708:, genetics, genomics as well as the geochemical and fossil record. These estimations tell us that humans and chimpanzees last shared a common ancestor about 6 million years ago (mya). As our closest relatives, chimpanzees have a lot of potential to tell us about mechanisms of disease (and what genes may be responsible for human intelligence). However, chimpanzees are rarely used in research and are protected from highly invasive procedures. Rodents are the most common animal models. Phylogenetic trees estimate that humans and rodents last shared a common ancestor ~80-100mya. Despite this distant split, humans and rodents have far more similarities than they do differences. This is due to the relative stability of large portions of the genome, making the use of vertebrate animals particularly productive.
6737:
E.; Johnson, Jeffrey L.; Sperry, Jason; Nathens, Avery B.; Billiar, Timothy R.; West, Michael A.; Jeschke, Marc G.; Klein, Matthew B.; Gamelli, Richard L.; Gibran, Nicole S.; Brownstein, Bernard H.; Miller-Graziano, Carol; Calvano, Steve E.; Mason, Philip H.; Cobb, J. Perren; Rahme, Laurence G.; Lowry, Stephen F.; Maier, Ronald V.; Moldawer, Lyle L.; Herndon, David N.; Davis, Ronald W.; Xiao, Wenzhong; Tompkins, Ronald G.; Abouhamze, Amer; Balis, Ulysses G. J.; Camp, David G.; De, Asit K.; Harbrecht, Brian G.; Hayden, Douglas L.; Kaushal, Amit; O’Keefe, Grant E.; Kotz, Kenneth T.; Qian, Weijun; Schoenfeld, David A.; Shapiro, Michael B.; Silver, Geoffrey M.; Smith, Richard D.; Storey, John D.; Tibshirani, Robert; Toner, Mehmet; Wilhelmy, Julie; Wispelwey, Bram; Wong, Wing H (2013-02-26).
51:
2098:. Similarly, there are differences between the immune systems of model organisms and humans that lead to significantly altered responses to stimuli, although the underlying principles of genome function may be the same. The impoverished environments inside standard laboratory cages deny research animals of the mental and physical challenges are necessary for healthy emotional development. Without day-to-day variety, risks and rewards, and complex environments, some have argued that animal models are irrelevant models of human experience.
68:
2238:, the Cruelty to Animals Act was amended to include regulations governing the use of animals in research. This new act stipulated that 1) experiments must be proven absolutely necessary for instruction, or to save or prolong human life; 2) animals must be properly anesthetized; and 3) animals must be killed as soon as the experiment is over. Today, these three principles are central to the laws and guidelines governing the use of animals and research. In the U.S., the Animal Welfare Act of 1970 (see also
31:
1279:
347:). Disease models are divided into three categories: homologous animals have the same causes, symptoms and treatment options as would humans who have the same disease, isomorphic animals share the same symptoms and treatments, and predictive models are similar to a particular human disease in only a couple of aspects, but are useful in isolating and making predictions about mechanisms of a set of disease features.
2252:"Reduction" refers to efforts to minimize number of animals used during the course of an experiment, as well as prevention of unnecessary replication of previous experiments. To satisfy this requirement, mathematical calculations of statistical power are employed to determine the minimum number of animals that can be used to get a statistically significant experimental result.
2246:
laboratory experiments involving living animals are reviewed and approved by this committee. In addition to proving the potential for benefit to human health, minimization of pain and distress, and timely and humane euthanasia, experimenters must justify their protocols based on the principles of
Replacement, Reduction and Refinement.
524:
100,000 rhesus monkeys, with 65 doses of vaccine produced from each monkey. Sabin wrote in 1992, "Without the use of animals and human beings, it would have been impossible to acquire the important knowledge needed to prevent much suffering and premature death not only among humans, but also among animals."
2233:
Debate about the ethical use of animals in research dates at least as far back as 1822 when the
British Parliament under pressure from British and Indian intellectuals enacted the first law for animal protection preventing cruelty to cattle. This was followed by the Cruelty to Animals Act of 1835 and
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Chapman, J. A.; Kirkness, E. F.; Simakov, O.; Hampson, S. E.; Mitros, T.; Weinmaier, T.; Rattei, T.; Balasubramanian, P. G.; Borman, J.; Busam, D.; Disbennett, K.; Pfannkoch, C.; Sumin, N.; Sutton, G. G.; Viswanathan, L. D.; Walenz, B.; Goodstein, D. M.; Hellsten, U.; Kawashima, T.; Prochnik, S. E.;
4423:
Olson, Harry; Betton, Graham; Robinson, Denise; Thomas, Karluss; Monro, Alastair; Kolaja, Gerald; Lilly, Patrick; Sanders, James; Sipes, Glenn; Bracken, William; Dorato, Michael; Van Deun, Koen; Smith, Peter; Berger, Bruce; Heller, Allen (August 2000). "Concordance of the
Toxicity of Pharmaceuticals
468:
toxin and demonstrated its effects in guinea pigs. He went on to develop an antitoxin against diphtheria in animals and then in humans, which resulted in the modern methods of immunization and largely ended diphtheria as a threatening disease. The diphtheria antitoxin is famously commemorated in the
6736:
Seok, Junhee; Warren, H. Shaw; Cuenca, Alex G.; Mindrinos, Michael N.; Baker, Henry V.; Xu, Weihong; Richards, Daniel R.; McDonald-Smith, Grace P.; Gao, Hong; Hennessy, Laura; Finnerty, Celeste C.; LĂłpez, Cecilia M.; Honari, Shari; Moore, Ernest E.; Minei, Joseph P.; Cuschieri, Joseph; Bankey, Paul
4125:
Chinwalla, A. T.; Waterston, L. L.; Lindblad-Toh, K. D.; Birney, G. A.; Rogers, L. A.; Abril, R. S.; Agarwal, T. A.; Agarwala, L. W.; Ainscough, E. R.; Alexandersson, J. D.; An, T. L.; Antonarakis, W. E.; Attwood, J. O.; Baertsch, M. N.; Bailey, K. H.; Barlow, C. S.; Beck, T. C.; Berry, B.; Birren,
523:
improved the vaccine by passing the polio virus through animal hosts, including monkeys; the Sabin vaccine was produced for mass consumption in 1963, and had virtually eradicated polio in the United States by 1965. It has been estimated that developing and producing the vaccines required the use of
3414:
Animal models are required to connect in order to understand whole organisms, both in healthy and diseased states. In turn, these animal studies are required for understanding and treating human disease ...In many cases, though, there will be no substitute for whole-animal studies because of the
2245:
In academic settings in which NIH funding is used for animal research, institutions are governed by the NIH Office of
Laboratory Animal Welfare (OLAW). At each site, OLAW guidelines and standards are upheld by a local review board called the Institutional Animal Care and Use Committee (IACUC). All
1065:
Spontaneous models refer to diseases that are analogous to human conditions that occur naturally in the animal being studied. These models are rare, but informative. Negative models essentially refer to control animals, which are useful for validating an experimental result. Orphan models refer to
2221:
stem cells can also elucidate new mechanisms for understanding cancer and cell regeneration. Imaging studies (such as MRI or PET scans) enable non-invasive study of human subjects. Recent advances in genetics and genomics can identify disease-associated genes, which can be targeted for therapies.
711:
Genomic data is used to make close comparisons between species and determine relatedness. Humans share about 99% of their genome with chimpanzees (98.7% with bonobos) and over 90% with the mouse. With so much of the genome conserved across species, it is relatively impressive that the differences
6302:
Platt, Alexander; Horton, Matthew; Huang, Yu S.; Li, Yan; Anastasio, Alison E.; Mulyati, Ni Wayan; Ågren, Jon; Bossdorf, Oliver; Byers, Diane; Donohue, Kathleen; Dunning, Megan; Holub, Eric B.; Hudson, Andrew; Le Corre, Valérie; Loudet, Olivier; Roux, Fabrice; Warthmann, Norman; Weigel, Detlef;
3387:
Arguments regarding whether biomedical science can advance without the use of animals are frequently mooted and make as much sense as questioning if clinical trials are necessary before new medical therapies are allowed to be widely used in the general population ...animal models are likely to
2249:"Replacement" refers to efforts to engage alternatives to animal use. This includes the use of computer models, non-living tissues and cells, and replacement of “higher-order” animals (primates and mammals) with “lower” order animals (e.g. cold-blooded animals, invertebrates) wherever possible.
857:
1) appropriateness as an analog, 2) transferability of information, 3) genetic uniformity of organisms, where applicable, 4) background knowledge of biological properties, 5) cost and availability, 6) generalizability of the results, 7) ease of and adaptability to experimental manipulation, 8)
4267:
Prüfer, K.; Munch, K.; Hellmann, I.; Akagi, K.; Miller, J. R.; Walenz, B.; Koren, S.; Sutton, G.; Kodira, C.; Winer, R.; Knight, J. R.; Mullikin, J. C.; Meader, S. J.; Ponting, C. P.; Lunter, G.; Higashino, S.; Hobolth, A.; Dutheil, J.; Karakoç, E.; Alkan, C.; Sajjadian, S.; Catacchio, C. R.;
2192:
Some studies suggests that inadequate published data in animal testing may result in irreproducible research, with missing details about how experiments are done omitted from published papers or differences in testing that may introduce bias. Examples of hidden bias include a 2014 study from
4810:
Rynkowski, Michal A; Kim, Grace H; Komotar, Ricardo J; Otten, Marc L; Ducruet, Andrew F; Zacharia, Brad E; Kellner, Christopher P; Hahn, David K; Merkow, Maxwell B; Garrett, Matthew C; Starke, Robert M; Cho, Byung-Moon; Sosunov, Sergei A; Connolly, E Sander (January 2008). "A mouse model of
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led to generation of the DBA ("dilute, brown and non-agouti") inbred mouse strain and the systematic generation of other inbred strains. The mouse has since been used extensively as a model organism and is associated with many important biological discoveries of the 20th and 21st centuries.
1405:) has a nearly transparent body during early development, which provides unique visual access to the animal's internal anatomy during this time period. Zebrafish are used to study development, toxicology and toxicopathology, specific gene function and roles of signaling pathways.
837:(mechanism of cause) and phenotype (signs and symptoms) to the human equivalent. However complex human diseases can often be better understood in a simplified system in which individual parts of the disease process are isolated and examined. For instance, behavioral analogues of
223:, even though care must be taken when generalizing from one organism to another. However, many drugs, treatments and cures for human diseases are developed in part with the guidance of animal models. Treatments for animal diseases have also been developed, including for
571:. Animal experimentation continues to be required for biomedical research, and is used with the aim of solving medical problems such as Alzheimer's disease, AIDS, multiple sclerosis, spinal cord injury, many headaches, and other conditions in which there is no useful
255:. Animal experimentation continues to be required for biomedical research, and is used with the aim of solving medical problems such as Alzheimer's disease, AIDS, multiple sclerosis, spinal cord injury, many headaches, and other conditions in which there is no useful
830:. The use of animal models allows researchers to investigate disease states in ways which would be inaccessible in a human patient, performing procedures on the non-human animal that imply a level of harm that would not be considered ethical to inflict on a human.
219:, model organisms allow for better understanding the disease process without the added risk of harming an actual human. The species of the model organism is usually chosen so that it reacts to disease or its treatment in a way that resembles human
6358:
Bohlender, Lennard L.; Parsons, Juliana; Hoernstein, Sebastian N. W.; Rempfer, Christine; Ruiz-Molina, Natalia; Lorenz, Timo; RodrĂguez Jahnke, Fernando; Figl, Rudolf; Fode, Benjamin; Altmann, Friedrich; Reski, Ralf; Decker, Eva L. (2020-12-18).
1539:
exist to provide researchers with a portal from which to download sequences (DNA, RNA, or protein) or to access functional information on specific genes, for example the sub-cellular localization of the gene product or its physiological role.
849:
for the treatment of these conditions in humans. A 2000 study found that animal models concorded (coincided on true positives and false negatives) with human toxicity in 71% of cases, with 63% for nonrodents alone and 43% for rodents alone.
5020:
Hisaeda, Hajime; Maekawa, Yoichi; Iwakawa, Daiji; Okada, Hiroko; Himeno, Kunisuke; Kishihara, Kenji; Tsukumo, Shin-ichi; Yasutomo, Koji (January 2004). "Escape of malaria parasites from host immunity requires CD4+CD25+ regulatory T cells".
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Kim, Young-Il; Kim, Seong-Gyu; Kim, Se-Mi; Kim, Eun-Ha; Park, Su-Jin; Yu, Kwang-Min; Chang, Jae-Hyung; Kim, Eun Ji; Lee, Seunghun; Casel, Mark
Anthony B.; Um, Jihye; Song, Min-Suk; Jeong, Hye Won; Lai, Van Dam; Kim, Yeonjae (2020-05-13).
712:
between humans and mice can be accounted for in approximately six thousand genes (of ~30,000 total). Scientists have been able to take advantage of these similarities in generating experimental and predictive models of human disease.
1385:) is particularly useful as a toxicology model, and as a neurological model and source of primary cell cultures, owing to the larger size of organs and suborganellar structures relative to the mouse, while eggs and embryos from
2569:
The...methods of scientific inquiry have greatly reduced the incidence of human disease and have substantially increased life expectancy. Those results have come largely through experimental methods based in part on the use of
2528:
From antibiotics and insulin to blood transfusions and treatments for cancer or HIV, virtually every medical achievement in the past century has depended directly or indirectly on research using animals, including veterinary
4941:
Radner H, El-Shabrawi Y, Eibl RH, BrĂĽstle O, Kenner L, Kleihues P, Wiestler OD (1993). "Tumor induction by ras and myc oncogenes in fetal and neonatal brain: modulating effects of developmental stage and retroviral dose".
199:
were also developed through studies on model organisms, and are necessary for modern, complex surgical operations. Other 20th-century medical advances and treatments that relied on research performed in animals include
2695:
Animal-based research has played a key role in understanding infectious diseases, neuroscience, physiology, and toxicology. Experimental results from animal studies have served as the basis for many key biomedical
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and/or natural phenomena that are more difficult to study directly. Continual research on these organisms focuses on a wide variety of experimental techniques and goals from many different levels of biology—from
866:
Experimental models are most common. These refer to models of disease that resemble human conditions in phenotype or response to treatment but are induced artificially in the laboratory. Some examples include:
3565:
Lyuksyutova, AL; Lu C-C, Milanesio N; Milanesio, N; King, LA; Guo, N; Wang, Y; Nathans, J; Tessier-Lavigne, M; et al. (2003). "Anterior-posterior guidance of commissural axons by Wnt-Frizzled signaling".
634:
parsimony models, investigating pivotal position in the evolutionary tree. Historically, model organisms include a handful of species with extensive genomic research data, such as the NIH model organisms.
3363:
Biomedical research depends on the use of animal models to understand the pathogenesis of human disease at a cellular and molecular level and to provide systems for developing and testing new therapies.
2619:
Biomedical research depends on the use of animal models to understand the pathogenesis of human disease at a cellular and molecular level and to provide systems for developing and testing new therapies.
862:
Animal models can be classified as homologous, isomorphic or predictive. Animal models can also be more broadly classified into four categories: 1) experimental, 2) spontaneous, 3) negative, 4) orphan.
654:) and non-specialist living requirements. Sometimes, the genome arrangement facilitates the sequencing of the model organism's genome, for example, by being very compact or having a low proportion of
473:. The success of animal studies in producing the diphtheria antitoxin has also been attributed as a cause for the decline of the early 20th-century opposition to animal research in the United States.
1369:
and other early bacteriologists as a host for bacterial infections, becoming a byword for "laboratory animal", but are less commonly used today. The classic model vertebrate is currently the mouse (
4677:
Bolton, C. (October 2007). "The translation of drug efficacy from in vivo models to human disease with special reference to experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis and multiple sclerosis".
2213:
Ethical concerns, as well as the cost, maintenance and relative inefficiency of animal research has encouraged development of alternative methods for the study of disease. Cell culture, or
3444:
Guela, Changiz; Wu, Chuang-Kuo; Saroff, Daniel; Lorenzo, Alfredo; Yuan, Menglan; Yankner, Bruce A. (July 1998). "Aging renders the brain vulnerable to amyloid β-protein neurotoxicity".
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is currently the most popular model plant. Its small stature and short generation time facilitates rapid genetic studies, and many phenotypic and biochemical mutants have been mapped.
2901:
3511:
Jameson, Bradford A.; McDonnell, James M.; Marini, Joseph C.; Korngold, Robert (April 1994). "A rationally designed CD4 analogue inhibits experimental allergic encephalomyelitis".
187:
wrote that Morgan's discoveries "helped transform biology into an experimental science". Research in model organisms led to further medical advances, such as the production of the
292:) has been used extensively as a model organism and is associated with many important biological discoveries of the 20th and 21st centuries. Other examples include baker's yeast (
3710:
Cohen BJ, Loew FM. (1984) Laboratory Animal
Medicine: Historical Perspectives in Laboratory Animal Medicine Academic Press, Inc: Orlando, FL, USA; Fox JG, Cohen BJ, Loew FM (eds)
3096:
Chakraborty, Chiranjib; Hsu, Chi; Wen, Zhi; Lin, Chang; Agoramoorthy, Govindasamy (2009-02-01). "Zebrafish: A Complete Animal Model for In Vivo Drug
Discovery and Development".
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Dunn, Joe Dan; Bosmani, Cristina; Barisch, Caroline; Raykov, Lyudmil; Lefrançois, Louise H.; Cardenal-Muñoz, Elena; López-Jiménez, Ana Teresa; Soldati, Thierry (2018-01-04).
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The primary reason for the use of model organisms in research is the evolutionary principle that all organisms share some degree of relatedness and genetic similarity due to
2880:
2217:
studies, provide an alternative that preserves the physiology of the living cell, but does not require the sacrifice of an animal for mechanistic studies. Human, inducible
752:). However, it is debated whether bacteriophages should be classified as organisms, because they lack metabolism and depend on functions of the host cells for propagation.
2176:. “Dirty” mice are possibly better suitable for mimicking human pathologies. In addition, inbred mouse strains are used in the overwhelming majority of studies, while the
6598:
701:. The study of taxonomic human relatives, then, can provide a great deal of information about mechanism and disease within the human body that can be useful in medicine.
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398:
Research using animal models has been central to most of the achievements of modern medicine. It has contributed most of the basic knowledge in fields such as human
145:
Research using animal models has been central to most of the achievements of modern medicine. It has contributed most of the basic knowledge in fields such as human
2720:
Most of our basic knowledge of human biochemistry, physiology, endocrinology, and pharmacology has been derived from initial studies of mechanisms in animal models.
5824:
Harel, I.; Benayoun, B. R. N. A.; Machado, B.; Singh, P. P.; Hu, C. K.; Pech, M. F.; Valenzano, D. R.; Zhang, E.; Sharp, S. C.; Artandi, S. E.; Brunet, A. (2015).
5305:
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Glushakov, Alexander V.; Glushakova, Olena Y.; Doré, Sylvain; Carney, Paul R.; Hayes, Ronald L. (2016). "Animal Models of
Posttraumatic Seizures and Epilepsy".
1502:
The organisms below have become model organisms because they facilitate the study of certain characters or because of their genetic accessibility. For example,
1375:). Many inbred strains exist, as well as lines selected for particular traits, often of medical interest, e.g. body size, obesity, muscularity, and voluntary
2255:"Refinement" refers to efforts to make experimental design as painless and efficient as possible in order to minimize the suffering of each animal subject.
638:
Often, model organisms are chosen on the basis that they are amenable to experimental manipulation. This usually will include characteristics such as short
2659:
Animal studies have been an essential component of every field of medical research and have been crucial for the acquisition of basic knowledge in biology.
2225:
Many biomedical researchers argue that there is no substitute for a living organism when studying complex interactions in disease pathology or treatments.
3490:
AIDS Reviews 2005;7:67-83 Antiretroviral Drug
Studies in Nonhuman Primates: a Valid Animal Model for Innovative Drug Efficacy and Pathogenesis Experiments
4126:
J.; Bloom, E.; Bork, R. H.; Botcherby, M. C.; Bray, R. K.; Brent, S. P.; Brown, P.; Brown, E.; Bult, B.; Burton, T.; Butler, D. G.; et al. (2002).
6087:"PomBase 2018: user-driven reimplementation of the fission yeast database provides rapid and intuitive access to diverse, interconnected information"
519:. The vaccine, which was made publicly available in 1955, reduced the incidence of polio 15-fold in the United States over the following five years.
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2350:
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has many known and mapped mutants and expressed sequence tags, and there are advanced methods for genetic transformation and selection of genes.
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animal tissues, organs and even animal species which express human diseases, providing a more robust model of human diseases in an animal model.
2160:, which directly affects the immune system and the development of pathological conditions. Moreover, persistent virus infections (for example,
808:
is studied because it has very defined development patterns involving fixed numbers of cells, and it can be rapidly assayed for abnormalities.
2334:
3925:
448:
remains one of the most widely used eukaryotic model organisms. During the same time period, studies on mouse genetics in the laboratory of
2898:
1319:
is used for understanding the genetic control of development and physiology. It was first proposed as a model for neuronal development by
504:
and related compounds, were also developed through studies on model organisms, and are necessary for modern, complex surgical operations.
6502:
2476:"Evolutionary remnants as widely accessible evidence for evolution: the structure of the argument for application to evolution education"
2323:
5767:
Putnam, N. H.; Shu, S.; Blumberg, B.; Dana, C. E.; Gee, L.; Kibler, D. F.; Law, L.; Lindgens, D.; Martinez, D. E.; et al. (2010).
2423:
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gut bacterium which can be grown and cultured easily and inexpensively in a laboratory setting. It is the most widely used organism in
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factors that may lead to depression. By using animal models, the underlying molecular alterations and the causal relationship between
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2634:
2544:
917:
4763:"The development of an improved preclinical mouse model of intracerebral hemorrhage using double infusion of autologous whole blood"
2094:. This may confound their use to model human metabolic processes and diseases as these can be affected by dietary energy intake and
2345:
7079:
5719:"The state of the art of the zebrafish model for toxicology and toxicologic pathology research—advantages and current limitations"
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In 1987, Davidson et al. suggested that selection of an animal model for research be based on nine considerations. These include
2859:
2201:
which suggests that mice handled by men rather than women showed higher stress levels. Another study in 2016 suggested that gut
6606:
5578:"Mice selectively bred for high voluntary wheel running have larger midbrains: support for the mosaic model of brain evolution"
3942:"the work on [polio] prevention was long delayed by... misleading experimental models of the disease in monkeys" | ari.info
3941:
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6236:
Stefanidou, Maria (2014). "The use of the protozoan
Tetrahymena as a cell model". In Castillo, Victor; Harris, Rodney (eds.).
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Kehrer-Sawatzki, Hildegard; Cooper, David N. (2007-01-18). "Structural divergence between the human and chimpanzee genomes".
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6801:"Enhancer turnover is associated with a divergent transcriptional response to glucocorticoid in mouse and human macrophages"
496:'s research in guinea pigs discovered the anticonvulsant properties of lithium salts, which revolutionized the treatment of
367:(304–258 BCE) among the first to perform experiments on living animals. Discoveries in the 18th and 19th centuries included
5563:
4268:
Ventura, M.; Marques-Bonet, T.; Eichler, E. E.; André, C.; Atencia, R.; Mugisha, L.; Junhold, J. R.; Patterson, N. (2012).
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cell cycle, cytokinesis, chromosome biology, telomeres, DNA metabolism, cytoskeleton organization, industrial applications
1327:
was the first multicellular organism whose genome was completely sequenced, and as of 2012, the only organism to have its
7497:
6849:
6453:"Therapeutic modulation of eIF2α-phosphorylation rescues TDP-43 toxicity in amyotrophic lateral sclerosis disease models"
3686:
3131:
Kari, G; Rodeck, U; Dicker, A P (July 2007). "Zebrafish: An Emerging Model System for Human Disease and Drug Discovery".
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that can be reproduced independently and evaluated in animals. An ideal animal model offers an opportunity to understand
6982:
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Kim, H; Raphayel, A; LaDow, E; McGurk, L; Weber, R; Trojanowski, J; Lee, V; Finkbeiner, S; Gitler, A; Bonini, N (2014).
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3422:
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Pu, Ruiyu; Coleman, James; Coisman, James; Sato, Eiji; Tanabe, Taishi; Arai, Maki; Yamamoto, Janet K (February 2005).
2800:
2761:...without this fundamental knowledge, most of the clinical advances described in these pages would not have occurred.
110:
organism will provide insight into the workings of other organisms. Model organisms are widely used to research human
6202:
3629:
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585:
Models are those organisms with a wealth of biological data that make them attractive to study as examples for other
6549:"The Zebra Finch, Taeniopygia guttata: An Avian Model for Investigating the Neurobiological Basis of Vocal Learning"
677:, accessibility, manipulation, genetics, conservation of mechanisms, and potential economic benefit. As comparative
7050:
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1397:(African clawed frog) are used in developmental biology, cell biology, toxicology, and neuroscience. Likewise, the
927:
673:
When researchers look for an organism to use in their studies, they look for several traits. Among these are size,
500:, replacing the previous treatments of lobotomy or electroconvulsive therapy. Modern general anaesthetics, such as
4902:"A model for primitive neuroectodermal tumors in transgenic neural transplants harboring the SV40 large T antigen"
5582:
4534:"Clinical significance of animal seizure models and mechanism of action studies of potential antiepileptic drugs"
2303:
2275:
1801:
480:'s research in dogs, which determined that the isolates of pancreatic secretion could be used to treat dogs with
7102:
3995:
2523:
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Lieschke, Graham J.; Currie, Peter D. (May 2007). "Animal models of human disease: zebrafish swim into view".
2842:
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Lieschke, Graham J.; Currie, Peter D. (May 2007). "Animal models of human disease: zebrafish swim into view".
2082:
Many animal models serving as test subjects in biomedical research, such as rats and mice, may be selectively
7346:
7320:
6411:"Revisiting the sequencing of the first tree genome: Populus trichocarpa | Tree Physiology | Oxford Academic"
4985:
Homo-Delarche F, Drexhage HA (2004). "Immune cells, pancreas development, regeneration and type 1 diabetes".
2239:
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1849, which criminalized ill-treating, over-driving, and torturing animals. In 1876, under pressure from the
795:
is studied, again, because it is easy to grow for an animal, has various visible congenital traits and has a
552:
236:
17:
6553:
4720:
Leker, R. R.; Constantini, S. (2002). "Experimental Models in Focal Cerebral Ischemia: Are we there yet?".
4177:"Understanding the recent evolution of the human genome: Insights from human-chimpanzee genome comparisons"
3388:
remain necessary until science develops alternative models and systems that are equally sound and robust .
2242:) set standards for animal use and care in research. This law is enforced by APHIS's Animal Care program.
5559:
1815:
drought tolerance, lignin biosynthesis, wood formation, plant biology, morphology, genetics, and ecology
1133:
489:
7267:
5531:
4054:
Bejerano, G.; Pheasant, M.; Makunin, I.; Stephen, S.; Kent, W. J.; Mattick, J. S.; Haussler, D. (2004).
2776:
1219:), both of which share many characters with higher cells, including those of humans. For instance, many
527:
Other 20th-century medical advances and treatments that relied on research performed in animals include
195:
and its use in treating diabetes, which had previously meant death. Modern general anaesthetics such as
7312:
Mutant Mouse Resource & Research Centers, National Institutes of Health, supported Mouse Repository
6922:"The world's favourite lab animal has been found wanting, but there are new twists in the mouse's tale"
6136:"Hydrogen Production by a Chlamydomonas reinhardtii Strain with Inducible Expression of Photosystem II"
4467:
Davidson, M. K.; Lindsey, J. R.; Davis, J. K. (1987). "Requirements and selection of an animal model".
3415:
involvement of multiple tissue and organ systems in both normal and aberrant physiological conditions .
2318:
6503:
https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/biochemistry-genetics-and-molecular-biology/fundulus-heteroclitus
5576:
Kolb, E. M.; Rezende, E. L.; Holness, L.; Radtke, A.; Lee, S. K.; Obenaus, A.; Garland Jr, T. (2013).
4497:
Hughes, H. C.; Lang, C. (1978). "Basic Principles in Selecting Animal Species for Research Projects".
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or environmental alterations and depression can be examined, which would afford a better insight into
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Krishnan, Vaishnav; Nestler, Eric J. (2011). "Animal Models of Depression: Molecular Perspectives".
4083:
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Hedrich, Hans, ed. (2004-08-21). "The house mouse as a laboratory model: a historical perspective".
7674:
7544:
7404:
7339:
3323:...animal models are central to the effective study and discovery of treatments for human diseases.
3214:"Dual-subtype FIV vaccine (Fel-O-Vax® FIV) protection against a heterologous subtype B FIV isolate"
1921:
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294:
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2680:
Handbook of Laboratory Animal Science, Volume I, Third Edition: Essential Principles and Practices
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has become more common, some researchers have sought model organisms from a wider assortment of
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623:
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388:
40:
5826:"A Platform for Rapid Exploration of Aging and Diseases in a Naturally Short-Lived Vertebrate"
4368:"Budding Yeast for Budding Geneticists: A Primer on the Saccharomyces cerevisiae Model System"
2824:
7513:
6410:
4055:
2638:
2548:
2290:
1781:
1272:
799:(giant) chromosome in its salivary glands that can be examined under a light microscope. The
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244:
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131:
115:
3770:"Abbie Lathrop, the "Mouse Woman of Granby": Rodent Fancier and Accidental Genetics Pioneer"
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At present the use of animals remains the only way for some areas of research to progress.
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diseases for which there is no human analog and occur exclusively in the species studied.
826:
or injury that is similar to a human condition. These test conditions are often termed as
8:
7539:
7455:
7434:
2091:
2083:
2055:
1969:
1513:
1454:
1082:
978:
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913:
682:
444:
wrote that Morgan's discoveries "helped transform biology into an experimental science".
7222:
6754:
6645:
6278:
5993:
5784:
5490:
4630:"Levodopa-induced dyskinesia is strongly associated with resonant cortical oscillations"
4285:
4143:
4074:
3579:
3524:
3238:
3213:
2377:
Fields, S.; Johnston, M (2005-03-25). "CELL BIOLOGY: Whither Model Organism Research?".
730:, a common constituent of the human digestive system. Several of the bacterial viruses (
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7239:
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7188:
7163:
7150:
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Jubb, Alasdair W; Young, Robert S; Hume, David A; Bickmore, Wendy A (15 January 2016).
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50:
5115:"Using green fluorescent malaria parasites to screen for permissive vector mosquitoes"
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3489:
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Mice differ from humans in several immune properties: mice are more resistant to some
440:
became one of the first, and for some time the most widely used, model organisms, and
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5066:"Antimalarial activity of allicin, a biologically active compound from garlic cloves"
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5256:
Wang, Qingzhong; Timberlake, Matthew A.; Prall, Kevin; Dwivedi, Yogesh (July 2017).
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2177:
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1503:
1282:
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982:
736:
726:
704:
Various phylogenetic trees for vertebrates have been constructed using comparative
603:
528:
497:
461:
331:
278:
265:
201:
135:
35:
6514:
Siegfried, K.R. (2017). "Molecular and Chromosomal Aspects of Sex Determination".
6025:"Eat Prey, Live: Dictyostelium discoideum As a Model for Cell-Autonomous Defenses"
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3876:
6457:
6325:
4729:
4586:
4011:
Hedges, S. Blair (November 2002). "The origin and evolution of model organisms".
3999:
3981:
3929:
3496:
3395:
3370:
3306:
2905:
2884:
2863:
2703:
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2642:
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1770:
1197:
986:
909:
741:
698:
674:
336:
6705:
6688:
5273:
4383:
3015:
2152:(SPF) conditions usually have a rather immature immune system with a deficit of
539:
vaccine. Treatments for animal diseases have also been developed, including for
476:
Subsequent research in model organisms led to further medical advances, such as
7597:
7589:
7466:
6743:
Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America
5891:
5841:
5441:
3963:
3229:
3109:
2308:
2285:
2270:
2180:
is heterogeneous, pointing to the importance of studies in interstrain hybrid,
2153:
2049:
1459:
1393:
1347:
1320:
1238:
838:
536:
356:
209:
123:
7179:
6959:
6946:
6287:
6262:
5734:
5685:
5637:
5620:
4877:
4860:
4690:
4510:
4343:
4326:
4237:
3690:
3663:
3646:
3368:
2705:
Handbook of Laboratory Animal Science, Volume II, Third Edition: Animal Models
2492:
2475:
1323:
in 1963, and has been extensively used in many different contexts since then.
1176:), which has been intensively investigated for over 60 years. It is a common,
1035:
7668:
7583:
7534:
6816:
6377:
6304:
6041:
5899:
5209:. Current Topics in Behavioral Neurosciences. Vol. 7. pp. 121–147.
4998:
4391:
3423:"Statement of the Royal Society's position on the use of animals in research"
3082:
2524:"Statement of the Royal Society's position on the use of animals in research"
2161:
2133:
2009:
1437:
1428:
1376:
1290:
1220:
1193:
1185:
1109:
933:
731:
516:
453:
384:
326:
303:
30:
7268:
National Institutes of Health Comparative Medicine Program Vertebrate Models
6763:
6739:"Genomic responses in mouse models poorly mimic human inflammatory diseases"
6654:
5980:
Kassen, Rees (2009-06-24). "Toward a General Theory of Adaptive Radiation".
5475:"The structure of the nervous system of the nematode Caenorhabditis elegans"
4092:
3587:
3144:
2460:
2390:
1302:
and others. They are easily raised in the lab, with rapid generations, high
953:
induction by impairing the integrity of barrier tissues, administering live
7378:
7248:
7197:
7146:
6907:
6834:
6782:
6714:
6673:
6584:
6488:
6396:
6344:
6222:
6171:
6120:
6060:
6009:
5966:
5948:
5917:
5859:
5810:
5752:
5703:
5646:
5605:
5508:
5499:
5474:
5291:
5242:
5191:
5182:
5165:
5150:
5131:
5099:
5042:
5006:
4886:
4832:
4824:
4796:
4747:
4698:
4663:
4614:
4445:
4437:
4409:
4352:
4311:
4245:
4202:
4161:
4100:
4032:
3803:
3741:
3672:
3595:
3350:
3285:
3247:
3152:
3117:
2606:
2398:
2173:
1989:
1528:
1189:
1049:
1024:
950:
937:
901:
770:
745:
627:
599:
556:
520:
407:
403:
364:
340:
240:
154:
150:
85:
6566:
5459:
5214:
4963:
4927:
4555:
4480:
3785:
3540:
3465:
2442:
The Case for Animal Experimention: An Evolutionary and Ethical Perspective
822:
Animal models serving in research may have an existing, inbred or induced
7606:
7398:
6152:
6102:
4518:
3372:
Using Animal Models in Biomedical Research: A Primer for the Investigator
2218:
1887:
1532:
1371:
1366:
1100:. It is difficult to build an animal model that perfectly reproduces the
441:
376:
288:
184:
7482:
7054:
6888:
5792:
4293:
4152:
4127:
3952:
2445:. Berkeley and Los Angeles, California: University of California Press.
2132:; and lack genes for important components of the immune system, such as
7640:
7563:
7137:
7120:
6630:""Control" laboratory rodents are metabolically morbid: Why it matters"
5596:
4955:
4628:
Halje P, Tamtè M, Richter U, Mohammed M, Cenci MA, Petersson P (2012).
4193:
4176:
3457:
2202:
2157:
2125:
2114:
2106:
1491:
1423:
1358:
1354:
1328:
1307:
1278:
1234:
1163:
1121:
1089:
888:
846:
774:
705:
643:
532:
508:
469:
Iditarod race, which is modeled after the delivery of antitoxin in the
465:
433:
399:
372:
318:
220:
205:
180:
146:
43:
7205:
Lloyd, Kent; Franklin, Craig; Lutz, Cat; Magnuson, Terry (June 2015).
5937:
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences
4854:
4852:
4850:
492:) and its use in treating diabetes, which had previously meant death.
7461:
6689:"Of Mice and Not Men: Differences between Mouse and Human Immunology"
3992:
3532:
2117:
2066:
1907:
1565:
1479:
1467:
1398:
1303:
1204:
1137:
1129:
1113:
1093:
964:
954:
800:
756:
647:
607:
564:
511:
used rhesus monkey studies to isolate the most virulent forms of the
501:
493:
360:
248:
196:
139:
119:
96:
77:
7230:
6470:
4124:
3768:
Steensma, David P.; Kyle Robert A.; Shampo Marc A. (November 2010).
3767:
3342:
2598:
1508:
was one of the first organisms for which genetic techniques such as
7618:
7367:
5933:"Experimental evolution of viruses: Microviridae as a model system"
5577:
5335:
5332:"Chlamydomonas reinhardtii resources at the Joint Genome Institute"
4847:
4024:
2198:
2095:
1747:
1620:
1598:
1409:
1311:
1260:
1242:
1125:
1117:
1081:
that are genetically close to humans is allowing the production of
1074:
1039:
1028:
1021:
974:
876:
872:
834:
796:
766:
720:
There are many model organisms. One of the first model systems for
655:
615:
595:
573:
548:
299:
257:
232:
60:
6263:"Emiliania huxleyi specific growth rate dependence on temperature"
5113:
Frischknecht F, Martin B, Thiery I, Bourgouin C, Menard R (2006).
5034:
4724:. Acta Neurochirurgica. Supplement. Vol. 83. pp. 55–59.
4581:. Methods in Molecular Biology. Vol. 1462. pp. 481–519.
4270:"The bonobo genome compared with the chimpanzee and human genomes"
286:), a common constituent of the human digestive system. The mouse (
7623:
6357:
5112:
4327:"Research Techniques Made Simple: Animal Models of Wound Healing"
4128:"Initial sequencing and comparative analysis of the mouse genome"
3647:"Research Techniques Made Simple: Animal Models of Wound Healing"
2297:
2181:
1978:
1728:
1483:
1445:
1101:
1078:
905:
894:
to dopaminergic parts of the basal ganglia as an animal model of
823:
631:
611:
591:
586:
544:
485:
422:, and have benefited both humans and animals. From 1910 to 1927,
392:
228:
216:
192:
169:, and have benefited both humans and animals. From 1910 to 1927,
111:
103:
99:
7306:
7008:"Mouse microbes may make scientific studies harder to replicate"
5532:"The Connectome Debate: Is Mapping the Mind of a Worm Worth It?"
1408:
Other important model organisms and some of their uses include:
7524:
4366:
Duina, Andrea A.; Miller, Mary E.; Keeney, Jill B. (May 2014).
4325:
Grada, Ayman; Mervis, Joshua; Falanga, Vincent (October 2018).
3645:
Grada, Ayman; Mervis, Joshua; Falanga, Vincent (October 2018).
2644:
Use of Laboratory Animals in Biomedical and Behavioral Research
2554:
Use of Laboratory Animals in Biomedical and Behavioral Research
2355:
2169:
2102:
1998:
1873:
1853:
1642:
1520:
1487:
1344:
1224:
1070:
1002:
996:
958:
946:
740:
also have been very useful for the study of gene structure and
540:
335:
also have been very useful for the study of gene structure and
224:
5560:
About Arabidopsis on The Arabidopsis Information Resource page
5262:
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4053:
3564:
3510:
3272:
Dryden, MW; Payne, PA (2005). "Preventing parasites in cats".
7573:
7421:
5765:
4576:
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2141:
2137:
2110:
2087:
1703:
1684:
1664:
1573:
1419:
1159:
1008:
782:
778:
512:
269:
107:
106:
phenomena, with the expectation that discoveries made in the
7292:
6189:. Methods in Cell Biology. Vol. 109. pp. 411–430.
4940:
3899:"Tireless polio research effort bears fruit and indignation"
3396:"The contribution of laboratory animals to medical progress"
7578:
7278:
National Institutes of Health Model Organism Sharing Policy
6309:"The Scale of Population Structure in Arabidopsis thaliana"
6134:
Batyrova, Khorcheska; Hallenbeck, Patrick C. (2017-03-16).
5876:"Infection and Rapid Transmission of SARS-CoV-2 in Ferrets"
5063:
4811:
intracerebral hemorrhage using autologous blood infusion".
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2038:
2018:
1958:
1938:
1916:
1896:
1833:
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1790:
881:
Induction of mechanical brain injury as an animal model of
842:
7103:
list of common model organisms approved for use by the NIH
6084:
5255:
5019:
3687:"Pinel Chapter 6 - Human Brain Damage & Animal Models"
3393:
2701:
2676:
7311:
7287:
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7033:"FDA: Why are animals used for testing medical products?"
6735:
5823:
4627:
4422:
3420:
2521:
2172:
complications and may change the resistance to bacterial
1471:
1449:
1441:
845:
in laboratory animals can be used to screen and test new
765:("baker's" or "budding" yeast), have been widely used in
7301:
6687:
Mestas, Javier; Hughes, Christopher C. W. (March 2004).
6184:
6022:
5575:
5349:
4809:
4266:
3873:"Developing a medical milestone: The Salk polio vaccine"
2985:
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1858:
developmental biology, human brain degenerative disease
6872:"Unbridle biomedical research from the laboratory cage"
6627:
5397:. Plainview, N.Y: Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory Press.
4899:
3199:. William Wood and Co., 1904, Edited by Albert H. Buck.
2857:
Walter B. Cannon Papers, American Philosophical Society
2825:"Genes, Chromosomes, and the Origins of Modern Biology"
773:, largely because they are quick and easy to grow. The
7316:
7164:"The Future of Cell Biology: Emerging Model Organisms"
7121:"Models: stretching the skills of cell lines and mice"
6450:
2971:
vol 3, ed Parnham & Bruinvels, Elsevier, Amsterdam
614:. Inquiries about the DNA of organisms are classed as
7361:
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NIH Model Organism Research Reproducibility and Rigor
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6238:
Protozoa: Biology, Classification and Role in Disease
4984:
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2736:
2205:
in mice may have an impact upon scientific research.
858:
ecological consequences, and 9) ethical implications.
406:, and has played significant roles in fields such as
153:, and has played significant roles in fields such as
102:
that is extensively studied to understand particular
5364:. USA: Fitzroy Dearborn Publishers, I. p. 157.
5258:"The recent progress in animal models of depression"
4466:
3443:
3211:
3095:
2474:
Allmon, Warren D.; Ross, Robert M. (December 2018).
1298:
is famous as the subject of genetics experiments by
692:
6794:
6792:
5931:Wichman, Holly A.; Brown, Celeste J. (2010-08-27).
5618:
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6301:
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5207:Molecular and Functional Models in Neuropsychiatry
5064:Coppi A, Cabinian M, Mirelman D, Sinnis P (2006).
4324:
3644:
3560:
3558:
2738:
602:, down to the tiny functional scale of individual
414:. For example, the results have included the near-
5390:
5166:"Discovering endophenotypes for major depression"
4900:Eibl RH, Kleihues P, Jat PS, Wiestler OD (1994).
4365:
2947:
2945:
2771:
2769:
618:models (with short generation times, such as the
126:of all living organisms, and the conservation of
7666:
7273:NIH Using Model Organisms to Study Human Disease
6789:
4719:
4120:
4118:
3130:
2777:"The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1933"
1104:of depression in patients. Depression, as other
6983:"Male Scent May Compromise Biomedical Research"
6851:The inescapable problem of lab animal restraint
6634:Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences
6628:Martin B, Ji S, Maudsley S, Mattson MP (2010).
6423:
5716:
5667:
5204:
3555:
3304:
3025:
3023:
2963:
2961:
2915:
2913:
2894:
2892:
2351:Mouse model of colorectal and intestinal cancer
2156:. These mice may have limited diversity of the
1310:, and easily induced observable mutations. The
1223:genes that are critical for the development of
1184:, and is an important species in the fields of
7288:Disease Animal Models – BSRC Alexander Fleming
7162:Goldstein, Bob; King, Nicole (November 2016).
6361:"Stable Protein Sialylation in Physcomitrella"
6303:Rivero, Luz; Scholl, Randy; Nordborg, Magnus;
4760:
3506:
3504:
3328:
3039:
3037:
2942:
2766:
2584:
2376:
27:Organisms used to study biology across species
7498:
7347:
7263:Wellcome Trust description of model organisms
7161:
5355:
5157:
4492:
4490:
4115:
4056:"Ultraconserved Elements in the Human Genome"
3619:
3267:
3265:
2995:
2993:
2931:
2929:
2852:
2850:
2819:
2817:
1237:with well-studied genetics, is used to study
355:The use of animals in research dates back to
6686:
5930:
5872:
5619:Wallingford, J.; Liu, K.; Zheng, Y. (2010).
5106:
5057:
5013:
4978:
4803:
4754:
4713:
4670:
4621:
3713:
3439:
3437:
3308:Animal Models for the Study of Human Disease
3197:A reference handbook of the medical sciences
3192:
3190:
3020:
2979:
2977:
2958:
2910:
2889:
2580:
2578:
2023:embryological development and organogenesis
1143:
183:as the vector of inheritance for genes, and
6605:. Genome Web. 29 April 2010. Archived from
6240:. Nova Science Publishers. pp. 69–88.
6140:International Journal of Molecular Sciences
5612:
4579:Injury Models of the Central Nervous System
4525:
4175:Kehrer-Sawatzki, H.; Cooper, D. N. (2007).
3501:
3485:
3483:
3271:
3188:
3186:
3184:
3182:
3180:
3178:
3176:
3174:
3172:
3170:
3034:
1497:
7505:
7491:
7354:
7340:
6944:
6426:"Parkinson's Disease Mechanism Discovered"
6235:
5982:Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences
4496:
4487:
3858:Whalen FX, Bacon DR & Smith HM (2005)
3852:
3615:
3613:
3262:
3055:
3053:
2990:
2926:
2873:
2871:
2847:
2814:
2732:
2730:
2669:
2667:
2473:
1452:(respiratory and cardiovascular systems),
1088:Animal models observed in the sciences of
875:(pentylenetetrazol) as an animal model of
833:The best models of disease are similar in
7512:
7238:
7187:
7136:
6958:
6897:
6887:
6824:
6772:
6762:
6704:
6663:
6653:
6574:
6513:
6478:
6386:
6376:
6334:
6324:
6286:
6212:
6161:
6151:
6110:
6050:
6040:
5956:
5907:
5849:
5800:
5742:
5693:
5636:
5595:
5498:
5449:
5281:
5232:
5181:
5140:
5130:
5089:
4917:
4876:
4861:"Mouse Models of Sepsis and Septic Shock"
4786:
4653:
4604:
4545:
4399:
4342:
4301:
4192:
4151:
4082:
3793:
3719:
3662:
3434:
3421:Royal Society of Medicine (24 May 2023).
3297:
3295:
3237:
3207:
3205:
2974:
2838:
2836:
2795:
2793:
2629:
2627:
2575:
2522:Royal Society of Medicine (13 May 2015).
2517:
2515:
2513:
2511:
2491:
1154:Model organisms are drawn from all three
918:Experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis
264:Model organisms are drawn from all three
6260:
5479:Philos. Trans. R. Soc. Lond. B Biol. Sci
5358:"Drosophila melanogaster: The Fruit Fly"
4531:
3825:. Harvard Medical School. Archived from
3761:
3480:
3167:
3133:Clinical Pharmacology & Therapeutics
3011:
3009:
2647:. National Academies Press. p. 27.
2557:. National Academies Press. p. 37.
2539:
2537:
2346:Mouse models of breast cancer metastasis
1458:(aging), non-human primates such as the
1277:
1136:are indispensable for identifying novel
436:as the vector of inheritance for genes.
122:. This strategy is made possible by the
66:
49:
29:
6501:Non-Mammalian Hormone-Behavior Systems
5661:
5555:
5553:
5551:
5417:
4858:
4722:Research and Publishing in Neurosurgery
3610:
3050:
2868:
2727:
2664:
1647:immunology, host–pathogen interactions
1331:(neuronal "wiring diagram") completed.
642:, techniques for genetic manipulation (
14:
7667:
6869:
6847:
5979:
5668:Harland, R.M.; Grainger, R.M. (2011).
5163:
4676:
4426:Regulatory Toxicology and Pharmacology
4010:
3292:
3218:Journal of Feline Medicine and Surgery
3202:
2833:
2790:
2624:
2508:
2164:) are activated in humans, but not in
515:virus, which led to his creation of a
76:, one of the most intensively studied
59:, one of the most famous subjects for
7486:
7335:
7068:British animal protection legislation
6947:"Male researchers stress out rodents"
6546:
6074:Fission Yeast GO slim terms | PomBase
5472:
3394:Jann Hau; Steven J. Schapiro (2011).
3072:
3006:
2702:Jann Hau; Steven J. Schapiro (2011).
2677:Jann Hau; Steven J. Schapiro (2011).
2534:
1011:to test and develop treatments using
781:is very similar to the cell cycle in
325:). Several of the bacterial viruses (
272:. One of the first model systems for
161:. The results have included the near-
7283:Why are Animals Used in NIH Research
7118:
6599:"JGI-Led Team Sequences Frog Genome"
6307:; Borevitz, Justin O. (2010-02-12).
5548:
5529:
5308:. Microbiologyonline. Archived from
4331:Journal of Investigative Dermatology
3651:Journal of Investigative Dermatology
3124:
2745:. National Academies Press. p.
531:techniques, the heart-lung machine,
484:. This led to the 1922 discovery of
204:techniques, the heart-lung machine,
3720:Mock M, Fouet A (2001). "Anthrax".
3689:. Academic.uprm.edu. Archived from
3089:
2801:"Thomas Hunt Morgan and his Legacy"
2438:
24:
7654:Evolutionary developmental biology
7317:Rat Resource & Research Center
7112:
6524:10.1016/B978-0-12-809633-8.03245-3
6261:Fielding, Samuel R. (March 2013).
6195:10.1016/B978-0-12-385967-9.00016-5
4859:Korneev, K. V. (18 October 2019).
4547:10.1111/j.1528-1157.1997.tb04523.x
4469:Israel Journal of Medical Sciences
3819:"History of Immunology at Harvard"
3816:
3375:. World Scientific. pp. 1–2.
2967:Woodruff H & Burg R (1986) in
2300:genome database of model organisms
2187:
1263:, and is studied as an example of
25:
7691:
7256:
6848:Lahvis, Garet (5 December 2019),
6516:Reference Module in Life Sciences
6432:. Howard Hughes Medical Institute
4761:Wang J, Fields J, Doré S (2008).
2480:Evolution: Education and Outreach
2358:- the Reference Sequence database
2236:National Anti-Vivisection Society
2148:, etc. Laboratory mice reared in
1285:, widely used in medical research
1069:The increase in knowledge of the
811:
693:Phylogeny and genetic relatedness
7096:
7085:
7073:
7061:
7043:
7025:
7000:
6975:
6938:
6914:
6863:
6841:
6729:
6680:
6621:
6591:
6540:
6507:
6495:
6444:
6417:
6403:
6351:
6295:
6254:
6229:
6178:
6127:
6078:
6067:
6016:
6002:10.1111/j.1749-6632.2009.04574.x
5973:
5924:
5717:Spitsbergen JM, Kent ML (2003).
3860:Best Pract Res Clin Anaesthesiol
3059:Medical Research Council (1956)
2120:capacity, lower activity of the
2105:than humans; have a lower total
1963:fish biology, sex determination
1669:cell division, organelles, etc.
1343:was the first plant to have its
6945:Katsnelson, Alla (2014-04-28).
5866:
5817:
5759:
5710:
5583:Journal of Experimental Biology
5569:
5523:
5466:
5411:
5384:
5324:
5298:
5249:
5198:
5082:10.1128/AAC.50.5.1731-1737.2006
4934:
4893:
4570:
4460:
4416:
4359:
4318:
4260:
4217:
4168:
4047:
4004:
3986:
3968:
3957:
3946:
3935:
3917:
3891:
3865:
3841:
3823:Harvard Medical School:About us
3810:
3748:
3704:
3679:
3638:
3305:P. Michael Conn (29 May 2013).
3075:Essential Developmental Biology
3066:
2304:Generic Model Organism Database
2276:Animal testing on invertebrates
2208:
1733:education, biomedical research
1603:bacterial genetics, metabolism
1523:of all model species have been
1227:have been discovered in yeast.
928:animal model of ischemic stroke
759:, several yeasts, particularly
7302:Knock Out Mouse Project – KOMP
5473:White, J; et al. (1986).
4779:10.1016/j.brainres.2008.05.058
4646:10.1523/JNEUROSCI.3047-12.2012
3734:10.1146/annurev.micro.55.1.647
3311:. Academic Press. p. 37.
3073:Slack, Jonathan M. W. (2013).
2741:Science, Medicine, and Animals
2737:Institute of Medicine (1991).
2467:
2432:
2413:
2370:
2077:
1922:effect of hormones on behavior
1625:evolution, adaptive radiation
1196:for the majority of work with
1038:of drugs for the treatment of
383:was a form of combustion, and
13:
1:
7321:National Institutes of Health
5769:"The dynamic genome of Hydra"
5360:. In Eric C. R. Reeve (ed.).
3888:Virus-typing of polio by Salk
2363:
2240:Laboratory Animal Welfare Act
2043:vocal learning, neurobiology
1838:differentiation, development
1192:, where it has served as the
1001:Using gene transfer to cause
553:feline immunodeficiency virus
237:feline immunodeficiency virus
6554:Cold Spring Harbor Protocols
6326:10.1371/journal.pgen.1000843
5070:Antimicrob. Agents Chemother
4730:10.1007/978-3-7091-6743-4_10
4587:10.1007/978-1-4939-3816-2_27
1132:of depression. In addition,
580:
7:
6706:10.4049/jimmunol.172.5.2731
5530:Jabr, Ferris (2012-10-02).
5274:10.1016/j.pnpbp.2017.04.008
4424:in Humans and in Animals".
4384:10.1534/genetics.114.163188
3077:. Oxford: Wiley-Blackwell.
2969:Discoveries in Pharmacology
2883:September 30, 2009, at the
2439:Fox, Michael Allen (1986).
2258:
1983:reptile biology, evolution
1418:(intracellular processes),
1134:animal models of depression
1061:as a model of human malaria
426:'s work with the fruit fly
173:'s work with the fruit fly
10:
7696:
7323:, supported Rat Repository
7119:Marx, Vivien (June 2014).
6547:Mello, Claudio V. (2014).
6365:Frontiers in Plant Science
6267:Limnology and Oceanography
5892:10.1016/j.chom.2020.03.023
5842:10.1016/j.cell.2015.01.038
5391:Riddle, Donald L. (1997).
4540:. 38 Suppl 1 (s1): S9–17.
3953:PMPA blocks SIV in monkeys
3495:December 17, 2008, at the
3230:10.1016/j.jfms.2004.08.005
3110:10.2174/138920009787522197
2319:History of model organisms
1943:aging, disease, evolution
1162:. The most widely studied
1147:
1034:Various animal models for
932:Injection of blood in the
815:
460:In the late 19th century,
350:
191:and the 1922 discovery of
7649:
7520:
7374:
7297:National Cancer Institute
7180:10.1016/j.tcb.2016.08.005
6960:10.1038/nature.2014.15106
6693:The Journal of Immunology
6288:10.4319/lo.2013.58.2.0663
5735:10.1080/01926230390174959
5686:10.1016/j.tig.2011.08.003
5638:10.1016/j.cub.2010.01.012
4878:10.1134/S0026893319050108
4691:10.1007/s10787-007-1607-z
4511:10.3109/15563657808988266
4344:10.1016/j.jid.2018.08.005
4238:10.1007/s00439-006-0270-6
3980:October 28, 2006, at the
3975:What are model organisms?
3664:10.1016/j.jid.2018.08.005
2635:National Research Council
2545:National Research Council
2493:10.1186/s12052-017-0075-1
2463:– via Google Books.
2314:History of animal testing
2281:Animal testing on rodents
2228:
2124:, and a different set of
2003:disease model for humans
1882:
1819:
1756:
1696:Chlamydomonas reinhardtii
1676:Schizosaccharomyces pombe
1629:
1582:
1289:Among invertebrates, the
1230:Chlamydomonas reinhardtii
1216:Schizosaccharomyces pombe
1144:Important model organisms
1098:animal models of behavior
6870:Lahvis, Garet P (2017).
6817:10.4049/jimmunol.1502009
6378:10.3389/fpls.2020.610032
6042:10.3389/fimmu.2017.01906
5442:10.1093/genetics/77.1.71
5362:Encyclopedia of genetics
4999:10.1016/j.it.2004.02.012
3998:August 22, 2007, at the
3932:History of polio vaccine
2862:August 14, 2009, at the
2708:. CRC Press. p. 1.
2683:. CRC Press. p. 2.
2419:Griffiths, E. C. (2010)
1865:Callosobruchus maculatus
1752:surface sea temperature
1654:Saccharomyces cerevisiae
1635:Dictyostelium discoideum
1630:Eukaryotes, unicellular
1554:Informal classification
1537:Model organism databases
1498:Selected model organisms
1252:Dictyostelium discoideum
1210:Saccharomyces cerevisiae
1007:Implanting animals with
828:animal models of disease
789:proteins. The fruit fly
762:Saccharomyces cerevisiae
577:model system available.
387:'s demonstration of the
295:Saccharomyces cerevisiae
261:model system available.
73:Saccharomyces cerevisiae
6764:10.1073/pnas.1222878110
6655:10.1073/pnas.0912955107
6187:Tetrahymena Thermophila
6029:Frontiers in Immunology
5880:Cell Host & Microbe
5170:Neuropsychopharmacology
4634:Journal of Neuroscience
4093:10.1126/science.1098119
4013:Nature Reviews Genetics
3774:Mayo Clinic Proceedings
3588:10.1126/science.1089610
3331:Nature Reviews Genetics
3274:Veterinary Therapeutics
3145:10.1038/sj.clpt.6100223
3098:Current Drug Metabolism
2587:Nature Reviews Genetics
2426:March 12, 2012, at the
2391:10.1126/science.1108872
2035:Australian zebra finch
1845:Drosophila melanogaster
1820:Animals, nonvertebrate
1715:Tetrahymena thermophila
1610:Pseudomonas fluorescens
1415:Tetrahymena thermophila
1295:Drosophila melanogaster
1207:include baker's yeast (
1150:List of model organisms
973:Injecting animals with
963:Infecting animals with
883:post-traumatic epilepsy
792:Drosophila melanogaster
429:Drosophila melanogaster
418:and the development of
308:Drosophila melanogaster
176:Drosophila melanogaster
165:and the development of
118:would be unfeasible or
56:Drosophila melanogaster
7588:Indirect development:
7168:Trends in Cell Biology
6091:Nucleic Acids Research
5949:10.1098/rstb.2010.0053
5500:10.1098/rstb.1986.0056
5422:Caenorhabditis elegans
5356:James H. Sang (2001).
5183:10.1038/sj.npp.1300506
5132:10.1186/1475-2875-5-23
4825:10.1038/nprot.2007.513
4438:10.1006/rtph.2000.1399
2843:Bering Nobel Biography
2673:Hau and Shapiro 2011:
2340:Caenorhabditis elegans
2184:, and nonlinear mice.
2150:specific-pathogen-free
2071:embryonic development
2030:Taeniopygia castanotis
1930:Nothobranchius furzeri
1901:embryonic development
1878:developmental biology
1825:Caenorhabditis elegans
1455:Nothobranchius furzeri
1316:Caenorhabditis elegans
1286:
1083:genetically engineered
924:middle cerebral artery
860:
805:Caenorhabditis elegans
715:
650:lines, and methods of
559:, Texas cattle fever,
471:1925 serum run to Nome
452:in collaboration with
389:germ theory of disease
311:, the flowering plant
243:, Texas cattle fever,
88:
64:
47:
7514:Developmental biology
7307:Mouse Biology Program
6953:: nature.2014.15106.
6805:Journal of Immunology
6567:10.1101/pdb.emo084574
5215:10.1007/7854_2010_108
4944:Acta Neuropathologica
3849:John Cade and Lithium
3786:10.4065/mcp.2010.0647
2639:Institute of Medicine
2549:Institute of Medicine
2291:Mycoplasma genitalium
1908:Fundulus heteroclitus
1782:Physcomitrella patens
1281:
1273:programmed cell death
1213:) and fission yeast (
1020:selected (such as in
855:
561:classical swine fever
450:William Ernest Castle
420:organ transplantation
245:classical swine fever
215:In researching human
167:organ transplantation
116:human experimentation
70:
53:
33:
6153:10.3390/ijms18030647
4679:Inflammopharmacology
4337:(10): 2095–2105.e1.
3722:Annu. Rev. Microbiol
3657:(10): 2095–2105.e1.
3624:. Elsevier Science.
3622:The Laboratory Mouse
2987:. Saunders, New York
2951:Williamson C (1926)
2878:Discovery of Insulin
2823:Kandel, Eric. 1999.
2329:Arabidopsis thaliana
2130:inflammatory process
2063:Western clawed frog
1935:Turquoise killifish
1883:Animals, vertebrate
1830:Nematode, Roundworm
1787:Spreading earthmoss
1775:population genetics
1762:Arabidopsis thaliana
1708:hydrogen production
1516:has been developed.
1514:genetic manipulation
1336:Arabidopsis thaliana
1158:of life, as well as
818:Animal disease model
785:and is regulated by
569:parasitic infections
416:eradication of polio
314:Arabidopsis thaliana
268:of life, as well as
253:parasitic infections
189:diphtheria antitoxin
163:eradication of polio
7435:Medicago truncatula
7223:2015Natur.522..151L
6889:10.7554/eLife.27438
6755:2013PNAS..110.3507S
6646:2010PNAS..107.6127M
6279:2013LimOc..58..663F
5994:2009NYASA1168....3K
5943:(1552): 2495–2501.
5793:10.1038/nature08830
5785:2010Natur.464..592C
5536:Scientific American
5491:1986RSPTB.314....1W
5418:Brenner, S (1974).
5312:on 27 February 2014
5164:Hasler, G. (2004).
4499:Clinical Toxicology
4294:10.1038/nature11128
4286:2012Natur.486..527P
4153:10.1038/nature01262
4144:2002Natur.420..520W
4075:2004Sci...304.1321B
4069:(5675): 1321–1325.
3993:NIH model organisms
3829:on 20 December 2013
3580:2003Sci...302.1984L
3525:1994Natur.368..744J
2385:(5717): 1885–1886.
2335:History of research
2324:History of research
2288:(numerical), e.g.,
2061:African clawed frog
1970:Anolis carolinensis
1955:Japanese rice fish
1802:Populus trichocarpa
1476:Parkinson's disease
1444:(neurophysiology),
1412:(viral infection),
1379:behavior. The rat (
985:to reproduce human
969:infectious diseases
967:to reproduce human
914:autoimmune diseases
896:Parkinson's disease
391:in the 1880s using
138:over the course of
80:model organisms in
7603:Direct development
7594:Hypermetamorphosis
7138:10.1038/nmeth.2966
6103:10.1093/nar/gky961
5674:Trends in Genetics
5597:10.1242/jeb.076000
4956:10.1007/bf00228580
4194:10.1002/humu.20420
3928:2011-06-04 at the
3458:10.1038/nm0798-827
2937:Surg. Gynec. Obst.
2919:Raventos J (1956)
2904:2009-02-10 at the
2092:glucose intolerant
2056:Xenopus tropicalis
1795:molecular farming
1527:, including their
1388:Xenopus tropicalis
1300:Thomas Hunt Morgan
1287:
1265:cell communication
1182:molecular genetics
1166:model organism is
1046:ovariectomized rat
1013:ionizing radiation
993:ionizing radiation
942:hemorrhagic stroke
724:was the bacterium
424:Thomas Hunt Morgan
412:infectious disease
363:(384–322 BCE) and
276:was the bacterium
171:Thomas Hunt Morgan
159:infectious disease
89:
65:
48:
7662:
7661:
7480:
7479:
7217:(7555): 151–153.
6640:(14): 6127–6133.
6609:on August 7, 2011
6561:(12): 1237–1242.
6533:978-0-12-809633-8
6247:978-1-62417-073-7
6097:(D1): D821–D827.
5886:(5): 704–709.e2.
5779:(7288): 592–596.
5420:"The Genetics of
5404:978-0-87969-532-3
5371:978-1-884964-34-3
5224:978-3-642-19702-4
5176:(10): 1765–1781.
4865:Molecular Biology
4739:978-3-7091-7399-2
4596:978-1-4939-3814-8
4532:White HS (1997).
4280:(7404): 527–531.
4138:(6915): 520–562.
3964:PMPA is tenofovir
3519:(6473): 744–746.
3409:978-1-4200-8456-6
3382:978-981-281-202-5
3318:978-0-12-415912-9
3043:Fleming A (1929)
2999:Gibbon JH (1937)
2829:Columbia Magazine
2756:978-0-309-56994-1
2715:978-1-4200-8458-0
2690:978-1-4200-8456-6
2452:978-0-520-05501-8
2195:McGill University
2122:complement system
2075:
2074:
1740:Emiliania huxleyi
1557:Usage (examples)
1382:Rattus norvegicus
1257:molecular biology
1096:are often termed
1058:Plasmodium yoelii
983:neurotransmitters
922:Occlusion of the
892:6-hydroxydopamine
887:Injection of the
722:molecular biology
679:molecular biology
478:Frederick Banting
369:Antoine Lavoisier
274:molecular biology
16:(Redirected from
7687:
7507:
7500:
7493:
7484:
7483:
7356:
7349:
7342:
7333:
7332:
7252:
7242:
7201:
7191:
7158:
7140:
7106:
7100:
7094:
7092:NIH need-to-know
7089:
7083:
7077:
7071:
7065:
7059:
7058:
7053:. Archived from
7047:
7041:
7040:
7029:
7023:
7022:
7020:
7019:
7004:
6998:
6997:
6995:
6994:
6979:
6973:
6972:
6962:
6942:
6936:
6935:
6933:
6932:
6918:
6912:
6911:
6901:
6891:
6867:
6861:
6860:
6859:
6858:
6845:
6839:
6838:
6828:
6796:
6787:
6786:
6776:
6766:
6749:(9): 3507–3512.
6733:
6727:
6726:
6708:
6699:(5): 2731–2738.
6684:
6678:
6677:
6667:
6657:
6625:
6619:
6618:
6616:
6614:
6595:
6589:
6588:
6578:
6544:
6538:
6537:
6511:
6505:
6499:
6493:
6492:
6482:
6448:
6442:
6441:
6439:
6437:
6421:
6415:
6414:
6407:
6401:
6400:
6390:
6380:
6355:
6349:
6348:
6338:
6328:
6299:
6293:
6292:
6290:
6258:
6252:
6251:
6233:
6227:
6226:
6216:
6182:
6176:
6175:
6165:
6155:
6131:
6125:
6124:
6114:
6082:
6076:
6071:
6065:
6064:
6054:
6044:
6020:
6014:
6013:
5977:
5971:
5970:
5960:
5928:
5922:
5921:
5911:
5870:
5864:
5863:
5853:
5821:
5815:
5814:
5804:
5763:
5757:
5756:
5746:
5729:(Suppl): 62–87.
5714:
5708:
5707:
5697:
5665:
5659:
5658:
5640:
5616:
5610:
5609:
5599:
5573:
5567:
5557:
5546:
5545:
5543:
5542:
5527:
5521:
5520:
5502:
5470:
5464:
5463:
5453:
5415:
5409:
5408:
5388:
5382:
5381:
5379:
5378:
5353:
5347:
5346:
5344:
5343:
5334:. Archived from
5328:
5322:
5321:
5319:
5317:
5302:
5296:
5295:
5285:
5253:
5247:
5246:
5236:
5202:
5196:
5195:
5185:
5161:
5155:
5154:
5144:
5134:
5110:
5104:
5103:
5093:
5061:
5055:
5054:
5017:
5011:
5010:
4982:
4976:
4975:
4938:
4932:
4931:
4921:
4897:
4891:
4890:
4880:
4856:
4845:
4844:
4813:Nature Protocols
4807:
4801:
4800:
4790:
4758:
4752:
4751:
4717:
4711:
4710:
4674:
4668:
4667:
4657:
4640:(47): 16541–51.
4625:
4619:
4618:
4608:
4574:
4568:
4567:
4549:
4529:
4523:
4522:
4494:
4485:
4484:
4464:
4458:
4457:
4420:
4414:
4413:
4403:
4363:
4357:
4356:
4346:
4322:
4316:
4315:
4305:
4264:
4258:
4257:
4221:
4215:
4214:
4196:
4172:
4166:
4165:
4155:
4122:
4113:
4112:
4086:
4060:
4051:
4045:
4044:
4008:
4002:
3990:
3984:
3972:
3966:
3961:
3955:
3950:
3944:
3939:
3933:
3921:
3915:
3914:Salk polio virus
3913:
3911:
3910:
3901:. Archived from
3895:
3889:
3887:
3885:
3884:
3875:. Archived from
3869:
3863:
3856:
3850:
3845:
3839:
3838:
3836:
3834:
3814:
3808:
3807:
3797:
3765:
3759:
3756:Lords of the Fly
3752:
3746:
3745:
3717:
3711:
3708:
3702:
3701:
3699:
3698:
3683:
3677:
3676:
3666:
3642:
3636:
3635:
3617:
3608:
3607:
3574:(5652): 1984–8.
3562:
3553:
3552:
3533:10.1038/368744a0
3508:
3499:
3487:
3478:
3477:
3441:
3432:
3429:
3417:
3390:
3365:
3325:
3299:
3290:
3289:
3269:
3260:
3259:
3241:
3209:
3200:
3194:
3165:
3164:
3128:
3122:
3121:
3093:
3087:
3086:
3070:
3064:
3057:
3048:
3041:
3032:
3027:
3018:
3017:Hinshaw obituary
3013:
3004:
2997:
2988:
2981:
2972:
2965:
2956:
2949:
2940:
2935:Carrel A (1912)
2933:
2924:
2917:
2908:
2899:Thompson bio ref
2896:
2887:
2875:
2866:
2854:
2845:
2840:
2831:
2821:
2812:
2811:
2809:
2808:
2797:
2788:
2787:
2785:
2784:
2773:
2764:
2763:
2744:
2734:
2725:
2722:
2698:
2671:
2662:
2661:
2631:
2622:
2621:
2582:
2573:
2572:
2541:
2532:
2531:
2519:
2506:
2505:
2495:
2471:
2465:
2464:
2436:
2430:
2421:What is a model?
2417:
2411:
2410:
2374:
2266:Animals in space
2199:Montreal, Canada
2178:human population
2128:involved in the
2109:fraction in the
1588:Escherichia coli
1543:
1542:
1233:, a unicellular
1169:Escherichia coli
1140:for depression.
1106:mental disorders
987:mental disorders
727:Escherichia coli
529:organ transplant
498:bipolar disorder
462:Emil von Behring
279:Escherichia coli
202:organ transplant
136:genetic material
36:Escherichia coli
21:
7695:
7694:
7690:
7689:
7688:
7686:
7685:
7684:
7675:Model organisms
7665:
7664:
7663:
7658:
7645:
7614:Model organisms
7516:
7511:
7481:
7476:
7370:
7364:model organisms
7360:
7259:
7231:10.1038/522151a
7174:(11): 818–824.
7115:
7113:Further reading
7110:
7109:
7101:
7097:
7090:
7086:
7078:
7074:
7066:
7062:
7049:
7048:
7044:
7031:
7030:
7026:
7017:
7015:
7006:
7005:
7001:
6992:
6990:
6981:
6980:
6976:
6943:
6939:
6930:
6928:
6920:
6919:
6915:
6868:
6864:
6856:
6854:
6846:
6842:
6797:
6790:
6734:
6730:
6685:
6681:
6626:
6622:
6612:
6610:
6597:
6596:
6592:
6545:
6541:
6534:
6512:
6508:
6500:
6496:
6471:10.1038/ng.2853
6458:Nature Genetics
6449:
6445:
6435:
6433:
6430:Science Express
6422:
6418:
6409:
6408:
6404:
6356:
6352:
6319:(2): e1000843.
6300:
6296:
6259:
6255:
6248:
6234:
6230:
6205:
6183:
6179:
6132:
6128:
6083:
6079:
6072:
6068:
6021:
6017:
5978:
5974:
5929:
5925:
5871:
5867:
5822:
5818:
5764:
5760:
5715:
5711:
5666:
5662:
5625:Current Biology
5617:
5613:
5574:
5570:
5558:
5549:
5540:
5538:
5528:
5524:
5485:(1165): 1–340.
5471:
5467:
5416:
5412:
5405:
5389:
5385:
5376:
5374:
5372:
5354:
5350:
5341:
5339:
5330:
5329:
5325:
5315:
5313:
5304:
5303:
5299:
5254:
5250:
5225:
5203:
5199:
5162:
5158:
5111:
5107:
5062:
5058:
5023:Nature Medicine
5018:
5014:
4983:
4979:
4939:
4935:
4898:
4894:
4857:
4848:
4808:
4804:
4759:
4755:
4740:
4718:
4714:
4675:
4671:
4626:
4622:
4597:
4575:
4571:
4530:
4526:
4495:
4488:
4465:
4461:
4421:
4417:
4364:
4360:
4323:
4319:
4265:
4261:
4222:
4218:
4173:
4169:
4123:
4116:
4084:10.1.1.380.9305
4058:
4052:
4048:
4019:(11): 838–849.
4009:
4005:
4000:Wayback Machine
3991:
3987:
3982:Wayback Machine
3973:
3969:
3962:
3958:
3951:
3947:
3940:
3936:
3930:Wayback Machine
3922:
3918:
3908:
3906:
3897:
3896:
3892:
3882:
3880:
3871:
3870:
3866:
3857:
3853:
3846:
3842:
3832:
3830:
3815:
3811:
3766:
3762:
3753:
3749:
3718:
3714:
3709:
3705:
3696:
3694:
3685:
3684:
3680:
3643:
3639:
3632:
3618:
3611:
3563:
3556:
3509:
3502:
3497:Wayback Machine
3488:
3481:
3446:Nature Medicine
3442:
3435:
3410:
3383:
3343:10.1038/nrg2091
3319:
3300:
3293:
3270:
3263:
3210:
3203:
3195:
3168:
3129:
3125:
3094:
3090:
3071:
3067:
3058:
3051:
3042:
3035:
3028:
3021:
3014:
3007:
2998:
2991:
2983:Moore F (1964)
2982:
2975:
2966:
2959:
2950:
2943:
2934:
2927:
2918:
2911:
2906:Wayback Machine
2897:
2890:
2885:Wayback Machine
2876:
2869:
2864:Wayback Machine
2855:
2848:
2841:
2834:
2822:
2815:
2806:
2804:
2799:
2798:
2791:
2782:
2780:
2775:
2774:
2767:
2757:
2735:
2728:
2716:
2691:
2672:
2665:
2655:
2632:
2625:
2599:10.1038/nrg2091
2583:
2576:
2565:
2542:
2535:
2520:
2509:
2472:
2468:
2453:
2437:
2433:
2428:Wayback Machine
2418:
2414:
2375:
2371:
2366:
2361:
2261:
2231:
2211:
2190:
2188:Unintended bias
2080:
2062:
2053:
2015:Red junglefowl
1975:Carolina anole
1950:Oryzias latipes
1771:Flowering plant
1660:
1548:Model Organism
1500:
1448:(development),
1365:) were used by
1363:Cavia porcellus
1283:Laboratory mice
1269:differentiation
1198:recombinant DNA
1152:
1146:
1044:The use of the
940:as a model for
910:immune response
820:
814:
742:gene regulation
718:
699:common ancestry
695:
675:generation time
583:
563:(hog cholera),
446:D. melanogaster
353:
337:gene regulation
323:Cavia porcellus
247:(hog cholera),
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
7693:
7683:
7682:
7680:Animal testing
7677:
7660:
7659:
7657:
7656:
7650:
7647:
7646:
7644:
7643:
7638:
7637:
7636:
7626:
7621:
7616:
7611:
7610:
7609:
7600:
7598:hemimetabolism
7590:holometabolism
7581:
7576:
7571:
7566:
7561:
7560:
7559:
7554:
7549:
7542:
7532:
7527:
7521:
7518:
7517:
7510:
7509:
7502:
7495:
7487:
7478:
7477:
7475:
7474:
7469:
7464:
7459:
7452:
7445:
7438:
7431:
7424:
7419:
7412:
7407:
7402:
7395:
7388:
7381:
7375:
7372:
7371:
7359:
7358:
7351:
7344:
7336:
7330:
7329:
7324:
7314:
7309:
7304:
7299:
7290:
7285:
7280:
7275:
7270:
7265:
7258:
7257:External links
7255:
7254:
7253:
7202:
7159:
7131:(6): 617–620.
7125:Nature Methods
7114:
7111:
7108:
7107:
7095:
7084:
7072:
7060:
7057:on 2013-01-05.
7042:
7024:
7012:Science | AAAS
6999:
6987:Science | AAAS
6974:
6937:
6913:
6862:
6840:
6811:(2): 813–822.
6788:
6728:
6679:
6620:
6590:
6539:
6532:
6506:
6494:
6443:
6416:
6402:
6350:
6305:Bergelson, Joy
6294:
6273:(2): 663–666.
6253:
6246:
6228:
6203:
6177:
6126:
6077:
6066:
6015:
5972:
5923:
5865:
5836:(5): 1013–26.
5816:
5758:
5723:Toxicol Pathol
5709:
5680:(12): 507–15.
5660:
5611:
5590:(3): 515–523.
5568:
5547:
5522:
5465:
5410:
5403:
5383:
5370:
5348:
5323:
5297:
5248:
5223:
5197:
5156:
5105:
5056:
5012:
4987:Trends Immunol
4977:
4950:(5): 456–465.
4933:
4912:(3): 556–564.
4892:
4871:(5): 704–717.
4846:
4819:(1): 122–128.
4802:
4753:
4738:
4712:
4685:(5): 183–187.
4669:
4620:
4595:
4569:
4524:
4505:(5): 611–621.
4486:
4475:(6): 551–555.
4459:
4415:
4358:
4317:
4259:
4232:(6): 759–778.
4226:Human Genetics
4216:
4181:Human Mutation
4167:
4114:
4046:
4025:10.1038/nrg929
4003:
3985:
3967:
3956:
3945:
3934:
3916:
3890:
3864:
3851:
3840:
3817:Pillai, Shiv.
3809:
3760:
3747:
3712:
3703:
3678:
3637:
3630:
3609:
3554:
3500:
3479:
3452:(7): 827–831.
3433:
3431:
3430:
3418:
3408:
3391:
3381:
3366:
3337:(5): 353–367.
3326:
3317:
3291:
3261:
3201:
3166:
3123:
3104:(2): 116–124.
3088:
3065:
3049:
3033:
3019:
3005:
2989:
2973:
2957:
2941:
2925:
2921:Br J Pharmacol
2909:
2888:
2867:
2846:
2832:
2813:
2803:. Nobel Web AB
2789:
2779:. Nobel Web AB
2765:
2755:
2726:
2724:
2723:
2714:
2699:
2696:breakthroughs.
2689:
2663:
2653:
2623:
2593:(5): 353–367.
2574:
2563:
2533:
2507:
2466:
2451:
2431:
2412:
2368:
2367:
2365:
2362:
2360:
2359:
2353:
2348:
2343:
2332:
2321:
2316:
2311:
2309:Genome project
2306:
2301:
2295:
2286:Cellular model
2283:
2278:
2273:
2271:Animal testing
2268:
2262:
2260:
2257:
2230:
2227:
2210:
2207:
2189:
2186:
2154:memory T cells
2079:
2076:
2073:
2072:
2069:
2064:
2059:
2050:Xenopus laevis
2045:
2044:
2041:
2036:
2033:
2025:
2024:
2021:
2016:
2013:
2005:
2004:
2001:
1996:
1993:
1985:
1984:
1981:
1976:
1973:
1965:
1964:
1961:
1956:
1953:
1945:
1944:
1941:
1936:
1933:
1925:
1924:
1919:
1914:
1911:
1903:
1902:
1899:
1894:
1891:
1884:
1880:
1879:
1876:
1871:
1870:Cowpea Weevil
1868:
1860:
1859:
1856:
1851:
1848:
1840:
1839:
1836:
1831:
1828:
1821:
1817:
1816:
1813:
1808:
1807:Balsam poplar
1805:
1797:
1796:
1793:
1788:
1785:
1777:
1776:
1773:
1768:
1765:
1758:
1754:
1753:
1750:
1745:
1743:
1735:
1734:
1731:
1726:
1724:
1710:
1709:
1706:
1701:
1699:
1691:
1690:
1687:
1682:
1681:Fission yeast
1679:
1671:
1670:
1667:
1662:
1661:Baker's yeast
1659:Brewer's yeast
1657:
1649:
1648:
1645:
1640:
1638:
1631:
1627:
1626:
1623:
1618:
1616:P. fluorescens
1613:
1605:
1604:
1601:
1596:
1591:
1584:
1580:
1579:
1576:
1571:
1568:
1563:
1559:
1558:
1555:
1552:
1549:
1546:
1510:transformation
1499:
1496:
1460:rhesus macaque
1394:Xenopus laevis
1321:Sydney Brenner
1247:C. reinhardtii
1239:photosynthesis
1145:
1142:
1110:endophenotypes
1108:, consists of
1063:
1062:
1053:
1042:
1032:
1027:also known as
1015:
1005:
999:
989:
971:
961:
944:
930:
920:
899:
885:
879:
816:Main article:
813:
812:Disease models
810:
734:) that infect
717:
714:
694:
691:
652:transformation
582:
579:
537:whooping cough
507:In the 1940s,
379:to prove that
357:ancient Greece
352:
349:
329:) that infect
210:whooping cough
124:common descent
93:model organism
46:model organism
26:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
7692:
7681:
7678:
7676:
7673:
7672:
7670:
7655:
7652:
7651:
7648:
7642:
7639:
7635:
7632:
7631:
7630:
7627:
7625:
7622:
7620:
7617:
7615:
7612:
7608:
7604:
7601:
7599:
7595:
7591:
7587:
7586:
7585:
7584:Metamorphosis
7582:
7580:
7577:
7575:
7572:
7570:
7567:
7565:
7562:
7558:
7555:
7553:
7550:
7548:
7547:
7543:
7541:
7538:
7537:
7536:
7535:Embryogenesis
7533:
7531:
7528:
7526:
7523:
7522:
7519:
7515:
7508:
7503:
7501:
7496:
7494:
7489:
7488:
7485:
7473:
7470:
7468:
7465:
7463:
7460:
7458:
7457:
7453:
7451:
7450:
7446:
7444:
7443:
7439:
7437:
7436:
7432:
7430:
7429:
7425:
7423:
7420:
7418:
7417:
7413:
7411:
7410:Fission yeast
7408:
7406:
7405:Budding yeast
7403:
7401:
7400:
7396:
7394:
7393:
7392:Chlamydomonas
7389:
7387:
7386:
7382:
7380:
7377:
7376:
7373:
7369:
7365:
7357:
7352:
7350:
7345:
7343:
7338:
7337:
7334:
7328:
7325:
7322:
7318:
7315:
7313:
7310:
7308:
7305:
7303:
7300:
7298:
7294:
7291:
7289:
7286:
7284:
7281:
7279:
7276:
7274:
7271:
7269:
7266:
7264:
7261:
7260:
7250:
7246:
7241:
7236:
7232:
7228:
7224:
7220:
7216:
7212:
7208:
7203:
7199:
7195:
7190:
7185:
7181:
7177:
7173:
7169:
7165:
7160:
7156:
7152:
7148:
7144:
7139:
7134:
7130:
7126:
7122:
7117:
7116:
7104:
7099:
7093:
7088:
7081:
7076:
7069:
7064:
7056:
7052:
7046:
7039:. 2019-06-18.
7038:
7034:
7028:
7013:
7009:
7003:
6988:
6984:
6978:
6970:
6966:
6961:
6956:
6952:
6948:
6941:
6927:
6926:The Economist
6923:
6917:
6909:
6905:
6900:
6895:
6890:
6885:
6881:
6877:
6873:
6866:
6853:
6852:
6844:
6836:
6832:
6827:
6822:
6818:
6814:
6810:
6806:
6802:
6795:
6793:
6784:
6780:
6775:
6770:
6765:
6760:
6756:
6752:
6748:
6744:
6740:
6732:
6724:
6720:
6716:
6712:
6707:
6702:
6698:
6694:
6690:
6683:
6675:
6671:
6666:
6661:
6656:
6651:
6647:
6643:
6639:
6635:
6631:
6624:
6608:
6604:
6603:GenomeWeb.com
6600:
6594:
6586:
6582:
6577:
6572:
6568:
6564:
6560:
6556:
6555:
6550:
6543:
6535:
6529:
6525:
6521:
6517:
6510:
6504:
6498:
6490:
6486:
6481:
6476:
6472:
6468:
6465:(2): 152–60.
6464:
6460:
6459:
6454:
6447:
6431:
6427:
6420:
6412:
6406:
6398:
6394:
6389:
6384:
6379:
6374:
6370:
6366:
6362:
6354:
6346:
6342:
6337:
6332:
6327:
6322:
6318:
6314:
6313:PLOS Genetics
6310:
6306:
6298:
6289:
6284:
6280:
6276:
6272:
6268:
6264:
6257:
6249:
6243:
6239:
6232:
6224:
6220:
6215:
6210:
6206:
6204:9780123859679
6200:
6196:
6192:
6188:
6181:
6173:
6169:
6164:
6159:
6154:
6149:
6145:
6141:
6137:
6130:
6122:
6118:
6113:
6108:
6104:
6100:
6096:
6092:
6088:
6081:
6075:
6070:
6062:
6058:
6053:
6048:
6043:
6038:
6034:
6030:
6026:
6019:
6011:
6007:
6003:
5999:
5995:
5991:
5987:
5983:
5976:
5968:
5964:
5959:
5954:
5950:
5946:
5942:
5938:
5934:
5927:
5919:
5915:
5910:
5905:
5901:
5897:
5893:
5889:
5885:
5881:
5877:
5869:
5861:
5857:
5852:
5847:
5843:
5839:
5835:
5831:
5827:
5820:
5812:
5808:
5803:
5798:
5794:
5790:
5786:
5782:
5778:
5774:
5770:
5762:
5754:
5750:
5745:
5740:
5736:
5732:
5728:
5724:
5720:
5713:
5705:
5701:
5696:
5691:
5687:
5683:
5679:
5675:
5671:
5664:
5656:
5652:
5648:
5644:
5639:
5634:
5631:(6): R263–4.
5630:
5626:
5622:
5615:
5607:
5603:
5598:
5593:
5589:
5585:
5584:
5579:
5572:
5565:
5561:
5556:
5554:
5552:
5537:
5533:
5526:
5518:
5514:
5510:
5506:
5501:
5496:
5492:
5488:
5484:
5480:
5476:
5469:
5461:
5457:
5452:
5447:
5443:
5439:
5435:
5431:
5430:
5425:
5423:
5414:
5406:
5400:
5396:
5395:
5394:C. elegans II
5387:
5373:
5367:
5363:
5359:
5352:
5338:on 2008-07-23
5337:
5333:
5327:
5311:
5307:
5301:
5293:
5289:
5284:
5279:
5275:
5271:
5267:
5263:
5259:
5252:
5244:
5240:
5235:
5230:
5226:
5220:
5216:
5212:
5208:
5201:
5193:
5189:
5184:
5179:
5175:
5171:
5167:
5160:
5152:
5148:
5143:
5138:
5133:
5128:
5124:
5120:
5116:
5109:
5101:
5097:
5092:
5087:
5083:
5079:
5076:(5): 1731–7.
5075:
5071:
5067:
5060:
5052:
5048:
5044:
5040:
5036:
5035:10.1038/nm975
5032:
5028:
5024:
5016:
5008:
5004:
5000:
4996:
4992:
4988:
4981:
4973:
4969:
4965:
4961:
4957:
4953:
4949:
4945:
4937:
4929:
4925:
4920:
4915:
4911:
4907:
4903:
4896:
4888:
4884:
4879:
4874:
4870:
4866:
4862:
4855:
4853:
4851:
4842:
4838:
4834:
4830:
4826:
4822:
4818:
4814:
4806:
4798:
4794:
4789:
4784:
4780:
4776:
4772:
4768:
4764:
4757:
4749:
4745:
4741:
4735:
4731:
4727:
4723:
4716:
4708:
4704:
4700:
4696:
4692:
4688:
4684:
4680:
4673:
4665:
4661:
4656:
4651:
4647:
4643:
4639:
4635:
4631:
4624:
4616:
4612:
4607:
4602:
4598:
4592:
4588:
4584:
4580:
4573:
4565:
4561:
4557:
4553:
4548:
4543:
4539:
4535:
4528:
4520:
4516:
4512:
4508:
4504:
4500:
4493:
4491:
4482:
4478:
4474:
4470:
4463:
4455:
4451:
4447:
4443:
4439:
4435:
4431:
4427:
4419:
4411:
4407:
4402:
4397:
4393:
4389:
4385:
4381:
4377:
4373:
4369:
4362:
4354:
4350:
4345:
4340:
4336:
4332:
4328:
4321:
4313:
4309:
4304:
4299:
4295:
4291:
4287:
4283:
4279:
4275:
4271:
4263:
4255:
4251:
4247:
4243:
4239:
4235:
4231:
4227:
4220:
4212:
4208:
4204:
4200:
4195:
4190:
4187:(2): 99–130.
4186:
4182:
4178:
4171:
4163:
4159:
4154:
4149:
4145:
4141:
4137:
4133:
4129:
4121:
4119:
4110:
4106:
4102:
4098:
4094:
4090:
4085:
4080:
4076:
4072:
4068:
4064:
4057:
4050:
4042:
4038:
4034:
4030:
4026:
4022:
4018:
4014:
4007:
4001:
3997:
3994:
3989:
3983:
3979:
3976:
3971:
3965:
3960:
3954:
3949:
3943:
3938:
3931:
3927:
3924:
3920:
3905:on 2008-09-05
3904:
3900:
3894:
3879:on 2010-03-11
3878:
3874:
3868:
3861:
3855:
3848:
3844:
3828:
3824:
3820:
3813:
3805:
3801:
3796:
3791:
3787:
3783:
3779:
3775:
3771:
3764:
3757:
3751:
3743:
3739:
3735:
3731:
3727:
3723:
3716:
3707:
3693:on 2014-10-13
3692:
3688:
3682:
3674:
3670:
3665:
3660:
3656:
3652:
3648:
3641:
3633:
3631:9780080542539
3627:
3623:
3616:
3614:
3605:
3601:
3597:
3593:
3589:
3585:
3581:
3577:
3573:
3569:
3561:
3559:
3550:
3546:
3542:
3538:
3534:
3530:
3526:
3522:
3518:
3514:
3507:
3505:
3498:
3494:
3491:
3486:
3484:
3475:
3471:
3467:
3463:
3459:
3455:
3451:
3447:
3440:
3438:
3428:
3424:
3419:
3416:
3411:
3405:
3402:. CRC Press.
3401:
3397:
3392:
3389:
3384:
3378:
3374:
3373:
3367:
3364:
3360:
3356:
3352:
3348:
3344:
3340:
3336:
3332:
3327:
3324:
3320:
3314:
3310:
3309:
3303:
3302:
3298:
3296:
3287:
3283:
3279:
3275:
3268:
3266:
3257:
3253:
3249:
3245:
3240:
3235:
3231:
3227:
3223:
3219:
3215:
3208:
3206:
3198:
3193:
3191:
3189:
3187:
3185:
3183:
3181:
3179:
3177:
3175:
3173:
3171:
3162:
3158:
3154:
3150:
3146:
3142:
3138:
3134:
3127:
3119:
3115:
3111:
3107:
3103:
3099:
3092:
3084:
3080:
3076:
3069:
3062:
3056:
3054:
3046:
3045:Br J Exp Path
3040:
3038:
3030:
3026:
3024:
3016:
3012:
3010:
3002:
2996:
2994:
2986:
2980:
2978:
2970:
2964:
2962:
2954:
2948:
2946:
2938:
2932:
2930:
2922:
2916:
2914:
2907:
2903:
2900:
2895:
2893:
2886:
2882:
2879:
2874:
2872:
2865:
2861:
2858:
2853:
2851:
2844:
2839:
2837:
2830:
2826:
2820:
2818:
2802:
2796:
2794:
2778:
2772:
2770:
2762:
2758:
2752:
2748:
2743:
2742:
2733:
2731:
2721:
2717:
2711:
2707:
2706:
2700:
2697:
2692:
2686:
2682:
2681:
2675:
2674:
2670:
2668:
2660:
2657:. NAP:13195.
2656:
2654:9780309038393
2650:
2646:
2645:
2640:
2636:
2630:
2628:
2620:
2616:
2612:
2608:
2604:
2600:
2596:
2592:
2588:
2581:
2579:
2571:
2567:. NAP:13195.
2566:
2564:9780309038393
2560:
2556:
2555:
2550:
2546:
2540:
2538:
2530:
2525:
2518:
2516:
2514:
2512:
2503:
2499:
2494:
2489:
2485:
2481:
2477:
2470:
2462:
2458:
2454:
2448:
2444:
2443:
2435:
2429:
2425:
2422:
2416:
2408:
2404:
2400:
2396:
2392:
2388:
2384:
2380:
2373:
2369:
2357:
2354:
2352:
2349:
2347:
2344:
2342:
2341:
2336:
2333:
2331:
2330:
2325:
2322:
2320:
2317:
2315:
2312:
2310:
2307:
2305:
2302:
2299:
2296:
2293:
2292:
2287:
2284:
2282:
2279:
2277:
2274:
2272:
2269:
2267:
2264:
2263:
2256:
2253:
2250:
2247:
2243:
2241:
2237:
2226:
2223:
2220:
2216:
2206:
2204:
2200:
2196:
2185:
2183:
2179:
2175:
2171:
2167:
2163:
2162:herpesviruses
2159:
2155:
2151:
2147:
2143:
2139:
2135:
2131:
2127:
2123:
2119:
2116:
2112:
2108:
2104:
2099:
2097:
2093:
2089:
2085:
2070:
2068:
2065:
2060:
2058:
2057:
2052:
2051:
2047:
2046:
2042:
2040:
2037:
2034:
2032:
2031:
2027:
2026:
2022:
2020:
2017:
2014:
2012:
2011:
2010:Gallus gallus
2007:
2006:
2002:
2000:
1997:
1994:
1992:
1991:
1987:
1986:
1982:
1980:
1977:
1974:
1972:
1971:
1967:
1966:
1962:
1960:
1957:
1954:
1952:
1951:
1947:
1946:
1942:
1940:
1937:
1934:
1932:
1931:
1927:
1926:
1923:
1920:
1918:
1915:
1912:
1910:
1909:
1905:
1904:
1900:
1898:
1895:
1892:
1890:
1889:
1885:
1881:
1877:
1875:
1872:
1869:
1867:
1866:
1862:
1861:
1857:
1855:
1852:
1849:
1847:
1846:
1842:
1841:
1837:
1835:
1832:
1829:
1827:
1826:
1822:
1818:
1814:
1812:
1809:
1806:
1804:
1803:
1799:
1798:
1794:
1792:
1789:
1786:
1784:
1783:
1779:
1778:
1774:
1772:
1769:
1766:
1764:
1763:
1759:
1755:
1751:
1749:
1746:
1744:
1742:
1741:
1737:
1736:
1732:
1730:
1727:
1725:
1723:
1722:
1721:T. pyriformis
1717:
1716:
1712:
1711:
1707:
1705:
1702:
1700:
1698:
1697:
1693:
1692:
1688:
1686:
1683:
1680:
1678:
1677:
1673:
1672:
1668:
1666:
1663:
1658:
1656:
1655:
1651:
1650:
1646:
1644:
1641:
1639:
1637:
1636:
1632:
1628:
1624:
1622:
1619:
1617:
1614:
1612:
1611:
1607:
1606:
1602:
1600:
1597:
1595:
1592:
1590:
1589:
1585:
1581:
1577:
1575:
1572:
1569:
1567:
1564:
1561:
1560:
1556:
1553:
1550:
1547:
1545:
1544:
1541:
1538:
1534:
1530:
1529:mitochondrial
1526:
1522:
1517:
1515:
1511:
1507:
1506:
1495:
1493:
1489:
1485:
1481:
1477:
1473:
1469:
1465:
1461:
1457:
1456:
1451:
1447:
1443:
1439:
1438:morphogenesis
1435:
1431:
1430:
1425:
1421:
1417:
1416:
1411:
1406:
1404:
1400:
1396:
1395:
1390:
1389:
1384:
1383:
1378:
1377:wheel-running
1374:
1373:
1368:
1364:
1360:
1356:
1351:
1349:
1346:
1342:
1338:
1337:
1332:
1330:
1326:
1322:
1318:
1317:
1313:
1309:
1305:
1301:
1297:
1296:
1292:
1284:
1280:
1276:
1274:
1270:
1266:
1262:
1258:
1254:
1253:
1248:
1244:
1240:
1236:
1232:
1231:
1226:
1222:
1221:cell division
1218:
1217:
1212:
1211:
1206:
1203:Simple model
1201:
1199:
1195:
1194:host organism
1191:
1187:
1186:biotechnology
1183:
1179:
1178:gram-negative
1175:
1171:
1170:
1165:
1161:
1157:
1151:
1141:
1139:
1135:
1131:
1127:
1123:
1119:
1115:
1111:
1107:
1103:
1099:
1095:
1091:
1086:
1084:
1080:
1076:
1073:of non-human
1072:
1067:
1060:
1059:
1054:
1051:
1047:
1043:
1041:
1037:
1033:
1030:
1026:
1023:
1019:
1016:
1014:
1010:
1006:
1004:
1000:
998:
994:
990:
988:
984:
980:
976:
972:
970:
966:
962:
960:
956:
952:
948:
945:
943:
939:
935:
934:basal ganglia
931:
929:
925:
921:
919:
915:
911:
908:to induce an
907:
904:with an auto-
903:
900:
897:
893:
890:
886:
884:
880:
878:
874:
870:
869:
868:
864:
859:
854:
851:
848:
844:
840:
836:
831:
829:
825:
819:
809:
807:
806:
802:
798:
794:
793:
788:
784:
780:
776:
772:
768:
764:
763:
758:
753:
751:
747:
744:(e.g. phages
743:
739:
738:
733:
732:bacteriophage
729:
728:
723:
713:
709:
707:
702:
700:
690:
688:
684:
680:
676:
671:
669:
665:
661:
657:
653:
649:
645:
641:
636:
633:
629:
625:
621:
617:
613:
609:
605:
601:
597:
593:
588:
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576:
575:
570:
566:
562:
558:
554:
550:
546:
542:
538:
534:
530:
525:
522:
518:
517:polio vaccine
514:
510:
505:
503:
499:
495:
491:
487:
483:
479:
474:
472:
467:
464:isolated the
463:
458:
455:
454:Abbie Lathrop
451:
447:
443:
439:
435:
431:
430:
425:
421:
417:
413:
409:
405:
401:
396:
394:
390:
386:
385:Louis Pasteur
382:
378:
374:
370:
366:
362:
358:
348:
346:
342:
339:(e.g. phages
338:
334:
333:
328:
327:bacteriophage
324:
320:
316:
315:
310:
309:
305:
301:
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296:
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290:
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281:
280:
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267:
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260:
259:
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250:
246:
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186:
182:
178:
177:
172:
168:
164:
160:
156:
152:
148:
143:
141:
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134:pathways and
133:
132:developmental
129:
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101:
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38:
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18:Animal models
7629:Regeneration
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7379:Lambda phage
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7098:
7087:
7080:AWA policies
7075:
7063:
7055:the original
7045:
7036:
7027:
7016:. Retrieved
7014:. 2016-08-15
7011:
7002:
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6989:. 2014-04-28
6986:
6977:
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6940:
6929:. Retrieved
6925:
6916:
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6875:
6865:
6855:, retrieved
6850:
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6607:the original
6602:
6593:
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6552:
6542:
6515:
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6446:
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6429:
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5571:
5539:. Retrieved
5535:
5525:
5482:
5478:
5468:
5436:(1): 71–94.
5433:
5427:
5421:
5413:
5393:
5386:
5375:. Retrieved
5361:
5351:
5340:. Retrieved
5336:the original
5326:
5314:. Retrieved
5310:the original
5300:
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5261:
5251:
5206:
5200:
5173:
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5118:
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5073:
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5029:(1): 29–30.
5026:
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3988:
3970:
3959:
3948:
3937:
3919:
3907:. Retrieved
3903:the original
3893:
3881:. Retrieved
3877:the original
3867:
3859:
3854:
3843:
3831:. Retrieved
3827:the original
3822:
3812:
3777:
3773:
3763:
3755:
3750:
3725:
3721:
3715:
3706:
3695:. Retrieved
3691:the original
3681:
3654:
3650:
3640:
3621:
3571:
3567:
3516:
3512:
3449:
3445:
3426:
3413:
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3280:(3): 260–7.
3277:
3273:
3224:(1): 65–70.
3221:
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3136:
3132:
3126:
3101:
3097:
3091:
3074:
3068:
3060:
3044:
3031:Streptomycin
3000:
2984:
2968:
2952:
2936:
2920:
2828:
2805:. Retrieved
2781:. Retrieved
2760:
2740:
2719:
2704:
2694:
2679:
2658:
2643:
2618:
2590:
2586:
2568:
2553:
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2372:
2338:
2327:
2289:
2254:
2251:
2248:
2244:
2232:
2224:
2214:
2212:
2209:Alternatives
2191:
2174:coinfections
2100:
2081:
2054:
2048:
2028:
2008:
1995:House mouse
1990:Mus musculus
1988:
1968:
1948:
1928:
1906:
1886:
1863:
1843:
1823:
1800:
1780:
1767:Thale cress
1760:
1738:
1719:
1713:
1694:
1674:
1652:
1633:
1615:
1608:
1593:
1586:
1583:Prokaryotes
1551:Common name
1518:
1504:
1501:
1453:
1434:regeneration
1427:
1413:
1407:
1402:
1392:
1386:
1380:
1372:Mus musculus
1370:
1362:
1352:
1340:
1334:
1333:
1324:
1314:
1293:
1288:
1250:
1246:
1228:
1214:
1208:
1202:
1190:microbiology
1173:
1167:
1153:
1097:
1087:
1068:
1064:
1056:
1050:osteoporosis
951:septic shock
902:Immunisation
865:
861:
856:
852:
832:
827:
821:
803:
790:
777:in a simple
771:cell biology
760:
754:
735:
725:
719:
710:
703:
696:
687:tree of life
672:
637:
630:models, and
628:experimental
600:biomechanics
584:
572:
567:, and other
557:tuberculosis
526:
521:Albert Sabin
506:
490:John Macleod
475:
459:
445:
437:
427:
408:neuroscience
404:biochemistry
397:
371:'s use of a
365:Erasistratus
354:
330:
322:
312:
306:
293:
289:Mus musculus
287:
283:
277:
263:
256:
251:, and other
241:tuberculosis
214:
174:
155:neuroscience
151:biochemistry
144:
92:
90:
86:cell biology
71:
54:
34:
7607:ametabolism
7530:Compartment
7428:Arabidopsis
7399:Tetrahymena
5988:(1): 3–22.
5316:27 February
4906:Am J Pathol
3833:19 December
3780:(11): e83.
3758:, chapter 5
3061:Br. Med. J.
3001:Arch. Surg.
2219:pluripotent
2203:microbiomes
2168:mice, with
2078:Limitations
1888:Danio rerio
1533:chloroplast
1424:transposons
1403:Danio rerio
1367:Robert Koch
1359:guinea pigs
1355:vertebrates
1341:A. thaliana
1308:chromosomes
1255:is used in
1164:prokaryotic
1018:Genetically
981:of various
979:antagonists
871:The use of
664:arabidopsis
533:antibiotics
442:Eric Kandel
434:chromosomes
432:identified
381:respiration
377:calorimeter
319:guinea pigs
302:virus, the
206:antibiotics
185:Eric Kandel
181:chromosomes
179:identified
63:experiments
44:prokaryotic
7669:Categories
7641:Teratology
7569:Metamerism
7564:Embryology
7546:Drosophila
7449:Drosophila
7442:C. elegans
7416:Neurospora
7018:2017-01-10
6993:2017-01-10
6931:2017-01-10
6882:: e27438.
6857:2020-10-26
6371:: 610032.
6146:(3): 647.
5541:2014-01-18
5377:2009-07-01
5342:2007-10-23
5306:"Bacteria"
5268:: 99–109.
4773:: 214–21.
3909:2008-08-23
3883:2015-06-20
3728:: 647–71.
3697:2014-01-10
2955:16: p. 231
2939:14: p. 246
2807:2015-06-20
2783:2015-06-20
2364:References
2158:microbiota
2126:pentraxins
2115:neutrophil
2113:, a lower
2107:neutrophil
1913:Mummichog
1893:Zebrafish
1850:Fruit fly
1578:evolution
1492:SARS-CoV-2
1464:chimpanzee
1329:connectome
1325:C. elegans
1235:green alga
1205:eukaryotes
1148:See also:
1122:epigenetic
1090:psychology
1077:and other
889:neurotoxin
787:homologous
775:cell cycle
757:eukaryotes
706:proteomics
668:pufferfish
640:life-cycle
608:organelles
535:, and the
509:Jonas Salk
466:diphtheria
438:Drosophila
400:physiology
395:in sheep.
373:guinea pig
221:physiology
212:vaccine.
208:, and the
147:physiology
104:biological
78:eukaryotic
7462:Zebrafish
5900:1931-3128
5670:"MISSING"
5655:235311984
5621:"MISSING"
5125:(1): 23.
4767:Brain Res
4538:Epilepsia
4392:0016-6731
4079:CiteSeerX
3301:Sources:
3083:785558800
3063:2: p. 454
2529:medicine.
2118:enzymatic
2084:sedentary
2067:Amphibian
1566:Phi X 174
1535:genomes.
1525:sequenced
1480:cognition
1468:hepatitis
1399:zebrafish
1348:sequenced
1304:fecundity
1291:fruit fly
1138:therapies
1130:pathology
1114:molecular
1094:sociology
1036:screening
995:to cause
965:pathogens
955:pathogens
912:to model
801:roundworm
648:stem cell
646:strains,
581:Selection
565:heartworm
502:halothane
494:John Cade
361:Aristotle
304:fruit fly
249:heartworm
197:halothane
140:evolution
128:metabolic
120:unethical
97:non-human
82:molecular
7619:Ontogeny
7557:polarity
7368:genetics
7249:26062496
7198:27639630
7155:11798233
7147:24874573
6969:87534627
6908:28661398
6835:26663721
6783:23401516
6723:10536403
6715:14978070
6674:20194732
6613:30 April
6585:25342070
6489:24336168
6397:33391325
6345:20169178
6223:22444155
6172:28300765
6121:30321395
6061:29354124
6035:: 1906.
6010:19566701
5967:20643739
5918:32259477
5860:25684364
5811:20228792
5753:12597434
5704:21963197
5647:20334828
5606:23325861
5509:22462104
5429:Genetics
5292:28396255
5243:21225412
5192:15213704
5151:16569221
5119:Malar. J
5100:16641443
5043:14702631
5007:15099561
4887:31661479
4841:22553744
4833:18193028
4797:18586227
4748:12442622
4699:17943249
4664:23175810
4615:27604735
4564:46126941
4454:17158127
4446:11029269
4410:24807111
4372:Genetics
4353:30244718
4312:22722832
4246:17066299
4211:42037159
4203:17024666
4162:12466850
4101:15131266
4041:10956647
4033:12415314
3996:Archived
3978:Archived
3926:Archived
3804:21061734
3754:Kohler,
3742:11544370
3673:30244718
3604:39309990
3596:14671310
3493:Archived
3474:45108486
3359:13857842
3351:17440532
3286:16299672
3256:26525327
3248:15686976
3239:10911555
3161:41443542
3153:17495877
3118:19275547
3003:34, 1105
2953:J. Urol.
2902:Archived
2881:Archived
2860:Archived
2641:(1988).
2615:13857842
2607:17440532
2570:animals.
2551:(1988).
2502:29281160
2486:(1): 1.
2461:11754940
2424:Archived
2407:82519062
2399:15790833
2259:See also
2215:in vitro
2096:exercise
1748:Plankton
1621:Bacteria
1599:Bacteria
1484:vaccines
1446:chickens
1410:T4 phage
1312:nematode
1261:genetics
1243:motility
1102:symptoms
1075:primates
1052:research
1040:glaucoma
1029:NOD mice
1022:diabetic
975:agonists
916:such as
877:epilepsy
873:metrazol
835:etiology
797:polytene
767:genetics
683:lineages
656:junk DNA
624:nematode
620:fruitfly
612:proteins
596:behavior
574:in vitro
549:glanders
482:diabetes
300:T4 phage
258:in vitro
233:glanders
61:genetics
7624:Puberty
7456:Xenopus
7385:E. coli
7240:4636083
7219:Bibcode
7189:5077642
6899:5503508
6826:4707550
6774:3587220
6751:Bibcode
6665:2852022
6642:Bibcode
6576:4571486
6480:3934366
6388:7775405
6336:2820523
6275:Bibcode
6214:3587665
6163:5372659
6112:6324063
6052:5758549
5990:Bibcode
5958:2935103
5909:7144857
5851:4344913
5802:4479502
5781:Bibcode
5744:1909756
5695:3601910
5517:5006466
5487:Bibcode
5460:4366476
5451:1213120
5283:5605906
5234:3270071
5142:1450296
5091:1472199
5051:2111178
4972:2972931
4964:8310796
4928:8129041
4919:1887088
4788:4725309
4707:8366509
4655:6621755
4606:6036905
4556:9092952
4481:3312096
4401:4012490
4303:3498939
4282:Bibcode
4254:6484568
4140:Bibcode
4109:2790337
4071:Bibcode
4063:Science
3862:19, 323
3795:2966381
3576:Bibcode
3568:Science
3549:4370797
3541:8152486
3521:Bibcode
3466:9662375
3047:10, 226
2923:11, 394
2379:Science
2298:Ensembl
2182:outbred
1979:Reptile
1757:Plants
1729:Ciliate
1594:E. coli
1521:genomes
1505:E. coli
1488:ferrets
1486:), and
1174:E. coli
1160:viruses
1156:domains
1126:genetic
1118:genetic
1079:mammals
1071:genomes
1055:Use of
906:antigen
839:anxiety
824:disease
737:E. coli
685:on the
632:genomic
626:worm),
616:genetic
604:tissues
592:ecology
587:species
555:(FIV),
545:anthrax
486:insulin
393:anthrax
359:, with
351:History
332:E. coli
298:), the
284:E. coli
270:viruses
266:domains
239:(FIV),
229:anthrax
217:disease
193:insulin
112:disease
100:species
7525:Ageing
7362:Major
7247:
7237:
7211:Nature
7196:
7186:
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6967:
6951:Nature
6906:
6896:
6833:
6823:
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6771:
6721:
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6672:
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6477:
6436:11 Jul
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6119:
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6059:
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5965:
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5773:Nature
5751:
5741:
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4398:
4390:
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4310:
4300:
4274:Nature
4252:
4244:
4209:
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4132:Nature
4107:
4099:
4081:
4039:
4031:
3802:
3792:
3740:
3671:
3628:
3602:
3594:
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3539:
3513:Nature
3472:
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3406:
3379:
3357:
3349:
3315:
3284:
3254:
3246:
3236:
3159:
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2712:
2687:
2651:
2613:
2605:
2561:
2500:
2459:
2449:
2405:
2397:
2356:RefSeq
2229:Ethics
2170:septic
2146:ICAM-3
2103:toxins
1999:Mammal
1874:Insect
1854:Insect
1643:Amoeba
1570:ΦX174
1562:Virus
1482:, and
1429:hydras
1353:Among
1345:genome
1306:, few
1271:, and
1225:cancer
1009:tumors
1003:tumors
997:tumors
991:Using
959:toxins
947:Sepsis
926:as an
783:humans
746:Lambda
658:(e.g.
644:inbred
541:rabies
488:(with
341:Lambda
317:, and
225:rabies
7634:Human
7574:Larva
7540:Human
7472:Mouse
7422:Maize
7293:Emice
7151:S2CID
6965:S2CID
6876:eLife
6719:S2CID
5651:S2CID
5513:S2CID
5047:S2CID
4968:S2CID
4837:S2CID
4703:S2CID
4560:S2CID
4450:S2CID
4250:S2CID
4207:S2CID
4105:S2CID
4059:(PDF)
4037:S2CID
3600:S2CID
3545:S2CID
3470:S2CID
3355:S2CID
3252:S2CID
3157:S2CID
2611:S2CID
2498:S2CID
2403:S2CID
2142:TLR10
2138:IL-37
2111:blood
2088:obese
1704:Algae
1685:Yeast
1665:Yeast
1574:Virus
1420:maize
847:drugs
779:yeast
666:, or
660:yeast
513:polio
375:in a
114:when
108:model
95:is a
39:is a
7579:Pupa
7552:Fish
7245:PMID
7194:PMID
7143:PMID
6904:PMID
6831:PMID
6779:PMID
6711:PMID
6670:PMID
6615:2010
6581:PMID
6559:2014
6528:ISBN
6485:PMID
6438:2019
6393:PMID
6341:PMID
6242:ISBN
6219:PMID
6199:ISBN
6168:PMID
6117:PMID
6057:PMID
6006:PMID
5986:1168
5963:PMID
5914:PMID
5896:ISSN
5856:PMID
5830:Cell
5807:PMID
5749:PMID
5700:PMID
5643:PMID
5602:PMID
5564:TAIR
5505:PMID
5456:PMID
5399:ISBN
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