Afro–Puerto Ricans

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if they have parents who appear to be of distinctly different "races". Puerto Rico underwent a "whitening" process while under U.S. rule. There was a dramatic change in the numbers of people who were classified as "black" and "white" Puerto Ricans in the 1920 census, as compared to that in 1910. The numbers classified as "Black" declined sharply from one census to another (within 10 years' time). Historians suggest that more Puerto Ricans classified others as white because it was advantageous to do so at that time. In those years, census takers were generally the ones to enter the racial classification. Due to the power of Southern white Democrats, the US Census dropped the category of mulatto or mixed race in the 1930 census, enforcing the artificial binary classification of black and white. Census respondents were not allowed to choose their own classifications until the late 20th and early 21st centuries. It may have been that it was popularly thought it would be easier to advance economically and socially with the US if one were "white".

3592: 3573: 3863: 298: 3145: 2730:, who had accompanied Ponce de León, was outraged at the Spanish treatment of the Taíno. In 1512 he protested at the council of Burgos at the Spanish Court. He fought for the freedom of the natives and was able to secure their rights. The Spanish colonists, fearing the loss of their labor force, also protested before the courts. They complained that they needed manpower to work in the mines, build forts, and supply labor for the thriving sugar cane plantations. As an alternative, Las Casas suggested the importation and use of African slaves. In 1517, the Spanish Crown permitted its subjects to import twelve slaves each, thereby beginning the African 2788:(hut) on the master's land, and were given a patch of land where they could plant and grow vegetables and fruits. Africans had little or no opportunity for advancement and faced discrimination from the Spaniards. Slaves were educated by their masters and soon learned to speak the master's language, educating their own children in the new language. They enriched the "Puerto Rican Spanish" language by adding words of their own. The Spaniards considered Africans more malleable than the Taíno, since the latter were unwilling to assimilate. The slaves, in contrast, had little choice but to adapt to their lives. Many converted (at least nominally) to 3588:

can still be felt today in Puerto Rico's art, music, cuisine, and religious beliefs in everyday life. In Puerto Rico, March 22 is known as "Abolition Day" and it is a holiday celebrated by those who live in the island. The Spanish's limited focus on assimilating the black population, and maroon communities established from slave plantations, contributed to the majority African influence in black Puerto Rican culture. High amounts of interracial marriage and reproducing, since the 1500s, is the reason why the majority of Puerto Ricans are mixed-race European, African, Taino, but only a small number are of predominant or full African ancestry.

3329:, which ended the centuries-long Spanish control over Puerto Rico. Like with other former Spanish colonies, it now belonged to the United States. With the United States control over the island's institutions also came a reduction of the natives' political participation. In effect, the U.S. military government defeated the success of decades of negotiations for political autonomy between Puerto Rico's political class and Madrid's colonial administration. Puerto Ricans of African descent, aware of the opportunities and difficulties for blacks in the United States, responded in various ways. The racial bigotry of the 2028: 3887: 4341: 4065:

white, 17.5% identify as black or black in combination with another race, 2.3% as Amerindian, 0.3% as Asian, and 74% as "Some Other Race Alone or in Combination." Although estimates vary, most sources estimate that about 60% of Puerto Ricans have significant African ancestry. The vast majority of blacks in Puerto Rico are Afro–Puerto Rican, meaning they have been in Puerto Rico for generations, usually since the slave trade, forming an important part of Puerto Rican culture and society. Recent black immigrants have come to Puerto Rico, mainly from the

3277:, which once was a Moorish stronghold, was inhabited by thousands of Africans. Africans became freemen after converting to Christianity, and they lived integrated in Spanish society. African women were highly sought after by Spanish males. Spain's exposure to people of color over the centuries accounted for the positive racial attitudes that prevailed in the New World. Historian Robert Martínez thought it was unsurprising that the first conquistadors intermarried with the native Taíno and later with the African immigrants. 3875: 3851: 7884: 4327: 2661: 2296: 9361: 3293:(of mixed race). By the time Spain reestablished commercial ties with Puerto Rico, the island had a large multiracial population. After the Spanish Crown issued the Royal Decree of Graces of 1815, it attracted many European immigrants, in effect "whitening" the island into the 1850s. But, the new arrivals also intermarried with native islanders, and added to the multiracial population. They also identified with the island, rather than simply with the rulers. 3767: 3748: 4292:. In 1968, she founded the Afro-Boricua El Coqui Theater, which was recognized by the Panamerican Association of the New World Festival as the most important authority of Black Puerto Rican culture. The Theater group were given a contract which permitted them to present their act in other countries and in various universities in the United States. In 1981, del Villard became the first and only director of the Office of Afro–Puerto Rican Affairs of the 3365: 3314: 3906: 4278:(1910–1996), also known as "The Patriarch of Bomba and Plena", was the patriarch of the Cepeda family. The family is one of the most famous exponents of Puerto Rican folk music, with generations of musicians working to preserve the African heritage in Puerto Rican music. The family is well known for their performances of the bomba and plena folkloric music and are considered by many to be the keepers of those traditional genres. 98: 9371: 4110:

factors that may possibly perpetuate this trend include: more Puerto Ricans may start to identify as black, due to increasing black pride and African cultural awareness throughout the island, as well as an increasing number of black immigrants, especially from the Dominican Republic and Haiti, many of whom are illegal immigrants, and increasing emigration of white Puerto Ricans to the mainland US.

3229: 3841:(1931–1987) and the El Conjunto Monterrey orchestra introduced Bomba and Plena to the rest of the world. What Rafael Cortijo did with his orchestra was to modernize the Puerto Rican folkloric rhythms with the use of piano, bass, saxophones, trumpets, and other percussion instruments such as timbales, bongos, and replace the typical barriles (skin covered barrels) with congas. 2856:, which fought against the British in the many British attempts to invade the island. The escaped slaves and the freedmen who emigrated from the West Indies used their former master's surnames, which were typically either English or French. In the 21st century, some ethnic African Puerto Ricans still carry non-Spanish surnames, proof of their descent from these immigrants. 3675:. Slaves came from all parts of the western coast of Africa, from Senegal to Angola. The Yoruba and Congolese made the most notable impacts to Puerto Rican culture. There's been evidence of intercolonial migration between Puerto Rico and its neighbors during the 1700s and 1800s, which consisted of migration of free blacks and purchases of slaves from neighboring islands. 3348:(1874–1938). After emigrating to New York City in the United States, he amassed an extensive collection in preserving manuscripts and other materials of black Americans and the African diaspora. He is considered by some to be the "Father of Black History" in the United States, and a major study center and collection of the New York Public Library is named for him, the 3053:. The decree encouraged the use of slave labor to revive agriculture and attract new settlers. The new agricultural class immigrating from other countries of Europe used slave labor in large numbers, and harsh treatment was frequent. The slaves resisted -from the early 1820s until 1868, a series of slave uprisings occurred on the island; the last was known as the 4056:), the worshiper is not always a "Santero". Santeros are the priests and the only official practitioners. (These "Santeros" are not to be confused with the Puerto Rico's craftsmen who carve and create religious statues from wood, which are also called Santeros). A person becomes a Santero if he passes certain tests and has been chosen by the Orishas. 2699:'s entourage. Garrido was born on the West African coast, the son of an African king. In 1508, he joined Juan Ponce de León to explore Puerto Rico and prospect for gold. In 1511, he fought under Ponce de León to repress the Carib and the Taíno, who had joined forces in Puerto Rico in a great revolt against the Spaniards. Garrido next joined 2886: 4260:(c. 1680–17??), was a former pirate who became Puerto Rico's first black military hero by organizing an expeditionary force that defeated the British in the island of Vieques. Capt. Henriques was received as a national hero when he returned the island of Vieques back to the Spanish Empire and Puerto Rico. He was awarded " 3388:. As citizens Puerto Ricans were eligible for the military draft, and many were drafted into the armed forces of the United States during World War I. The armed forces were segregated until after World War II. Puerto Ricans of African descent were subject to the discrimination which was rampant in the military and the U.S. 4042:. Santería is widely practiced in the town of Loíza. Sister traditions emerged in their own particular ways on many of the smaller islands. Similarly, throughout Europe, early Christianity absorbed influences from differing practices among the peoples, which varied considerably according to region, language and ethnicity. 3249:, but the latter did not own their land. They simply farmed another's land, for a share of the crops raised. The government created the Protector's Office which was in charge of overseeing the transition. The Protector's Office was to pay any difference owed to the former master once the initial contract expired. 3712: 3236:

On March 22, 1873, slavery was abolished in Puerto Rico, but with one significant caveat. The slaves were not emancipated; they had to buy their own freedom, at whatever price was set by their last masters. The law required that the former slaves work for another three years for their former masters,

4064:

Considering the 2020 Census is the first to allow respondents to apply multiple races in their responses, there is considerable overlap that while appearing contradictory is in reality reflective of Puerto Rico's mixed history and population. As of the 2020 Census, 17.1% of Puerto Ricans identify as

3086:

Planters became nervous because of the large number of slaves; they ordered restrictions, particularly on their movements outside a plantation. Rose Clemente, a 21st-century black Puerto Rican columnist, wrote: "Until 1846, Blacks on the island had to carry a notebook (Libreta system) to move around

4033:

is believed to have been organized in Cuba among its slaves. The Yoruba were brought to many places in the Caribbean and Latin America. They carried their traditions with them, and in some places, they held onto more of them. In Puerto Rico and Trinidad Christianity was dominant. Although converted

3563:

Critics of discrimination say that a majority of Puerto Ricans are racially mixed, but that they do not feel the need to identify as such. They argue that Puerto Ricans tend to assume that they are of Black African, American Indian, and European ancestry and only identify themselves as "mixed" only

3103:

to attract European immigrants from non-Spanish countries to populate the island, believing that these new immigrants would be more loyal to Spain than the mixed-race Criollos. However, they did not expect the new immigrants to racially intermarry, as they did, and to identify completely with their

4088:

Under Spanish and American rule, Puerto Rico underwent a whitening process. Puerto Rico went from around 50% of its population classified as black and mulatto in the first quarter of the 19th century, to nearly 80% classified white by the middle of the 20th century. Under Spanish rule, Puerto Rico

3587:

The descendants of the former slaves became instrumental in the development of Puerto Rico's political, economic and cultural structure. They overcame many obstacles and have contributed to the island's entertainment, sports, literature and scientific institutions. Their contributions and heritage

3252:

The majority of the freed slaves continued to work for their former masters, but as free people, receiving wages for their labor. If the former slave decided not to work for his former master, the Protectors Office would pay the former master 23% of the former slave's estimated value, as a form of

3219:

The Moret Law established the Central Slave Registrar. In 1872 it began gathering the following data on the island's slave population: name, country of origin, present residence, names of parents, sex, marital status, trade, age, physical description, and master's name. This has been an invaluable

3131:

a person of African ancestry could be considered legally white if able to prove they also had ancestors with at least one person per generation in the last four generations who had been legally white. Therefore, people of black ancestry with known white lineage became classified as white. This was

4109:

Afro–Puerto Rican youth are learning more of their peoples' history from textbooks that encompass more Afro–Puerto Rican history. The 2010 US census recorded the first drop of the percentage whites made up of Puerto Rico, and the first rise in the black percentage, in over a century. Many of the

3821:

The slaves celebrated baptisms, weddings, and births with the "bailes de bomba". Slaveowners, for fear of a rebellion, allowed the dances on Sundays. The women dancers would mimic and poke fun at the slave owners. Masks were and still are worn to ward off evil spirits and pirates. One of the most

4219:, Puerto Rico. Of African descent, he became known as "The Father of Public Education in Puerto Rico". Cordero was a self-educated Puerto Rican who provided free schooling to children regardless of their race. Among the distinguished alumni who attended Cordero's school were future abolitionists 3991:

The Inquisition maintained no rota or religious court in Puerto Rico. However, heretics were written up and if necessary remanded to regional Inquisitional tribunals in Spain or elsewhere in the western hemisphere. Africans were not allowed to practice non-Christian, native religious beliefs. No

3288:

When the gold mines were declared depleted in 1570 and mining came to an end in Puerto Rico, the majority of the white Spanish settlers left the island to seek their fortunes in the richer colonies such as Mexico; the island became a Spanish garrison. The majority of those who stayed behind were

2925:

The native-born Puerto Ricans (criollos) who wanted to serve in the regular Spanish army petitioned the Spanish Crown for that right. In 1741, the Spanish government established the Regimiento Fijo de Puerto Rico. Many of the former slaves, now freedmen, joined either the Fijo or the local civil

2901:

Under "El Código Negro", a slave could buy his freedom, in the event that his master was willing to sell, by paying the price sought. Slaves were allowed to earn money during their spare time by working as shoemakers, cleaning clothes, or selling the produce they grew on their own plots of land.

3284:

in preserving the human dignity and working for the social integration of the African man in Puerto Rico. The church insisted that every slave be baptized and converted to the Catholic faith. Church doctrine held that master and slave were equal before the eyes of God, and therefore brothers in

2893:

In 1789, the Spanish Crown issued the "Royal Decree of Graces of 1789", which set new rules related to the slave trade and added restrictions to the granting of freedman status. The decree granted its subjects the right to purchase slaves and to participate in the flourishing slave trade in the

2816:

mines were depleted. After gold mining ended on the island, the Spanish Crown bypassed Puerto Rico by moving the western shipping routes to the north. The island became primarily a garrison for those ships that would pass on their way to or from richer colonies. The cultivation of crops such as

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encouraged immigration from other European countries. Heavy European immigration swelled Puerto Rico's population to about one million by the end of the 19th century, decreasing the proportion Africans made of Puerto Rico. In the early decades under US rule, census takers began to shift from

3930:, small bundles of meat stuffed into a dough made of grated green banana (sometimes combined with pumpkin, potatoes, plantains, or yautía) and wrapped in plantain leaves, were devised by African women on the island and based upon food products that originated in Africa."—Nydia Rios de Colon, 2796:

and were given the surnames of their masters. Many slaves were subject to harsh treatment; and women were subject to sexual abuse. The majority of the Conquistadors and farmers who settled the island had arrived without women; many of them intermarried with the African or Taíno women. Their

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The following lists only include only the number of people who identify as black and do not attempt to estimate everyone with African ancestry. As noted in the earlier discussion, several of these cities were places where freedmen gathered after gaining freedom, establishing communities.

2902:

Slaves were able to pay for their freedom by installments. They pay in installments for the freedom of their newborn child, not yet baptized, at a cost of half the going price for a baptized child. Many of these freedmen started settlements in the areas which became known as Cangrejos (

4682:

Via, Marc; Gignoux, Christopher R.; Roth, Lindsey A.; Fejerman, Laura; Galanter, Joshua; Choudhry, Shweta; Toro-Labrador, Gladys; Viera-Vera, Jorge; Oleksyk, Taras K.; Beckman, Kenneth; Ziv, Elad; Risch, Neil; Burchard, Esteban González; Martínez-Cruzado, Juan Carlos (31 January 2011).

4106:

classifying people as black to "white" and the society underwent what was called a "whitening" process from the 1910 to the 1920 census, in particular. During the mid 20th century, the US government forcefully sterilized Puerto Rican women, especially non-white Puerto Rican women.

3240:

The former slaves earned money in a variety of ways: some by trades, for instance as shoemakers, or laundering clothes, or by selling the produce they were allowed to grow, in the small patches of land allotted to them by their former masters. In a sense, they resembled the black

2824:

supplanted mining as Puerto Rico's main industry and kept demand high for African slavery. Spain promoted sugar cane development by granting loans and tax exemptions to the owners of the plantations. They were also given permits to participate in the African slave trade.

3344:(1857–1921). On July 4, 1899, he founded the pro-statehood Puerto Rican Republican Party and became known as the "Father of the Statehood for Puerto Rico" movement. Another distinguished Puerto Rican of African descent, who advocated Puerto Rico's independence, was 3947:, one of the island's best-known dishes, is a ball of fried mashed plantain stuffed with pork crackling, crab, lobster, shrimp, or a combination of all of them. Puerto Rico's cuisine embraces its African roots, weaving them into its Indian and Spanish influences." 2714:

The peace between the Spanish and the Taíno was short-lived. The Spanish took advantage of the Taínos' good faith and enslaved them, forcing them to work in the gold mines and in the construction of forts. Many Taíno died, particularly due to epidemics of

3064:

planned and conspired to lead a slave revolt against the sugar plantation owners and the Spanish Colonial government. Although the conspiracy was suppressed, Xiorro achieved legendary status among the slaves, and is part of Puerto Rico's heroic folklore.

1796: 6402: 3812:

Bomba and Plena were played during the festival of Santiago (St. James), since slaves were not allowed to worship their own gods. Bomba and Plena evolved into countless styles based on the kind of dance intended to be used. These included

2777:. The number of slaves in Puerto Rico rose from 1,500 in 1530 to 15,000 by 1555. The slaves were stamped with a hot iron on the forehead, a branding which meant that they were brought to the country legally and prevented their kidnapping. 3522:

division. The event was also historic because it was the first time that Puerto Rico had participated as a nation in an international sporting event. It was common for impoverished Puerto Ricans to use boxing as a way to earn an income.

3272:

who had crossed over from North Africa. The first African slaves were brought to Spain during Arab domination by North African merchants. By the middle of the 13th century, Christians had reconquered the Iberian peninsula. A section of

3076:/black people), and 54% were white. In the following decade, the number of the slave population increased more than tenfold to 258,000, the result mostly of increased importation to meet the demand for labor on sugar plantations. 3167:(1829–1867), founded a clandestine organization called "The Secret Abolitionist Society". The objective of the society was to free slave children by paying for freedom when they were baptized. The event, which was also known as 3513:

became the first Puerto Rican boxer to gain international recognition when he fought against (Panama) Joe Gan at the "Palace Casino" in New York. In the 1948 Summer Olympics (the XIV Olympics), celebrated in London, boxer

2804:

In 1527, the first major slave rebellion occurred in Puerto Rico, as dozen of slaves fought against the colonists in a brief revolt. The few slaves who escaped retreated to the forests and mountains, where they resided as

2817:

tobacco, cotton, cocoa, and ginger became the cornerstone of the economy. With the scale of Puerto Rico's economy reduced, colonial families tended to farm these crops themselves, and the demand for slaves was reduced.

3691:

that was Spanish-based, with Congolese and Portuguese influence. Although Bozal Spanish became extinct in the nineteenth century, the African influence in the Spanish spoken in the island is still evident in the many

6922: 2848:, with African and European ancestry (typically either British or French paternal ancestry, depending on the colony.) The immigrants provided a population base to support the Puerto Rican garrison and its forts. 3430:

regiment, which was stationed in Puerto Rico and never saw combat. Albizu Campos later said that the discrimination which he witnessed in the Armed Forces, influenced the development of his political beliefs.

3094:

After the successful slave rebellion against the French in Saint-Domingue (Haiti) in 1803, establishing a new republic, the Spanish Crown became fearful that the "Criollos" (native born) of Puerto Rico and

2869:

Any slave who received part of his master's estate in his master's will was automatically freed (these bequests were sometimes made to the master's mixed-race slave children, as well as to other slaves for

7382: 3518:

made sports history by becoming Puerto Rico's first Olympic medal winner when he beat Belgium's representative, Callenboat, on points for a unanimous decision. He won the bronze medal in boxing in the

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with surviving Taínos. During the following centuries, by 1873 slaves had carried out more than twenty revolts. Some were of great political importance, such as the Ponce and Vega Baja conspiracies.

1791: 6432: 4081:

have moved and settled in Puerto Rico. Also, many Afro–Puerto Ricans have migrated out of Puerto Rico, namely to the United States. There and in the US Virgin Islands, they make up the bulk of the

2866:

A slave could be freed against his master's will by denouncing a forced rape, by denouncing a counterfeiter, by discovering disloyalty against the king, and by denouncing murder against his master.

4797: 7163: 7360: 4245:(1751–1809), born a free man, contributed to the island's culture. Campeche's father, Tomás Campeche, was a freed slave born in Puerto Rico, and his mother María Jordán Marqués came from the 4661: 4585: 3992:

single organized ethnic African religion survived intact from the times of slavery to the present in Puerto Rico. But, many elements of African spiritual beliefs have been incorporated into

3500: 3801:

by blacks who immigrated north from the English-speaking islands south of Puerto Rico. Plena is a rhythm that is clearly African and very similar to Calypso, Soca and Dance hall music from

7470: 6792: 7412: 2027: 9081: 3958: 3794:

are likewise rooted in Africa. Bomba represents the strong African influence in Puerto Rico. Bomba is a music, rhythm and dance that was brought by West African slaves to the island.

3216:, which provided for gradual abolition. This edict granted freedom to slaves over 60 years of age, those belonging to the state, and children born to slaves after September 17, 1868. 6669: 4202: 7250: 4231:. Cordero proved that racial and economic integration could be possible and accepted in Puerto Rico. In 2004, the Roman Catholic Church, upon the request of San Juan Archbishop 7634: 7306: 7106: 6900: 7760: 4045:

Santería has many deities said to be the "top" or "head" God. These deities, which are said to have descended from heaven to help and console their followers, are known as "

6926: 9410: 1917: 7329: 2820:

With rising demand for sugar on the international market, major planters increased their cultivation and processing of sugar cane, which was labor-intensive. Sugar

7132: 4253:, a common term during his time meaning of African-European descent. Campeche is considered to be the foremost Puerto Rican painter of religious themes of the era. 6222: 7386: 4038:

is a syncretic religion created between the diverse images drawn from the Catholic Church and the representational deities of the African Yoruba ethnic group of

3874: 3317:

In a 1899 newspaper cartoon, the people of Puerto Rico, as well as the people of the new possessions of the United States, were depicted as black savage children

2859:

After 1784, Spain suspended the use of hot branding the slave's forehead for identification. In addition, it provided ways by which slaves could obtain freedom:

2707:

woman chief (a cacica), by the name of Yuisa. Yuisa was baptized as Catholic so that she could marry Mejías. She was given the Christian name of Luisa (the town

7434: 2057: 1781: 1312: 7224: 6428: 6026: 3407:'s Orchestra Europe. They were assigned to the 369th Infantry Regiment, an African-American regiment; it gained fame during World War I and was nicknamed " 1666: 1038: 775: 5969: 3862: 3488:, was denied a shot at the major leagues because of his color. Pedro Cepeda was one of the greatest players of his generation, the dominant hitter in the 7734: 5516: 1402: 1043: 7155: 5293: 4439: 6870: 2937:

Despite these paths to freedom, from 1790 onwards, the number of slaves more than doubled in Puerto Rico as a result of the dramatic expansion of the

7356: 5367: 5142: 4011:

Kongolese traditions, are also practiced in Puerto Rico, the latter having arrived there at a much earlier time. A smaller number of people practice

5210: 5192: 6840: 735: 5942: 5819: 3850: 3619:. According to various DNA studies, majority of the African ancestry among black and mixed-race Puerto Ricans comes from a few tribes such as the 9400: 7872: 7460: 6784: 5169: 4657: 4581: 2621:

production in the island. Since 1789, slaves in Puerto Rico were allowed to earn or buy their freedom. Throughout the years, there were several

7408: 5442: 5011: 3489: 6380: 3349: 3285:

Christ with a common moral and religious character. Cruel and unusual punishment of slaves was considered a violation of the fifth commandment.

1090: 7076: 6108:

Loveman, Mara; Muniz, Jeronimo O. (December 2007). "How Puerto Rico Became White: Boundary Dynamics and Intercensus Racial Reclassification".

5319: 2941:

in the island. Every aspect of sugar cultivation, harvesting and processing was arduous and harsh. Many slaves died on the sugar plantations.

7981: 6355: 7850: 6766: 3163:(1827–1898), whose mixed-race parents were wealthy landowners, believed in abolitionism, and together with fellow Puerto Rican abolitionist 7032: 3209:(1830–1889) and the Spanish Minister of Overseas Affairs, Segismundo Moret (1833–1913), presented a proposal for the abolition of slavery. 3114:

On September 23, 1868, slaves, who had been promised freedom, participated in the short failed revolt against Spain which became known as "

2284: 1786: 1636: 7612: 7510:

Miyake, Yoshiko (September 2002). "A Modern Historical Perspective of Puerto Rican Women: Puerto Rican Women beyond the Region Politics".

3548:

Among those who exposed the racism and discrimination in the US which Puerto Ricans, especially Black Puerto Ricans, were subject to, was

3172: 7709: 6665: 5195:[The British invasion of Puerto Rico of 1797] (in Spanish). 1898 Society of Friends of the History of Puerto Rico. Archived from 5083: 5057: 1117: 7246: 7007:

Duany, Jorge. "Neither White nor Black: The Politics of Race and Ethnicity among Puerto Ricans on the Island and in the U.S. Mainland".

4235:, began the process of Cordero's beatification. He was not the only one in his family to become an educator. In 1820, his older sister, 8052: 7276: 6955: 6081: 5263: 3542: 3426:, held the rank of lieutenant. He founded the "Home Guard" unit of Ponce and was later assigned to the 375th Infantry Regiment, an all- 2203: 1863: 615: 6814: 9293: 8748: 7659:[Don Rafael Cepeda Atiles: Patriarch to the Bomba ... and Plena (1910–1996)] (in Spanish). netdial.caribe.net. Archived from 7642: 7298: 6549: 6173: 5424: 4989: 3462: 3179:. When the child was baptized, Betances would give money to the parents, which they used to buy the child's freedom from the master. 1065: 7102: 3886: 9395: 9193: 8557: 6591: 3442:

players, and any player who was dark-skinned, from any country. Ethnic African-Puerto Ricans continued to play baseball. In 1928,

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who settled the western and southern parts of the island soon adopted the ways and customs of the Spaniards. Some joined the local

1836: 1656: 829: 7757: 5842: 5598: 9320: 9278: 7656: 6740: 5486: 5464: 4512:, but the term is not considered offensive by Puerto Ricans. It has been most famously used by Puerto Rican musicians, including 3408: 3068:

The 1834 Royal Census of Puerto Rico established that 11% of the population were slaves, 35% were colored freemen (also known as

2324: 1994: 3786:

Puerto Rican musical instruments such as barriles, drums with stretched animal skin, and Puerto Rican music-dance forms such as

3591: 3572: 3123:

During this period, Puerto Rico provided a means for people to leave some of the racial restrictions behind: under such laws as

9425: 8763: 7193: 6982:"Racial Amnesia — African Puerto Rico & Mexico: Emporia State University professor publishes controversial Mexican history" 5789: 2828:

To attract more workers, in 1664 Spain offered freedom and land to African-descended people from non-Spanish colonies, such as

1100: 518: 3434:

Puerto Ricans of African descent were discriminated against in sports. Puerto Ricans who were dark-skinned and wanted to play

3107:

On May 31, 1848, the Governor of Puerto Rico Juan Prim, in fear of an independence or slavery revolt, imposed draconian laws,

9415: 8862: 8253: 7827: 7686: 7540: 6711: 6640: 6501: 6288: 6014: 5869: 5681: 5656: 5542: 5407: 5247: 5119: 5051: 4926: 3340:

One Puerto Rican politician of African descent who distinguished himself during this period was the physician and politician

2567: 1678: 1355: 1127: 6892: 6320: 6981: 6613: 4074: 4066: 2606: 2481: 1870: 1831: 1474: 8532: 7758:"EXCLUSIVE: Spider-Man Miles Morales — popular biracial version of the hero — joins main Marvel comics universe this fall" 7333: 6195: 5920: 2574:

from the non-Hispanic Caribbean to emigrate to Puerto Rico. As a result, Puerto Rico indirectly received large numbers of

9420: 9228: 8449: 8270: 7943: 7865: 4427: 4374: 4249:. Since she was considered European (or white), her children were born free. Of mixed-race, Campeche was classified as a 4082: 2098: 1912: 1549: 1209: 1060: 856: 765: 7128: 6463: 5568: 4962: 4750: 3260:, but it is not considered to be as severe as other places in the New World, possibly because of the following factors: 3185:(1827–1891) was a member of a Puerto Rican commission, which included Ramón Emeterio Betances, Segundo Ruiz Belvis, and 8454: 7986: 7920: 7565:""Made by the Son of a Black": José Campeche as Artist and Free Person of Color in Late Eighteenth-Century Puerto Rico" 6214: 5767: 4399: 4369: 3607:. During the 1500s, the slaves that Spain imported to Puerto Rico and most of its other colonies, were mainly from the 3600: 2703:

in the Spanish conquest of Mexico. Another free African man who accompanied de León was Pedro Mejías. Mejías married a

2547: 2459: 2231: 2120: 2088: 2052: 1932: 1626: 1380: 17: 4284:(1928–1990) was a member of the Afro-Boricua Ballet. She participated in the following Afro–Puerto Rican productions, 9405: 9374: 8837: 8547: 8231: 8014: 7965: 7950: 7938: 7054: 6698: 6006: 5345: 5239: 4876: 4394: 4384: 4379: 4364: 4293: 2737:

According to historian Luis M. Diaz, the largest contingent of African slaves came from the areas of the present-day

2125: 2105: 2093: 1754: 1631: 1055: 824: 691: 7845: 7438: 5697:

Denis-Rosario, Milagros (22 March 2012). "Asserting their rights: Puerto Ricans in their quest for social justice".

2679:, the supreme leader of the peaceful Taíno tribes on the island. Agüeybaná helped to maintain the peace between the 9198: 8382: 8103: 8076: 7955: 4389: 3079:

In 1836, the names and descriptions of slaves who had escaped, and details of their ownership were reported in the

2630: 2221: 2110: 1885: 1095: 1080: 1026: 711: 701: 696: 525: 381: 7492: 3943:"The salmorejo, a local land crab creation, resembles Southern cooking in the United States with its spicing. The 3545:. He became the third Puerto Rican and the first one of African descent to win a professional world championship. 1601: 7216: 2903: 2492: 1880: 1651: 457: 162: 6570: 6030: 2889:

The Royal Decree of Graces of 1789 which set the rules pertaining to the Slaves in Puerto Rico and the Caribbean

8045: 7858: 5977: 5886: 4196: 4102: 3438:

in the United States, were not allowed to do so. In 1892 organized baseball had codified a color line, barring

3423: 3100: 3038: 2676: 2254: 2062: 1350: 1338: 918: 730: 376: 7727: 6052: 5524: 5285: 8939: 8902: 8802: 8733: 8719: 8463: 8397: 7880: 4265: 4118: 2067: 1922: 1705: 566: 6866: 4220: 3198: 3186: 8832: 5590: 5138: 4078: 2226: 1927: 1771: 1641: 1302: 1070: 1050: 610: 578: 5371: 4296:. She was known as an outspoken activist who fought for the equal rights of the Black Puerto Rican artist. 4025:

or Congolese traditions, existed for several centuries before Santería developed during the 19th century.

3922:

Puerto Rican cuisine also has a strong African influence. The melange of flavors that make up the typical

3104:

new homeland. By 1850, most of the former Spanish possessions in the Americans had achieved independence.

297: 9223: 9178: 9106: 8753: 8367: 8009: 7815: 5218: 5196: 4034:

to Christianity, the captured Africans did not abandon their traditional religious practices altogether.

3392: 3281: 2317: 2212: 1987: 1937: 1661: 1579: 706: 487: 307: 6844: 9253: 9157: 9117: 8792: 8392: 8377: 8160: 6340: 5946: 5811: 2863:

A slave could be freed by his master in a church or outside it, before a judge, by testament or letter.

2758: 2443: 1846: 1698: 1683: 1574: 770: 440: 7712:[34th Festival of Bomba and Plena returns to Piñones] (in Spanish). vocero.com. Archived from 5177: 4828:"Race, Colonial Exploitation and West Indian Immigration in Nineteenth-Century Puerto Rico, 1800-1850" 4232: 3917:

also offers culinary seminars through the Puerto Rican Cultural Institute. She writes of the cuisine:

3160: 9364: 9004: 8857: 8852: 8038: 5489:[Moret Law: Law for slaves in Cuba] (in Spanish). cubacreme.com. July 4, 1870. Archived from 5446: 5015: 4212: 4205: 3385: 3144: 1942: 1841: 1372: 1360: 950: 923: 428: 7013: 6376: 6122: 4128: 2911: 2727: 8907: 8631: 8342: 8081: 7080: 5315: 4224: 4097:, which classified persons of mixed African-European ancestry as white, which was the opposite of " 3539: 3515: 3503: 3345: 3326: 2931: 2447: 2374: 2245: 2168: 2047: 1722: 1591: 1144: 933: 418: 319: 6351: 5786:"Jones Act – The World of 1898: The Spanish–American War (Hispanic Division, Library of Congress)" 5400:

Not of Pure Blood: The Free People of Color and Racial Prejudice in Nineteenth-century Puerto Rico

4314:

is Afro-Puerto Rican, as he was born to an African-American father and a Afro-Puerto Rican mother.

3176: 598: 9340: 9132: 8787: 8458: 8019: 6770: 6633:

Resistance in Paradise: Rethinking 100 Years of U.S. Involvement in the Caribbean and the Pacific

5674:

The Sovereign Colony: Olympic Sport, National Identity, and International Politics in Puerto Rico

4556: 4228: 4136: 3182: 3083:. If an African presumed to be a slave was captured and arrested, the information was published. 2418: 2193: 2183: 2042: 1907: 1646: 1596: 1524: 1297: 1075: 1019: 1002: 433: 7028: 4029:

became nicknamed "the city of witches", because the religion was widely practiced in this town.

2784:

in the island's ginger and sugar industries. They were allowed to live with their families in a

9258: 9053: 8812: 8288: 8236: 8214: 7604: 7008: 6117: 4906: 4049:". According to Santería, the Orishas are the ones who choose the person each will watch over. 3973: 3721: 3377: 3322: 3237:

other people interested in their services, or for the state in order to pay some compensation.

3194: 2649: 2310: 2260: 2139: 1980: 1949: 1454: 1107: 955: 679: 645: 640: 215: 7713: 7683:"Sylvia del Villard – Fundación Nacional para la Cultura Popular | San Juan, Puerto Rico" 5079: 5041: 4918: 4685:"History Shaped the Geographic Distribution of Genomic Admixture on the Island of Puerto Rico" 4184: 3527: 3189:(1830–1908). The commission participated in the "Overseas Information Committee" which met in 3136:

in the United States, whereby persons of any known African ancestry were classified as black.

9310: 9235: 9142: 9058: 9043: 8997: 8992: 8867: 8507: 8434: 8429: 8300: 8143: 8090: 7960: 7769: 5713: 4772: 4444: 4354: 4216: 4176: 4172: 4160: 4156: 4144: 3977: 3581: 3577: 3509:

Black Puerto Ricans also participated in other sports as international contestants. In 1917,

3481: 3435: 3391:

Black Puerto Ricans residing in the mainland United States were assigned to all-black units.

3257: 3080: 2919: 2907: 2198: 2153: 2115: 1816: 1671: 1584: 1569: 1251: 1239: 985: 970: 755: 530: 452: 423: 7272: 6948: 6089: 5259: 3341: 2926:

militia. Puerto Ricans of African ancestry played an instrumental role in the defeat of Sir

2915: 2708: 2696: 2439: 9268: 9048: 8847: 8597: 7743: 4985: 4902: 4696: 4416: 4180: 4148: 4140: 4132: 4026: 3923: 3697: 3535: 3298: 3099:, her last two remaining possessions, might follow suit. The Spanish government issued the 3069: 2841: 2780:

African slaves were sent to work in the gold mines to replace the Taíno, or to work in the

2723:. Other Taínos committed suicide or left the island after the failed Taíno revolt of 1511. 2571: 2539: 2410: 2406: 2402: 2279: 2236: 2188: 2178: 2163: 2158: 2011: 1954: 1858: 1821: 1749: 1693: 1562: 1519: 1333: 1263: 938: 718: 620: 504: 411: 152: 6545: 6165: 6001:; by Joaquin Colon Lopez; pages: 229, 230; Publisher: Arte Publico Press (November 2001); 5428: 8: 9026: 9017: 8982: 8758: 8387: 8192: 7930: 7912: 5445:[José J. Acosta Calbo: Lawyer and Deputy] (in Spanish). zonai.com. Archived from 5341: 5037: 4406: 4168: 4152: 4073:, and other Latin American and Caribbean countries, and to a lesser extent directly from 3981: 3833:

Until 1953, Bomba and Plena were virtually unknown outside Puerto Rico. Island musicians

3787: 3419: 3369: 3164: 2579: 2173: 1442: 1422: 1307: 1292: 1161: 1132: 1122: 1012: 960: 928: 725: 583: 551: 546: 499: 356: 260: 177: 103: 8175: 6587: 5710: 4700: 3556:

movement". He recounted his experiences in New York as a Black Puerto Rican in his book

3302: 9300: 9183: 8949: 8912: 8872: 8807: 8522: 8004: 7902: 6818: 6261: 6143: 5846: 5748: 5594: 5460: 4847: 4719: 4684: 4332: 4281: 4164: 4124: 4012: 3798: 3451: 3404: 3400: 3395:(1892–1965) and his brother Jesus, along with 16 more Puerto Ricans, were recruited by 3381: 3334: 3246: 2798: 2731: 2720: 2700: 2645: 2591: 2583: 2575: 2519: 2508: 2485: 2477: 2370: 2300: 2083: 1688: 1534: 1509: 1499: 1464: 1459: 1427: 1392: 1385: 1326: 1319: 1176: 995: 990: 980: 750: 603: 561: 556: 509: 477: 467: 404: 8155: 7660: 6744: 5649:

The Spanish-Cuban-American War and the Birth of American Imperialism Vol. 2: 1898–1902

5490: 3305:(1898–1959), who was credited with creating the poetry genre known as Afro-Antillano. 625: 571: 167: 9263: 9203: 9063: 8929: 8797: 8688: 8444: 8419: 7823: 7586: 7536: 6694: 6646: 6636: 6497: 6294: 6284: 6135: 6010: 6002: 5865: 5785: 5706: 5677: 5652: 5403: 5243: 5235: 5115: 5047: 4922: 4911: 4724: 4236: 4101:" in US society after the American Civil War. Additionally, the Spanish government's 3969: 3880:

Two or more drums, always one Subidor and one Buleador or more, Cuajo and one Maraca.

3664: 3611:

region. However, in the 1600s and 1700s, Spain imported large numbers of slaves from

3455: 3206: 3116: 1776: 1494: 1489: 1432: 1417: 1397: 1219: 1214: 1149: 1112: 945: 911: 740: 593: 482: 361: 8468: 7185: 6147: 4513: 4052:

Unlike other religions where a worshiper is closely identified with a sect (such as

3446:

traveled to New York City and became the first Puerto Rican to play baseball in the

9036: 8705: 8658: 8626: 8552: 8490: 8473: 8439: 8372: 8337: 8332: 8310: 8305: 8241: 8219: 8123: 8098: 8061: 7576: 7465: 6526: 6489: 6253: 6127: 5740: 5629: 5620:

McChesney, Robert W. (1 March 2004). "The Escalating War Against Corporate Media".

5538: 5461:"The World of 1898: The Spanish–American War: Román Baldorioty de Castro 1822–1889" 5260:"The History of Puerto Rico by R.A. Van Middeldyk – Full Text Free Book (Part 4/5)" 4839: 4714: 4704: 4257: 4121:

with the highest percentages of residents who identify as black, as of 2020, were:

4070: 3830:

is a mischievous character and the main character in the Carnivals of Puerto Rico.

3616: 3549: 3477: 3465: 3439: 2927: 2414: 2349: 2341: 2270: 2148: 1966: 1544: 1539: 1529: 1504: 1469: 1437: 1407: 1280: 1268: 1246: 1224: 1171: 1007: 975: 277: 86: 8961: 7805:

A Taste of Puerto Rico: Traditional and New Dishes from the Puerto Rican Community

7682: 6719: 5862:

American Gunfight: The Plot to Kill Harry Truman—and the Shoot-out that Stopped It

5539:"The World of 1898: The Spanish–American War: Abolition of Slavery in Puerto Rico" 5348:[A chapter of the social and economic history of Puerto Rico, 1800–1880]. 4521: 4242: 3775: 2876:

If slave parents in Hispanic America had ten children, the whole family was freed.

8987: 8919: 8842: 8724: 8700: 8668: 8663: 8614: 8587: 8577: 8483: 8362: 8182: 8165: 8128: 8118: 7764: 7738: 7530: 6493: 6312: 5912: 5717: 5633: 4709: 4606: 4497: 4035: 4001: 3985: 3797:

Plena is another form of folkloric music of African origin. Plena was brought to

3688: 3624: 3560:(What the people tell me---: Chronicles of the Puerto Rican colony in New York). 3531: 3473: 2885: 2806: 2793: 2684: 2587: 1875: 1766: 1761: 1514: 1484: 1479: 1202: 1166: 965: 883: 588: 334: 252: 182: 7383:"'Third Border' Crisis: Number Of Haitian Migrants Heading To Puerto Rico Jumps" 7247:"Trip Down Memory Lane: African Descendants In Puerto Rico (Afro–Puerto Ricans)" 6985: 6617: 9330: 9315: 8827: 8817: 8775: 8743: 8738: 8678: 8582: 8527: 8517: 8478: 8320: 8315: 8204: 8113: 6741:"Santeria, the Orisha Tradition of Voudou: Divination, Dance, & Initiation" 6199: 6131: 4411: 4246: 3834: 3693: 3683:

Many African slaves imported to Cuba, Dominican Republic and Puerto Rico spoke

3558:

Lo que el pueblo me dice--: crónicas de la colonia puertorriqueña en Nueva York

3469: 3443: 3120:" or "The Cry of Lares". Many of the participants were imprisoned or executed. 3054: 2938: 2833: 2801:

descendants formed the first generations of the early Puerto Rican population.

2785: 2754: 2626: 2602: 2563: 2551: 2523: 2500: 2455: 2433: 2390: 1959: 1853: 745: 386: 344: 264: 187: 6517:

Ferreira, Fernanda L. (2006). "A History of Afro-Hispanic Language (review)".

6298: 5139:"Teoría, Crítica e Historia: La abolición de la esclavitud y el mundo hispano" 3756: 3496:

due to his abhorrence of the racism endemic to the segregated United States.

9389: 9031: 8956: 8892: 8822: 8683: 8673: 8653: 8641: 8609: 8404: 8325: 8258: 8187: 8148: 7888: 7590: 6455: 6139: 4958: 4742: 4501: 4433: 4422: 4346: 4311: 4307: 4275: 4098: 3838: 3684: 3640: 3493: 3412: 3330: 3242: 3061: 2770: 2762: 2641: 2622: 2512: 2366: 2019: 1897: 1826: 1273: 1256: 1031: 861: 851: 635: 285: 256: 232: 207: 157: 7793:

Sugar and Slavery in Puerto Rico: The Plantation Economy of Ponce, 1800–1850

7330:"Haiti Immigrants Using Puerto Rico As Gateway To U.S. In New Migrant Route" 5771: 4508:

to refer to Puerto Ricans or Puerto Rico. It is occasionally mistaken for a

4483:

are male-specific when ending in «o» and female-specific when ending in «a».

3212:

On March 22, 1873, the Spanish government approved what became known as the

2648:

to music, art, language, and heritage have been instrumental in shaping the

2424:

The history of Afro-Puerto Ricans traces its origins to the arrival of free

9288: 9283: 9122: 8780: 8770: 8502: 8108: 6574: 6244:

Rogler, C. (1 October 1946). "The Morality of Race Mixing in Puerto Rico".

4728: 4637:

Asociación de Academias de la Lengua Española: Diccionario de Americanismos

4505: 4053: 4006: 3648: 3620: 3612: 3608: 3604: 3519: 3499: 3485: 3447: 3427: 3156: 2789: 2692: 2688: 2436: 1902: 1739: 1715: 1621: 1614: 1345: 873: 846: 809: 787: 674: 391: 371: 349: 339: 329: 324: 314: 7062: 6867:"Observations from the 'Island of Enchantment': Dominicans in Puerto Rico" 6530: 5353: 4880: 3159:

was formed in Puerto Rico that included many prominent Puerto Ricans. Dr.

1154: 9305: 9147: 8971: 8934: 8924: 8897: 8512: 8424: 8133: 7883: 7581: 7564: 6588:"Hips On Fire ~ Latino Dance Instruction, Performances & DJ Services" 5731:

Bonilla, E. S. (1 December 1961). "Social Structure and Race Relations".

5564: 5346:"Un capítulo de la historia social y económica puertorriqueña, 1800–1880" 4264:"; and the Spanish Crown named him "Captain of the Seas", awarding him a 3644: 3636: 3632: 3333:

stood in contrast to the African-American expansion of mobility that the

3265: 3202: 3133: 3050: 2821: 2781: 2766: 2669: 2660: 2634: 2614: 2598: 2543: 2496: 2451: 2425: 2398: 2386: 1744: 1732: 1085: 888: 878: 836: 650: 248: 244: 240: 203: 172: 133: 4632: 3997: 3961: 3595:

African Collection at the Museo de las Americas in San Juan, Puerto Rico

3264:

In the 8th century, nearly all of Spain was conquered (711–718), by the

2956:"Puerto Rican population in thousands according to Spanish Royal Census" 219: 9273: 8944: 8884: 8602: 8209: 8197: 7657:"Don Rafael Cepeda Atiles: Patriarca de la Bomba...y Plena (1910–1996)" 7496: 7299:"Surge of migrants being smuggled to United States through Puerto Rico" 6265: 5752: 4851: 4827: 4509: 3856:

Puerto Ricans playing the Barril drum traditionally used in Bomba music

3711: 3628: 3073: 2845: 2625:

in the island. Promised their freedom, slaves participated in the 1868

2618: 2382: 1892: 1189: 893: 760: 6841:"Minority Rights Group International: Puerto Rico: Afro–Puerto Ricans" 6429:"Specifying the African Origins of the Afro Diasporan Genome (Part 1)" 3364: 2873:

If a slave was made a guardian to his master's children, he was freed.

138:(more heavily concentrated in coastal Northeast regions of the island) 8542: 4529: 4269: 3993: 3957: 3827: 3553: 3510: 3313: 3213: 3088: 3042: 2531: 2474: 1137: 802: 664: 211: 7357:"Dozens Of Haitian Migrants Abandoned Near Puerto Rico: The Two-Way" 6923:"Fewer Undocumented Dominican Immigrants Being Detained Puerto Rico" 6257: 5890: 5744: 4843: 3905: 3472:, who played in the Major Leagues after the colorline was broken by 3232:

Indemnity bond paid as compensation to former owners of freed slaves

3111:

to control the behavior of all Black Puerto Ricans, free or slave.

819: 8693: 8646: 8592: 8409: 8293: 8263: 8246: 8030: 7811:

Puerto Rico: An Interpretive History from Precolumbia Times to 1900

6650: 6086:

Biographical Dictionary of Hispanic Literature in the United States

6056: 5943:"Negro Leagues Baseball eMuseum: Personal Profiles: Emilio Navarro" 5232:

Slave Revolts in Puerto Rico: Conspiracies and Uprisings, 1795–1873

5112:

Slave Revolts in Puerto Rico: Conspiracies and Uprisings, 1795-1873

3927: 3802: 3193:, Spain. There, Acosta presented the argument for the abolition of 2849: 2716: 2691:

was the first free African man to set foot on the island; he was a

2559: 2535: 2527: 2378: 1727: 1285: 1229: 1181: 841: 686: 541: 447: 8138: 7991: 2704: 2680: 2546:

in the 16th century, and the island began to serve primarily as a

2470: 2462: 2130: 236: 9335: 9325: 4250: 4201: 4039: 4016: 3944: 3806: 3668: 3652: 3418:

The United States also segregated military units in Puerto Rico.

3290: 3274: 3228: 3045:

and later other Europeans to settle and populate the colonies of

2853: 2829: 2750: 2673: 2518:

While there was slavery in Puerto Rico, the island received less

2488: 1710: 792: 472: 289: 97: 8619: 8537: 8495: 8170: 7249:. Kwekudee-tripdownmemorylane.blogspot.com. December 17, 2012. 4611:

Diccionario de la Lengua Española por la Real Academia Española

4046: 3672: 3256:

The freed slaves became integrated into Puerto Rico's society.

3190: 2774: 2664:

Slave transport in Africa, depicted in a 19th-century engraving

2504: 1412: 1234: 814: 797: 659: 494: 462: 7820:

Empire and Antislavery: Spain, Cuba and Puerto Rico, 1833–1874

6769:. At the Crossroads – Pop Occulture Blog. 2006. Archived from 2668:

When Ponce de León and the Spaniards arrived on the island of

2566:, hoping to destabilize the neighboring colonies of competing 9012: 8636: 7493:"Rafael Cordero Molina: Teacher of Great Men, Servant of God" 5370:. New York Latino Journal. September 23, 2006. Archived from 3791: 3660: 3599:

The first black people in the island came alongside European

3269: 2837: 2746: 2738: 2555: 669: 655: 630: 7787:

Sugar, slavery and freedom in nineteenth century Puerto Rico

5521:

Center for Advanced Studies of Puerto Rico and the Caribbean

5350:

Center for Advanced Studies of Puerto Rico and the Caribbean

5234:; by: Guillermo A. Baralt (2007); Markus Wiener Publishers; 4798:"San Mateo de Cangrejos: Comunidad Cimarrona en Puerto Rico" 4077:

as well. Many black migrants from the United States and the

3567: 3461:

The persistence of these men paved the way for the likes of

2397:

is also used to refer to historical or cultural elements in

7437:. Caribbeanbusinesspr.com. February 3, 2014. Archived from 6103: 6101: 6099: 5889:. Negro League Baseball Players Association. Archived from 5519:[The abolition of slavery in 1873 in Puerto Rico]. 5176:(in Spanish). fortunecity.com. May 31, 1848. Archived from 3656: 3396: 3148: 3096: 3046: 2894:

Caribbean. Later that year a new slave code, also known as

2813: 2742: 2610: 2466: 536: 366: 122:(Includes Afro-Puerto Ricans living outside of Puerto Rico) 3938:

Similarly, Johnny Irizarry and Maria Mills have written:

7461:"Puerto Rico Population Declined 11.8% From 2010 to 2020" 6785:"Puerto Rico Population Declined 11.8% From 2010 to 2020" 5541:. Hispanic Division, Library of Congress. June 22, 2011. 5463:. Hispanic Division, Library of Congress. June 22, 2011. 2633:. On March 22, 1873, slavery was officially abolished in 2538:. The need for direct enslaved labor brought through the 6666:"Pasteles not tasteless: the flavor of Afro-Puerto Rico" 6096: 5278: 7103:"Puerto Rico sees increase in blacks, American Indians" 6616:. The Artists of Los Pleneros de la 21. Archived from 5517:"La abolición de la esclavitud de 1873 en Puerto Rico" 5213:[General Archives of Puerto Rico: Documents]. 4681: 3980:, established an ecclesiastical tribunal known as the 3492:

after its founding in 1938. He refused to play in the

2605:, facing economic decline with the loss of all of its 6484:

Clements, J. Clancy (2009). "Bozal Spanish of Cuba".

4239:, established the first school for girls in San Juan. 7385:. Latino.foxnews.com. August 1, 2014. Archived from 6281:

Atlantic Africa and the Spanish Caribbean, 1570-1640

4322: 3552:. Colón is considered by many as the "Father of the 3297:

Two Puerto Rican writers have written about racism;

1667:

Supplementary Convention on the Abolition of Slavery

7750: 7556: 6893:"Dominicans in Puerto Rico allege police brutality" 6055:. International Boxing Hall of Fame. Archived from 3755:as performed at the Nuyorican Cafe in Puerto Rico 2594:colonies seeking freedom and refuge from slavery. 2473:forced laborers were exterminated primarily due to 7327: 6869:. Encantada2006.blogspot.com. September 30, 2010. 6027:"Commonwealth Gives Puerto Rico A Sports Identity" 4910: 4879:. University of the Virgin Islands. Archived from 4440:List of topics related to Black and African people 2401:society associated with this community, including 7710:"34to Festival de Bomba y Plena retoma a Piñones" 7409:"Puerto Rico losing professionals to U.S. states" 7156:"PRico sees increase in blacks, American Indians" 6456:"African Aspects of the Puerto Rican Personality" 6215:"Loíza: The Heart of Puerto Rico's Black Culture" 5945:. Coe.ksu.edu. September 26, 1905. Archived from 5393: 5391: 5389: 4959:"African Aspects of the Puerto Rican Personality" 2949: 2880: 2753:; all these current countries are located in the 2373:origin, who are predominately the descendants of 9387: 7129:"Puerto Rico: Afro-Caribbean and Taíno Identity" 6973: 5859: 3422:(1891–1965), who later became the leader of the 2655: 2550:to support, protect, and defend trade routes of 2542:was greatly reduced by the depletion of gold in 1782:13th Amendment to the United States Constitution 6704: 6486:The Linguistic Legacy of Spanish and Portuguese 5589: 5523:(in Spanish). independencia.net. Archived from 4895: 9411:African–Hispanic and Latino American relations 7834:Historia de la esclavitud negra en Puerto Rico 6925:. HispanicallySpeakingNews.com. Archived from 5386: 5043:Encyclopedia of Slave Resistance and Rebellion 3350:Schomburg Center for Research in Black Culture 8046: 7866: 7528: 7328:Coto, Danica; Trenton Daniel (June 6, 2013). 5696: 5193:"La invasión británica a Puerto Rico de 1797" 5172:[The "Black Edict" or "Black Code"]. 5030: 4190: 3651:, correlating to the modern-day countries of 3132:the opposite of the later "one-drop rule" of 2318: 1988: 77: 71: 65: 59: 42: 7641:(in Spanish). March 14, 2002. Archived from 7490: 6614:"Nellie Tanco: Vocalist, Pandereta Seguidor" 6519:Arizona Journal of Hispanic Cultural Studies 6510: 6107: 5422: 5211:"Archivo General de Puerto Rico: Documentos" 3603:as workers from Spain and Portugal known as 3171:(waters of liberty), was carried out at the 3155:During the mid-19th century, a committee of 1787:Timeline of abolition of slavery and serfdom 6734: 6732: 6313:"Cronología | First Blacks in the Americas" 6159: 6157: 5976:. Vol. 24, no. 20. Archived from 5768:"Arturo Alfonso "Afroborinqueno" Schomburg" 5046:. Greenwood Publishing Group. p. 398. 4901: 3909:Plantain "arañitas" and "tostones rellenos" 3696:words that have become a permanent part of 3490:Professional Baseball League of Puerto Rico 3454:. He was later followed by others such as 8053: 8039: 7873: 7859: 7637:[The privateer Miguel Henriquez]. 7354: 6815:"Celebrating Puerto Rico's Black Heritage" 6283:. The University of North Carolina Press. 6088:. oak.cats.ohiou.edu. 1989. Archived from 5860:Hunter, Stephen; Bainbridge, John (2005). 5514: 5487:"Ley Moret: Ley para los esclavos en Cuba" 5443:"José J. Acosta Calbo: Abogado y Diputado" 5397: 5352:(in Spanish). linktopr.com. Archived from 4819: 4790: 4765: 4549: 3913:Nydia Rios de Colon, a contributor to the 3220:resource for historians and genealogists. 2683:and the Spaniards. According to historian 2325: 2311: 2026: 1995: 1981: 96: 7707: 7580: 7512:Bulletin of the Faculty of Social Welfare 7217:"Tego Calderon: Reggaeton On Black Pride" 7012: 6121: 5961: 5671: 5619: 5427:(in Spanish). triplov.com. Archived from 5133: 5131: 5036: 4913:Africana: The Encyclopedia of the African 4718: 4708: 3568:African influence in Puerto Rican culture 3173:Nuestra Señora de la Candelaria Cathedral 27:Racial and ethnic minority in Puerto Rico 6729: 6630: 6516: 6483: 6477: 6154: 4870: 4868: 4200: 3956: 3904: 3710: 3590: 3571: 3498: 3484:for their achievements. Cepeda's father 3363: 3312: 3245:of the southern United States after the 3227: 3143: 3087:the island, like the passbook system in 2884: 2672:(Puerto Rico), they were greeted by the 2659: 1792:Abolition of slave trade in Persian gulf 1657:Advisory Committee of Experts on Slavery 1637:Brussels Anti-Slavery Conference 1889–90 7689:from the original on September 25, 2014 7435:"Data: PR 'brain drain' rate picked up" 6979: 6738: 6571:Rhythms of Puerto Rico by Jorge Ginorio 6212: 5730: 5676:. U of Nebraska Press. pp. 11–12. 5322:from the original on September 24, 2015 5164: 5162: 5160: 5145:from the original on September 24, 2015 5114:. Markus Wiener Publishers. p. 5. 5086:from the original on September 24, 2015 4952: 4950: 4948: 4946: 4944: 4942: 4940: 4938: 4059: 3576:Masks in the African collection of the 3458:, who also played for the Cuban Stars. 3384:of 1917, Puerto Ricans were granted US 3308: 3223: 2922:. Some became slave owners themselves. 2354:, but also occasionally referred to as 14: 9401:Puerto Rican people of African descent 9388: 7562: 7509: 7273:"The Other Border: Puerto Rico's Seas" 7214: 7077:"35% of Puerto Rican Women Sterilized" 6899:. Associated Press. October 27, 2008. 6663: 6635:. American Friends Service Committee. 6243: 6082:"Biography of Jesus Colon (1901–1974)" 6076: 6074: 5999:Pioneros Puertorriqueños en Nueva York 5913:"Emilio 'Millito' Navarro dies at 105" 5765: 5515:Bas García, José R. (March 23, 2009). 5467:from the original on February 10, 2011 5340: 5128: 5109: 4965:from the original on December 14, 2007 4877:"The First West African on St. Croix?" 4825: 4753:from the original on November 28, 2020 4268:which granted him the privileges of a 3060:In July 1821, for instance, the slave 2812:By 1570, the colonists found that the 8034: 7854: 7615:from the original on February 5, 2016 7503: 7035:from the original on January 28, 2021 6984:. Stewartsynopsis.com. Archived from 6961:from the original on January 27, 2018 6812: 6631:Wei, Deborah; Kamel, Rachael (1998). 6435:from the original on 14 December 2018 6278: 6225:from the original on 13 February 2021 6176:from the original on February 3, 2021 6053:"Induction Weekend: The Class of '97" 5840: 5646: 5510: 5508: 5190: 5105: 5103: 5101: 4874: 4865: 4467:is gender-neutral, whereas the terms 3480:in 1947; they were inducted into the 1679:Anglo-Egyptian Slave Trade Convention 1356:Human trafficking in Papua New Guinea 9370: 8060: 7529:Woodson, C.G.; Wesley, C.H. (2008). 7332:. Huffingtonpost.com. Archived from 7215:Rivera, Enrique (3 September 2008). 7153: 6843:. Minorityrights.org. Archived from 6453: 6409:from the original on 1 December 2015 6383:from the original on 8 November 2020 6198:. shagtown.com. 2004. Archived from 6029:. Puerto Rico Herald. Archived from 5992: 5967: 5919:. Associated Press. April 30, 2011. 5887:"History of the Negro Major Leagues" 5571:from the original on August 31, 2015 5266:from the original on August 28, 2015 5157: 4956: 4935: 4875:Caron, Aimery (September 15, 1990). 4457: 3892:Bomba Dance in Guaynabo, Puerto Rico 2607:colonial territories in the Americas 2570:, encouraged enslaved fugitives and 1871:Slave marriages in the United States 1475:Human trafficking in the Middle East 128:Regions with significant populations 7726:Towers, Andrea (February 1, 2016). 7720: 7131:. Repeating Islands. 26 June 2011. 7105:. Nativetimes.com. March 31, 2011. 6743:. bloomington.in.us. Archived from 6196:"Encyclopedia of Days: Puerto Rico" 6164:Tim, Captain (September 30, 2014). 6163: 6071: 6019: 5595:"Utopia Y Nostalgia En Pales Matos" 5170:"El "Bando Negro" o "Código Negro"" 4983: 4773:"Afro-Puerto Ricans in Puerto Rico" 4486: 4375:Corsican immigration to Puerto Rico 4262:La Medalla de Oro de la Real Efigie 3109:"El Bando contra La Raza Africana", 2844:who were able to immigrate were of 1210:Human trafficking in Southeast Asia 24: 7779: 7563:Thames, Emily K. (June 25, 2023). 7415:from the original on April 2, 2015 7363:from the original on July 24, 2015 7309:from the original on July 24, 2015 7279:from the original on July 24, 2015 7253:from the original on July 24, 2015 7166:from the original on April 5, 2016 7109:from the original on July 24, 2015 6903:from the original on July 24, 2015 6873:from the original on July 24, 2015 6691:The Spanish Inquisition, 1478–1614 6594:from the original on March 3, 2016 6552:from the original on July 24, 2015 6543: 5935: 5923:from the original on April 4, 2016 5884: 5864:. Simon and Schuster. p. 26. 5845:. allaboutjazz.com. Archived from 5822:from the original on March 3, 2016 5601:from the original on March 3, 2016 5545:from the original on July 24, 2015 5505: 5286:"Anuncios [Announcements]" 5217:(in Spanish). 2003. Archived from 5098: 5060:from the original on July 25, 2020 4419:– North, Central and South America 4400:Spanish immigration to Puerto Rico 4370:Chinese immigration to Puerto Rico 4360:Immigration to Puerto Rico series: 3534:by technical knockout and won the 2898:(The Black Code), was introduced. 2769:, ethnic groups from Nigeria, and 1864:last survivors of American slavery 25: 9437: 8015:Cultural diversity in Puerto Rico 7839: 7355:Greenblatt, Alan (June 2, 2014). 7227:from the original on 24 July 2015 7135:from the original on 24 July 2015 7006: 6817:. Seeingblack.com. Archived from 6813:Abreu, Alma (February 13, 2004). 6213:Hopkins, Tatyana (1 April 2018). 5296:from the original on 11 June 2020 5215:Institute of Puerto Rican Culture 5174:Government Gazette of Puerto Rico 5014:. Oregonstate.edu. Archived from 4992:from the original on July 4, 2017 4986:""PUERTO RICO" GRILLA'S HOMEPAGE" 4395:Jewish immigration to Puerto Rico 4385:German immigration to Puerto Rico 4380:French immigration to Puerto Rico 4365:Cultural diversity in Puerto Rico 4294:Institute of Puerto Rican Culture 3822:popular masked characters is the 3359: 3258:Racism has existed in Puerto Rico 3072:in French colonies, meaning free 2934:invasion of Puerto Rico in 1797. 2454:. Upon landing and settling, the 825:Field slaves in the United States 692:Slavery in the Rashidun Caliphate 9369: 9360: 9359: 8242:Saint Vincent and the Grenadines 7882: 7846:Sugar and Slavery in Puerto Rico 7701: 7675: 7649: 7627: 7597: 7522: 7484: 7453: 7427: 7411:. usatoday.com. March 11, 2012. 7401: 7375: 7348: 7321: 7291: 7265: 7239: 7196:from the original on May 3, 2021 6693:; Page xxv, Hackett Publishing, 6664:Demsey, Mary A. (30 June 2021). 5792:from the original on May 8, 2019 4390:Irish immigration to Puerto Rico 4339: 4325: 3885: 3873: 3861: 3849: 3765: 3746: 3139: 2597:In the 19th century, slavery in 2294: 702:Slavery in the Abbasid Caliphate 697:Slavery in the Umayyad Caliphate 526:Slavery in the Abbasid Caliphate 296: 9396:African diaspora in Puerto Rico 7609:Smithsonian American Art Museum 7473:from the original on 2021-08-26 7208: 7178: 7154:Coto, Danica (March 31, 2011). 7147: 7121: 7095: 7069: 7047: 7021: 7000: 6949:"The Hispanic Population: 2010" 6941: 6915: 6885: 6859: 6833: 6806: 6795:from the original on 2021-08-26 6777: 6759: 6739:Merrill, Zenith Harris (2002). 6683: 6672:from the original on 2022-05-09 6657: 6624: 6606: 6580: 6564: 6537: 6466:from the original on 2007-12-14 6447: 6421: 6403:"African Slaves in Puerto Rico" 6395: 6369: 6358:from the original on 2020-11-03 6344: 6334: 6323:from the original on 2019-07-08 6305: 6272: 6237: 6206: 6188: 6045: 5905: 5878: 5853: 5843:"James Reese Europe: Biography" 5834: 5804: 5778: 5759: 5724: 5690: 5665: 5640: 5613: 5583: 5557: 5531: 5479: 5453: 5435: 5416: 5360: 5334: 5308: 5252: 5225: 5203: 5184: 5072: 5004: 4977: 4917:. Basic Civitas Books. p. 4664:from the original on 2020-02-14 4588:from the original on 2020-02-14 3926:counts with the African touch. 3543:light heavyweight championships 2944: 1652:Committee of Experts on Slavery 1203:East, Southeast, and South Asia 7756:Sacks, Ethan (June 21, 2015). 7635:"El corsario Miguel Henriquez" 7275:. Latino USA. March 28, 2014. 6980:Vincent, Ted (July 30, 2002). 5970:"The Babe Cobb Of Puerto Rico" 5141:(in Spanish). Ensayistas.org. 4735: 4675: 4650: 4625: 4599: 4574: 4215:(1790–1868), was born free in 4103:Royal Decree of Graces of 1815 3984:. It was intended to maintain 3915:Smithsonian Folklife Cookbook, 3424:Puerto Rican Nationalist Party 3356:meaning African-Puerto Rican. 3280:The Catholic Church played an 3101:Royal Decree of Graces of 1815 3039:Royal Decree of Graces of 1815 2950:Royal Decree of Graces of 1815 2881:Royal Decree of Graces of 1789 2548:strategic and military outpost 2255:Royal Decree of Graces of 1815 1351:Slave raiding in Easter Island 13: 1: 9426:Social history of Puerto Rico 7532:The Story of the Negro Retold 5841:Nadal, James (July 8, 2007). 5292:. 9 January 1836. p. 4. 5110:Baralt, Guillermo A. (2007). 4543: 4300: 4266:letter of marque and reprisal 4004:-Catholic syncretic mix, and 3988:orthodoxy in their kingdoms. 2656:First Africans in Puerto Rico 2520:sub-Saharan enslaved laborers 2465:to work in the extraction of 9416:Ethnic groups in Puerto Rico 6494:10.1017/CBO9780511576171.005 6166:"Puerto Rican Black History" 6110:American Sociological Review 5968:Cope, Myron (May 16, 1966). 5634:10.14452/MR-055-10-2004-03_1 4710:10.1371/journal.pone.0016513 2792:; they were baptized by the 2432:(freedmen), who accompanied 1642:Temporary Slavery Commission 1303:Slavery in the Mongol Empire 7: 8010:Demographics of Puerto Rico 7816:Schmidt-Nowara, Christopher 7685:. Prpop.org. July 6, 2014. 6767:"My First Santeria Reading" 5672:Sotomayor, Antonio (2016). 5423:Dávila del Valle, Oscar G. 4561:United States Census Bureau 4318: 3952: 3678: 2646:sub-Saharan African descent 2617:, established and expanded 2558:and territories within the 2458:enslaved and exploited the 1662:Ad Hoc Committee on Slavery 707:Volga Bulgarian slave trade 102:Afro–Puerto Rican women in 10: 9442: 9421:Immigration to Puerto Rico 9254:African diaspora religions 8378:Indigenous Black Canadians 7495:. PReb.com. Archived from 7491:Negrón Hernández, Luis R. 6132:10.1177/000312240707200604 5812:"The Great Salsa Timeline" 5565:"Africa & Puerto Rico" 5082:. Proyectosalonhogar.com. 4430:– United States of America 4312:Miles Morales / Spider-Man 4221:Román Baldorioty de Castro 4197:List of Afro–Puerto Ricans 4194: 4191:Notable Afro–Puerto Ricans 3900: 3868:Vejigante Mask and Costume 3774:interpreted by Rene Ramos 3201:(1822–1889) together with 3199:Román Baldorioty de Castro 3187:Francisco Mariano Quiñones 3041:was intended to encourage 2761:. The large majority were 2348:), most commonly known as 1847:Great Dismal Swamp maroons 1684:Anti-Slavery International 1449:North Africa and West Asia 9355: 9244: 9229:African Hebrew Israelites 9214: 9168: 9105: 9094: 9074: 9005:Afro-Asians in South Asia 8970: 8883: 8718: 8568: 8353: 8279: 8089: 8075: 8068: 8000: 7974: 7929: 7911: 7895: 7799:Insight Guide Puerto Rico 7737:February 8, 2016, at the 7728:"See a sneak peek inside 7708:Rodríguez, Jorge (2007). 7079:. Uic.edu. Archived from 5770:. cwo.com. Archived from 5647:Foner, Philip S. (1972). 5425:"Ramón Emeterio Betances" 5402:. Duke University Press. 5191:Tomás, Don Pedro (1830). 4826:Chinea, Jorge L. (1996). 4658:"Puerto Rico 2020 census" 4582:"Puerto Rico 2020 census" 3764: 3745: 3740: 2757:, area also known as the 2491:emanating from different 1943:Emancipation Proclamation 1615:Opposition and resistance 1373:Sex trafficking in Europe 1361:Blackbirding in Polynesia 924:Trans-Saharan slave trade 231: 226: 201: 196: 148: 143: 132: 127: 116: 111: 95: 53: 9406:African diaspora history 8271:Turks and Caicos Islands 7605:"José Campeche y Jordán" 6548:. Music of Puerto Rico. 5591:Rodríguez Juliá, Edgardo 5398:Kinsbruner, Jay (1996). 5080:"Esclavitud Puerto Rico" 5012:"Bartoleme de las Casas" 4450: 4225:Alejandro Tapia y Rivera 4015:, which is derived from 3703: 3540:World Boxing Association 3516:Juan Evangelista Venegas 3504:Juan Evangelista Venegas 3444:Emilio "Millito" Navarro 3409:The Harlem Hell Fighters 3346:Arturo Alfonso Schomburg 3197:. On November 19, 1872, 2554:ships traveling between 1723:Compensated emancipation 934:Indian Ocean slave trade 54: 8020:Stateside Puerto Ricans 7535:. Wildside Press, LLC. 5766:Knight, Robert (1995). 5262:. Fullbooks.com. 1903. 4233:Roberto González Nieves 3826:(vey-hee-GANT-eh). The 3815:leró, yubá, cunyá, babú 3463:Baseball Hall of Famers 3161:Ramón Emeterio Betances 2719:, to which they had no 1647:1926 Slavery Convention 1403:Germany in World War II 1020:North and South America 542:Contract of manumission 216:Afro-diasporic religion 9259:Anti-African sentiment 7809:de Wagenheim, Olga J. 7791:Scarano, Francisco A. 7716:on September 27, 2007. 7061:. 2011. Archived from 6689:Homza, Lu Ann (2006). 6352:"Puerto Rican Results" 5774:on September 28, 2007. 4805:Gilberto Aponte Torres 4428:Black Latino Americans 4208: 3974:Ferdinand II of Aragon 3965: 3949: 3935: 3910: 3753:"Bomba Puertorriqueña" 3751:You may listen to the 3726: 3722:Antonio Broccoli Porto 3596: 3584: 3506: 3378:United States Congress 3373: 3318: 3233: 3195:slavery in Puerto Rico 3152: 2890: 2728:Bartolomé de las Casas 2665: 2650:culture of Puerto Rico 2601:was increased, as the 2345: 2301:Puerto Rico portal 2058:Holyoke, Massachusetts 1128:British Virgin Islands 680:Circassian slave trade 646:Safavid imperial harem 641:Ottoman Imperial Harem 78: 72: 66: 60: 43: 9311:Civil rights movement 9199:Afro-Caribbean people 8508:Chestnut Ridge people 8430:African-American Jews 8232:Saint Kitts and Nevis 7221:All Things Considered 7190:Minority Rights Group 6531:10.1353/hcs.2007.0017 6377:"Diaspora Comparison" 6279:Wheat, David (2016). 5849:on December 14, 2007. 5449:on November 15, 2007. 5290:Gaceta de Puerto Rico 4984:Yaz (June 29, 2001). 4445:Racism in Puerto Rico 4355:List of Puerto Ricans 4286:Palesiana y Aquelarre 4204: 3996:ideas and practices. 3978:Isabella I of Castile 3960: 3941: 3920: 3908: 3772:"Potpourri of Plenas" 3714: 3594: 3582:San Juan, Puerto Rico 3578:Museo de las Americas 3575: 3502: 3482:Baseball Hall of Fame 3436:Major League Baseball 3367: 3352:. He coined the term 3316: 3231: 3147: 3081:Gaceta de Puerto Rico 2888: 2663: 2640:The contributions of 1367:Europe and North Asia 1327:Australia and Oceania 1027:Pre-Columbian America 599:Slave raid of Suðuroy 531:Slavery in al-Andalus 453:Black Sea slave trade 382:21st-century jihadism 227:Related ethnic groups 9269:Atlantic slave trade 8957:United Arab Emirates 7744:Entertainment Weekly 7582:10.3390/arts12040126 7441:on February 14, 2014 7029:"The World Factbook" 6546:"Music Genre: Bomba" 6454:Martinez, Robert A. 5893:on December 20, 2007 5816:Salsa-merengue.co.uk 5342:Baralt, Guillermo A. 5221:on October 18, 2007. 5038:Rodriguez, Junius P. 4957:Martinez, Robert A. 4417:Afro-Latin Americans 4060:Current demographics 3924:Puerto Rican cuisine 3718:Baile De Loiza Aldea 3698:Puerto Rican Spanish 3536:World Boxing Council 3528:José "Chegui" Torres 3327:Spanish–American War 3325:of 1898 settled the 3309:Spanish–American War 3299:Abelardo Díaz Alfaro 3224:Abolition of slavery 3151:in Puerto Rico, 1898 3070:free people of color 2842:free people of color 2711:was named for her). 2576:sub-Saharan Africans 2572:free people of color 2560:continental Americas 2540:Atlantic slave trade 2442:at the start of the 2035:By region or country 1822:Indentured servitude 1750:Underground Railroad 1550:United Arab Emirates 939:Zanzibar slave trade 906:By country or region 719:Atlantic slave trade 621:Ma malakat aymanukum 505:Venetian slave trade 9158:Sierra Leone Creole 9009:India and Pakistan 8254:Trinidad and Tobago 8104:Antigua and Barbuda 7797:Balletto, Barbara. 7575:(4). MDPI AG: 126. 6488:. pp. 68–101. 5980:on November 5, 2013 5597:. Jornada.unam.mx. 5493:on October 18, 2004 5368:"El Grito de Lares" 4743:"Afro-Puerto Rican" 4701:2011PLoSO...616513V 4407:Puerto Rican people 3982:Spanish Inquisition 3526:On March 30, 1965, 3450:when he joined the 3420:Pedro Albizu Campos 3370:Pedro Albizu Campos 3169:"aguas de libertad" 3165:Segundo Ruiz Belvis 2958: 2734:in their colonies. 2486:sub-Saharan African 2478:infectious diseases 2371:sub-Saharan African 2369:of full or partial 2346:Afropuertorriqueños 2280:Spanish (Castilian) 1908:Slave Route Project 1039:Americas indigenous 929:Red Sea slave trade 919:Contemporary Africa 782:Topics and practice 552:Crimean slave trade 547:Bukhara slave trade 500:Genoese slave trade 377:Contemporary Africa 357:Forced prostitution 261:Afro-Latin American 50: 44:Afropuertorriqueños 9301:Black Lives Matter 8908:Ethiopian Israelis 8558:African immigrants 8533:Louisiana Redbones 8469:Chickasaw freedmen 8398:African immigrants 8166:Dominican Republic 8005:Portal:Puerto Rico 7832:Soler, Luis M. D. 7785:Figueroa, Luis A. 7763:2015-09-06 at the 7645:on March 11, 2007. 7055:"2010 Census Data" 6590:. Hipsonfire.com. 6202:on August 7, 2007. 5974:Sports Illustrated 5593:(April 19, 1998). 5527:on March 19, 2011. 4907:Gates, Henry Louis 4883:on January 1, 2008 4777:Human Rights Group 4469:Afropuertorriqueño 4333:Puerto Rico portal 4282:Sylvia del Villard 4229:José Julián Acosta 4209: 4067:Dominican Republic 3966: 3911: 3727: 3597: 3585: 3507: 3428:black Puerto Rican 3405:United States Army 3401:James Reese Europe 3374: 3342:José Celso Barbosa 3335:Harlem Renaissance 3319: 3289:either African or 3247:American Civil War 3234: 3183:José Julián Acosta 3153: 2954: 2891: 2709:Loíza, Puerto Rico 2697:Juan Ponce de León 2666: 2644:of full or mostly 2440:Juan Ponce de León 2338:Afro–Puerto Ricans 2261:Jones–Shafroth Act 1689:Blockade of Africa 996:Somali slave trade 912:Sub-Saharan Africa 604:Turkish Abductions 562:Khivan slave trade 557:Khazar slave trade 510:Balkan slave trade 468:Prague slave trade 37:Afro-Puerto Ricans 35: 18:Afro-Puerto Ricans 9383: 9382: 9351: 9350: 9264:Anti-Black racism 9204:British Jamaicans 9194:African Americans 9179:African Americans 9133:Americo-Liberians 9118:African Americans 9090: 9089: 8913:Sudanese refugees 8714: 8713: 8484:Seminole freedmen 8464:Cherokee freedmen 8445:Black Southerners 8420:African Americans 8368:African Americans 8028: 8027: 7828:978-0-8229-5690-7 7542:978-1-4344-7326-4 7305:. July 26, 2014. 7192:. June 19, 2015. 7083:on April 30, 2015 6773:on June 23, 2007. 6642:978-0-910082-33-4 6620:on June 24, 2007. 6577:on July 20, 2007) 6503:978-0-511-57617-1 6354:. November 2015. 6290:978-1-4696-2380-1 6170:Caribbean Trading 6059:on April 25, 2008 6015:978-1-55885-335-5 5871:978-0-7432-8195-9 5683:978-0-8032-8540-8 5658:978-0-85345-267-6 5409:978-0-8223-1842-2 5356:on June 29, 2007. 5318:. Finalcall.com. 5248:978-1-55876-463-7 5121:978-1-55876-463-7 5053:978-0-313-33273-9 4988:. Angelfire.com. 4928:978-0-465-00071-5 4237:Celestina Cordero 4089:had laws such as 3970:Catholic Monarchs 3932:Arts Publications 3784: 3783: 3665:Equatorial Guinea 3456:Francisco Coimbre 3282:instrumental role 3207:Julio Vizcarrondo 3129:Gracias al Sacar, 3117:El Grito de Lares 3035: 3034: 2578:from neighboring 2484:began to rely on 2395:Afro-Puerto Rican 2335: 2334: 2222:Roman Catholicism 2005: 2004: 1955:Freedmen's Bureau 1777:Third Servile War 1772:International law 1339:Human trafficking 1101:Human trafficking 776:Thirteen colonies 594:Sack of Baltimore 362:Human trafficking 271: 270: 139: 123: 118:228,711-1,000,000 90: 16:(Redirected from 9433: 9373: 9372: 9363: 9362: 9103: 9102: 8491:Creoles of color 8474:Choctaw freedmen 8440:Black Mennonites 8373:Black Mennonites 8220:Jamaican Maroons 8176:Samaná Americans 8087: 8086: 8073: 8072: 8062:African diaspora 8055: 8048: 8041: 8032: 8031: 7887: 7886: 7875: 7868: 7861: 7852: 7851: 7774: 7754: 7748: 7724: 7718: 7717: 7705: 7699: 7698: 7696: 7694: 7679: 7673: 7672: 7670: 7668: 7663:on June 19, 2007 7653: 7647: 7646: 7631: 7625: 7624: 7622: 7620: 7601: 7595: 7594: 7584: 7560: 7554: 7553: 7551: 7549: 7526: 7520: 7519: 7507: 7501: 7500: 7499:on May 14, 2007. 7488: 7482: 7481: 7479: 7478: 7466:US Census Bureau 7457: 7451: 7450: 7448: 7446: 7431: 7425: 7424: 7422: 7420: 7405: 7399: 7398: 7396: 7394: 7389:on July 24, 2015 7379: 7373: 7372: 7370: 7368: 7352: 7346: 7345: 7343: 7341: 7325: 7319: 7318: 7316: 7314: 7295: 7289: 7288: 7286: 7284: 7269: 7263: 7262: 7260: 7258: 7243: 7237: 7236: 7234: 7232: 7212: 7206: 7205: 7203: 7201: 7182: 7176: 7175: 7173: 7171: 7151: 7145: 7144: 7142: 7140: 7125: 7119: 7118: 7116: 7114: 7099: 7093: 7092: 7090: 7088: 7073: 7067: 7066: 7065:on July 6, 2011. 7059:US Census Bureau 7051: 7045: 7044: 7042: 7040: 7025: 7019: 7018: 7016: 7004: 6998: 6997: 6995: 6993: 6988:on March 3, 2016 6977: 6971: 6970: 6968: 6966: 6960: 6953: 6945: 6939: 6938: 6936: 6934: 6929:on June 18, 2013 6919: 6913: 6912: 6910: 6908: 6889: 6883: 6882: 6880: 6878: 6863: 6857: 6856: 6854: 6852: 6837: 6831: 6830: 6828: 6826: 6810: 6804: 6803: 6801: 6800: 6789:US Census Bureau 6781: 6775: 6774: 6763: 6757: 6756: 6754: 6752: 6747:on July 14, 2007 6736: 6727: 6726: 6725:on May 11, 2005. 6724: 6718:. Archived from 6708: 6702: 6687: 6681: 6680: 6678: 6677: 6661: 6655: 6654: 6628: 6622: 6621: 6610: 6604: 6603: 6601: 6599: 6584: 6578: 6568: 6562: 6561: 6559: 6557: 6541: 6535: 6534: 6514: 6508: 6507: 6481: 6475: 6474: 6472: 6471: 6451: 6445: 6444: 6442: 6440: 6425: 6419: 6418: 6416: 6414: 6405:. 10 June 2014. 6399: 6393: 6392: 6390: 6388: 6373: 6367: 6366: 6364: 6363: 6348: 6342: 6338: 6332: 6331: 6329: 6328: 6309: 6303: 6302: 6276: 6270: 6269: 6241: 6235: 6234: 6232: 6230: 6219:Black Voice News 6210: 6204: 6203: 6192: 6186: 6185: 6183: 6181: 6161: 6152: 6151: 6125: 6105: 6094: 6093: 6092:on June 8, 2011. 6078: 6069: 6068: 6066: 6064: 6049: 6043: 6042: 6040: 6038: 6033:on March 3, 2016 6023: 6017: 5996: 5990: 5989: 5987: 5985: 5965: 5959: 5958: 5956: 5954: 5949:on July 24, 2015 5939: 5933: 5932: 5930: 5928: 5909: 5903: 5902: 5900: 5898: 5882: 5876: 5875: 5857: 5851: 5850: 5838: 5832: 5831: 5829: 5827: 5808: 5802: 5801: 5799: 5797: 5782: 5776: 5775: 5763: 5757: 5756: 5728: 5722: 5721: 5694: 5688: 5687: 5669: 5663: 5662: 5644: 5638: 5637: 5617: 5611: 5610: 5608: 5606: 5587: 5581: 5580: 5578: 5576: 5561: 5555: 5554: 5552: 5550: 5535: 5529: 5528: 5512: 5503: 5502: 5500: 5498: 5483: 5477: 5476: 5474: 5472: 5457: 5451: 5450: 5439: 5433: 5432: 5431:on May 15, 2007. 5420: 5414: 5413: 5395: 5384: 5383: 5381: 5379: 5364: 5358: 5357: 5338: 5332: 5331: 5329: 5327: 5312: 5306: 5305: 5303: 5301: 5282: 5276: 5275: 5273: 5271: 5256: 5250: 5229: 5223: 5222: 5207: 5201: 5200: 5199:on May 28, 2008. 5188: 5182: 5181: 5180:on June 6, 2007. 5166: 5155: 5154: 5152: 5150: 5135: 5126: 5125: 5107: 5096: 5095: 5093: 5091: 5076: 5070: 5069: 5067: 5065: 5034: 5028: 5027: 5025: 5023: 5008: 5002: 5001: 4999: 4997: 4981: 4975: 4974: 4972: 4970: 4954: 4933: 4932: 4916: 4899: 4893: 4892: 4890: 4888: 4872: 4863: 4862: 4860: 4858: 4823: 4817: 4816: 4814: 4812: 4802: 4794: 4788: 4787: 4785: 4783: 4769: 4763: 4762: 4760: 4758: 4739: 4733: 4732: 4722: 4712: 4679: 4673: 4672: 4670: 4669: 4654: 4648: 4647: 4645: 4644: 4629: 4623: 4622: 4620: 4618: 4607:"puertorriqueño" 4603: 4597: 4596: 4594: 4593: 4578: 4572: 4571: 4569: 4567: 4553: 4537: 4490: 4484: 4461: 4349: 4344: 4343: 4342: 4335: 4330: 4329: 4328: 4258:Miguel Henriquez 4095:Gracias al Sacar 4083:U.S. Afro-Latino 3889: 3877: 3865: 3853: 3769: 3768: 3750: 3749: 3738: 3737: 3478:Brooklyn Dodgers 3466:Roberto Clemente 3440:African-American 3393:Rafael Hernández 3303:Luis Palés Matos 3301:(1916–1999) and 2959: 2953: 2928:Ralph Abercromby 2695:who was part of 2530:colonies in the 2356:Afroborinqueños, 2327: 2320: 2313: 2299: 2298: 2297: 2030: 2007: 2006: 1997: 1990: 1983: 1967:Emancipation Day 1800: 1767:Slave Trade Acts 458:Byzantine Empire 300: 273: 272: 137: 121: 112:Total population 100: 81: 75: 69: 63: 55: 51: 46: 34: 21: 9441: 9440: 9436: 9435: 9434: 9432: 9431: 9430: 9386: 9385: 9384: 9379: 9347: 9321:Genetic history 9246: 9240: 9216: 9210: 9190:United Kingdom 9164: 9143:Afro-Brazilians 9098: 9096: 9086: 9070: 8975: 8966: 8879: 8722: 8710: 8570: 8564: 8435:Alabama Creoles 8355: 8349: 8281: 8275: 8080: 8064: 8059: 8029: 8024: 7996: 7970: 7925: 7907: 7891: 7881: 7879: 7842: 7803:Ortiz, Yvonne. 7782: 7780:Further reading 7777: 7765:Wayback Machine 7755: 7751: 7739:Wayback Machine 7725: 7721: 7706: 7702: 7692: 7690: 7681: 7680: 7676: 7666: 7664: 7655: 7654: 7650: 7633: 7632: 7628: 7618: 7616: 7603: 7602: 7598: 7561: 7557: 7547: 7545: 7543: 7527: 7523: 7508: 7504: 7489: 7485: 7476: 7474: 7459: 7458: 7454: 7444: 7442: 7433: 7432: 7428: 7418: 7416: 7407: 7406: 7402: 7392: 7390: 7381: 7380: 7376: 7366: 7364: 7353: 7349: 7339: 7337: 7326: 7322: 7312: 7310: 7297: 7296: 7292: 7282: 7280: 7271: 7270: 7266: 7256: 7254: 7245: 7244: 7240: 7230: 7228: 7213: 7209: 7199: 7197: 7184: 7183: 7179: 7169: 7167: 7152: 7148: 7138: 7136: 7127: 7126: 7122: 7112: 7110: 7101: 7100: 7096: 7086: 7084: 7075: 7074: 7070: 7053: 7052: 7048: 7038: 7036: 7027: 7026: 7022: 7014:10.1.1.464.1912 7005: 7001: 6991: 6989: 6978: 6974: 6964: 6962: 6958: 6951: 6947: 6946: 6942: 6932: 6930: 6921: 6920: 6916: 6906: 6904: 6891: 6890: 6886: 6876: 6874: 6865: 6864: 6860: 6850: 6848: 6839: 6838: 6834: 6824: 6822: 6811: 6807: 6798: 6796: 6783: 6782: 6778: 6765: 6764: 6760: 6750: 6748: 6737: 6730: 6722: 6710: 6709: 6705: 6688: 6684: 6675: 6673: 6662: 6658: 6643: 6629: 6625: 6612: 6611: 6607: 6597: 6595: 6586: 6585: 6581: 6569: 6565: 6555: 6553: 6542: 6538: 6515: 6511: 6504: 6482: 6478: 6469: 6467: 6452: 6448: 6438: 6436: 6431:. 4 June 2015. 6427: 6426: 6422: 6412: 6410: 6401: 6400: 6396: 6386: 6384: 6379:. 15 May 2016. 6375: 6374: 6370: 6361: 6359: 6350: 6349: 6345: 6339: 6335: 6326: 6324: 6317:firstblacks.org 6311: 6310: 6306: 6291: 6277: 6273: 6258:10.2307/2571712 6242: 6238: 6228: 6226: 6211: 6207: 6194: 6193: 6189: 6179: 6177: 6162: 6155: 6123:10.1.1.563.9069 6106: 6097: 6080: 6079: 6072: 6062: 6060: 6051: 6050: 6046: 6036: 6034: 6025: 6024: 6020: 5997: 5993: 5983: 5981: 5966: 5962: 5952: 5950: 5941: 5940: 5936: 5926: 5924: 5911: 5910: 5906: 5896: 5894: 5883: 5879: 5872: 5858: 5854: 5839: 5835: 5825: 5823: 5810: 5809: 5805: 5795: 5793: 5784: 5783: 5779: 5764: 5760: 5745:10.2307/2574293 5729: 5725: 5695: 5691: 5684: 5670: 5666: 5659: 5645: 5641: 5618: 5614: 5604: 5602: 5588: 5584: 5574: 5572: 5563: 5562: 5558: 5548: 5546: 5537: 5536: 5532: 5513: 5506: 5496: 5494: 5485: 5484: 5480: 5470: 5468: 5459: 5458: 5454: 5441: 5440: 5436: 5421: 5417: 5410: 5396: 5387: 5377: 5375: 5366: 5365: 5361: 5339: 5335: 5325: 5323: 5316:"Who is Black?" 5314: 5313: 5309: 5299: 5297: 5284: 5283: 5279: 5269: 5267: 5258: 5257: 5253: 5230: 5226: 5209: 5208: 5204: 5189: 5185: 5168: 5167: 5158: 5148: 5146: 5137: 5136: 5129: 5122: 5108: 5099: 5089: 5087: 5078: 5077: 5073: 5063: 5061: 5054: 5035: 5031: 5021: 5019: 5010: 5009: 5005: 4995: 4993: 4982: 4978: 4968: 4966: 4955: 4936: 4929: 4903:Appiah, Anthony 4900: 4896: 4886: 4884: 4873: 4866: 4856: 4854: 4844:10.2307/1008475 4824: 4820: 4810: 4808: 4800: 4796: 4795: 4791: 4781: 4779: 4771: 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Most of the 2794:Catholic Church 2685:Ricardo Alegria 2658: 2629:revolt against 2562:. However, the 2503:to staff their 2363:Afropuertorros, 2331: 2295: 2293: 2001: 1972: 1971: 1876:Slave narrative 1832:Fugitive slaves 1812: 1804: 1803: 1794: 1762:Slave rebellion 1617: 1607: 1606: 1565: 1555: 1554: 1377:United Kingdom 1313:Yankee princess 907: 899: 898: 626:Avret Pazarları 572:Avret Pazarları 441:Medieval Europe 407: 397: 396: 335:Forced marriage 310: 253:Afro-Dominicans 192: 136: 120: 107: 91: 84: 70: 67:Afroborinqueños 49: 38: 33: 28: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 9439: 9429: 9428: 9423: 9418: 9413: 9408: 9403: 9398: 9381: 9380: 9378: 9377: 9367: 9356: 9353: 9352: 9349: 9348: 9346: 9345: 9344: 9343: 9333: 9331:Pan-Africanism 9328: 9323: 9318: 9316:Creole peoples 9313: 9308: 9303: 9298: 9297: 9296: 9291: 9286: 9281: 9276: 9266: 9261: 9256: 9250: 9248: 9242: 9241: 9239: 9238: 9233: 9232: 9231: 9220: 9218: 9212: 9211: 9209: 9208: 9207: 9206: 9201: 9196: 9188: 9187: 9186: 9181: 9172: 9170: 9166: 9165: 9163: 9162: 9161: 9160: 9152: 9151: 9150: 9145: 9137: 9136: 9135: 9127: 9126: 9125: 9120: 9111: 9109: 9100: 9092: 9091: 9088: 9087: 9085: 9084: 9078: 9076: 9072: 9071: 9069: 9068: 9067: 9066: 9056: 9051: 9046: 9041: 9040: 9039: 9034: 9032:Black Dutchmen 9024: 9023: 9022: 9021: 9020: 9007: 9002: 9001: 9000: 8995: 8985: 8979: 8977: 8968: 8967: 8965: 8964: 8959: 8954: 8953: 8952: 8942: 8937: 8932: 8927: 8922: 8917: 8916: 8915: 8910: 8900: 8895: 8889: 8887: 8881: 8880: 8878: 8877: 8876: 8875: 8870: 8865: 8860: 8855: 8848:United Kingdom 8845: 8840: 8835: 8830: 8825: 8820: 8815: 8810: 8805: 8800: 8795: 8790: 8785: 8784: 8783: 8773: 8768: 8767: 8766: 8756: 8751: 8746: 8741: 8736: 8730: 8728: 8716: 8715: 8712: 8711: 8709: 8708: 8703: 8698: 8697: 8696: 8691: 8686: 8681: 8676: 8666: 8661: 8656: 8651: 8650: 8649: 8644: 8639: 8629: 8624: 8623: 8622: 8612: 8607: 8606: 8605: 8600: 8595: 8585: 8580: 8574: 8572: 8566: 8565: 8563: 8562: 8561: 8560: 8555: 8550: 8545: 8540: 8535: 8530: 8525: 8520: 8515: 8510: 8505: 8500: 8499: 8498: 8493: 8488: 8487: 8486: 8481: 8479:Creek freedmen 8476: 8471: 8466: 8452: 8450:Black Hispanic 8447: 8442: 8437: 8432: 8427: 8416:United States 8414: 8413: 8412: 8402: 8401: 8400: 8395: 8390: 8385: 8380: 8375: 8370: 8359: 8357: 8351: 8350: 8348: 8347: 8346: 8345: 8335: 8330: 8329: 8328: 8321:Miskito people 8318: 8313: 8308: 8303: 8298: 8297: 8296: 8285: 8283: 8277: 8276: 8274: 8273: 8268: 8267: 8266: 8261: 8251: 8250: 8249: 8239: 8234: 8229: 8224: 8223: 8222: 8217: 8212: 8202: 8201: 8200: 8195: 8185: 8180: 8179: 8178: 8173: 8163: 8158: 8153: 8152: 8151: 8146: 8141: 8131: 8129:Cayman Islands 8126: 8121: 8116: 8111: 8106: 8101: 8095: 8093: 8084: 8070: 8066: 8065: 8058: 8057: 8050: 8043: 8035: 8026: 8025: 8023: 8022: 8017: 8012: 8007: 8001: 7998: 7997: 7995: 7994: 7989: 7984: 7978: 7976: 7972: 7971: 7969: 7968: 7963: 7958: 7953: 7948: 7947: 7946: 7935: 7933: 7927: 7926: 7924: 7923: 7917: 7915: 7909: 7908: 7906: 7905: 7899: 7897: 7893: 7892: 7878: 7877: 7870: 7863: 7855: 7849: 7848: 7841: 7840:External links 7838: 7837: 7836: 7830: 7813: 7807: 7801: 7795: 7789: 7781: 7778: 7776: 7775: 7749: 7719: 7700: 7674: 7648: 7626: 7596: 7555: 7541: 7521: 7502: 7483: 7452: 7426: 7400: 7374: 7347: 7336:on May 7, 2013 7320: 7290: 7264: 7238: 7207: 7177: 7146: 7120: 7094: 7068: 7046: 7020: 6999: 6972: 6954:. Census.gov. 6940: 6914: 6884: 6858: 6832: 6805: 6791:. 2021-08-25. 6776: 6758: 6728: 6703: 6682: 6656: 6641: 6623: 6605: 6579: 6563: 6544:Bailyn, Evan. 6536: 6525:(1): 272–274. 6509: 6502: 6476: 6446: 6420: 6394: 6368: 6343: 6333: 6304: 6289: 6271: 6236: 6205: 6187: 6153: 6116:(6): 915–939. 6095: 6070: 6044: 6018: 5991: 5960: 5934: 5904: 5885:Bolton, Todd. 5877: 5870: 5852: 5833: 5803: 5777: 5758: 5739:(2): 141–148. 5723: 5689: 5682: 5664: 5657: 5639: 5622:Monthly Review 5612: 5582: 5556: 5530: 5504: 5478: 5452: 5434: 5415: 5408: 5385: 5359: 5333: 5307: 5277: 5251: 5224: 5202: 5183: 5156: 5127: 5120: 5097: 5071: 5052: 5029: 5003: 4976: 4934: 4927: 4894: 4864: 4838:(4): 495–519. 4818: 4789: 4764: 4734: 4674: 4649: 4624: 4598: 4573: 4547: 4545: 4542: 4539: 4538: 4514:Bobby Valentín 4485: 4473:Afroborinqueño 4455: 4454: 4452: 4449: 4448: 4447: 4442: 4437: 4431: 4425: 4420: 4414: 4412:Afro-Caribbean 4409: 4404: 4403: 4402: 4397: 4392: 4387: 4382: 4377: 4372: 4367: 4357: 4351: 4350: 4336: 4320: 4317: 4316: 4315: 4302: 4299: 4298: 4297: 4279: 4273: 4254: 4247:Canary Islands 4240: 4213:Rafael Cordero 4206:Rafael Cordero 4195:Main article: 4192: 4189: 4119:municipalities 4079:Virgin Islands 4061: 4058: 3954: 3951: 3940: 3919: 3902: 3899: 3895: 3894: 3891: 3884: 3882: 3879: 3872: 3870: 3867: 3860: 3858: 3855: 3848: 3845: 3844: 3843: 3835:Rafael Cortijo 3782: 3781: 3762: 3761: 3743: 3742: 3741:External audio 3733: 3731: 3730: 3715: 3709: 3708: 3707: 3705: 3702: 3680: 3677: 3569: 3566: 3470:Orlando Cepeda 3361: 3360:Discrimination 3358: 3354:Afroborincano, 3310: 3307: 3295: 3294: 3286: 3278: 3253:compensation. 3225: 3222: 3141: 3138: 3055:Grito de Lares 3033: 3032: 3029: 3026: 3023: 3020: 3014: 3013: 3010: 3007: 3004: 3001: 2995: 2994: 2991: 2988: 2985: 2982: 2976: 2975: 2972: 2969: 2966: 2963: 2951: 2948: 2946: 2943: 2939:sugar industry 2882: 2879: 2878: 2877: 2874: 2871: 2867: 2864: 2834:Saint-Domingue 2755:Gulf of Guinea 2657: 2654: 2627:Grito de Lares 2501:Central Africa 2428:Black men, or 2391:Central Africa 2359:Afroborincanos 2333: 2332: 2330: 2329: 2322: 2315: 2307: 2304: 2303: 2290: 2289: 2288: 2287: 2282: 2274: 2273: 2267: 2266: 2265: 2264: 2257: 2249: 2248: 2242: 2241: 2240: 2239: 2234: 2229: 2224: 2216: 2215: 2209: 2208: 2207: 2206: 2201: 2196: 2191: 2186: 2181: 2176: 2171: 2166: 2161: 2156: 2151: 2143: 2142: 2136: 2135: 2134: 2133: 2128: 2123: 2118: 2113: 2108: 2103: 2102: 2101: 2091: 2086: 2078: 2077: 2073: 2072: 2071: 2070: 2065: 2060: 2055: 2050: 2045: 2037: 2036: 2032: 2031: 2023: 2022: 2016: 2015: 2003: 2002: 2000: 1999: 1992: 1985: 1977: 1974: 1973: 1970: 1969: 1964: 1963: 1962: 1957: 1952: 1947: 1946: 1945: 1935: 1930: 1925: 1920: 1915: 1905: 1900: 1895: 1890: 1889: 1888: 1883: 1873: 1868: 1867: 1866: 1861: 1854:List of slaves 1851: 1850: 1849: 1844: 1839: 1829: 1824: 1819: 1813: 1810: 1809: 1806: 1805: 1802: 1801: 1789: 1784: 1779: 1774: 1769: 1764: 1759: 1758: 1757: 1747: 1742: 1737: 1736: 1735: 1725: 1720: 1719: 1718: 1713: 1703: 1702: 1701: 1696: 1686: 1681: 1676: 1675: 1674: 1669: 1664: 1659: 1654: 1649: 1644: 1639: 1634: 1629: 1618: 1613: 1612: 1609: 1608: 1605: 1604: 1599: 1594: 1589: 1588: 1587: 1582: 1572: 1566: 1561: 1560: 1557: 1556: 1553: 1552: 1547: 1542: 1537: 1532: 1527: 1522: 1517: 1512: 1507: 1502: 1497: 1492: 1487: 1482: 1477: 1472: 1467: 1462: 1457: 1451: 1450: 1446: 1445: 1440: 1435: 1430: 1425: 1420: 1415: 1410: 1405: 1400: 1398:Dutch Republic 1395: 1390: 1389: 1388: 1383: 1375: 1369: 1368: 1364: 1363: 1358: 1353: 1348: 1343: 1342: 1341: 1330: 1329: 1323: 1322: 1317: 1316: 1315: 1305: 1300: 1295: 1290: 1289: 1288: 1278: 1277: 1276: 1266: 1261: 1260: 1259: 1254: 1244: 1243: 1242: 1237: 1232: 1222: 1217: 1212: 1206: 1205: 1199: 1198: 1193: 1186: 1185: 1184: 1179: 1169: 1164: 1159: 1158: 1157: 1147: 1142: 1141: 1140: 1135: 1130: 1125: 1115: 1110: 1105: 1104: 1103: 1098: 1093: 1088: 1083: 1078: 1073: 1068: 1063: 1058: 1048: 1047: 1046: 1036: 1035: 1034: 1023: 1022: 1016: 1015: 1010: 1005: 1000: 999: 998: 988: 983: 978: 973: 968: 963: 958: 953: 948: 943: 942: 941: 931: 926: 921: 915: 914: 908: 905: 904: 901: 900: 897: 896: 891: 886: 881: 876: 870: 869: 865: 864: 859: 857:Child soldiers 854: 849: 844: 839: 834: 833: 832: 822: 817: 812: 807: 806: 805: 800: 795: 784: 783: 779: 778: 773: 768: 766:Spanish Empire 763: 758: 753: 748: 746:Middle Passage 743: 738: 733: 728: 722: 721: 715: 714: 709: 704: 699: 694: 689: 684: 683: 682: 677: 672: 667: 662: 653: 648: 643: 638: 633: 628: 623: 618: 608: 607: 606: 601: 596: 591: 586: 576: 575: 574: 567:Ottoman Empire 564: 559: 554: 549: 544: 539: 534: 528: 522: 521: 515: 514: 513: 512: 502: 497: 492: 491: 490: 485: 480: 470: 465: 460: 455: 450: 444: 443: 437: 436: 431: 426: 421: 415: 414: 408: 403: 402: 399: 398: 395: 394: 389: 387:Sexual slavery 384: 379: 374: 369: 364: 359: 354: 353: 352: 347: 345:Child marriage 342: 332: 327: 322: 320:Child soldiers 317: 311: 306: 305: 302: 301: 293: 292: 282: 281: 269: 268: 267:ethnic groups 265:Afro-Caribbean 229: 228: 224: 223: 202:Predominantly 199: 198: 194: 193: 191: 190: 188:Haitian Creole 185: 180: 175: 170: 165: 160: 155: 149: 146: 145: 141: 140: 130: 129: 125: 124: 114: 113: 109: 108: 101: 93: 92: 83: 82: 79:Afropuertorros 73:Afroborincanos 56: 48: 47: 39: 36: 31: 26: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 9438: 9427: 9424: 9422: 9419: 9417: 9414: 9412: 9409: 9407: 9404: 9402: 9399: 9397: 9394: 9393: 9391: 9376: 9368: 9366: 9358: 9357: 9354: 9342: 9339: 9338: 9337: 9334: 9332: 9329: 9327: 9324: 9322: 9319: 9317: 9314: 9312: 9309: 9307: 9304: 9302: 9299: 9295: 9292: 9290: 9287: 9285: 9282: 9280: 9277: 9275: 9272: 9271: 9270: 9267: 9265: 9262: 9260: 9257: 9255: 9252: 9251: 9249: 9243: 9237: 9234: 9230: 9227: 9226: 9225: 9222: 9221: 9219: 9213: 9205: 9202: 9200: 9197: 9195: 9192: 9191: 9189: 9185: 9182: 9180: 9177: 9176: 9174: 9173: 9171: 9167: 9159: 9156: 9155: 9154:Sierra Leone 9153: 9149: 9146: 9144: 9141: 9140: 9138: 9134: 9131: 9130: 9128: 9124: 9121: 9119: 9116: 9115: 9113: 9112: 9110: 9108: 9104: 9101: 9097:Afro-American 9093: 9083: 9080: 9079: 9077: 9073: 9065: 9062: 9061: 9060: 9057: 9055: 9052: 9050: 9047: 9045: 9042: 9038: 9035: 9033: 9030: 9029: 9028: 9025: 9019: 9016: 9015: 9014: 9011: 9010: 9008: 9006: 9003: 8999: 8996: 8994: 8991: 8990: 8989: 8986: 8984: 8981: 8980: 8978: 8973: 8969: 8963: 8960: 8958: 8955: 8951: 8948: 8947: 8946: 8943: 8941: 8938: 8936: 8933: 8931: 8928: 8926: 8923: 8921: 8918: 8914: 8911: 8909: 8906: 8905: 8904: 8901: 8899: 8896: 8894: 8891: 8890: 8888: 8886: 8882: 8874: 8871: 8869: 8866: 8864: 8861: 8859: 8856: 8854: 8851: 8850: 8849: 8846: 8844: 8841: 8839: 8836: 8834: 8831: 8829: 8826: 8824: 8821: 8819: 8816: 8814: 8811: 8809: 8806: 8804: 8801: 8799: 8796: 8794: 8791: 8789: 8786: 8782: 8779: 8778: 8777: 8774: 8772: 8769: 8765: 8762: 8761: 8760: 8757: 8755: 8752: 8750: 8747: 8745: 8742: 8740: 8737: 8735: 8732: 8731: 8729: 8726: 8721: 8717: 8707: 8704: 8702: 8699: 8695: 8692: 8690: 8687: 8685: 8682: 8680: 8677: 8675: 8672: 8671: 8670: 8667: 8665: 8662: 8660: 8657: 8655: 8652: 8648: 8645: 8643: 8640: 8638: 8635: 8634: 8633: 8632:French Guiana 8630: 8628: 8625: 8621: 8618: 8617: 8616: 8613: 8611: 8608: 8604: 8601: 8599: 8596: 8594: 8591: 8590: 8589: 8586: 8584: 8581: 8579: 8576: 8575: 8573: 8567: 8559: 8556: 8554: 8551: 8549: 8548:Somali Bantus 8546: 8544: 8541: 8539: 8536: 8534: 8531: 8529: 8526: 8524: 8521: 8519: 8516: 8514: 8511: 8509: 8506: 8504: 8501: 8497: 8494: 8492: 8489: 8485: 8482: 8480: 8477: 8475: 8472: 8470: 8467: 8465: 8462: 8461: 8460: 8456: 8455:Black Indians 8453: 8451: 8448: 8446: 8443: 8441: 8438: 8436: 8433: 8431: 8428: 8426: 8425:Affrilachians 8423: 8422: 8421: 8418: 8417: 8415: 8411: 8408: 8407: 8406: 8403: 8399: 8396: 8394: 8391: 8389: 8386: 8384: 8383:New Brunswick 8381: 8379: 8376: 8374: 8371: 8369: 8366: 8365: 8364: 8361: 8360: 8358: 8352: 8344: 8341: 8340: 8339: 8336: 8334: 8331: 8327: 8326:Miskito Sambu 8324: 8323: 8322: 8319: 8317: 8314: 8312: 8309: 8307: 8304: 8302: 8299: 8295: 8292: 8291: 8290: 8287: 8286: 8284: 8278: 8272: 8269: 8265: 8262: 8260: 8259:Dougla people 8257: 8256: 8255: 8252: 8248: 8245: 8244: 8243: 8240: 8238: 8235: 8233: 8230: 8228: 8225: 8221: 8218: 8216: 8213: 8211: 8208: 8207: 8206: 8203: 8199: 8196: 8194: 8191: 8190: 8189: 8186: 8184: 8181: 8177: 8174: 8172: 8169: 8168: 8167: 8164: 8162: 8159: 8157: 8154: 8150: 8149:Ganga-Longoba 8147: 8145: 8142: 8140: 8137: 8136: 8135: 8132: 8130: 8127: 8125: 8122: 8120: 8117: 8115: 8112: 8110: 8107: 8105: 8102: 8100: 8097: 8096: 8094: 8092: 8088: 8085: 8083: 8082:Latin America 8078: 8074: 8071: 8067: 8063: 8056: 8051: 8049: 8044: 8042: 8037: 8036: 8033: 8021: 8018: 8016: 8013: 8011: 8008: 8006: 8003: 8002: 7999: 7993: 7990: 7988: 7985: 7983: 7980: 7979: 7977: 7973: 7967: 7964: 7962: 7959: 7957: 7954: 7952: 7949: 7945: 7942: 7941: 7940: 7937: 7936: 7934: 7932: 7928: 7922: 7919: 7918: 7916: 7914: 7910: 7904: 7901: 7900: 7898: 7894: 7890: 7889:Puerto Ricans 7885: 7876: 7871: 7869: 7864: 7862: 7857: 7856: 7853: 7847: 7844: 7843: 7835: 7831: 7829: 7825: 7821: 7817: 7814: 7812: 7808: 7806: 7802: 7800: 7796: 7794: 7790: 7788: 7784: 7783: 7772: 7771: 7766: 7762: 7759: 7753: 7746: 7745: 7740: 7736: 7733: 7731: 7723: 7715: 7711: 7704: 7688: 7684: 7678: 7662: 7658: 7652: 7644: 7640: 7636: 7630: 7614: 7610: 7606: 7600: 7592: 7588: 7583: 7578: 7574: 7570: 7566: 7559: 7544: 7538: 7534: 7533: 7525: 7517: 7513: 7506: 7498: 7494: 7487: 7472: 7468: 7467: 7462: 7456: 7440: 7436: 7430: 7414: 7410: 7404: 7388: 7384: 7378: 7362: 7358: 7351: 7335: 7331: 7324: 7308: 7304: 7300: 7294: 7278: 7274: 7268: 7252: 7248: 7242: 7226: 7222: 7218: 7211: 7195: 7191: 7187: 7181: 7165: 7161: 7157: 7150: 7134: 7130: 7124: 7108: 7104: 7098: 7082: 7078: 7072: 7064: 7060: 7056: 7050: 7034: 7030: 7024: 7015: 7010: 7003: 6987: 6983: 6976: 6957: 6950: 6944: 6928: 6924: 6918: 6902: 6898: 6897:NY Daily News 6894: 6888: 6872: 6868: 6862: 6847:on 2009-04-29 6846: 6842: 6836: 6821:on 2004-02-14 6820: 6816: 6809: 6794: 6790: 6786: 6780: 6772: 6768: 6762: 6746: 6742: 6735: 6733: 6721: 6717: 6713: 6707: 6700: 6699:0-87220-795-1 6696: 6692: 6686: 6671: 6667: 6660: 6652: 6648: 6644: 6638: 6634: 6627: 6619: 6615: 6609: 6593: 6589: 6583: 6576: 6573:(Archived of 6572: 6567: 6551: 6547: 6540: 6532: 6528: 6524: 6520: 6513: 6505: 6499: 6495: 6491: 6487: 6480: 6465: 6461: 6457: 6450: 6434: 6430: 6424: 6408: 6404: 6398: 6382: 6378: 6372: 6357: 6353: 6347: 6341: 6337: 6322: 6318: 6314: 6308: 6300: 6296: 6292: 6286: 6282: 6275: 6267: 6263: 6259: 6255: 6251: 6247: 6246:Social Forces 6240: 6224: 6220: 6216: 6209: 6201: 6197: 6191: 6175: 6171: 6167: 6160: 6158: 6149: 6145: 6141: 6137: 6133: 6129: 6124: 6119: 6115: 6111: 6104: 6102: 6100: 6091: 6087: 6083: 6077: 6075: 6058: 6054: 6048: 6032: 6028: 6022: 6016: 6012: 6008: 6007:1-55885-335-9 6004: 6000: 5995: 5984:September 11, 5979: 5975: 5971: 5964: 5948: 5944: 5938: 5922: 5918: 5914: 5908: 5892: 5888: 5881: 5873: 5867: 5863: 5856: 5848: 5844: 5837: 5821: 5817: 5813: 5807: 5791: 5787: 5781: 5773: 5769: 5762: 5754: 5750: 5746: 5742: 5738: 5734: 5733:Social Forces 5727: 5719: 5715: 5712: 5708: 5704: 5700: 5693: 5685: 5679: 5675: 5668: 5660: 5654: 5651:. NYU Press. 5650: 5643: 5635: 5631: 5627: 5623: 5616: 5600: 5596: 5592: 5586: 5570: 5567:. Ipoaa.com. 5566: 5560: 5544: 5540: 5534: 5526: 5522: 5518: 5511: 5509: 5492: 5488: 5482: 5466: 5462: 5456: 5448: 5444: 5438: 5430: 5426: 5419: 5411: 5405: 5401: 5394: 5392: 5390: 5374:on 2008-10-21 5373: 5369: 5363: 5355: 5351: 5347: 5343: 5337: 5321: 5317: 5311: 5295: 5291: 5287: 5281: 5265: 5261: 5255: 5249: 5245: 5241: 5240:1-55876-463-1 5237: 5233: 5228: 5220: 5216: 5212: 5206: 5198: 5194: 5187: 5179: 5175: 5171: 5165: 5163: 5161: 5144: 5140: 5134: 5132: 5123: 5117: 5113: 5106: 5104: 5102: 5085: 5081: 5075: 5059: 5055: 5049: 5045: 5044: 5039: 5033: 5018:on 2002-12-26 5017: 5013: 5007: 4991: 4987: 4980: 4964: 4961:. ipoaa.com. 4960: 4953: 4951: 4949: 4947: 4945: 4943: 4941: 4939: 4930: 4924: 4920: 4915: 4914: 4908: 4904: 4898: 4882: 4878: 4871: 4869: 4853: 4849: 4845: 4841: 4837: 4833: 4829: 4822: 4806: 4799: 4793: 4778: 4774: 4768: 4752: 4748: 4747:Afropedia.org 4744: 4738: 4730: 4726: 4721: 4716: 4711: 4706: 4702: 4698: 4695:(1): e16513. 4694: 4690: 4686: 4678: 4663: 4659: 4653: 4638: 4634: 4628: 4612: 4608: 4602: 4587: 4583: 4577: 4562: 4558: 4557:"Puerto Rico" 4552: 4548: 4535: 4531: 4527: 4523: 4522:Andy Montañez 4519: 4515: 4511: 4507: 4503: 4502:spontaneously 4499: 4495: 4489: 4482: 4481:Afropuertorro 4478: 4477:Afroborincano 4474: 4470: 4466: 4460: 4456: 4446: 4443: 4441: 4438: 4435: 4434:Bozal Spanish 4432: 4429: 4426: 4424: 4423:Afro-Spaniard 4421: 4418: 4415: 4413: 4410: 4408: 4405: 4401: 4398: 4396: 4393: 4391: 4388: 4386: 4383: 4381: 4378: 4376: 4373: 4371: 4368: 4366: 4363: 4362: 4361: 4358: 4356: 4353: 4352: 4348: 4347:Africa portal 4337: 4334: 4323: 4313: 4309: 4308:Marvel Comics 4305: 4304: 4295: 4291: 4290:Palesianisima 4287: 4283: 4280: 4277: 4276:Rafael Cepeda 4274: 4271: 4267: 4263: 4259: 4255: 4252: 4248: 4244: 4243:José Campeche 4241: 4238: 4234: 4230: 4226: 4222: 4218: 4214: 4211: 4210: 4207: 4203: 4198: 4188: 4186: 4182: 4178: 4174: 4170: 4166: 4162: 4158: 4154: 4150: 4146: 4142: 4138: 4134: 4130: 4126: 4122: 4120: 4115: 4111: 4107: 4104: 4100: 4099:one-drop rule 4096: 4092: 4086: 4084: 4080: 4076: 4072: 4068: 4057: 4055: 4050: 4048: 4043: 4041: 4037: 4032: 4028: 4024: 4023:Palo Mayombe, 4020: 4018: 4014: 4010: 4008: 4003: 3999: 3995: 3989: 3987: 3983: 3979: 3975: 3971: 3968:In 1478, the 3963: 3959: 3948: 3946: 3939: 3934: 3933: 3929: 3925: 3918: 3916: 3907: 3888: 3883: 3876: 3871: 3864: 3859: 3852: 3847: 3846: 3842: 3840: 3839:Ismael Rivera 3837:(1928–1982), 3836: 3831: 3829: 3825: 3820: 3816: 3810: 3808: 3804: 3800: 3795: 3793: 3789: 3779: 3778: 3773: 3763: 3760: 3759: 3754: 3744: 3739: 3732: 3724: 3723: 3719: 3713: 3701: 3699: 3695: 3690: 3686: 3676: 3674: 3670: 3666: 3662: 3658: 3654: 3650: 3646: 3642: 3638: 3634: 3630: 3626: 3622: 3618: 3614: 3610: 3606: 3602: 3593: 3589: 3583: 3579: 3574: 3565: 3561: 3559: 3555: 3551: 3546: 3544: 3541: 3537: 3533: 3529: 3524: 3521: 3517: 3512: 3505: 3501: 3497: 3495: 3494:Negro leagues 3491: 3487: 3483: 3479: 3475: 3471: 3467: 3464: 3459: 3457: 3453: 3449: 3448:Negro leagues 3445: 3441: 3437: 3432: 3429: 3425: 3421: 3416: 3414: 3410: 3406: 3402: 3398: 3394: 3389: 3387: 3383: 3380:approved the 3379: 3371: 3366: 3357: 3355: 3351: 3347: 3343: 3338: 3337:illustrated. 3336: 3332: 3331:Jim Crow Laws 3328: 3324: 3315: 3306: 3304: 3300: 3292: 3287: 3283: 3279: 3276: 3271: 3267: 3263: 3262: 3261: 3259: 3254: 3250: 3248: 3244: 3243:sharecroppers 3238: 3230: 3221: 3217: 3215: 3210: 3208: 3205:(1832–1879), 3204: 3200: 3196: 3192: 3188: 3184: 3180: 3178: 3174: 3170: 3166: 3162: 3158: 3157:abolitionists 3150: 3146: 3140:Abolitionists 3137: 3135: 3130: 3126: 3121: 3119: 3118: 3112: 3110: 3105: 3102: 3098: 3092: 3090: 3084: 3082: 3077: 3075: 3071: 3066: 3063: 3062:Marcos Xiorro 3058: 3056: 3052: 3048: 3044: 3040: 3030: 3027: 3024: 3021: 3019: 3016: 3015: 3011: 3008: 3005: 3002: 3000: 2997: 2996: 2992: 2989: 2986: 2983: 2981: 2978: 2977: 2973: 2970: 2967: 2964: 2961: 2960: 2957: 2942: 2940: 2935: 2933: 2929: 2923: 2921: 2917: 2913: 2909: 2905: 2899: 2897: 2887: 2875: 2872: 2868: 2865: 2862: 2861: 2860: 2857: 2855: 2851: 2847: 2843: 2839: 2835: 2831: 2826: 2823: 2818: 2815: 2810: 2808: 2802: 2800: 2795: 2791: 2787: 2783: 2778: 2776: 2772: 2768: 2764: 2760: 2756: 2752: 2748: 2744: 2740: 2735: 2733: 2729: 2724: 2722: 2718: 2712: 2710: 2706: 2702: 2701:Hernán Cortés 2698: 2694: 2690: 2686: 2682: 2678: 2675: 2671: 2662: 2653: 2651: 2647: 2643: 2642:Puerto Ricans 2638: 2636: 2632: 2628: 2624: 2623:slave revolts 2620: 2616: 2612: 2608: 2604: 2600: 2595: 2593: 2589: 2585: 2581: 2577: 2573: 2569: 2565: 2561: 2557: 2553: 2549: 2545: 2541: 2537: 2533: 2529: 2525: 2521: 2516: 2514: 2513:constructions 2510: 2506: 2502: 2498: 2494: 2493:ethnic groups 2490: 2487: 2483: 2482:Spanish Crown 2479: 2476: 2472: 2468: 2464: 2463:Taíno natives 2461: 2457: 2453: 2449: 2445: 2441: 2438: 2435: 2431: 2427: 2422: 2420: 2416: 2412: 2408: 2404: 2400: 2396: 2392: 2388: 2384: 2380: 2376: 2372: 2368: 2367:Puerto Ricans 2364: 2360: 2357: 2353: 2352: 2347: 2343: 2339: 2328: 2323: 2321: 2316: 2314: 2309: 2308: 2306: 2305: 2302: 2292: 2291: 2286: 2283: 2281: 2278: 2277: 2276: 2275: 2272: 2269: 2268: 2263: 2262: 2258: 2256: 2253: 2252: 2251: 2250: 2247: 2244: 2243: 2238: 2235: 2233: 2230: 2228: 2227:Protestantism 2225: 2223: 2220: 2219: 2218: 2217: 2214: 2211: 2210: 2205: 2202: 2200: 2197: 2195: 2192: 2190: 2187: 2185: 2182: 2180: 2177: 2175: 2172: 2170: 2167: 2165: 2162: 2160: 2157: 2155: 2152: 2150: 2147: 2146: 2145: 2144: 2141: 2138: 2137: 2132: 2129: 2127: 2124: 2122: 2119: 2117: 2114: 2112: 2109: 2107: 2104: 2100: 2097: 2096: 2095: 2092: 2090: 2087: 2085: 2082: 2081: 2080: 2079: 2075: 2074: 2069: 2066: 2064: 2063:New York City 2061: 2059: 2056: 2054: 2051: 2049: 2046: 2044: 2043:United States 2041: 2040: 2039: 2038: 2034: 2033: 2029: 2025: 2024: 2021: 2020:Puerto Ricans 2018: 2017: 2013: 2009: 2008: 1998: 1993: 1991: 1986: 1984: 1979: 1978: 1976: 1975: 1968: 1965: 1961: 1958: 1956: 1953: 1951: 1948: 1944: 1941: 1940: 1939: 1936: 1934: 1931: 1929: 1926: 1924: 1921: 1919: 1916: 1914: 1911: 1910: 1909: 1906: 1904: 1901: 1899: 1898:Slave catcher 1896: 1894: 1891: 1887: 1884: 1882: 1879: 1878: 1877: 1874: 1872: 1869: 1865: 1862: 1860: 1857: 1856: 1855: 1852: 1848: 1845: 1843: 1840: 1838: 1835: 1834: 1833: 1830: 1828: 1827:Forced labour 1825: 1823: 1820: 1818: 1815: 1814: 1808: 1807: 1798: 1793: 1790: 1788: 1785: 1783: 1780: 1778: 1775: 1773: 1770: 1768: 1765: 1763: 1760: 1756: 1753: 1752: 1751: 1748: 1746: 1743: 1741: 1738: 1734: 1731: 1730: 1729: 1726: 1724: 1721: 1717: 1714: 1712: 1709: 1708: 1707: 1704: 1700: 1697: 1695: 1692: 1691: 1690: 1687: 1685: 1682: 1680: 1677: 1673: 1672:Abolitionists 1670: 1668: 1665: 1663: 1660: 1658: 1655: 1653: 1650: 1648: 1645: 1643: 1640: 1638: 1635: 1633: 1630: 1628: 1625: 1624: 1623: 1620: 1619: 1616: 1611: 1610: 1603: 1600: 1598: 1595: 1593: 1590: 1586: 1583: 1581: 1578: 1577: 1576: 1573: 1571: 1568: 1567: 1564: 1559: 1558: 1551: 1548: 1546: 1543: 1541: 1538: 1536: 1533: 1531: 1528: 1526: 1523: 1521: 1518: 1516: 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Retrieved 4746: 4737: 4692: 4688: 4677: 4666:. Retrieved 4652: 4641:. Retrieved 4639:(in Spanish) 4636: 4627: 4615:. Retrieved 4613:(in Spanish) 4610: 4601: 4590:. Retrieved 4576: 4566:February 24, 4564:. Retrieved 4560: 4551: 4533: 4528:(2006), and 4525: 4517: 4516:in his song 4494:Puertorro -a 4493: 4488: 4480: 4476: 4472: 4468: 4464: 4459: 4359: 4289: 4285: 4261: 4123: 4116: 4112: 4108: 4094: 4090: 4087: 4085:population. 4063: 4054:Christianity 4051: 4044: 4030: 4022: 4021: 4007:Palo Mayombe 4005: 3990: 3967: 3942: 3937: 3931: 3921: 3914: 3912: 3832: 3823: 3818: 3814: 3811: 3796: 3785: 3776: 3771: 3757: 3752: 3717: 3716: 3682: 3613:Lower Guinea 3609:Upper Guinea 3598: 3586: 3562: 3557: 3547: 3525: 3520:Bantamweight 3508: 3486:Pedro Cepeda 3460: 3433: 3417: 3403:to join the 3390: 3375: 3353: 3339: 3320: 3296: 3255: 3251: 3239: 3235: 3218: 3211: 3181: 3168: 3154: 3128: 3124: 3122: 3115: 3113: 3108: 3106: 3093: 3085: 3078: 3067: 3059: 3036: 3017: 2998: 2979: 2971:Free Blacks 2955: 2945:19th century 2936: 2924: 2900: 2895: 2892: 2858: 2827: 2819: 2811: 2803: 2790:Christianity 2779: 2736: 2725: 2713: 2693:conquistador 2689:Juan Garrido 2667: 2639: 2631:Spanish rule 2596: 2568:world powers 2517: 2444:colonization 2437:Conquistador 2429: 2426:West African 2423: 2399:Puerto Rican 2394: 2393:. The term 2385:original to 2362: 2358: 2355: 2351:Afroboricuas 2350: 2337: 2336: 2259: 2068:Philadelphia 1903:Slave patrol 1740:Freedom suit 1716:Sierra Leone 1706:Colonization 1622:Abolitionism 1602:Baháʼí Faith 1575:Christianity 1525:Saudi Arabia 1381:Penal Labour 1346:Blackbirding 1252:Debt bondage 1240:penal system 1195: 1066:Contemporary 1056:Field slaves 1044:U.S. Natives 1003:South Africa 874:Galley slave 847:Slave market 837:House slaves 810:Blackbirding 788:Conscription 712:21st century 675:Umm al-walad 519:Muslim world 488:Emancipation 392:Wage slavery 372:Penal labour 350:Wife selling 340:Bride buying 325:Conscription 315:Child Labour 308:Contemporary 117: 61:Afroboricuas 32:Ethnic group 29: 9341:Reparations 9306:Black power 9054:New Zealand 8885:Middle East 8838:Switzerland 8798:Netherlands 8513:Dominickers 8388:Nova Scotia 8306:El Salvador 8237:Saint Lucia 8227:Puerto Rico 7773:(New York). 7639:xpertia.com 7619:January 29, 7518:(1): 35–44. 7200:October 29, 7031:. Cia.gov. 6439:24 February 6413:24 February 6387:24 February 6229:24 February 5826:January 29, 5788:. Loc.gov. 4633:"puertorro" 4617:January 19, 4518:Soy Boricua 4465:Afroboricua 4019:mythology. 3550:Jesús Colón 3452:Cuban Stars 3399:bandleader 3386:citizenship 3372:(U.S. Army) 3368:Lieutenant 3266:Arab-Berber 3203:Luis Padial 3134:hypodescent 3051:Puerto Rico 2822:plantations 2799:multiracial 2759:Slave Coast 2732:slave trade 2635:Puerto Rico 2615:Puerto Rico 2609:aside from 2599:Puerto Rico 2544:Puerto Rico 2522:than other 2509:plantations 2469:. When the 2452:Puerto Rico 2383:free Blacks 1918:court cases 1795: [ 1745:Slave Power 1733:Manumission 1580:Catholicism 1455:Afghanistan 1196:Puerto Rico 1108:The Bahamas 1086:Slave codes 889:Shanghaiing 879:Impressment 771:Slave Coast 651:Qajar harem 611:Concubinage 584:slave trade 249:Afro-Cubans 245:Bubi people 241:Fang people 204:Catholicism 173:Habla Congo 134:Puerto Rico 9390:Categories 9274:Coromantee 8689:Paramaccan 8603:Quilombola 8543:Melungeons 8301:Costa Rica 8210:Coromantee 7770:Daily News 7730:Spider-Man 7477:2021-09-27 7160:Boston.com 6799:2022-03-07 6676:2022-04-15 6470:2007-07-23 6362:2021-02-24 6327:2020-07-22 6299:1119633191 5897:January 1, 5718:1032973885 5711:A298615483 4668:2021-09-27 4643:2024-01-19 4592:2021-09-27 4544:References 4510:pejorative 4436:(language) 4310:superhero 4301:In fiction 4137:Rio Grande 3972:of Spain, 3376:After the 3074:mixed-race 2846:mixed-race 2687:, in 1509 2619:sugar cane 2460:indigenous 2285:Vocabulary 2204:Television 2184:Literature 1933:J.Q. Adams 1923:Washington 1893:Slave name 1842:convention 1817:Common law 1190:Encomienda 986:Seychelles 971:Mauritania 894:Slave ship 761:Panyarring 756:New France 405:Historical 214:and other 178:Portuguese 106:dance wear 9095:Secondary 9059:Sri Lanka 9037:Mardijker 9027:Indonesia 8998:Hong Kong 8993:Guangzhou 8983:Australia 8930:Palestine 8858:Liverpool 8853:Cambridge 8706:Venezuela 8578:Argentina 8333:Nicaragua 8311:Guatemala 8091:Caribbean 8069:Geography 7982:Dominican 7591:2076-0752 7039:March 23, 7009:CiteSeerX 6992:March 28, 6460:IPOAA.com 6140:707579899 6118:CiteSeerX 5927:March 23, 5628:(10): 1. 5605:March 21, 5064:March 28, 4969:March 22, 4757:March 23, 4530:Bad Bunny 4498:popularly 4492:The term 4463:The term 4270:privateer 4129:Canóvanas 3994:syncretic 3964:artifacts 3828:Vejigante 3824:Vejigante 3770:and to a 3649:Congolese 3601:colonists 3554:Nuyorican 3530:defeated 3511:Nero Chen 3411:" by the 3382:Jones Act 3291:mulattoes 3268:/African 3214:Moret Law 3089:apartheid 3043:Spaniards 2912:Canóvanas 2870:service.) 2773:from the 2677:Agüeybaná 2670:Borinquen 2532:Caribbean 2475:Old World 2456:Spaniards 2169:Education 2076:Subgroups 1928:Jefferson 1585:Mormonism 1520:Palestine 1334:Australia 1264:Indonesia 1155:Lei Áurea 1138:Code Noir 1118:Caribbean 1091:Treatment 830:Treatment 803:Devshirme 665:Odalisque 483:In Russia 424:Babylonia 412:Antiquity 212:Rastafari 144:Languages 9365:Category 9215:Asia and 9184:Haitians 9139:Nigeria 9129:Liberia 9099:diaspora 9075:Atlantic 9049:Malaysia 8950:Africans 8868:Scotland 8813:Portugal 8734:Abkhazia 8694:Saramaka 8669:Suriname 8659:Paraguay 8647:Saramaka 8615:Colombia 8593:Kalungas 8523:Garifuna 8459:Freedmen 8410:Mascogos 8343:Cimarrón 8316:Honduras 8294:Garifuna 8264:Merikins 8247:Garifuna 8161:Dominica 8119:Barbados 8099:Anguilla 8077:Americas 7944:Corsican 7931:European 7822:(1990). 7761:Archived 7735:Archived 7693:July 23, 7687:Archived 7667:July 20, 7613:Archived 7611:. 2001. 7548:April 6, 7471:Archived 7445:July 23, 7419:July 23, 7413:Archived 7393:July 23, 7367:July 23, 7361:Archived 7340:July 23, 7313:July 23, 7307:Archived 7303:CBS News 7283:July 23, 7277:Archived 7257:July 23, 7251:Archived 7225:Archived 7194:Archived 7170:July 23, 7164:Archived 7139:July 23, 7133:Archived 7113:July 23, 7107:Archived 7087:July 23, 7033:Archived 6965:July 23, 6956:Archived 6933:July 23, 6907:July 23, 6901:Archived 6877:July 23, 6871:Archived 6851:July 23, 6825:July 23, 6793:Archived 6751:July 23, 6716:oecd.org 6670:Archived 6651:ED432482 6598:July 23, 6592:Archived 6556:July 23, 6550:Archived 6464:Archived 6433:Archived 6407:Archived 6381:Archived 6356:Archived 6321:Archived 6223:Archived 6174:Archived 6148:40535564 6037:July 23, 5953:July 23, 5921:Archived 5820:Archived 5818:. 1999. 5796:July 23, 5790:Archived 5714:ProQuest 5599:Archived 5575:July 23, 5569:Archived 5549:July 23, 5543:Archived 5497:July 23, 5471:July 23, 5465:Archived 5378:July 23, 5344:(1988). 5326:July 23, 5320:Archived 5294:Archived 5270:July 23, 5264:Archived 5149:July 23, 5143:Archived 5090:July 23, 5084:Archived 5058:Archived 5040:(2007). 5022:July 23, 4996:July 23, 4990:Archived 4963:Archived 4909:(1999). 4751:Archived 4729:21304981 4689:PLOS ONE 4662:Archived 4586:Archived 4520:(1972), 4506:politely 4496:is used 4319:See also 4217:San Juan 4187:: 21.8% 4183:: 22.1% 4179:: 22.1% 4177:Toa Baja 4175:: 22.2% 4173:San Juan 4171:: 22.9% 4167:: 23.8% 4163:: 24.1% 4161:Patillas 4159:: 25.7% 4157:Luquillo 4155:: 25.8% 4147:: 27.3% 4145:Carolina 4143:: 27.7% 4135:: 32.7% 4131:: 33.4% 4127:: 64.7% 4036:Santería 4031:Santeria 3998:Santería 3986:Catholic 3962:Santería 3953:Religion 3928:Pasteles 3803:Trinidad 3679:Language 3625:Mandinka 3615:and the 3177:Mayagüez 2920:Luquillo 2908:Carolina 2904:Santurce 2850:Freedmen 2721:immunity 2717:smallpox 2536:Americas 2534:and the 2528:Hispanic 2526:and non- 2430:libertos 2419:religion 2407:language 2379:freedmen 2271:Language 2213:Religion 2194:Politics 2179:Language 2099:Corsican 2012:a series 2010:Part of 1960:Iron bit 1950:40 acres 1913:breeding 1728:Freedman 1563:Religion 1423:Portugal 1308:Thailand 1298:Maldives 1293:Malaysia 1286:Kwalliso 1230:Booi Aha 1182:Restavek 1162:Colombia 1133:Trinidad 1123:Barbados 1013:Zanzibar 961:Ethiopia 842:Saqaliba 736:Database 687:Saqaliba 448:Ancillae 278:a series 276:Part of 259:, other 220:Santería 218:(mainly 197:Religion 76: · 64: · 9375:Commons 9336:Slavery 9326:Maroons 9245:Related 9217:Oceania 9175:France 9064:Kaffirs 8976:Oceania 8843:Ukraine 8818:Romania 8788:Ireland 8771:Germany 8754:Finland 8749:Denmark 8744:Belgium 8739:Austria 8701:Uruguay 8679:Matawai 8627:Ecuador 8598:Macombo 8583:Bolivia 8571:America 8393:Ontario 8356:America 8282:America 8280:Central 8205:Jamaica 8193:Marabou 8183:Grenada 8156:Curaçao 8124:Bermuda 8114:Bahamas 7966:Spanish 7961:Italian 7921:Chinese 7903:African 7896:African 7359:. NPR. 7231:4 April 7223:. 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