabled under the influence of the firing sequence.
2255:, an anti-armour shell containing two autonomous, sensor-guided,
1897:
1840:
1764:
1587:
1531:. In 1885, based on research of Hermann Sprengel, French chemist
1258:
complex to change the caliber of all guns and ammunition stores.
1167:
911:
887:
883:
842:
574:
554:
376:
363:
355:
329:
325:
190:
173:
Shells are usually large-caliber projectiles fired by artillery,
76:
2430:
1867:
are an anti-personnel munition which delivered large numbers of
1465:
Semi-armour-piercing high-explosive incendiary tracer (SAPHEI-T)
927:
2898:
Rain of Fire: Israel's Unlawful Use of White Phosphorus in Gaza
2058:
1868:
1592:
1417:(APCNR), also known as Armour-Piercing Super-Velocity (APSV) -
1234:
1222:
916:
637:
423:
2064:
Due to the nature of their payload, powder smoke shells using
1482:(HESH), also known as High-explosive plastic/plasticized (HEP)
1635:
1612:
1493:"High-explosive shell" redirects here. For the material, see
1352:
1244:
American soldiers with 155 mm artillery shells, 10 March 1945
891:
830:
began production of guncotton for torpedo and mine warheads.
613:
602:
507:
435:
431:
311:
252:, the term "shell", from the casing, came to mean the entire
202:
39:
3031:"High-explosive Shell Manufacture: A Comprehensive Treatise"
2658:. 3rd edition (1953). Funk & Wagnalls. pp. 141–144.
1920:
Artillery-scattered mines allow for the quick deployment of
1339:
was introduced by Major Palliser in 1863. Approved in 1867,
450:("the bombs bursting in air"), although today that sense of
2642:. National Rifle Association of America (1981). p. 28.
2042:
1966:
1548:
1250:
1230:
1210:
1183:
1027:
760:
440:
427:
178:
104:
2982:
sfnp error: no target: CITEREFTreatise_on_Ammunition1915 (
2963:
sfnp error: no target: CITEREFTreatise_on_Ammunition1915 (
2944:
sfnp error: no target: CITEREFTreatise_on_Ammunition1915 (
2240:, a laser guided artillery shell, approaches a target tank
1672:
and TNT mixtures are the standard chemicals used, notably
1411:(APCR), also known as High-Velocity Armour-Piercing (HVAP)
2388:
1669:
999:
265:
79:). It could be fired from any standard 155 mm (6.1 inch)
60:
1634:, commonly referred to simply as HE. They have a strong
444:
encompassed them at the time, as heard in the lyrics of
3067:
Artillery Tactics and Combat during the Napoleonic Wars
1980:
Chemical shells were most commonly employed during the
294:
The "flying-cloud thunderclap-eruptor" cannon from the
3024:"Shrapnel Shell Manufacture: A Comprehensive Treatise"
2977:
2958:
2939:
1375:
59:
US scientists with a full-scale cut-away model of the
1826:
were readily damaged by this greater level of blast.
1792:
replaced by "HE" as the explosive shell designation.
1071:, with the propellant cases and projectiles separated
785:, a nitrocellulose-based material, was discovered by
569:
shell of the Armstrong gun was similar in shape to a
236:
explosion unless it is contained, as in a modern-day
2763:
2761:
2616:
2614:
2274:, an add-on GPS guidance system for artillery shells
1535:
patented the use of pressed and cast picric acid in
1393:(APBC) - a shot with a cover to improve aerodynamics
1904:. These are generally far more lethal against both
1558:Japan followed with an "improved" formula known as
3072:How does the ammunition of a towed artillery work?
2885:. London and New York: Routeladge Classics, p. 98.
1146:British standard ordnance weights and measurements
526:. After the British artillery was shown up in the
2758:
2611:
2484:
1096:
170:or mortar projectile in some European languages.
71:with an explosive yield equivalent to 72 tons of
3079:
2816:"Build a Free Website with Web Hosting – Tripod"
1058:
1046:or sliding-wedge breeches and the case provides
1026:Fixed ammunition has three main components: the
869:, 29.8% soluble nitrocellusose gelatinized with
3053:– with photograph of exploded shell reassembled
1519:in the artillery barrel at the time of firing.
1430:Armour-piercing fin-stabilized discarding sabot
1115:
438:shell casings were experimented with. The word
328:(1176–1248) descended on the Jin stronghold of
1460:Semi-armour-piercing high-explosive incendiary
2781:
2728:
2632:
1233:. Today the largest shells in common use are
1042:. Often guns which use fixed ammunition use
2687:
2674:
2661:
2650:
2648:
220:; but some specialized types differ widely.
2324:. Unsourced material may be challenged and
1887:
1456:Semi-armour-piercing high-explosive (SAPHE)
232:, meaning it will not create a concussive,
2998:British Artillery Weapons & Ammunition
2722:
2469:
2461:(1). Archaeological Institute of America.
1763:were British explosive shells filled with
2695:Artillery: Its Origin, Heyday and Decline
2682:Artillery: Its Origin, Heyday and Decline
2645:
2574:"William George Armstrong - Graces Guide"
2344:Learn how and when to remove this message
2068:in particular have a secondary effect as
1822:structures and skins of Second World War
1319:
679:, and the copper percussion cap in 1818.
2856:
2854:
2777:
2775:
2773:
2669:The Chemistry of Powder & Explosives
2529:
2363:
2114:
2083:
1940:
1839:
1751:
1715:
1687:
1617:
1499:
1488:
1300:
1239:
1153:
1119:
1062:
962:as an anti-ship, incendiary projectile.
926:
832:
759:
671:was not possible until the discovery of
661:
493:
483:
382:
289:
94:
54:
38:
2838:
2448:
1403:Armour-piercing capped ballistic capped
627:In 1878, the British adopted a copper "
320:, written in the mid 14th century. The
14:
3080:
2782:Hogg, Ian; Batchelor, John H. (1972).
2465:from the original on 29 December 2013.
1900:, anti-tank top-attack munitions, and
1595:. The latter was still in wide use in
1523:was the first high-explosive nitrated
1186:. The length of gun barrels for large
946:in 1672. Initially in the shape of an
2862:The Big Bang: a History of Explosives
2851:
2770:
1002:shells, most notably during the 1916
861:—white powder, as distinguished from
135:filling. Originally it was called a
3047:"What Happens When a Shell Bursts,"
3000:. London: Ian Allan, 1972. Page 215.
2716:Elements of Military Art and History
2322:adding citations to reliable sources
2289:
2279:
2015:
2000:
922:
749:
2923:"Ordnance & Munitions Forecast"
2021:or cause minor damage to property.
1945:155 mm artillery shells containing
1844:Typical World War I shrapnel round:
1756:Common lyddite six-inch naval shell
1415:Armour-piercing composite non-rigid
1376:Types of armour-piercing ammunition
1330:With the introduction of the first
1021:
942:was first used by the French under
853:invented a smokeless powder called
827:Waltham Abbey Royal Gunpowder Mills
530:as having barely changed since the
24:
2729:Philip Jobson (2 September 2016).
1829:
651:
522:that could fire at a much greater
350:Shells were used in combat by the
25:
3114:
3040:
2901:. Human Rights Watch. p. 3.
2848:", 4th Edition 1887, pp. 203–205.
2707:Nicolas Édouard Delabarre-Duparcq
2201:Cannon-launched guided projectile
2119:Illumination rounds fired from a
1747:
1711:
1102:it achieves obturation through a
813:began manufacturing guncotton in
686:
3057:World War II propaganda leaflets
2449:Delgado, James (February 2003).
2418:. Etymonline.com. 8 January 1972
2294:
2264:
2245:
2230:
2215:
2194:
2108:flare emitting white or "black"
2029:Smoke shells are used to create
1692:BL 9.2 in common shell Mk V
1424:Armour-piercing discarding sabot
1391:Armour-piercing ballistic capped
3003:
2996:I.V. Hogg & L.F. Thurston,
2990:
2915:
2888:
2875:
2808:
2749:
2700:
2623:
2602:
2584:
2079:
1930:Convention on Cluster Munitions
1638:case, a bursting charge, and a
1409:Armour-piercing composite rigid
1310:BL 12 inch naval gun Mk I - VII
640:is generally most suitable but
466:
391:with a hollowed shell from the
279:
43:Some sectioned shells from the
2566:
2523:
2514:
2505:
2478:
2442:
2408:
2225:, a GPS guided artillery shell
1917:in their artillery batteries.
1630:The most common shell type is
1441:Armour-piercing high-explosive
1150:List of British ordnance terms
1097:Separate loading bagged charge
1067:Semi-fixed ammunition for the
216:, and possibly with a tapered
13:
1:
3033:. New York: Industrial Press.
3029:Hamilton, Douglas T. (1916).
3026:. New York: Industrial Press.
3022:Hamilton, Douglas T. (1915).
2980:, pp. 37, 158, 159, 198.
2978:Treatise on Ammunition (1915)
2959:Treatise on Ammunition (1915)
2940:Treatise on Ammunition (1915)
2927:www.forecastinternational.com
2656:Complete Guide to Handloading
2592:"The Emergence of Modern War"
2401:
2168:
1988:(not to be confused with the
1798:
1337:pointed armour-piercing shell
1201:Explosive rounds as small as
1116:Range-enhancing technologies
1059:Separate loading cased charge
1013:
1010:were used from 1917 onwards.
811:Thomas Prentice & Company
791:Christian Friedrich Schönbein
223:
2272:M1156 Precision Guidance Kit
1419:fired from a tapering barrel
1034:to hold the propellants and
1006:. Shells filled with poison
865:) made from 68.2% insoluble
47:. From left to right: 90 mm
7:
2671:(1943), pages 289–292.
1994:Chemical Weapons Convention
1949:(sulfur mustard) agent at
1936:
1875:The gunner set the shell's
1777:
1741:
1658:. Depending on the type of
1372:with only 0.2% HE filling.
1130:rocket-assisted projectiles
825:began thorough research at
27:Payload-carrying projectile
10:
3119:
3016:
2283:
2198:
2172:
2140:
2004:
1833:
1802:
1492:
1480:High-explosive squash head
1323:
1143:
803:Wilhelm Lenk von Wolfsberg
753:
655:
520:rifled breech-loading guns
487:
283:
197:. The shape is usually a
175:armoured fighting vehicles
123:whose payload contains an
29:
2942:, pp. 158, 159, 198.
2205:Precision-guided munition
1683:
1287:RML 2.5 inch Mountain Gun
1196:16"/50 caliber Mark 7 gun
898:as a stabilizer in 1888.
150:, were originally called
2711:George Washington Cullum
2451:"Relics of the Kamikaze"
2368:Corroded but live Iraqi
2024:
1888:Cluster and sub-munition
1474:High-explosive anti-tank
1296:
1139:
799:manufacture in Faversham
767:was the first practical
736:Distance measuring fuzes
593:capabilities during the
540:Elswick Ordnance Company
506:. Pictured, deployed by
447:The Star-Spangled Banner
2638:Davis, William C., Jr.
1856:6 thin steel shell wall
1852:4 central ignition tube
1846:1 shell bursting charge
1622:15 inch high-explosive
1551:, Kent, under the name
1509:Canon de 75 modèle 1897
1341:Palliser shot and shell
1291:25-pounder gun-howitzer
332:, the defenders had a "
69:tactical nuclear weapon
2846:Treatise on Ammunition
2786:. New York: Scribner.
2532:Technology and Culture
2416:"Etymology of grenade"
2377:
2372:shell dating from the
2123:
2093:
2045:(HC), modern ones use
1954:
1861:
1757:
1727:
1693:
1627:
1512:
1449:Semi-armour-piercing (
1397:Armour-piercing capped
1320:Armour-piercing shells
1313:
1245:
1163:
1125:
1072:
935:
846:
771:
667:
610:Martin von Wahrendorff
559:Martin von Wahrendorff
515:
395:
300:
166:are still used for an
108:
92:
52:
3093:Explosive projectiles
3009:Hamilton 1915, p. 13.
2864:. Sutton Publishing.
2578:www.gracesguide.co.uk
2387:unexploded ordnance (
2367:
2118:
2087:
1944:
1843:
1761:Common lyddite shells
1755:
1731:Common pointed shells
1719:
1691:
1621:
1503:
1489:High-explosive shells
1326:armour-piercing shell
1304:
1243:
1157:
1123:
1078:separate quick firing
1066:
930:
836:
817:in 1863; and British
763:
741:Electronic time fuzes
665:
595:Industrial Revolution
591:precision engineering
497:
484:Rifled breech loaders
473:rifled breech loading
386:
293:
98:
58:
42:
3088:Artillery ammunition
3051:, April 1906, p. 408
2860:Brown, G. I. (1998)
2719:. 1863. p. 142.
2697:(1969), p. 141.
2684:(1969), p. 139.
2318:improve this section
1971:M110 155mm Cartridge
1744:), filled with TNT.
1726:common pointed shell
534:, the industrialist
504:rifled breech loader
490:Rifled breech loader
286:History of gunpowder
242:pressure cooker bomb
67:shell, a very small
3074:– video explanation
2820:members.lycos.co.uk
2693:Hogg, Oliver F. G.
2680:Hogg, Oliver F. G.
2286:Unexploded ordnance
1928:Signatories of the
1194:. For example, the
1160:Liberation of Italy
1004:Battle of the Somme
699:Direct action fuzes
616:in Germany and the
154:, derived from the
3098:Chinese inventions
2767:Hogg, pp. 174–176.
2755:Hogg, pp. 171–174.
2654:Sharpe, Philip B.
2629:Hogg, pp. 203–203.
2620:Hogg, pp. 165–166.
2598:on 19 August 1999.
2511:Hogg, pp. 164–165.
2378:
2151:siege of Ladysmith
2124:
2094:
1963:riot control agent
1955:
1862:
1758:
1728:
1694:
1628:
1626:shells, circa 1917
1513:
1314:
1246:
1170:of a shell is its
1164:
1162:, 22 February 1945
1126:
1073:
1040:fixed quick firing
936:
847:
772:
668:
516:
396:
352:Republic of Venice
334:thunder crash bomb
301:
109:
93:
53:
3049:Popular Mechanics
2908:978-1-56432-458-0
2742:978-0-7509-8007-4
2735:. History Press.
2667:Davis, Tenney L.
2354:
2353:
2346:
2280:Unexploded shells
2159:Christmas pudding
2016:Non-lethal shells
2007:Nuclear artillery
2001:Nuclear artillery
1992:), with the 1993
1990:Geneva Convention
1915:cluster munitions
1778:4 c.r. heads
1283:BL 60-pounder gun
1267:large-calibre gun
923:Other shell types
845:explosive in 1889
750:Smokeless powders
677:Alexander Forsyth
673:mercury fulminate
536:William Armstrong
343:. When hit, even
65:nuclear artillery
16:(Redirected from
3110:
3010:
3007:
3001:
2994:
2988:
2987:
2975:
2969:
2968:
2956:
2950:
2949:
2937:
2931:
2930:
2919:
2913:
2912:
2892:
2886:
2879:
2873:
2858:
2849:
2842:
2836:
2835:
2833:
2831:
2826:on 20 March 2008
2822:. Archived from
2812:
2806:
2805:
2779:
2768:
2765:
2756:
2753:
2747:
2746:
2726:
2720:
2704:
2698:
2691:
2685:
2678:
2672:
2665:
2659:
2652:
2643:
2636:
2630:
2627:
2621:
2618:
2609:
2608:Hogg, pp. 80–83.
2606:
2600:
2599:
2594:. Archived from
2588:
2582:
2581:
2570:
2564:
2563:
2527:
2521:
2518:
2512:
2509:
2503:
2502:
2482:
2476:
2473:
2467:
2466:
2446:
2440:
2437:
2428:
2427:
2425:
2423:
2412:
2349:
2342:
2338:
2335:
2329:
2298:
2290:
2268:
2249:
2234:
2219:
2066:white phosphorus
2039:hexachloroethane
1975:white phosphorus
1858:7 cartridge case
1656:Gurney equations
1541:artillery shells
1525:organic compound
1370:Panzergranate 39
1050:which seals the
1030:projectile, the
1022:Fixed ammunition
978:
977:
973:
878:meant a flatter
769:smokeless powder
756:Smokeless powder
694:Percussion fuzes
648:were also used.
563:Joseph Whitworth
314:military manual
101:M107 projectiles
21:
3118:
3117:
3113:
3112:
3111:
3109:
3108:
3107:
3078:
3077:
3061:Wayback Machine
3043:
3019:
3014:
3013:
3008:
3004:
2995:
2991:
2981:
2976:
2972:
2962:
2957:
2953:
2943:
2938:
2934:
2921:
2920:
2916:
2909:
2893:
2889:
2880:
2876:
2859:
2852:
2843:
2839:
2829:
2827:
2814:
2813:
2809:
2794:
2780:
2771:
2766:
2759:
2754:
2750:
2743:
2727:
2723:
2705:
2701:
2692:
2688:
2679:
2675:
2666:
2662:
2653:
2646:
2637:
2633:
2628:
2624:
2619:
2612:
2607:
2603:
2590:
2589:
2585:
2572:
2571:
2567:
2544:10.2307/3105857
2528:
2524:
2519:
2515:
2510:
2506:
2483:
2479:
2474:
2470:
2447:
2443:
2438:
2431:
2421:
2419:
2414:
2413:
2409:
2404:
2350:
2339:
2333:
2330:
2315:
2299:
2288:
2282:
2275:
2269:
2260:
2257:fire-and-forget
2250:
2241:
2238:M712 Copperhead
2235:
2226:
2220:
2207:
2199:Main articles:
2197:
2177:
2171:
2143:
2082:
2027:
2018:
2009:
2003:
1986:Geneva Protocol
1982:First World War
1939:
1890:
1865:Shrapnel shells
1859:
1857:
1855:
1853:
1851:
1849:
1847:
1845:
1838:
1832:
1830:Shrapnel shells
1807:
1801:
1750:
1714:
1686:
1652:shrapnel shells
1572:Austria-Hungary
1498:
1495:high explosives
1491:
1385:Armour-piercing
1378:
1361:bursting charge
1328:
1322:
1299:
1264:Schwerer Gustav
1237:(6.1 in).
1219:Gustav and Dora
1152:
1142:
1118:
1109:naval artillery
1099:
1061:
1024:
1016:
992:shrapnel shells
988:First World War
975:
971:
970:
925:
876:muzzle velocity
795:Austrian Empire
758:
752:
747:
731:Proximity fuzes
689:
660:
654:
652:Percussion fuze
532:Napoleonic Wars
524:muzzle velocity
492:
486:
469:
404:horizontal fire
288:
282:
262:high explosives
228:Gunpowder is a
226:
187:mortar carriers
63:155 millimeter
45:First World War
35:
28:
23:
22:
18:Artillery shell
15:
12:
11:
5:
3116:
3106:
3105:
3100:
3095:
3090:
3076:
3075:
3069:
3064:
3054:
3042:
3041:External links
3039:
3038:
3037:
3034:
3027:
3018:
3015:
3012:
3011:
3002:
2989:
2970:
2961:, p. 161.
2951:
2932:
2914:
2907:
2887:
2874:
2872:. pp. 151–163.
2850:
2837:
2807:
2792:
2769:
2757:
2748:
2741:
2721:
2699:
2686:
2673:
2660:
2644:
2631:
2622:
2610:
2601:
2583:
2565:
2538:(2): 213–247.
2522:
2513:
2504:
2477:
2468:
2441:
2429:
2406:
2405:
2403:
2400:
2352:
2351:
2334:September 2023
2302:
2300:
2293:
2284:Main article:
2281:
2278:
2277:
2276:
2270:
2263:
2261:
2251:
2244:
2242:
2236:
2229:
2227:
2223:M982 Excalibur
2221:
2214:
2196:
2193:
2173:Main article:
2170:
2167:
2142:
2139:
2081:
2078:
2047:red phosphorus
2026:
2023:
2017:
2014:
2005:Main article:
2002:
1999:
1959:chemical agent
1938:
1935:
1889:
1886:
1854:5 resin matrix
1836:Shrapnel shell
1834:Main article:
1831:
1828:
1803:Main article:
1800:
1797:
1749:
1748:Common lyddite
1746:
1713:
1712:Common pointed
1710:
1685:
1682:
1632:high explosive
1608:anti-personnel
1561:shimose powder
1490:
1487:
1486:
1485:
1484:
1483:
1477:
1468:
1467:
1466:
1463:
1457:
1454:
1447:
1444:
1435:
1434:
1433:
1427:
1421:
1412:
1406:
1400:
1394:
1388:
1377:
1374:
1324:Main article:
1321:
1318:
1298:
1295:
1141:
1138:
1117:
1114:
1098:
1095:
1060:
1057:
1023:
1020:
1015:
1012:
996:combat helmets
955:Martin's shell
944:Louis XIV
924:
921:
919:infringement.
903:Frederick Abel
867:nitrocellulose
859:poudre blanche
841:developed the
823:Frederick Abel
754:Main article:
751:
748:
746:
745:
744:
743:
738:
733:
728:
721:Airburst fuzes
718:
717:
716:
711:
706:
701:
690:
688:
687:Types of fuzes
685:
658:Artillery fuze
656:Main article:
653:
650:
553:The piece was
488:Main article:
485:
482:
468:
465:
322:History of Jin
281:
278:
225:
222:
119:context, is a
49:shrapnel shell
26:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
3115:
3104:
3101:
3099:
3096:
3094:
3091:
3089:
3086:
3085:
3083:
3073:
3070:
3068:
3065:
3062:
3058:
3055:
3052:
3050:
3045:
3044:
3035:
3032:
3028:
3025:
3021:
3020:
3006:
2999:
2993:
2985:
2979:
2974:
2966:
2960:
2955:
2947:
2941:
2936:
2928:
2924:
2918:
2910:
2904:
2900:
2899:
2891:
2884:
2883:The Great War
2878:
2871:
2870:0-7509-1878-0
2867:
2863:
2857:
2855:
2847:
2841:
2825:
2821:
2817:
2811:
2803:
2799:
2795:
2789:
2785:
2778:
2776:
2774:
2764:
2762:
2752:
2744:
2738:
2734:
2733:
2725:
2718:
2717:
2712:
2708:
2703:
2696:
2690:
2683:
2677:
2670:
2664:
2657:
2651:
2649:
2641:
2635:
2626:
2617:
2615:
2605:
2597:
2593:
2587:
2579:
2575:
2569:
2561:
2557:
2553:
2549:
2545:
2541:
2537:
2533:
2526:
2520:Hogg, p. 165.
2517:
2508:
2500:
2496:
2492:
2489:(in German).
2488:
2481:
2475:Hogg, p. 164.
2472:
2464:
2460:
2456:
2452:
2445:
2436:
2434:
2417:
2411:
2407:
2399:
2396:
2392:
2390:
2384:
2375:
2371:
2366:
2362:
2359:
2348:
2345:
2337:
2327:
2323:
2319:
2313:
2312:
2308:
2303:This section
2301:
2297:
2292:
2291:
2287:
2273:
2267:
2262:
2258:
2254:
2248:
2243:
2239:
2233:
2228:
2224:
2218:
2213:
2212:
2211:
2206:
2202:
2195:Guided shells
2192:
2190:
2185:
2182:
2176:
2166:
2164:
2160:
2156:
2152:
2148:
2138:
2135:
2133:
2129:
2122:
2121:M777 howitzer
2117:
2113:
2111:
2107:
2103:
2097:
2091:
2086:
2077:
2075:
2071:
2067:
2062:
2060:
2056:
2055:sulfuric acid
2052:
2048:
2044:
2040:
2035:
2032:
2031:smoke screens
2022:
2013:
2008:
1998:
1995:
1991:
1987:
1983:
1978:
1976:
1972:
1968:
1964:
1960:
1952:
1948:
1943:
1934:
1931:
1926:
1923:
1918:
1916:
1911:
1907:
1903:
1899:
1895:
1894:cluster bombs
1885:
1881:
1878:
1873:
1870:
1866:
1842:
1837:
1827:
1825:
1821:
1816:
1811:
1806:
1796:
1793:
1789:
1785:
1781:
1779:
1773:
1770:
1766:
1762:
1754:
1745:
1743:
1738:
1734:
1732:
1725:
1722:
1718:
1709:
1705:
1701:
1698:
1697:Common shells
1690:
1681:
1679:
1675:
1674:Composition B
1671:
1667:
1665:
1661:
1657:
1653:
1649:
1645:
1641:
1637:
1633:
1625:
1620:
1616:
1614:
1609:
1605:
1600:
1598:
1594:
1589:
1585:
1581:
1577:
1573:
1569:
1568:
1563:
1562:
1556:
1554:
1550:
1546:
1542:
1538:
1534:
1533:Eugène Turpin
1530:
1526:
1522:
1518:
1510:
1506:
1502:
1496:
1481:
1478:
1475:
1472:
1471:
1469:
1464:
1461:
1458:
1455:
1452:
1448:
1445:
1442:
1439:
1438:
1436:
1431:
1428:
1425:
1422:
1420:
1416:
1413:
1410:
1407:
1404:
1401:
1398:
1395:
1392:
1389:
1386:
1383:
1382:
1380:
1379:
1373:
1371:
1366:
1362:
1356:
1354:
1348:
1346:
1342:
1338:
1333:
1327:
1317:
1311:
1307:
1306:Palliser shot
1303:
1294:
1292:
1288:
1284:
1278:
1276:
1270:
1268:
1265:
1259:
1257:
1252:
1242:
1238:
1236:
1232:
1228:
1224:
1220:
1216:
1212:
1208:
1204:
1199:
1197:
1193:
1189:
1185:
1181:
1177:
1173:
1169:
1161:
1156:
1151:
1147:
1137:
1135:
1131:
1122:
1113:
1110:
1105:
1094:
1091:
1087:
1083:
1079:
1070:
1069:M119 howitzer
1065:
1056:
1053:
1049:
1045:
1044:sliding-block
1041:
1037:
1033:
1029:
1019:
1011:
1009:
1005:
1001:
997:
993:
989:
984:
980:
966:
963:
961:
956:
951:
949:
945:
941:
940:carcass shell
934:
933:carcass shell
931:Drawing of a
929:
920:
918:
913:
908:
904:
899:
897:
896:diphenylamine
894:began adding
893:
889:
885:
881:
877:
872:
868:
864:
860:
856:
855:Poudre B
852:
844:
840:
835:
831:
828:
824:
820:
816:
812:
807:
804:
800:
796:
792:
788:
784:
780:
776:
770:
766:
762:
757:
742:
739:
737:
734:
732:
729:
727:
724:
723:
722:
719:
715:
712:
710:
707:
705:
702:
700:
697:
696:
695:
692:
691:
684:
680:
678:
674:
664:
659:
649:
647:
646:gilding metal
643:
639:
634:
630:
625:
623:
622:Armstrong gun
619:
615:
611:
606:
604:
600:
596:
592:
588:
582:
580:
576:
572:
568:
564:
560:
556:
551:
549:
545:
544:Royal Arsenal
541:
537:
533:
529:
525:
521:
513:
509:
505:
501:
500:Armstrong gun
496:
491:
481:
477:
474:
464:
462:
461:
455:
453:
449:
448:
443:
442:
437:
433:
429:
425:
421:
415:
413:
410:with a small
409:
405:
401:
394:
390:
385:
381:
378:
374:
369:
365:
361:
357:
353:
348:
346:
342:
341:
335:
331:
327:
323:
319:
318:
313:
310:
306:
299:
298:
292:
287:
277:
275:
270:
267:
263:
257:
255:
251:
250:Metonymically
247:
243:
239:
235:
231:
230:low explosive
221:
219:
215:
212:
208:
204:
201:topped by an
200:
196:
192:
188:
184:
180:
176:
171:
169:
165:
161:
157:
153:
149:
144:
142:
138:
134:
130:
126:
122:
118:
114:
106:
102:
97:
90:
86:
82:
78:
74:
70:
66:
62:
57:
50:
46:
41:
37:
33:
32:shotgun shell
19:
3048:
3005:
2997:
2992:
2973:
2954:
2935:
2926:
2917:
2897:
2890:
2882:
2881:Marc Ferro.
2877:
2861:
2840:
2828:. Retrieved
2824:the original
2819:
2810:
2783:
2751:
2731:
2724:
2714:
2702:
2694:
2689:
2681:
2676:
2668:
2663:
2655:
2639:
2634:
2625:
2604:
2596:the original
2586:
2577:
2568:
2535:
2531:
2525:
2516:
2507:
2493:(1): 65–80.
2490:
2486:
2480:
2471:
2458:
2454:
2444:
2420:. Retrieved
2410:
2394:
2386:
2382:
2379:
2355:
2340:
2331:
2316:Please help
2304:
2259:submunitions
2208:
2186:
2178:
2144:
2136:
2131:
2127:
2125:
2098:
2095:
2080:Illumination
2063:
2036:
2028:
2019:
2010:
1979:
1956:
1927:
1919:
1891:
1882:
1874:
1863:
1860:8 propellant
1814:
1812:
1808:
1794:
1790:
1786:
1782:
1774:
1759:
1739:
1735:
1729:
1706:
1702:
1695:
1668:
1647:
1643:
1629:
1604:World War II
1601:
1597:World War II
1575:
1565:
1559:
1557:
1552:
1544:
1539:charges and
1514:
1357:
1349:
1329:
1315:
1279:
1271:
1260:
1256:logistically
1247:
1215:railway guns
1200:
1165:
1127:
1104:screw breech
1100:
1089:
1086:World War II
1074:
1025:
1017:
985:
981:
967:
964:
954:
952:
937:
900:
863:black powder
858:
851:Paul Vieille
848:
821:chemist Sir
808:
773:
681:
669:
633:driving band
626:
607:
599:squeeze bore
583:
552:
517:
478:
470:
467:Modern shell
458:
456:
451:
445:
439:
416:
397:
349:
339:
321:
315:
309:Ming Dynasty
302:
295:
280:Early shells
271:
258:
227:
183:assault guns
172:
163:
151:
145:
136:
112:
110:
36:
2640:Handloading
2455:Archaeology
2422:27 February
2376:(1990–1991)
2189:proof marks
2163:Union Flags
2106:pyrotechnic
1850:3 nose fuze
1769:picric acid
1580:explosive D
1521:Picric acid
1505:Picric acid
1180:centimeters
1176:millimeters
1082:World War I
986:During the
960:heated shot
907:James Dewar
857:(short for
839:James Dewar
709:Delay fuzes
704:Graze fuzes
642:cupronickel
612:in Sweden,
528:Crimean War
510:during the
345:iron armour
317:Huolongjing
297:Huolongjing
214:performance
211:aerodynamic
195:autocannons
160:pomegranate
131:, or other
103:. All have
83:(e.g., the
3082:Categories
2793:0684130920
2402:References
2181:proof shot
2175:Proof test
2169:Proof shot
2132:star shell
2070:incendiary
1922:minefields
1815:mine shell
1805:Mine shell
1799:Mine shell
1724:12-pounder
1517:detonation
1188:cartridges
1144:See also:
1134:base bleed
1090:semi-fixed
1048:obturation
1014:Propulsion
880:trajectory
819:War Office
815:Stowmarket
779:ammunition
726:Time fuzes
714:Base fuzes
587:metallurgy
571:Minié ball
514:(1868–69).
512:Boshin war
412:propelling
393:Boshin war
373:slow match
360:Ingolstadt
284:See also:
274:percussion
260:advent of
224:Background
129:incendiary
121:projectile
3103:Gunpowder
2784:Artillery
2560:112105821
2499:0042-9945
2370:artillery
2305:does not
2253:SMArt 155
2128:starshell
2102:parachute
2090:time fuze
1902:landmines
1877:time fuze
1848:2 bullets
1820:aluminium
1788:with it.
1664:proximity
1648:splinters
1644:fragments
1586:in 1902.
1529:artillery
1365:anti-tank
1345:cast iron
1332:ironclads
1203:12.7 x 82
1132:(RAP) or
849:In 1884,
783:Guncotton
775:Gunpowder
629:gas-check
618:Wiard gun
567:cast iron
434:and even
420:cast iron
408:howitzers
368:precisely
305:cast iron
238:pipe bomb
218:boat tail
209:for good
207:nose cone
168:artillery
158:word for
137:bombshell
125:explosive
2463:Archived
2374:Gulf War
2147:leaflets
2110:infrared
2074:thermite
2053:(fuming
1937:Chemical
1910:infantry
1898:grenades
1824:aircraft
1678:Cyclotol
1624:howitzer
1567:ecrasite
1545:Melinite
1537:blasting
1462:(SAPHEI)
1432:(APFSDS)
1308:for the
1227:missiles
1172:diameter
789:chemist
765:Poudre B
548:Woolwich
542:and the
264:such as
254:munition
246:grenades
244:. Early
205:-tipped
199:cylinder
191:warships
152:grenades
133:chemical
117:military
81:howitzer
3059:at the
3017:Sources
2929:. 2010.
2830:15 June
2552:3105857
2326:removed
2311:sources
2141:Carrier
2112:light.
1869:bullets
1765:Lyddite
1588:Toluene
1576:Dunnite
1553:Lyddite
1405:(APCBC)
1223:rockets
1207:13 x 64
1205:mm and
1192:caliber
1168:caliber
974:⁄
912:Cordite
888:Austria
884:Germany
843:cordite
579:windage
575:rifling
400:windage
377:bitumen
364:Germany
356:Corsica
338:half a
330:Kaifeng
326:Subutai
312:Chinese
234:brisant
164:grenade
148:mortars
115:, in a
107:fitted.
99:155 mm
77:kiloton
75:(0.072
2905:
2868:
2802:571972
2800:
2790:
2739:
2558:
2550:
2497:
2395:cannot
2161:, two
2153:, the
2059:pumice
2057:) and
1951:Pueblo
1906:armour
1684:Common
1593:Amatol
1476:(HEAT)
1443:(APHE)
1426:(APDS)
1312:, 1886
1275:pounds
1235:155 mm
1229:, and
1184:inches
1052:breech
1036:primer
1032:casing
948:oblong
917:patent
638:Copper
603:swaged
555:rifled
460:sabots
424:bronze
422:, but
389:mortar
193:, and
185:, and
177:(e.g.
156:French
141:tracer
2556:S2CID
2548:JSTOR
2383:blind
2155:Boers
2051:oleum
2025:Smoke
1636:steel
1613:FH-70
1399:(APC)
1353:steel
1297:Types
1231:bombs
1182:, or
1140:Sizes
1028:fuzed
892:Krupp
871:ether
787:Swiss
614:Krupp
508:Japan
436:glass
432:brass
406:from
203:ogive
179:tanks
113:shell
105:fuzes
2984:help
2965:help
2946:help
2903:ISBN
2866:ISBN
2832:2014
2798:OCLC
2788:ISBN
2737:ISBN
2709:and
2495:ISSN
2424:2013
2358:fuze
2356:The
2309:any
2307:cite
2203:and
2043:zinc
1967:M687
1908:and
1813:The
1676:and
1660:fuse
1640:fuse
1549:Lydd
1387:(AP)
1251:NATO
1211:20mm
1166:The
1148:and
1084:and
886:and
837:Sir
589:and
561:and
498:The
452:bomb
441:bomb
428:lead
89:M198
85:M114
2540:doi
2389:UXO
2385:or
2320:by
2130:or
1961:or
1742:SAP
1670:RDX
1584:TNT
1578:or
1570:in
1451:SAP
1008:gas
1000:dud
644:or
546:at
340:mou
266:TNT
240:or
189:),
87:or
73:TNT
61:W48
3084::
2925:.
2853:^
2818:.
2796:.
2772:^
2760:^
2713:.
2647:^
2613:^
2576:.
2554:.
2546:.
2536:33
2534:.
2491:60
2459:56
2457:.
2453:.
2432:^
2179:A
2076:.
2061:.
1977:.
1947:HD
1721:QF
1646:,
1599:.
1555:.
1285:,
1225:,
1217:,
1178:,
990:,
905:,
550:.
430:,
426:,
387:A
362:,
256:.
181:,
143:.
127:,
111:A
91:).
2986:)
2967:)
2948:)
2911:.
2844:"
2834:.
2804:.
2745:.
2580:.
2562:.
2542::
2501:.
2426:.
2391:)
2347:)
2341:(
2336:)
2332:(
2328:.
2314:.
2041:-
1511:.
1497:.
1453:)
976:2
972:1
969:5
34:.
20:)
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