Nahda - Knowledge

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worked in Cairo, present-day Egypt, from 1825 to 1848. He also spent time on the island of Malta. Participating in an Arabic translation of the Bible in Great Britain that was published in 1857, Faris lived and worked there for 7 years, becoming a British citizen. He next moved to Paris, France, for two years in the early 1850s, where he wrote and published some of his most important work.

365:, Al-Bustani founded the National School or Al-Madrasa Al-Wataniyya in 1863, on secular principles. This school employed the leading Nahda "pioneers" of Beirut and graduated a generation of Nahda thinkers. At the same time, he compiled and published several school textbooks and dictionaries; leading him to becoming known famously as the Master of the Arabic Renaissance. 1142: 801:. This led to the calling of the establishment of modern states based on Europe. It was during this stage that the first compound of the Arabic language was introduced along with the printing of it in letters, and later the movement influenced the fields of music, sculpture, history, humanities, economics and human rights. 195:. Due to their differing backgrounds, the aspects that they focused on differed as well; with Egypt focused on the political aspects of the Islamic world while the Levant focused on the more cultural aspects. The concepts were not exclusive by region however, and this distinction blurred as the renaissance progressed. 1016: 348:

region, in January 1819. A polyglot, educator, and activist, Al-Bustani was a tour de force in the Nahda centered in mid-nineteenth century Beirut. Having been influenced by American missionaries, he converted to Protestantism, becoming a leader in the native Protestant church. Initially, he taught

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Ahmad Faris al-Shidyaq (born 1805 or 1806 as Faris ibn Yusuf al-Shidyaq; died 1887) grew up in present-day Lebanon. A Maronite Christian by birth, he later lived in major cities of the Arab world, where he had his career. He converted to Protestantism during the nearly two decades that he lived and

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In numerous writings, he envisioned a seamless blending of Islamic tradition with Western modernization. Basing his beliefs on European Enlightenment writings and Arabic political thought, his main concern was with preserving the autonomy of the Tunisian people in particular, and Muslim peoples in

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states that Al-Bustani's "importance does not lie in his prognosis of Arab culture or his national pride. Nor is his advocacy of discriminatingly adopting Western knowledge and technology to "awaken" the Arabs' inherent ability for cultural success,(najah), unique among his generation. Rather, his

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Later in the 1850s Faris moved to Tunisia, where in 1860 he converted to Islam, taking the first name Ahmad. Moving to Istanbul later that year to work as a translator at the request of the Ottoman government, Faris also founded an Arabic-language newspaper. It was supported by the Ottomans, Egypt

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Through the 19th century and early 20th centuries, a number of new developments in Arabic literature started to emerge, initially sticking closely to the classical forms, but addressing modern themes and the challenges faced by the Arab world in the modern era. Francis Marrash was influential in

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This cultural renaissance during the late Ottoman rule was a quantum leap for Arabs in the post-industrial revolution, and is not limited to the individual fields of cultural renaissance in the nineteenth century, as the Nahda only extended to include the spectrum of society and the fields as a

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Faris continued to promote Arabic language and culture, resisting the 19th-century "Turkization" pushed by the Ottomans based in present-day Turkey. Shidyaq is considered to be one of the founding fathers of modern Arabic literature; he wrote most of his fiction in his younger years.

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in this renaissance, and their role in the prosperity through participation in the diaspora. Given this role in politics and culture, Ottoman ministers began to include them in their governments. In the economic sphere, a number of Christian families like the Greek Orthodox

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were the main centers of the renaissance, which led to the establishment of schools, universities, theaters and printing presses there. This awakening led to the emergence of a politically active movement known as the "association" that was accompanied by the birth of

840:(one of its more literal meanings being "the Arab diaspora") was a literary movement that preceded the Nahda movement. It was started by Christian Arabic-speaking writers who had emigrated to America from Lebanon, Syria and Palestine at the turn of the 20th century. 491:

Marrash has been considered the first truly cosmopolitan Arab intellectual and writer of modern times, having adhered to and defended the principles of the French Revolution in his own works, implicitly criticizing Ottoman rule in Western Asia and North Africa.

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His prolific output and groundbreaking work led to the creation of modern Arabic expository prose. While educated by Westerners, and a strong advocate of Western technology, he was a fierce secularist, playing a decisive role in formulating the principles of

703:, that had hindered correct applications of the faith. He therefore advocated that Muslims should return to the "true" Islam practiced by the ancient Caliphs, which he held had been both rational and divinely inspired. Applying the original message of the 699:, and whose teachings would play a similarly important role in the reform of the practice of Islam. Like al-Afghani, Abduh accused traditionalist Islamic authorities of moral and intellectual corruption, and of imposing a doctrinaire form of Islam on the 667:, تقليد) had stifled Islamic debate and repressed the correct practices of the faith. Al-Afghani's case for a redefinition of old interpretations of Islam, and his bold attacks on traditional religion, would become vastly influential with the fall of the 1187:

brought the first printing press to Egypt. Modern printing techniques spread rapidly and gave birth to a modern Egyptian press, which brought the reformist trends of the Nahda into contact with the emerging Egyptian middle class of clerks and tradesmen.

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He also tried to introduce "a revolution in diction, themes, metaphor and imagery in modern Arabic poetry". His use of conventional diction for new ideas is considered to have marked the rise of a new stage in Arabic poetry which was carried on by the

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Egyptian scholar Rifa'a al-Tahtawi (1801–1873) is widely seen as the pioneering figure of the Nahda. He was sent to Paris in 1826 by Muhammad Ali's government to study Western sciences and educational methods, although originally to serve as

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1865), highlighting the need of the Arabs for two things above all: modern schools and patriotism "free from religious considerations". In 1870, when distinguishing the notion of fatherland from that of nation and applying the latter to the

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for the Egyptian cadets training at the Paris military academy. He came to hold a very positive view of French society, although not without criticisms. Learning French, he began translating important scientific and cultural works into

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in an effort to bolster universal Muslim support, suddenly vanished. It forced Muslims to look for new interpretations of the faith, and to re-examine widely held dogma; exactly what al-Afghani had urged them to do decades earlier.

1180:(Arabic using the Syriac alphabet). The first printing press with Arabic letters was built in St John's monastery in Khinshara, Lebanon by "Al-Shamas Abdullah Zakher" in 1734. The printing press operated from 1734 till 1899. 446:

general. In this quest, he ended up bringing forth what amounted to the earliest example of Muslim constitutionalism. His modernizing theories have had an enormous influence on Tunisian and Ottoman thought.

438:, the modernizing ruler of Tunisia. He soon was made responsible for diplomatic missions to the Ottoman Empire and the countries of Europe, bringing him into contact with Western ideals, as well as with the 353:

and was a central figure in the missionaries' translation of the Bible into Arabic. Despite his close ties to the Americans, Al-Bustani increasingly became independent, eventually breaking away from them.

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contribution lies in the act of elocution. That is, his writing articulates a specific formula for native progress that expresses a synthetic vision of the matrix of modernity within Ottoman Syria."

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introducing French romanticism in the Arab world, especially through his use of poetic prose and prose poetry, of which his writings were the first examples in modern Arabic literature, according to

542:. Egyptian nationalism was non-Arab, emphasising ethnic Egyptian identity and history in response to European colonialism and the Turkish occupation of Egypt. This was paralleled by the rise of the 538:

also created a political class in the Ottoman-controlled provinces, from which later emerged a liberal nationalist elite that would spearhead the several nationalist movements, in particular

424: 1508:, "Butrus al-Bustani: Syria's Ideologue of the Age," in "The Origins of Syrian Nationhood: Histories, Pioneers, and Identity", Adel Bishara (ed.). London: Routledge, 2011, pp. 57–78 508:

Proponents of the Nahda typically supported reforms. While al-Bustani and al-Shidyaq "advocated reform without revolution", the "trend of thought advocated by Francis Marrash and

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In the social, national and political spheres, Al-Bustani founded associations with a view to forming a national elite and launched a series of appeals for unity in his magazine

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monarchies with representative rule, and denounced what he perceived as the dogmatism, stagnation and corruption of the Islam of his age. He claimed that tradition (

172:. However, more recent scholarship has shown the Nahda's cultural reform program to have been as "autogenetic" as it was Western-inspired, having been linked to the 475:(born between 1835 and 1837; died 1873 or 1874) had traveled throughout Western Asia and France in his youth. He expressed ideas of political and social reforms in 243:, but was careful in commenting on the matter in his reports to Muhammad Ali. His political views, originally influenced by the conservative Islamic teachings of 1979: 188:, allowing proliferation of the press and other publications and internal changes in political economy and communal reformations in Egypt and Syria and Lebanon. 994:(1868–1932), among others, began to explore the limits of the classical qasida, although he remained a clearly neo-classical poet. After him, others, including 527:. It was inspired by European methods of government and designed to bring the Empire back on level with the Western powers. The constitution was opposed by the 442:

reforms of the Ottoman Empire. He served as Prime Minister of Tunisia from 1859 until 1882. In this period, he was a major force of modernization in Tunisia.

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Many student missions from Egypt went to Europe in the early 19th century to study arts and sciences at European universities and acquire technical skills.

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This article is about the Arab renaissance movement of the late 19th – early 20th century. For other uses, including contemporary political movements, see

1378:, the development of infrastructure, support for trade and commerce, state funds for inventors, and the regular maintenance of buildings and public space. 768:

played a crucial role in the Nahda movement. Their status as an educated minority enabled them to significantly influence and contribute to the fields of

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After five years in France, he then returned to Egypt to implement the philosophy of reform he had developed there, summarizing his views in the book

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Watenpaugh, Heghnar Zeitlian (2010). "The Harem as Biography: Domestic Architecture, Gender and Nostalgia in Modern Syria". In Booth, Marilyn (ed.).

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with no interference of tradition or the faulty interpretations of his followers, would automatically create the just society ordained by God in the

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amongst others played a prominent role in the development of Arab culture. It is agreed amongst historians the importance the roles played by the

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in 1924. This created a void in the religious doctrine and social structure of Islamic communities which had been only temporarily reinstated by

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In the cultural/scientific fields, he published a fortnightly review and two daily newspapers. In addition, he began work, together with Drs.

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became prominent. Thus, the Nahda led the Muslims and Christians to a cultural renaissance and national general despotism. This solidified

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Hayreddin Pasha al-Tunsi (1820–1890) had made his way to Ottoman Tunisia as a slave, where he rose through the ranks of the government of

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had much to learn from Europe, and he generally embraced Western society, but also held that reforms should be adapted to the values of

4960: 3117: 3085: 952:. A wave of political reform followed, with the constitutional movement in Iran to some extent paralleling the Egyptian Nahda reforms. 1897:

Making Nations, in the Mahjar: Syrian and Lebanese Long-distance Nationalisms in New York City, São Paulo, and Buenos Aires, 1913–1929

3946: 3474: 2956: 1046:), which would have a great impact on Arabic literature. The group was especially influenced by 19th-century Russian writers such as 524: 1863: 3958: 3349: 2500:

Wielandt, Rotraud (1992). "Fransis Fathallah Marrashs Zugang zum Gedankengut der Aufklärung und der französischen Revolution". In

4980: 3393: 3127: 1259:—was circulated widely from Morocco to India and it's considered one of the first and most important publications of the Nahda. 573:, which like Egyptian nationalism was in some of its manifestations essentially non-Arabist and connected to the concept of the 4284: 2670: 2100:

See Somekh, "The Neo-Classical Poets" in M.M. Badawi (ed.) "Modern Arabic Literature", Cambridge University Press 1992, pp36-82

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poets further contributed from America to the development of the forms available to Arab poets. The most famous of these,

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dates from 1875, and between 1870 and 1900, Beirut alone saw the founding of about 40 new periodicals and 15 newspapers.

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Thoughts and Ideologies of Mikhail Nu'aima, the Mahjar Poet in the development of Modern Arabic Poetry; A critical study

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From Difa Al-Nisa to Masalat Al-Nisa in greater Syria: Readers and writers debate women and their rights, 1858–1900.

1521:(May 2007). "A Social History of Early Arab Photography or a Prolegomenon to an Archaeology of the Lebanese Imago". 721:(1865–1935), who continued his legacy, and expanded on the concept of just Islamic government. His theses on how an 59: 5211: 4870: 3799: 3462: 3185: 873: 358: 5337: 5096: 4297: 4158: 4126: 3879: 3605: 3015: 2735: 2401:

Modern Arabic Poetry 1800–1970: the Development of its Forms and Themes under the Influence of Western Literature

1012:, often considered the first modern Egyptian novel. This novel started a movement of modernizing Arabic fiction. 5128: 4901: 4631: 3727: 3521: 3484: 1066:(1883–1931), challenged political and religious institutions with his writing, and was an active member of the 539: 4620: 4494: 4014: 3809: 3215: 2740: 2723: 814: 810: 3926: 1298:

created the first modern Arabic encyclopedia, drawing both on medieval Arab scholars and Western methods of

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of the American Mission, on a translation of the Bible into Arabic known as the Smith-Van Dyke translation.

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Order and Compromise: Government Practices in Turkey from the Late Ottoman Empire to the Early 21st Century

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a modernist reinterpretation and fused adherence to the faith with an anti-colonial doctrine that preached

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claims of religious legitimacy. Various Arab nationalist secret societies rose in the years prior to

274:. This brand of self-confident but open-minded modernism came to be the defining creed of the Nahda. 2030: 5377: 5254: 5226: 5033: 4190: 4170: 3978: 3804: 3600: 3588: 3425: 3403: 3070: 3020: 2961: 2920: 2796: 2791: 2757: 2718: 972: 181: 53: 17: 1895: 4865: 4855: 4716: 4701: 4601: 4555: 4099: 3722: 3457: 3309: 3282: 3267: 3262: 2998: 2898: 1375: 806: 646: 582: 4889: 2483:

Being Modern in the Middle East: Revolution, Nationalism, Colonialism, and the Arab Middle Class

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and Shi'a religious beliefs saw important developments with the systematization of a religious

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In traditional scholarship, the Nahda is seen as connected to the cultural shock brought on by

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rule fused with protests against the Sultan's autocracy, and the largely secular concepts of

185: 169: 2316: 1251:)—though it only ran from March to October of 1884 and was banned by British authorities in 5274: 5076: 4911: 4615: 4052: 4002: 3872: 2976: 2966: 2501: 1339: 1330:

was the first Arab woman in the nineteenth century to revive the tradition of the literary

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Al-Afghani influenced many, but greatest among his followers is undoubtedly his student

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A 1920 photograph of four prominent members of The Pen League (from left to right):

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Arabic-language magazines began to publish articles of scientific vulgarization.

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solidarity in the face of European pressures. He also favored the replacement of

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advocated Islamic unity in the face of an increasingly stronger Christian Europe.

535: 472: 464: 455: 427: 418: 334: 271: 248: 236: 232: 106: 714:, and so empower the Muslim world to stand against colonization and injustices. 615:, a Lebanese Jewish author, wrote extensively on women's rights in her magazine 5367: 5346: 5301: 5264: 5219: 4998: 4793: 4788: 4540: 4520: 4486: 4461: 4221: 4175: 4029: 3968: 3752: 3553: 3065: 2993: 2852: 2786: 2588: 2552: 2530: 2437: 2352: 2312: 1518: 1505: 1416: 1371: 1230: 1165: 1008: 841: 827: 798: 693:(1849–1905), with whom he started a short-lived Islamic revolutionary journal, 690: 683: 672: 574: 516: 485: 398: 177: 138: 2164: 1679: 1534: 1486: 936:

scholars also contributed to the renaissance movement, including the linguist

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to Ottoman politics and engendered a new political class—as well as the later

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For example, he called for the introduction of representative democracy with

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in the central Ottoman provinces and administration. The resentment towards

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Christian Communities in the Arab Middle East: The Challenge of the Future

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International Journal of Middle East Studies 41, no. 4 (2009): 615 – 633.

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This was complemented by the rise of other national movements, including

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as one of the pillars of the region and not a minority on the fringes.

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An example of modern poetry in classical Arabic style with themes of

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Among the students of Abduh were Syrian Islamic scholar and reformer

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to cover for others. The development of a modern press ensured that

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university, changed on a number of matters, and he came to advocate

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from 1920 until his death. Some of the Mahjaris later returned to

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promulgated a constitution, as the crowning accomplishment of the

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A community of many worlds : Arab Americans in New York City

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Nostra Aetate, Non-Christian Religions, and Interfaith Relations

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in the Arab world, with the salon she ran in her family home in

1088:(1861–1914) developed the genre of the Arabic historical novel. 944:. Important political reforms took place simultaneously also in 191:

The renaissance itself started simultaneously in both Egypt and

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One Palestine, complete : Jews and Arabs under the Mandate

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The Arabic Language and National Identity: a Study in Ideology

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Arab Press, Society and Politics at the End of The Ottoman Era

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in 1798, and the reformist drive of subsequent rulers such as

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Islamic Societies to the Nineteenth Century: A Global History

1055: 785: 700: 650: 345: 150: 142: 134: 1496:," Al-Ahram Weekly Online, Issue No.568, 10–16 January 2002. 4411: 3287: 1306:(1872–1953) created the first modern dictionary of Arabic, 945: 813:(which later became the American University of Beirut) and 227: 2307: 1110:(1858–1941) is credited with having founded modern Arabic 214: 2319:

Arab Women Writers: a Critical Reference Guide, 1873–1999

2174:," Al-Ahram Weekly Online, Issue No. 742, 12–18 May 2005. 1133:

which produced notable Arabic literary figures including

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whole. Christian colleges (accepting of all faiths) like

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should be organized remain influential among modern-day

2134:. بيروت: المؤسسة العربية للدراسات والنشر. p. 445. 1322:

Women's literary salons and societies in the Arab world

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in Lebanon and dates back to 1610. It printed books in

1022:(born Gibran Khalil Gibran), a prominent figure of the 2213:"Urwat al-Wuthqa, al- – Oxford Islamic Studies Online" 2004:

Choice of Texts from the Baʻth Party Founder's Thought

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and the resulting sense of Palestinian particularism.

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Syrian scholar, publicist, writer, poet and physician

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Harem Histories: Envisioning Places and Living Spaces

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A History of Medicine: Byzantine and Islamic medicine

998:(1871–1932) began to use poetry to explore themes of 2506:

The Middle East and Europe: Encounters and Exchanges

2110: 907:, who was reputed to be the first Arab nationalist. 776:, music, theatre and cinema, medicine, and science. 125:, meaning "the Awakening"), also referred to as the 120: 1943: 1116:

The researcher's source in the science of criticism

2477: 2458: 2295: 2291: 1656:Zeitschrift für internationale Freimaurerforschung 523:reforms (1839–1876) and inaugurating the Empire's 1828:Lebanon 1860–1960: A Century of Myth and Politics 1635: 1423:. Gainesville: University Press of Florida, 2004 1262: 1102:, the founder of modern Arabic literary criticism 611:, which was published as early as 1855 in Paris. 585:, which was set apart from Syrian nationalism by 349:in the schools of the Protestant missionaries at 5359: 1965:War and Peace in Sudan: A Tale of Two Countries 1283:ceased to be used and was replaced entirely by 467:(born between 1835 and 1837; died 1873 or 1874) 2323:. American University in Cairo Press. p. 1884:محطات مارونية من تاريخ لبنان، مرجع سابق، ص.185 1767: 1517: 1241:anti-colonial revolutionary literary magazine 848:in North America, formed initially by Syrians 512:" (1856–1884) was "radical and revolutionary. 304:and Tunisia, publishing until the late 1880s. 4278: 2664: 1834: 1693: 1691: 1689: 133:, was a cultural movement that flourished in 2379:Trends and Movements in Modern Arabic Poetry 2359:(2nd ed.). Cambridge University Press. 2357:Arabic Thought in the Liberal Age, 1798–1939 1523:International Journal of Middle East Studies 1002:as well as the classical concepts. In 1914, 333:Butrus al-Bustani (1819–1893) was born to a 1923:Benson, Kathleen; Kayal, Philip M. (2002). 1922: 1893: 554:rose as a cultural response to the Ottoman 176:—the period of political reform within the 4285: 4271: 2671: 2657: 1843: 1816:, (Cambridge University Press, 2012), 200. 1773: 1686: 1153: 883:In the early 20th century, many prominent 2420:Studies in Modern Arabic Prose and Poetry 1830:. la University of Michigan. p. 127. 1825: 1499: 1410: 1287:, which is used still today all over the 1216:Despite colonial authorities' banning of 1148: 277: 89:Learn how and when to remove this message 2499: 2436: 2268:"Urwa al-Wuthqa, al- | Encyclopedia.com" 1736: 1617: 1589: 1211: 1094: 1014: 740: 678: 632: 459: 422: 321: 287: 213: 52:This article includes a list of general 4981:Popular Front for Change and Liberation 2373: 2351: 2088: 1761: 1605: 503: 262:), published in 1834. It is written in 14: 5360: 2182: 2180: 2127: 1961: 1849: 1697: 1437: 1141:, and Desouky Bek Abaza, among others. 856:. Members of the Pen League included: 797:and the demand for reformation in the 4989:Political status of the Golan Heights 4266: 3697: 3508: 3331: 3172: 2691: 2652: 2417: 2395: 2315:; Reda-Mekdashi, Hasna, eds. (2008). 2084: 2057: 2000: 1949: 1866:from the original on 27 February 2021 1774:Prioreschi, Plinio (1 January 2001). 1641: 1629: 1601: 1462:"Histories of the Modern Middle East" 1170:Monastery of Saint Anthony of Qozhaya 577:. The main other example of the late 4247: 1982:from the original on 20 October 2021 1704:. Clarendon Press. pp. 38, 55. 1669: 1433: 1431: 1160:History of Middle Eastern newspapers 966: 872:. Eight out of the ten members were 311: 203: 38: 4237: 2594:Foundations of Modern Arab Identity 2583:Considérations sur le malheur arabe 2177: 1794:from the original on 6 January 2020 1421:Foundations of Modern Arab Identity 361:and the increasing entrenchment of 110: 27:Cultural movement in the Arab world 24: 4292: 2524: 2035:. Jerusalem Academic Press. 1973. 1718:from the original on 10 March 2021 1315: 449: 412: 58:it lacks sufficient corresponding 25: 5404: 3618:Role of the Egyptian Armed Forces 2612: 1466:The University of Texas at Austin 1428: 940:and his son-in-law the historian 596: 256:Takhlis al-Ibriz fi Talkhis Bariz 4670: 4246: 4236: 4226: 4217: 4216: 3475:Refugees of the Syrian civil war 2678: 2508:(in German). Rodopi Publishers. 1741:. Springer Nature. p. 172. 1271:led to the modernization of the 1269:European and American literature 1030:A group of young writers formed 198: 43: 3959:Identification card controversy 2604:Fruma Zachs and Sharon Halevi, 2301: 2285: 2260: 2235: 2205: 2157: 2148: 2121: 2103: 2094: 2078: 2051: 2039:from the original on 3 May 2021 2023: 2011:from the original on 6 May 2021 1994: 1955: 1916: 1904:from the original on 8 May 2021 1887: 1878: 1819: 1806: 1780:. Horatius Press. p. 223. 1730: 1663: 1647: 1623: 1611: 1595: 1364: 1338:. The first salon in Cairo was 566:and the military based al-Ahd. 409:was also part of the movement. 2865:Khedivate and Kingdom of Egypt 2557:A History of Islamic Societies 2485:. Princeton University Press. 2444:. Edinburgh University Press. 1583: 1557: 1511: 1479: 1454: 1391: 1263:Encyclopedias and dictionaries 1168:in the Middle East was in the 1058:. At about the same time, the 844:was the first Arabic-language 295:(born 1805 or 1806; died 1887) 13: 1: 3173: 2535:A History of the Arab Peoples 1385: 928: 736: 480: 5129:Energy and mineral resources 4929:Supreme Constitutional Court 3492:Twin towns and sister cities 3332: 3004:Assassination of Anwar Sadat 2217:www.oxfordislamicstudies.com 1852:"The New Christian Question" 1670:Gran, Peter (January 2002). 1438:Ansari, Abdul Latif (2010). 915:, was Arab Orthodox, as was 359:1860 Druze–Maronite conflict 7: 5151:Water supply and sanitation 5051:Weapons of mass destruction 4954:Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party 4020:Vehicle registration plates 3698: 3674:Water supply and sanitation 3509: 2692: 2621:– by Mursi Saad ed-Din, in 2599:University Press of Florida 2188:""العروة الوثقى" عبر الهند" 2007:. Unity Freedom Socialism. 1900:. Northeastern University. 1894:Fahrenthold, Stacy (2014). 1569:. BRILL. 26 February 2015. 1464:. College of Liberal Arts, 1345: 1326:Different salons appeared. 1267:The efforts at translating 622: 121: 10: 5409: 5046:Chief of the General Staff 4974:National Progressive Front 4646:independent First Republic 3679:Water resources management 2561:Cambridge University Press 2344: 1319: 1294:In the late 19th century, 1157: 970: 955: 911:, a prominent Palestinian 887:were Christians, like the 626: 453: 416: 315: 281: 207: 137:-populated regions of the 29: 5324: 5245: 5172: 5163: 5121: 5072: 5063: 5014: 4829: 4820: 4781: 4730: 4692: 4688: 4679: 4668: 4600: 4583: 4485: 4377: 4331: 4313: 4304: 4212: 4038: 3710: 3706: 3693: 3574:Impact on the environment 3564:Entrepreneurship policies 3517: 3504: 3340: 3327: 3181: 3168: 3136: 3038: 2704: 2700: 2687: 2463:. Duke University Press. 2032:Asian and African Studies 1535:10.1017/S0020743807070067 1442:. Shodhganja. Chapter 1. 1199:. The Egyptian newspaper 1114:, with one of his works, 811:Syrian Protestant College 391:(not to be confused with 340:family in the village of 260:The Quintessence of Paris 258:(sometimes translated as 3345:Administrative divisions 3021:2011 Egyptian revolution 2962:1952 Egyptian revolution 2758:Lighthouse of Alexandria 1850:Teague, Michael (2010). 1592:, pp. 129–130, 135. 1357: 973:Modern Arabic literature 645:In the religious field, 525:First Constitutional Era 235:. He also witnessed the 4556:Principality of Antioch 3549:Egyptian stock exchange 2479:Watenpaugh, Keith David 2296:Watenpaugh, K. D., 2006 2292:Watenpaugh, H. Z., 2010 2247:archive.islamonline.net 1826:Boueiz Kanaan, Claude. 1737:C. Ellis, Kail (2004). 1698:Pacini, Andrea (1998). 1492:19 January 2006 at the 1376:equality before the law 1235:Jamāl al-Dīn al-Afghānī 1154:Newspapers and journals 807:Saint Joseph University 647:Jamal al-Din al-Afghani 583:Palestinian nationalism 251:and women's education. 73:more precise citations. 5097:International rankings 4743:Anti-Lebanon Mountains 4407:Middle Assyrian Empire 3880:International rankings 2885:Egyptian–Ethiopian War 2643:France as a Role Model 2575:, New York City, 2000. 2504:; de Moor, Ed (eds.). 2418:Moreh, Shmuel (1988). 2381:. Vol. I. Brill. 2165:All the Pasha's Papers 2001:Aflaq, Michel (1977). 1676:Al-Ahram Weekly Online 1285:Modern Standard Arabic 1227: 1149:Dissemination of ideas 1103: 1027: 1006:(1888–1956) published 1004:Muhammad Husayn Haykal 942:Muhammad Jaber Al Safa 772:, politics, business, 762: 686: 642: 619:throughout the 1890s. 468: 431: 330: 296: 293:Ahmad Faris al-Shidyaq 284:Ahmad Faris al-Shidyaq 278:Ahmad Faris al-Shidyaq 222: 182:a constitutional order 32:Nahda (disambiguation) 4902:Government ministries 4452:Neo-Babylonian Empire 3485:Terrorism and tourism 2943:1948 Arab–Israeli War 2775:Library of Alexandria 2645:– by Barbara Winckler 2502:van Gelder, Geert Jan 2375:Jayyusi, Salma Khadra 2128:الكعبي, ضياء (2005). 1678:(568). Archived from 1215: 1185:Muhammad Ali of Egypt 1158:Further information: 1098: 1033:Al-Madrasa al-Ḥadītha 1018: 971:Further information: 919:, Lebanese author of 744: 682: 636: 463: 426: 325: 291: 217: 186:Young Turk Revolution 170:Muhammad Ali of Egypt 5214:(2011–present) 5110:Securities Exchange 4861:Council of Ministers 4616:Haj Fadel Government 4196:World Heritage Sites 4015:Units of measurement 3470:Proposed new capital 3216:Environmental issues 2977:United Arab Republic 2870:Muhammad Ali dynasty 2633:– by Peter Gran, in 2272:www.encyclopedia.com 2170:2 March 2006 at the 1840:Lattouf, 2004, p. 70 1404:19 July 2011 at the 1340:Princess Nazli Fadil 984:Salma Khadra Jayyusi 639:Jamal-al-Din Afghani 601:Al-Shidyaq defended 581:era is the emerging 540:Egyptian nationalism 534:The introduction of 504:Politics and society 4890:Golan Heights claim 4447:Neo-Assyrian Empire 4442:Syro-Hittite states 4332:Prehistorical Syria 3868:Freedom of religion 3763:Mass sexual assault 3128:Timekeeping devices 3026:2013 Rabaa massacre 2999:Egyptian–Libyan War 2131:السرد العربي القديم 2058:Segev, Tom (2000). 1659:. 2006. p. 62. 1397:Adnan A. Musallam, 977:Egyptian literature 854:Abd al-Masih Haddad 815:Al-Hikma University 755:Abd al-Masih Haddad 591:Mandatory Palestine 5383:Islam and politics 5141:Telecommunications 5134:Petroleum industry 4638:Mandatory Republic 4584:Early modern Syria 4339:Levantine corridor 4058:Art (contemporary) 3738:Capital punishment 3628:Telecommunications 3305:Towns and villages 3273:Qattara Depression 3086:Muslim Brotherhood 3056:Cigarette industry 2916:British occupation 2827:Crusader invasions 2797:Rashidun Caliphate 2572:The Battle for God 2313:Ghazoul, Ferial J. 2154:Pascal Zoghbi, "". 1672:"Tahtawi in Paris" 1277:Arabic root system 1244:Al-Urwah al-Wuthqa 1228: 1219:Al-Urwah al-Wuthqa 1112:literary criticism 1104: 1028: 922:The Arab Awakening 909:Khalil al-Sakakini 763: 731:Muslim Brotherhood 696:Al-Urwah al-Wuthqa 687: 643: 571:Syrian nationalism 469: 432: 389:Syrian nationalism 381:Cornelius Van Dyck 338:Maronite Christian 331: 297: 223: 5355: 5354: 5320: 5319: 5159: 5158: 5059: 5058: 4948:Political parties 4885:Foreign relations 4816: 4815: 4812: 4811: 4666: 4665: 4626:Syrian Federation 4561:County of Tripoli 4516:Ikhshidid dynasty 4369:Yarmukian culture 4260: 4259: 4208: 4207: 4204: 4203: 4132:Football stadiums 4063:Botanical gardens 3942:Catholic dioceses 3834:Gender inequality 3758:Human trafficking 3689: 3688: 3623:Tallest buildings 3584:Military industry 3500: 3499: 3441:Political parties 3394:Islamic extremism 3382:Foreign relations 3323: 3322: 3164: 3163: 3160: 3159: 2904:French occupation 2822:Fatimid Caliphate 2817:Ikhshidid dynasty 2515:978-90-5183-397-3 2451:978-0-87840-395-0 2429:978-90-04-08359-2 2410:978-90-04-04795-2 2388:978-90-04-04920-8 2366:978-0-521-27423-4 2071:978-0-8050-4848-3 1975:978-0-7103-0663-0 1936:978-0-8156-0739-7 1856:Al Jadid Magazine 1787:978-1-888456-04-2 1748:978-3-030-54008-1 1711:978-0-19-829388-0 1296:Butrus al-Bustani 1135:Fekry Pasha Abaza 967:Modern literature 893:Constantin Zureiq 885:Arab nationalists 649:(1839–1897) gave 629:Islamic Modernism 479:(first published 357:After the bloody 327:Butrus al-Bustani 318:Butrus al-Bustani 312:Butrus al-Bustani 239:of 1830, against 219:Rifa'a al-Tahtawi 210:Rifa'a al-Tahtawi 204:Rifa'a al-Tahtawi 166:invasion of Egypt 119: 99: 98: 91: 16:(Redirected from 5400: 5393:Arab nationalism 5373:Culture of Egypt 5340: 5333: 5215: 5170: 5169: 5113: 5112:(stock exchange) 5105: 5070: 5069: 4983: 4976: 4967: 4965:regional command 4956: 4827: 4826: 4799:Fertile Crescent 4690: 4689: 4686: 4685: 4674: 4551:County of Edessa 4531:Mirdasid dynasty 4526:Hamdanid dynasty 4505: 4472:Palmyrene Empire 4457:Achaemenid Syria 4344:Natufian culture 4311: 4310: 4287: 4280: 4273: 4264: 4263: 4250: 4249: 4240: 4239: 4230: 4220: 4219: 4025:Waste management 3790:Academic grading 3708: 3707: 3695: 3694: 3667:Railway stations 3645:Cultural tourism 3544:Economic regions 3506: 3505: 3329: 3328: 3170: 3169: 2839:Mamluk Sultanate 2770:Diocese of Egypt 2753:Battle of Actium 2702: 2701: 2689: 2688: 2673: 2666: 2659: 2650: 2649: 2631:Tahtawi in Paris 2519: 2496: 2474: 2455: 2433: 2414: 2392: 2370: 2339: 2338: 2322: 2305: 2299: 2289: 2283: 2282: 2280: 2278: 2264: 2258: 2257: 2255: 2253: 2239: 2233: 2232: 2230: 2228: 2223:on 26 April 2014 2219:. 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He came from 1125:is the work of 1000:anticolonialism 979: 969: 958: 931: 917:George Antonius 832:Arab Christians 823:Arab Christians 766:Arab Christians 739: 705:Islamic prophet 631: 625: 599: 589:immigration to 575:region of Syria 536:parliamentarism 506: 486:region of Syria 473:Francis Marrash 465:Francis Marrash 458: 456:Francis Marrash 452: 450:Francis Marrash 428:Hayreddin Pasha 421: 419:Hayreddin Pasha 415: 413:Hayreddin Pasha 363:confessionalism 320: 314: 286: 280: 272:Islamic culture 249:parliamentarism 237:July Revolution 212: 206: 201: 95: 84: 78: 75: 65:Please help to 64: 48: 44: 35: 28: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 5406: 5396: 5395: 5390: 5385: 5380: 5375: 5370: 5353: 5352: 5350: 5349: 5342: 5341: 5334: 5326: 5325: 5322: 5321: 5318: 5317: 5315: 5314: 5309: 5304: 5299: 5298: 5297: 5292: 5282: 5277: 5272: 5262: 5257: 5251: 5249: 5243: 5242: 5240: 5239: 5234: 5229: 5224: 5223: 5222: 5217: 5209: 5199: 5194: 5189: 5184: 5179: 5173: 5167: 5161: 5160: 5157: 5156: 5154: 5153: 5148: 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2585:, Paris, 2004. 2576: 2564: 2553:Ira M. Lapidus 2550: 2531:Albert Hourani 2526: 2523: 2521: 2520: 2514: 2497: 2492:978-0691121697 2491: 2475: 2470:978-0822348580 2469: 2456: 2450: 2434: 2428: 2415: 2409: 2393: 2387: 2371: 2365: 2348: 2346: 2343: 2341: 2340: 2334:978-9774161469 2333: 2300: 2284: 2259: 2234: 2204: 2176: 2156: 2147: 2140: 2120: 2111:"صحيفة الثورة" 2102: 2093: 2077: 2070: 2050: 2022: 1993: 1974: 1954: 1942: 1935: 1915: 1886: 1877: 1842: 1833: 1818: 1805: 1786: 1766: 1754: 1747: 1729: 1710: 1685: 1662: 1646: 1634: 1622: 1620:, p. 114. 1610: 1608:, p. 247. 1604:, p. 95; 1594: 1582: 1575: 1556: 1519:Stephen Sheehi 1510: 1506:Stephen Sheehi 1498: 1478: 1453: 1427: 1417:Stephen Sheehi 1409: 1389: 1387: 1384: 1381: 1380: 1372:equal suffrage 1362: 1361: 1359: 1356: 1355: 1354: 1347: 1344: 1317: 1314: 1264: 1261: 1231:Muhammad Abduh 1166:printing press 1155: 1152: 1150: 1147: 1082:(1898–1989). 968: 965: 957: 954: 930: 927: 874:Greek Orthodox 842:The Pen League 828:Sursock family 799:Ottoman Empire 738: 735: 691:Muhammad Abduh 684:Muhammad Abduh 673:Abdul Hamid II 624: 621: 603:women's rights 598: 597:Women's rights 595: 517:Ottoman Empire 505: 502: 477:Ghabat al-haqq 454:Main article: 451: 448: 417:Main article: 414: 411: 405:Bustani's son 399:Stephen Sheehi 316:Main article: 313: 310: 282:Main article: 279: 276: 208:Main article: 205: 202: 200: 197: 180:which brought 178:Ottoman Empire 139:Ottoman Empire 127:Arab Awakening 97: 96: 51: 49: 42: 26: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 5405: 5394: 5391: 5389: 5386: 5384: 5381: 5379: 5376: 5374: 5371: 5369: 5366: 5365: 5363: 5348: 5345: 5344: 5339: 5335: 5332: 5328: 5327: 5323: 5313: 5310: 5308: 5305: 5303: 5300: 5296: 5293: 5291: 5288: 5287: 5286: 5283: 5281: 5278: 5276: 5273: 5270: 5266: 5263: 5261: 5258: 5256: 5253: 5252: 5250: 5248: 5244: 5238: 5235: 5233: 5230: 5228: 5225: 5221: 5218: 5216: 5210: 5208: 5205: 5204: 5203: 5200: 5198: 5195: 5193: 5190: 5188: 5185: 5183: 5180: 5178: 5175: 5174: 5171: 5168: 5166: 5162: 5152: 5149: 5147: 5144: 5142: 5139: 5135: 5132: 5131: 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2507: 2503: 2498: 2494: 2488: 2484: 2480: 2476: 2472: 2466: 2462: 2457: 2453: 2447: 2443: 2439: 2435: 2431: 2425: 2421: 2416: 2412: 2406: 2402: 2398: 2397:Moreh, Shmuel 2394: 2390: 2384: 2380: 2376: 2372: 2368: 2362: 2358: 2354: 2350: 2349: 2336: 2330: 2326: 2321: 2320: 2314: 2310: 2309:Ashour, Radwa 2304: 2298:, p. 52. 2297: 2293: 2288: 2273: 2269: 2263: 2248: 2244: 2238: 2222: 2218: 2214: 2208: 2193: 2189: 2183: 2181: 2173: 2169: 2166: 2160: 2151: 2143: 2141:9953-36-784-1 2137: 2133: 2132: 2124: 2116: 2112: 2106: 2097: 2091:, p. 23. 2090: 2086: 2081: 2073: 2067: 2063: 2062: 2054: 2038: 2034: 2033: 2026: 2010: 2006: 2005: 1997: 1981: 1977: 1971: 1968:. Routledge. 1967: 1966: 1958: 1952:, p. 85. 1951: 1946: 1938: 1932: 1928: 1927: 1919: 1903: 1899: 1898: 1890: 1881: 1865: 1861: 1857: 1853: 1846: 1837: 1829: 1822: 1815: 1809: 1793: 1789: 1783: 1779: 1778: 1770: 1763: 1758: 1750: 1744: 1740: 1733: 1717: 1713: 1707: 1703: 1702: 1694: 1692: 1690: 1681: 1677: 1673: 1666: 1658: 1657: 1650: 1643: 1638: 1632:, p. 45. 1631: 1626: 1619: 1618:Suleiman 2003 1614: 1607: 1603: 1598: 1591: 1590:Wielandt 1992 1586: 1578: 1576:9789004289857 1572: 1568: 1567: 1560: 1552: 1548: 1544: 1540: 1536: 1532: 1528: 1524: 1520: 1514: 1507: 1502: 1495: 1491: 1488: 1485:Peter Gran, " 1482: 1467: 1463: 1457: 1449: 1445: 1441: 1434: 1432: 1425: 1422: 1418: 1413: 1407: 1403: 1400: 1394: 1390: 1377: 1373: 1367: 1363: 1353: 1350: 1349: 1343: 1341: 1337: 1333: 1329: 1323: 1313: 1311: 1310: 1309:Matn al-Lugha 1305: 1301: 1297: 1292: 1290: 1286: 1282: 1278: 1274: 1270: 1260: 1258: 1254: 1250: 1246: 1245: 1240: 1236: 1232: 1225: 1221: 1220: 1214: 1210: 1208: 1204: 1203: 1198: 1194: 1189: 1186: 1181: 1179: 1175: 1171: 1167: 1161: 1146: 1145: 1143: 1140: 1139:Tharwat Abaza 1136: 1132: 1128: 1124: 1119: 1117: 1113: 1109: 1101: 1097: 1093: 1091: 1087: 1083: 1081: 1080:Mikhail Naimy 1077: 1073: 1072:New York City 1069: 1065: 1064:Kahlil Gibran 1061: 1057: 1053: 1049: 1045: 1041: 1040: 1035: 1034: 1025: 1021: 1020:Kahlil Gibran 1017: 1013: 1011: 1010: 1005: 1001: 997: 996:Hafez Ibrahim 993: 989: 985: 978: 974: 964: 961: 953: 951: 947: 943: 939: 935: 926: 925: 923: 918: 914: 910: 906: 902: 898: 894: 891:intellectual 890: 886: 881: 879: 876:and two were 875: 871: 867: 866:Mikhail Naimy 863: 862:Elia Abu Madi 859: 858:Kahlil Gibran 855: 851: 847: 843: 839: 835: 833: 829: 824: 820: 816: 812: 808: 802: 800: 796: 791: 787: 783: 779: 775: 771: 767: 760: 759:Mikhail Naimy 756: 752: 751:Kahlil Gibran 748: 743: 734: 732: 728: 724: 723:Islamic state 720: 715: 713: 709: 706: 702: 698: 697: 692: 685: 681: 677: 674: 670: 666: 665: 660: 659:authoritarian 656: 652: 648: 640: 635: 630: 620: 618: 614: 610: 609: 604: 594: 592: 588: 584: 580: 576: 572: 567: 565: 561: 557: 553: 549: 545: 541: 537: 532: 530: 526: 522: 518: 515:In 1876, the 513: 511: 501: 499: 493: 489: 487: 478: 474: 466: 462: 457: 447: 443: 441: 437: 429: 425: 420: 410: 408: 403: 400: 396: 394: 390: 384: 382: 378: 373: 371: 370:Nafir Suriyya 366: 364: 360: 355: 352: 347: 343: 339: 336: 328: 324: 319: 309: 305: 301: 294: 290: 285: 275: 273: 269: 265: 261: 257: 252: 250: 246: 242: 238: 234: 229: 220: 216: 211: 199:Early figures 196: 194: 189: 187: 183: 179: 175: 171: 167: 163: 158: 156: 152: 148: 144: 141:, notably in 140: 136: 132: 131:Enlightenment 128: 123: 117: 108: 104: 93: 90: 82: 72: 68: 62: 61: 55: 50: 41: 40: 37: 33: 19: 5388:Arab culture 5260:Coat of arms 5182:Demographics 5082:Central Bank 4963: / 4924:High council 4907:Human rights 4834:Constitution 4712:Governorates 4610:Arab kingdom 4602:Modern Syria 4574:Mamluk Syria 4502: 4078:Coat of arms 4048:Architecture 3937:Christianity 3917:Prostitution 3863:Human rights 3822:Abaza family 3810:Universities 3775:Demographics 3728:Billionaires 3372:Constitution 3367:Conscription 3350:Governorates 3231:Halfaya Pass 3101:1954–present 3061:Constitution 3016:2010s Crisis 2928:World War II 2890:Urabi revolt 2874: 2807:Islamization 2741:31st Dynasty 2736:27th Dynasty 2634: 2622: 2605: 2592: 2582: 2579:Samir Kassir 2570: 2556: 2539:Warner Books 2537:, New York: 2534: 2505: 2482: 2460: 2441: 2419: 2400: 2378: 2356: 2318: 2303: 2287: 2275:. Retrieved 2271: 2262: 2250:. Retrieved 2246: 2237: 2225:. Retrieved 2221:the original 2216: 2207: 2195:. Retrieved 2191: 2159: 2150: 2130: 2123: 2115:صحيفة الثورة 2114: 2105: 2096: 2089:Jayyusi 1977 2080: 2060: 2053: 2041:. Retrieved 2031: 2025: 2013:. Retrieved 2003: 1996: 1984:. Retrieved 1964: 1957: 1945: 1925: 1918: 1906:. Retrieved 1896: 1889: 1880: 1868:. Retrieved 1859: 1855: 1845: 1836: 1827: 1821: 1813: 1808: 1796:. Retrieved 1776: 1769: 1762:Hourani 1983 1757: 1738: 1732: 1720:. Retrieved 1700: 1680:the original 1675: 1665: 1655: 1649: 1644:, p. 44 1637: 1625: 1613: 1606:Hourani 1983 1597: 1585: 1565: 1559: 1526: 1522: 1513: 1501: 1481: 1471:27 September 1469:. Retrieved 1456: 1448:10603/116505 1439: 1412: 1393: 1366: 1325: 1307: 1300:lexicography 1293: 1266: 1248: 1242: 1229: 1217: 1207:Saleem Takla 1200: 1196: 1190: 1182: 1163: 1131:Abaza family 1120: 1115: 1105: 1086:Jurji Zaydan 1084: 1043: 1037: 1031: 1029: 1007: 992:Ahmad Shawqi 990:. In Egypt, 988:Shmuel Moreh 980: 962: 959: 932: 920: 913:Jerusalemite 905:Jurji Zaydan 901:Michel Aflaq 882: 880:Christians. 870:Ameen Rihani 836: 803: 764: 729:such as the 716: 694: 688: 662: 644: 616: 613:Esther Moyal 608:Leg Over Leg 606: 600: 578: 568: 533: 514: 507: 494: 490: 476: 470: 444: 433: 404: 397: 385: 374: 369: 367: 356: 332: 306: 302: 298: 268:Muslim world 264:rhymed prose 259: 255: 253: 224: 190: 159: 130: 126: 102: 100: 85: 76: 57: 36: 5077:Agriculture 5034:air defense 4994:Nationalism 4654:(1950–1963) 4593:(1516–1918) 4576:(1260–1516) 4570:(1174–1260) 4467:Roman Syria 4359:Abu Hureyra 4354:Uruk period 4242:WikiProject 4003:Scientology 3873:LGBT rights 3795:Law schools 3579:Lighthouses 3522:Agriculture 3251:Mount Sinai 3211:Earthquakes 3011:Mubarak era 2982:Six-Day War 2972:Suez Crisis 2967:Land reform 2714:Prehistoric 2252:12 November 2227:12 November 1798:29 December 1764:, p. . 1239:pan-Islamic 1205:founded by 1123:Pan-Arabism 1048:Dostoyevsky 850:Nasib Arida 747:Nasib Arida 719:Rashid Rida 655:Pan-Islamic 560:World War I 544:Young Turks 430:(1820–1890) 221:(1801–1873) 71:introducing 5362:Categories 5295:television 5177:Censorship 5104:(currency) 4936:Parliament 4895:Iskandaron 4839:Corruption 4402:Canaanites 4154:Newspapers 4144:Mass media 3996:Synagogues 3964:Irreligion 3912:Literature 3907:Liberalism 3846:Healthcare 3748:Corruption 3431:Parliament 3362:Corruption 3357:Civil Code 3300:Suez Canal 3258:Nile Delta 3143:Alexandria 3113:Population 3108:Parliament 3076:Healthcare 2957:Nasser era 2731:Achaemenid 2706:Chronology 2619:Plain talk 2559:, 2nd Ed. 2277:7 December 2197:7 December 2085:Moreh 1976 2043:29 October 2015:29 October 1986:29 October 1950:Moreh 1976 1908:29 October 1722:21 October 1642:Moreh 1976 1630:Moreh 1976 1602:Moreh 1988 1529:(2): 186. 1386:References 1320:See also: 1304:Ahmad Rida 1289:Arab world 1237:'s weekly 1164:The first 1090:May Ziadeh 1078:, such as 1068:Pen League 938:Ahmad Rida 929:Shia Islam 838:The Mahjar 774:philosophy 770:literature 737:Christians 627:See also: 617:The Family 562:, such as 556:Caliphates 510:Adib Ishaq 193:the Levant 79:April 2008 54:references 5237:Squatting 5212:refugees 5187:Education 5146:Transport 5087:Companies 5029:Air force 5006:Terrorism 4919:Judiciary 4880:Elections 4844:President 4748:Euphrates 4738:Al-Jazira 4722:Volcanoes 4707:Districts 4681:Geography 4658:Civil war 4648:(1946–50) 4640:(1930–46) 4634:(1925–30) 4628:(1922–25) 4149:Magazines 4139:Egyptians 3974:Ahmadiyya 3885:Languages 3851:Hospitals 3785:Education 3652:Transport 3611:Aswan Dam 3539:Companies 3480:Terrorism 3446:President 3409:Massacres 3399:Judiciary 3377:Elections 3246:Mountains 3175:Geography 3153:Port Said 3096:1939–1954 3091:1928–1938 3046:Anarchism 2989:Sadat era 2933:Sultanate 2880:Khedivate 2780:Christian 2748:Ptolemaic 2541:, 1991. 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