1994 Black Hawk shootdown incident

1633:. The lead helicopter's crew and passengers included: Patrick McKenna (27), pilot; John Garrett (32), co-pilot; Jeffrey Colbert (22), crewman; Mark Ellner (21), crewman; Jerald Thompson (48), MCC commander; Richard Mulhern (43), new MCC commander; Paul Barclay (24), US Army special forces soldier; Barbara Schell (50), US State Department advisor; Harry Shapland, British military officer; Hikmet Alp, Turkish military officer; Salid Said, Kurdish representative; Barlas Gultepe, Turkish military officer; Bader Mikho, Kurdish representative; and Ahmad Mohammad, Kurdish representative (Hall, pp. 97–103). The trail helicopter's crew and passengers included: Michael Hall (28), pilot; Erik Mounsey (28), co-pilot; Cornelius Bass (22), crewman; Michael Robinson (23), crewman; Laura Piper (25), US Air Force officer; Benjamin Hodge (32); US Army intelligence specialist; Ricky Robinson (33), medic; Jonathan Swann, British military officer; Guy Demetz, French military officer; Ceyhun Civas, Turkish military officer; Abdulsatar Arab, Kurdish representative; Ghandi Hussein, Kurdish representative (Hall, pp. 93–97). 668:

Hawk unit was not considered to be part of OPC. Thus, the CTF staff, under the direction of Colonel James Rusty O'Brien, USAF, had not tried to coordinate the U.S. Army Black Hawk missions into the daily ATOs. In fact, neither O'Brien nor his predecessors had established any type of procedure for communicating information on Black Hawk missions to the Combined Forces Air Component (CFAC). The MCC commander, Colonel Thompson, had personally called O'Brien on the night of 13 April to tell him about the next day's Black Hawk mission into northern Iraq, a mission specifically and personally approved by Pilkington earlier that day. O'Brien or his staff apparently did not attempt to communicate specific information on this mission to the AWACS or F-15 fighter units at Incirlik, the CFAC, the ground-based mission director, or to the "Duke" on board the AWACS.

633:, immediately appointed an Air Force Regulation (AFR) 110-14 accident investigation board composed of a board president, eleven board members from the USAF and U.S. Army, three associate members from France, Turkey, and the United Kingdom, four legal advisers, and thirteen technical advisers. The board president was Major General James G. Andrus, USAF. An AFR 110-14 investigation's findings are publicly released and the testimony of witnesses in the investigation can be used against them in military disciplinary proceedings. For this reason, after serious mishaps the USAF usually also conducts a separate safety investigation, in which the results are not publicly released and witness testimony is immune from prosecution. In this case, however, for unknown reasons the USAF decided not to conduct a safety investigation. 435:

responded negatively and the F-15s moved to intercept the unidentified aircraft. Intermittent IFF Mode I and Mode II returns from the Black Hawks now began to show on Wilson's and other AWACS crew members' scopes and friendly helicopter symbols reappeared on Wang's scope. After closing to 20 miles (32 km) of the radar contacts, at 10:25 the F-15s again reported the contact to the AWACS and Wilson this time responded that he now had a radar contact at that reported location. Although the Black Hawk intermittent radar and now steady IFF returns on the AWACS scopes were in the same location as the unidentified contacts being tracked by the F-15s, none of the AWACS controllers advised Wickson or May that the contacts they were tracking might be friendly helicopters.

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however, was monitoring both frequencies and was able to see both Black Hawks on his radar scope before they disappeared at 10:12. Neither Wilson nor any of the other AWACS crew members, many of whom were monitoring the F-15s' radio frequency, informed the F-15s that Black Hawks were currently operating in the TAOR. At 10:21, Wilson, believing the Black Hawks had landed again, asked Wang if he could drop the friendly helicopter symbols from the AWACS's scopes and Wang approved the request. An AWACS crew instructor, Captain Mark Cathy, who was on the mission to assist the AWACS crew and supervise Wilson on this, his first mission into the TAOR, had retired to the back of the airplane at 10:00 to take a nap.

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did task the AWACS with controlling and monitoring helicopter operations in the TAOR, the board found that the AWACS crew believed they had no responsibility for controlling U.S. Army Black Hawks or ensuring that other coalition aircraft were aware of Black Hawks operating in the TAOR. When questioned by board investigators as to who was responsible for tracking the helicopters, Tracy said, "I cannot tell you that. I honestly don't know." When Wang was asked the same question by the investigators, he replied, "No one is responsible." When the investigators asked Martin what action he took when the F-15s called a visual identification on two Hind helicopters, Martin stated, "I did nothing."

789:) and regimental court-martial 303 inquiry officer, said he found May's errors in the shootdown "reasonable." Starr recommended the charges against May be dropped, stating that he found May's testimony believable. On 27 December 1994 the USAF announced that Santarelli, an F-15 pilot, had dismissed the charges against May and had decided not to pursue criminal disciplinary actions against any other OPC personnel under his legal jurisdiction, including Wickson, Pilkington, Emery, Richardson, and O'Brien. In January 1995 a USAF flying board returned Wickson and May, who had been grounded since the incident, to flying status. Subsequently, Wickson was transferred to 1898:, pp. 111–14, 162. Kurdish farmer Hadi Mohammed and his son Aziz witnessed the incident and reported that the trail helicopter was hit, "in the back and it turned one-quarter turn to the right then it rolled sideways to the left, and then it hit the ground. There was no fire in the inside, just on the outside back, and then it hit the ground and exploded and burned" (Hall, p. 112). Mohammed stated that the second missile "hit the second helicopter, it hit the blades on top, and the helicopter went down behind the hill and exploded and burned" (Hall, p. 114). Hall gives the crash coordinates as 809: 462:, which prohibited fighter aircraft from operating below 10,000 feet (3,050 m) above the ground. At this time the two Black Hawks had entered a deep valley and were cruising at a speed of 130 knots (150 mph; 240 km/h) about 200 feet (60 m) above the ground. Wickson's VID pass was conducted at a speed of about 450 knots (520 mph; 830 km/h), 500 feet (150 m) above and 1,000 feet (300 m) to the left of the helicopters. At 10:28 Wickson reported "Tally two Hinds" and then passed the two Black Hawks. "Hind" is the 2122:, pp. 278–79. The USAF AFR 110-14 Accident Investigation Report Summary says the possible reasons that the second mode (Mode IV) responded negatively included: Wickson and May selected the wrong interrogation crypto code (A or B), both F-15's interrogators malfunctioned, both Black Hawk IFF transponder crypto codes may have been loaded incorrectly, the close proximity of the two Black Hawks to each other may have "garbled" the IFF signals, and the mountainous terrain may have interfered with line-of-sight between the helicopters and the F-15s. 387:, as well as to UN representatives. Halcli placed tags on his radar screen to show the two Black Hawks' track and notified Wang of the helicopters' movement. In addition to Halcli's screen, the friendly helicopter symbols were visible on the radar screens of Wang, Tracy, and USAF Major Doug Martin. Martin was the "Duke" or "ACE" airborne command element on the AWACS, meaning he was a rated aircrew member assigned to the crew to ensure that all engagement (combat) mandates were adhered to and executed as written in OPC policies. 1424: 672:

army Black Hawks had been operating for almost two years in the TAOR while squawking a wrong code and observed doing so by numerous AWACS crews, no one ever told them they were using a wrong code. On the day of the shootdown, the F-15s had interrogated the Black Hawks on two different IFF Modes (Mode I and Mode IV). The first responded negatively because the Black Hawks were squawking the wrong code. The second mode responded negatively for technical reasons the investigation was unable to conclusively determine.

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report their contact with unidentified aircraft to the Duke (Martin) aboard the AWACS as required by the ROE. Furthermore, the USAF investigation report incorrectly stated that Martin had no authority to terminate the engagement when, in fact, he did. The GAO report added that the failure of Wickson and May to report their contact to Martin was indicative of a well-known, general lack of discipline among F-15 aircrews involved in OPC and this was not discussed in the USAF report.

580: 359: 303:(AB), Turkey in support of OPC. The AWACS, with its 19-member crew under the mission crew command of Major Lawrence Tracy, was to provide airborne threat warning and air control for all OPC aircraft during its time aloft. The AWACS crew reported on station at its assigned surveillance orbit altitude of 32,000 feet (9,750 m) located inside Turkey just north of the northern border of Iraq at 08:45. The weather that day was fair and clear over northern Iraq. 1015:

holding Wickson and May accountable for their actions. Thorson also stated that he believed Starr had submitted an inaccurate and misleading report on May's Article 32 hearing to the USAF commanding officers, including Dallager and Santarelli. With regard to the AWACS personnel, Thorson added: "We know some of the AWACS crew were incompetent beyond belief, and there is more than adequate evidence to conclude that several crewmembers were grossly negligent."

423: 972: 1040: 217: 447: 2446:, pp. 205–06. Others testifying at the hearing included Major General Stephan Silvasy, Jr., U.S. Army, for the Joint Chiefs of Staff, USAF Major General Nolan Sklute, USAF Judge Advocate General, US Navy Rear Admiral James Lair, Director of Operations for the US Navy in Europe, US Army Captain Michael Nye, an Eagle Flight pilot, retired USAF colonel Jerry Cox, a former USAF pilot and journalist for the 482:

as Hinds. Neither F-15 pilot had been informed that U.S. Army Black Hawks participating in OPC often carried auxiliary fuel tanks mounted on wings nor had either been instructed in the paint scheme that Iraqi Hind helicopters used, light brown and desert tan, which was different from the dark green color used by the Black Hawks. Wickson later said, "I had no doubt when I looked at him that he was a Hind

569: 173:(IFF) systems had not functioned to identify the helicopters to the F-15 pilots. Furthermore, USAF leaders had failed to adequately integrate U.S. Army helicopter operations into overall OPC air operations. As a result of the investigation several USAF officers received administrative discipline but only one, Jim Wang, an AWACS crew member, was tried by court-martial, in which he was acquitted. 881:

Pilkington stated, "I don't understand and I will probably never understand Wickson's mindset." When asked if Wickson and May violated OPC rules of engagement in the incident, Pilkington responded, "Yes." AWACS crew members added in their testimonies that once Wickson and May visually identified the helicopters as hostile, all responsibility for the shootdown passed to the F-15 pilots.

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the fight is nowhere near over for me. I want a congressional hearing or investigation into why I was the only person charged." Major General Nolan Sklute, the USAF's top legal officer, stated, "An incident like this does not necessarily mean that the conduct of all those involved rises to the level of criminal culpability. I'm satisfied with the handling of the case."

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pictures depicted helicopters from the ground looking up because the pictures were provided by the U.S. Army. Investigators also learned from interviewing other F-15 pilots that helicopter recognition was not regarded as an important skill within the F-15 pilot community because helicopters are not considered a threat to F-15s in air-to-air combat.

1115:(GAO) conduct its own investigation into the shootdown incident. Specifically, the GAO was asked to determine if the USAF accident investigation board had met its objectives, if the subsequent military justice investigations had followed established guidelines, and if the DoD and/or USAF had improperly or unlawfully influenced these investigations. 1420:

been denied promotion. Interviewed in 2005 about the shootdown, Tracy stated, "Jim (Wang) and all of us at first were held up as scapegoats. I think that was to cover up for the pilots. They had their fangs out. They wanted to kill something because it had been ages since an F-15 had shot anything down. We were held accountable for their actions."

824:. Halcli accepted an Article 15 action which resulted in his receiving a letter of reprimand. The personnel involved were allowed to petition for the removal of the letters from their records at a future time. The reprimands were placed in "unfavorable information files" for each individual and were normally removed after two years. General 2011:

February 1994 when he flew one sortie and was waivered to return to mission ready (MR) status. He did not fly another sortie until the 14 April 1994 mission in which the Black Hawks were shot down. During that time period, Tracy was incorrectly left in MR status and subsequently incorrectly designated as mission crew commander on 14 April.

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which the two pilots reviewed before takeoff, mentioned that U.S. Army Black Hawk helicopters would be operating in the TAOR but did not list takeoff times, routes, or flight durations for them. At 10:15, Wickson radioed Martin on the AWACS and asked if he had any information to pass to them to which Martin replied in the negative.

687:, later summarized the "errors, omissions, and failures" contributing to the accident as, "The F-15 pilots misidentified the Black Hawks, the AWACS crew failed to intervene, Eagle Flight and their operations were not integrated into the Task Force, and the IFF systems failed." General Shalikashvili, now serving as 936:, authorized a Senate investigation into the incident, primarily in response to complaints from family members of the shootdown victims that it appeared the U.S. military was not holding anyone seriously accountable for the shootdown. Also in response to complaints about the DoD's response to the incident, the 982:

On 10 August 1995 Fogleman spoke at a press conference at the Pentagon in which he announced the conclusions reached by his review into the accountability of USAF personnel involved in the shootdown incident. He said his investigation found that not all the performance evaluations for the individuals

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and lasted one day. At the hearing, Pilkington and Andrus explained how the USAF accident investigation was conducted and emphasized that Wickson and May violated the OPC rules of engagement by conducting a VID pass of the Black Hawks that was inadequate to determine the helicopter's national origin.

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Both F-15 pilots then electronically interrogated the radar target with their on-board IFF systems across two different modes (Mode I and Mode IV). Their IFF systems responded negatively to the attempt to identify the contact on Mode I. The Mode IV momentarily gave a positive response, but thereafter

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was tasked with assisting civilian relief agencies to build communities and facilities for the Kurds in Northern Iraq. Over the next three years, 27,000 fixed-wing and 1,400 helicopter coalition flights took place in the zone to support humanitarian operations without interference from Iraqi aircraft

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Fogleman's investigation led to several of the officers involved in the incident receiving further administrative discipline. The U.S. Department of Defense (DoD) subsequently refused U.S. Senate subpoenas for four USAF officers to be interviewed for the Senate investigation, which was never publicly

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The USAF AFR 110-14 Accident Investigation Report Summary states that Tracy was not currently qualified because he had not flown the requisite three sorties during the prior three months. On 22 December 1993 Tracy was placed in "Duty-not-involving-flying" (DNIF) status and did not fly again until 23

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pilot, testified that as commander of OPC he had sent numerous aircrew members, the majority of them F-15 pilots, back to their home bases for violating OPC rules or procedures or for displaying a lack of good judgment. In response to questions on the F-15 pilot's actions resulting in the shootdown,

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administrative action on the dereliction of duty charges. Colwell recommended the formal dereliction of duty charges be dropped against the other AWACS crew members, but that they could still face nonjudicial action. Croker accepted Colwell's recommendation and ordered Wang to face court-martial and

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For reasons that USAF officers were unable to explain, two versions of each day's ATO were published, one for the USAF units at Incirlik, and another for the Eagle Flight unit at Pirinclik. The ATO version sent to Eagle Flight, for unknown reasons, gave a wrong IFF Mode I code for the TAOR. Although

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The board found that combined OPC forces, led by Pilkington, Emery, Richardson, and other USAF officers, had failed to integrate helicopters into aircraft operations in the TAOR. An Eagle Flight officer later testified he had been told by the CTF's chief of staff, a USAF officer, that the army Black

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Wickson resigned and May retired from the USAF soon after Fogleman's investigation was complete. Lawrence Tracy retired immediately after Wang's court-martial on an early (15-year) retirement option. By May 2005, Jim Wang was still serving in the USAF, but he remained at the rank of captain, having

1160:, held hearings on the compensation issue. He questioned the DoD representatives as to why compensation had not also been offered to the U.S. family members. In November 1999 the U.S. Congress passed legislation authorizing payment of compensation to the families of the American Black Hawk victims. 992:

Fogleman then announced that he had directed that Wickson, May, Wang, Halcli, and Wilson be disqualified from aviation service duties for at least three years. Also, Fogleman wrote and placed "letters of evaluation" in the permanent personnel files of Wickson, May, Wang, Halcli, Wilson, Pilkington,

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The board report stated that, "There is no indication that the AWACS Senior Director (Wang), the Mission Crew Commander (Tracy) and/or the DUKE (Martin) made any radio calls throughout the intercept, or that they issued any guidance to either the AWACS crew or the F-15 pilots." Although the OPC ROE

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May then conducted his own VID pass about 1,500 feet (500 m) above the helicopters and reported, "Tally 2." May later stated to a USAF accident investigation board that his "Tally 2" call meant that he saw two helicopters but did not mean that he was confirming Wickson's identification of them

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At 10:22, Wickson, flying at 27,000 feet (8,230 m), reported a radar contact on a low-flying, slow-moving aircraft 40 miles (64 km) southeast of his current position. Wilson acknowledged Wickson's report with a "clear there" response, meaning he had no radar contacts in that area. Unknown

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En route to Arbil, at 10:12, the Black Hawks entered mountainous terrain and their radar returns disappeared from the AWACS's scopes. Captain Dierdre Bell, an air surveillance officer on the AWACS, noticed that the Black Hawks' radar and IFF returns had disappeared and sent an electronic "attention

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On 26 August 1994, the U.S. Department of Defense announced that it would pay U.S.$ 100,000 (ex gratia) in compensation to the families of each of the non-U.S. personnel killed in the incident. At this time, the U.S. government did not offer compensation to the families of the U.S. victims, citing

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since the end of the Gulf War. Pilkington stated to the GAO that "the shootdown pilots' haste was due in part to the planned entry of two F-16s into the TAOR 10 to 15 minutes after the F-15s and that if the F-15 pilots had involved the chain of command, the pace would have slowed down, ruining the

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Beginning in September 1995 and continuing for more than one year, Roth's Senate inquiry into the shootdown, led by Eric Thorson, investigated the incident. Thorson later stated his belief that the USAF accident investigation report and subsequent proceedings had been manipulated in order to avoid

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The fact that the conduct of some individuals did not give rise to criminal prosecution or conviction should not end the inquiry into the appropriateness of their actions. Air Force standards require that people display the extraordinary discipline, judgment, and training that their duties require

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On 20 June 1995 the USAF announced a "nullification" verdict by Wang's 10-member court-martial jury, effectively acquitting Wang of the charges. Nullification is not a finding of innocence, but instead it is a refusal to convict on the stated charges. After the verdict, Wang stated, "I want to say

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In August 1996, Roth's investigation board asked the DoD to produce the last four witnesses it wished to interview: Santarelli, Starr, Dallager, and Colonel C. G. Mangin. Mangin was Santarelli's legal adviser during the Wickson and May inquiry. The DoD refused the request to provide access to the

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in which it would be decided if they should be tried by court-martial or the matter disposed of otherwise. Martin, Tracy, Wang, Halcli, and Wilson faced a joint Article 32 hearing while May's hearing was separate. Wickson was not charged. Although not explicitly stated by USAF leaders, it appears

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After interviewing 137 witnesses and conducting numerous tests, the 27-volume, 3,630-page AFR 110-14 investigation report was publicly released on 13 July 1994, although some report's details had been leaked to the media by unknown defense officials two weeks earlier. The board made seven general

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At 10:20, Wickson, the F-15C flight lead, reported entering northern Iraq to the AWACS controller responsible for air traffic inside the TAOR, USAF Lieutenant Ricky Wilson. The TAOR frequency the F-15s were using was different from the en-route frequency being used by the two Black Hawks. Wilson,

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A subsequent USAF investigation blamed the accident on several factors. The F-15 pilots were faulted for misidentifying the helicopters as hostile. Also, the crew members of the AWACS aircraft were blamed for their inaction in failing to exercise appropriate control and for not intervening in the

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The GAO found no evidence of improper or unlawful command influence by USAF leaders on the investigation or subsequent administrative and military justice actions. The GAO noted, however, that it was unable to obtain complete confirmation of this finding because the DoD denied the GAO request to

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The GAO investigation also uncovered evidence that a rivalry between F-15 and F-16 pilots may have contributed to Wickson's and May's "urgency to engage hostile aircraft" but was not discussed in the USAF investigation. During the GAO's investigation, USAF OPC officers confirmed that the rivalry

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became chairman of the Senate Permanent Subcommittee on Investigations and terminated the Black Hawk investigation. The Senate investigation report was never publicly released. Asked in 2001 about the DoD's refusal to honor the Senate subpoenas, Thorson responded, "Basically they told the United

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September 1994 the DoD announced the actions it would take in response to the investigation's findings. May was charged with 26 counts of negligent homicide by military legal authorities. Martin, Tracy, Wang, Halcli, and Wilson were charged with dereliction of duty. All of those charged faced an

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Randy W. May, departed Incirlik AB. Their mission was to perform an initial fighter sweep of the TAOR to clear the area of any hostile aircraft prior to the entry of coalition forces. The air tasking order (ATO) that was supposed to list all scheduled coalition aircraft missions for that day and

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Five days after the shootdown, USAF OPC officials began including Black Hawk flight times in the daily ATO and included the correct IFF code in the ATO provided to Eagle Flight. OPC officially ended on 31 December 1996. Over the six years of the operation, coalition participants flew a total of

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The GAO released its investigation report on 12 November 1997. The investigation determined that the USAF accident investigation was properly convened and met its assigned objectives. The GAO report, however, found that the USAF investigation had failed to note that Wickson and May neglected to

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June 1995, at Tinker Air Force Base. Wang was tried on three counts of dereliction of duty. Most of the personnel involved in the incident, except May, were called to testify, including the AWACS crew members, Wickson, and Pilkington. Most of the 40 witnesses testified with a grant of immunity.

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At 09:21, the Black Hawks reported their entry into the no-fly zone by radio on the en route frequency to the AWACS en route controller, Lieutenant Joseph Halcli, and then landed six minutes later at the MCC. Halcli and his superior officer, Captain Jim Wang, the AWACS's senior director, added

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Another aspect the GAO investigation revealed was that the training F-15 pilots received for identifying helicopters was not adequate. Visual ID training was accomplished by reviewing slides on a 35 mm projector. Helicopters made up only about 5% of the training slides and nearly all the

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Following their VID passes, Wickson and May circled back behind the helicopters approximately 10 miles (16 km). Because aircraft from various nations sometimes operated unannounced in the northern Iraq area, the OPC rules of engagement required the F-15 pilots to attempt to verify the

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directly to the USAF headquarters office at the Pentagon, which refused to accept them. After learning that the Senate was now planning to individually serve the four subpoenas directly to the four officers, the associate chief of the Air Force litigation division accepted the subpoenas.

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After further refusals from the USAF and DoD to provide the four officers for interview, Roth's committee gave the DoD and USAF until 14:30 on 31 October 1996 to provide the officers. The deadline passed without the officers appearing before the board. The next day the board sent senate

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or TAOR), neither Wang nor Halcli informed the Black Hawk pilots of that (both helicopters, however, were squawking the correct Mode II codes). Wang and Halcli also neglected to direct the Black Hawks to begin using the TAOR radio frequency instead of the en route frequency.

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Andrus stated, "Sir, as a pilot, I would have made another pass. You would never fire until you know what you are shooting at." Retired USAF colonel and pilot Jerry Cox expressed concern to the committee with the F-15 pilots for not taking responsibility for their actions.

1604:, pp. 278–79. Six Eagle Flight helicopters were stationed at Pirinclik. This was Wang's 60th mission over OPC. The IFF systems in use by Provide Comfort coalition aircraft used four identification signals, modes I, II, III, and IV. Mode III was not used in the TAOR (Hall). 916:

added, "The Black Hawk helicopters were downed as a result of a tragic series of errors and unfortunate events involving numerous people. The mishap was not the result of any one individual's actions; the conduct of numerous officers and the system itself contributed."

374:, Iraq, a distance of 120 miles (190 km). The Black Hawks reported their departure, flight route, and destinations by radio which was acknowledged by Halcli. Halcli then re-initiated the friendly helicopter track on his scope. Two of the Black Hawk passengers were 350:(IFF) Mode I and Mode II signals, and then suspended the radar symbols after the Black Hawks disappeared from their scopes upon landing at the MCC at 09:24. Although the helicopters were squawking (signalling) the wrong IFF Mode I code for the no-fly zone (called the 1091:, were asking him to "back off." Thus, Roth decided to drop the matter and continue preparing the report without the testimony of Santarelli, Dallager, Starr, and Mangin. For the first time in U.S. history, the DoD had refused to comply with a U.S. Senate subpoena. 731:

Wickson was not charged but May was because Wickson had testified that he was sure of his identification of the two Black Hawks as hostile Hinds, while May had stated that he was not sure of Wickson's identification but had allowed the engagement to proceed anyway.

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pilots' chances for a shootdown." The GAO concluded that if the evidence of a lack of mission discipline by Wickson and May had been included in the USAF report, such information "could have been useful in subsequent administrative and disciplinary actions."

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Andrus retired from the USAF in 1995, Pilkington in 1996, Emery in 1997, and Santarelli in 1998, all at the same rank they held at the time of the shootdown, except Emery, who retired as a brigadier general. Richardson was promoted to brigadier general on

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August 1995 to examine the accident investigation and the judicial actions that followed. In addition, on 24 July the DoD ordered the USAF to reexamine the disciplinary and administrative actions for the personnel involved in the shootdown and for the

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militaries operated and was usually configured with armament on small, side-mounted wings. Wilson responded with "Copy, Hinds" and asked Wang, "Sir, are you listening to this?" Wang responded, "Affirmative" but offered no further guidance or comments.

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to the two F-15 pilots, the unidentified aircraft were the two U.S. Army Black Hawks. Contrary to standard procedure, neither Tracy nor Wang spoke up at this point to request that the AWACS crew members attempt to identify the F-15s' radar contacts.

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awarded to O'Brien for his service during OPC was rescinded. A videotape in which Fogleman described his actions related to the incident and his views on standards and accountability was distributed throughout the USAF and all USAF officers, senior

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By 13:15 local time, Kurdish civilians notified the MCC they had witnessed the two Black Hawks being shot down 40 miles (64 km) north of Arbil and that there were no survivors. The news was quickly picked up by the media and broadcast by

622:(DoD) to lead an inquiry into the accident. Clinton further stated, "We will get the facts, and we will make them available to the American people and to the people of Britain, France, and Turkey, our partners in Operation Provide Comfort." 819:

The USAF later announced the administrative actions taken against the other personnel involved in the shootdown. Pilkington, Emery, and Richardson received letters of admonishment. Martin, May, O'Brien, Tracy, Wickson, and Wilson received

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August of the same year. Dallager's appointment and promotion were criticized by observers because of his involvement in the controversial shootdown after-actions and refusal to testify for the senate investigation. Dallager retired on

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newspaper on 18 June 1994 that said McPeak "strongly opposed" court-martial action for Wickson or May. Pilkington stated that he had heard rumors McPeak had said something to that effect, but could not confirm if they were true or not.

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training for the involved aircrews, might have been a factor. Also, the board did not attempt to determine if Wickson and May had violated any of the existing OPC rules of engagement as defined by the ATO or other written instructions.

1149:, which prevents lawsuits against the U.S. from injured service members or families of personnel killed due to military negligence. This was the first time the U.S. had offered compensation to the victims of a friendly fire incident. 868:

During the trial, evidence was presented that Wang often had trouble staying awake during AWACS missions. In fact, the problem was considered serious enough that the military had referred Wang to medical authorities to be checked for

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A monument to the 26 victims of the shootdown was constructed at Giebelstadt Army Airfield, Germany and dedicated on 14 April 1996. After U.S. military presence ceased at Giebelstadt, due to base closures, the monument was moved to

1066:" and was therefore not going to honor the subpoenas by providing the four officers for interview. Roth replied to the DoD that only the Senate's legal counsel could determine the validity of congressional subpoenas because of the " 1074:

and thus, the subpoenas were valid. The DoD, on 20 November in another letter signed by Miller, again refused to produce the witnesses. Roth, whose committee chairmanship was scheduled to end the next month, was told by the

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Jerry Thompson, U.S. Army, commander of the MCC, and his replacement, Colonel Richard Mulhern, U.S. Army. At Arbil and later at Salah ad Din, Iraq, Thompson planned to introduce Mulhern to two prominent Kurdish leaders,

766:, Germany was a closed hearing and presided over by Colonel Edward M. Starr, USAF, under the legal jurisdiction of Santarelli. Pilkington, Emery, Richardson, and O'Brien declined requests to testify at either hearing. 525:). In response, the lead Black Hawk, piloted by McKenna, immediately turned left and dived for lower altitude in an apparent attempt to evade the unexpected attack. About 20 seconds later, May fired an 4671: 560:). All 26 people on board the two Black Hawks were killed. After flying over the wreckage of the two helicopters lying burning on the ground, May radioed Wickson, "Stick a fork in them, they're done." 259:

by UN coalition forces, enforced by a combined task force (CTF) of daily armed aircraft patrols from participating nations, including the United Kingdom, France, Turkey, and the United States. The

2722:, p. 162. The US Government also paid $ 100 in compensation to Kurdish farmer Mohammed Amin Khorshid for damage to his onion field caused by the crash of one of the two helicopters (Hall, p. 162). 4666: 271:

Jeffrey Pilkington. The OPC combined air forces were commanded by Colonel Curtis H. Emery, USAF. Colonel Douglas J. Richardson, USAF, was the director of operations for the combined air forces.

157:"Hind" helicopters. The F-15 pilots fired on and destroyed both helicopters, killing all 26 military and civilians aboard, including personnel from the United States, United Kingdom, France, 4594: 2309:

Arana-Barradas, "Black hawk incident "tragic series of errors"; Chu Lin, "Friendly Fire Doesn't Shoot Down Wang"; Peterson, "Court-Martial Begins in 'Friendly Fire' Deaths in Iraq"; Diehl,

940: 330:. In addition to the flags on the fuel tanks, each helicopter was marked with American flags on each side door, on the nose, and on the belly. The lead Black Hawk was piloted by U.S. Army 4573: 618:, to express regret and sympathy for the deaths of their citizens in the incident. Clinton appeared a few hours later in a televised news conference in which he said he had directed the 2789:, p. 276. Hall says May retired at the lower rank of major. Hall says he asked repeatedly for Wickson to contact him to discuss the shootdown but Wickson never responded (Hall, p. 304). 1575:, pp. 81, 91, 103–04. Originally, four helicopters were planned for the mission, but Turkish military authorities would authorize only two (Hall). The helicopters' call signs were Chalk 529:

missile at the lead helicopter from a range of about 1.5 nautical miles (2.8 km), hitting and shooting it down also about 1.2 miles (2 km) northeast of the trail helicopter (

3764: 3660: 236:. This same day, a large multinational, multiple-agency humanitarian effort under the authority of UN Security Council Resolution No. 688 began to aid the approximately 500,000 2865: 1123:

between the F-15 and F-16 communities was particularly pronounced and intense partly due to the fact that F-16 aircraft had scored all the air-to-air combat kills in Iraq and

3898: 3702: 659:

The shootdown "was caused by a chain of events which began with the breakdown of clear guidance from the Provide Comfort Combined Task Force to its component organizations."

490:

nationality of the helicopters. Instead, at 10:28, Wickson notified the AWACS that he and May were "engaged" and instructed May to "arm hot." At 10:30, Wickson fired an

326:, Iraq. Both helicopters were fitted with external, 230-US-gallon (870 L) fuel tanks on sponsons mounted beside each side door with each tank emblazoned with large 1667:, pp. 58–59, 83–86, 101. Randy May was the squadron commander of the 53rd with over 3,000 flying hours and had shot down an Iraqi Hind helicopter in northern Iraq near 630: 952:

to review the corrective actions taken against those involved and determine whether further action was necessary. Widnall requested that the new USAF chief of staff,

370:

civilian, three Turkish, two British, and one French military officer, plus five U.S. civilian and military officials. At 09:54, the helicopters departed the MCC for

650:

The AWACS crew commander, Lawrence Tracy, was not currently qualified in accordance with USAF regulations and he and the other AWACS crewmembers committed mistakes.

200:(GAO), found that the military investigative and judicial systems had operated mostly as designed, but also noted that the DoD had refused access to key witnesses. 754:

was an open hearing and presided over by Colonel William Colwell, USAF, under the legal jurisdiction of Lieutenant General Stephen Croker, USAF, commander of the

4661: 494:

missile at the trail helicopter from a range of about 4 nautical miles (10 km). The missile hit and destroyed the trailing helicopter seven seconds later (

3757: 3653: 54:

U.S. military personnel inspect the wreckage of one of the two American UH-60 Black Hawks shot down in the 1994 Black Hawk shootdown incident in northern Iraq.

892:, a career fighter pilot, had made clear that he did not want Wickson and May punished for their actions in the shootdown. Cited as evidence for this was a 647:

Misunderstandings existed throughout the OPC forces as to how coalition air operations procedures and responsibilities applied to MCC helicopter operations.

3108: 2833:

Novak, "Past Fiasco dims General's new Third Star", USAF, Official biographies of Andrus, Croker, Dallager, Emery, Pilkington, Richardson, and Santarelli.

2483:

Arana-Barradas, "Black hawk incident 'tragic series of errors'"; GAO, "Operation Provide Comfort"; Schmitt, "Chief of Air Force Grounds 5 Pilots"; Piper,

212:

Map of the no-fly zones in Iraq after the Gulf War. Operation Provide Comfort took place in the northern no-fly zone, labeled as "NORTHERN NFZ" on the map

3624:. Proceedings of the 8th Australian Workshop on Safety Critical Systems and Software, SCS 2003. Vol. 33. Canberra, Australia: CRPIT. pp. 3–23. 4656: 1006:

civilians were ordered to view it. Fogleman further stated that he had found that the military justice system had "worked as it was designed to work".

4686: 4681: 4166: 4160: 3750: 3646: 715: 641:

Wickson misidentified the Black Hawk helicopters and May failed to notify Wickson that he had been unable to confirm the identity of the helicopters.

573: 785:

positively identified the two helicopters as Iraqi Hinds. Brigadier General John R. Dallager, an F-15 pilot and Wickson's and May's wing commander (

2170:

Peterson, "Court-Martial Begins in 'Friendly Fire' Deaths in Iraq", Verhovek, "Air Force Officer Is Acquitted in Downing of Army Aircraft", Piper,

4676: 2911: 2578: 4197: 3500: 3280: 1901: 532: 497: 3713: 885: 189: 391:

arrow" to Wang's scope. Wang took no action and the large blinking green arrow automatically disappeared from his screen after one minute.

366:

At the MCC, the Black Hawks picked up 16 members of the UN Provide Comfort coalition leadership team including four Kurdish civilians, one

176:

As a result of complaints by family members of the victims and others that the military was failing to hold its personnel accountable, the

1051:

On 13 November 1996, the day the first subpoenaed USAF officer was scheduled to appear, the DoD delivered a letter to Roth, signed by its

3480: 4696: 4558: 3455: 3430: 3405: 3380: 3355: 3330: 3305: 2264:

Associated Press, "No Charges Likely Against F-15 Pilot"; Peterson, "Court-Martial Begins in 'Friendly Fire' Deaths in Iraq"; Piper,

1020: 849: 829: 3968: 1946:, p. 160. A Kurdish farmer, Mowfik Tahsin, videotaped the shootdown and some of the wreckage immediately afterwards (Hall, p. 114). 983:

involved in the shootdown reflected the fact that they had received administrative action related to the incident. Fogleman stated

769:

On 17 November 1994 the USAF announced that Colwell had recommended to Croker that Wang face court-martial and that Halcli receive

3525: 3218: 4568: 4078: 3928: 3818: 3721: 1416:

62,000 fixed-wing and rotary-wing sorties. The Black Hawk shootdown was the only serious accident to occur during the operation.

1087:, would not support him if he chose to take the dispute with the DoD to court. Also, many of Roth's Senate colleagues, including 307: 121: 3848: 937: 181: 3629: 3600: 3039: 3008: 2977: 2946: 2890: 688: 993:

and Emery that said each had failed "to meet Air Force standards in job knowledge, judgment and leadership". In addition, a

458:

The two F-15s now initiated a visual identification (VID) pass of the contact. The VID pass entailed violating one of OPC's

4716: 4706: 3958: 3838: 3729: 3240: 2208:, pp. 161–63, 169–72, 177–83; Associated Press, "No Charges Likely Against F-15 Pilot"; Washington, "So, Who's to Blame?". 3568: 1076: 1044: 619: 583: 140: 2864:, pp. 212, 226. Four hundred people attended that dedication ceremony at Giebelstadt. A videoteleconference room at the 656:. The Black Hawks were not equipped with more modern radios which would have allowed them to communicate with the F-15s. 4721: 4651: 4620: 4190: 3948: 411: 288: 4532: 4452: 4447: 3118: 3553:

A Chain of Events: The Government Cover-Up of the Black Hawk Incident and the Friendly-Fire Death of Lt. Laura Piper

3151: 244:

took command of the U.S.-led operation to ensure security for UN relief operations and the Kurdish refugees, called

4701: 3858: 3774: 1112: 594:

A U.S. Army Black Hawk flies over a small village in the Kurdish occupied security zone in Northern Iraq during OPC

197: 20: 2999:

Chain of Events: The Government Cover-up of the Black Hawk Incident and the Friendly-fire Death of Lt. Laura Piper

4646: 4058: 3260: 1445: 781:

At his hearing, May changed his testimony from what he gave to the accident investigation board, stating that he

351: 3172: 653:

OPC personnel in general were not properly trained in the rules of engagement for the northern Iraq no fly zone.

4563: 4527: 4487: 4442: 4209: 4098: 1080: 4604: 2845: 2748: 2183:

Washington, "So, Who's to Blame?"; Peterson, "Court-Martial Begins in 'Friendly Fire' Deaths in Iraq"; Piper,

4625: 4599: 4183: 4108: 900: 734:

Martin and Halcli waived their right to an Article 32 hearing, meaning their cases could move immediately to

2382:

Bacon, "DoD Press Briefing"; Verhovek, "Air Force Officer Is Acquitted in Downing of Army Aircraft"; Piper,

4553: 4389: 4008: 1063: 399: 347: 192:, conducted his own review of the actions taken by the USAF against the officers involved in the incident. 170: 133: 3088: 4345: 4148: 4118: 3978: 3682: 1055:, Judith Miller, saying the DoD believed the subpoenas were invalid because they were issued "after the 4691: 4068: 4048: 4028: 3908: 3808: 3798: 1472:

The 53rd Fighter Squadron was closed on 10 March 1999, but was reactivated in December 2021 as part of

1071: 910: 852:. Emery had been promoted to brigadier general on 15 July 1994 and his promotion was allowed to stand. 644:

The IFF transponders on the F-15s and/or the Black Hawks did not operate correctly for unknown reasons.

322:, Turkey headed for the OPC military coordination center (MCC) located 150 miles (240 km) away in 4128: 4457: 4422: 4225: 3988: 3938: 3888: 3562:"Operation Provide Comfort: Review of U.S. Air Force Investigation of Black Hawk Fratricide Incident" 3173:"Battling friendly fire: Military pins hopes on new technologies as fratricide proves a stubborn foe" 3152:"Operation Provide Comfort: Review of U.S. Air Force Investigation of Black Hawk Fratricide Incident" 1675:. Wickson had over 1,300 flying hours with about 700 in F-15s and this was his 18th mission over OPC. 999: 327: 245: 125: 37: 3508: 3288: 240:

refugees who had fled from Iraqi military forces into the hills of northern Iraq. On 18 April 1991,

184:

conducted their own investigations into the shootdown and the U.S. military's response to it. Also,

4497: 4477: 4247: 4230: 2815:. Hall states that after his court martial, Wang called the victims' family members and apologized. 2352:

Novak, "Past Fiasco dims General's new Third Star", reported in "Soldiers for Truth" and in Diehl,

1427:

The remains of the 26 victims of the Black Hawk shootdown arrive at the U.S. Army Mortuary Center,

1003: 774:

dismissed the criminal charges against the other AWACS crew members except Halcli, who was offered

691:, added: "There were a shocking number of instances where people failed to do their job properly." 676: 3742: 2110:

Washington, "So, Who's to Blame?"; Schmitt, "Copter Deaths: Pentagon Finds Human Failure"; Snook,

610:

was briefed on the shootdown and called the heads of government of the United Kingdom and France,

4578: 4517: 4462: 4292: 4285: 798: 790: 746:, to testify at the hearings. The AWACS crew members' hearing, which began on 19 October 1994 at 129: 1617:, pp. 6–22, 42, 51, 157; Weiner, "Court-Martial Nears in Case of Helicopters Shot Down"; Snook, 4711: 4512: 4507: 4502: 4492: 4482: 4472: 4313: 4276: 4264: 4259: 4255: 4251: 4240: 4235: 4138: 4018: 3069: 1626: 1146: 1124: 775: 770: 2101:, pp. 42–43, 210. O'Brien's full title is, "Commander, Operations, Plans, and Policy" for OPC. 615: 1630: 1107:

In September 1995 the House National Security Subcommittee on Military Personnel, chaired by

949: 747: 743: 292: 255:. This area, approximately 160 by 70 kilometres (99 by 43 mi) in size, was designated a 319: 4411: 3638: 3463: 3438: 3413: 3388: 3363: 3338: 3313: 1067: 1056: 926: 877: 808: 704: 407: 177: 2570: 2421:

Washington, "So, Who's to Blame?"; Schmitt, "Chief of Air Force Grounds 5 Pilots"; Piper,

8: 4320: 3878: 3868: 3828: 1473: 1207: 994: 929: 821: 466: 459: 367: 252: 675:

The board did not investigate whether any USAF institutional factors, such as a lack of

3589: 3223: 3028: 2966: 953: 832:, removed Pilkington as commander of OPC but the USAF retained him as commander of the 739: 727: 600: 260: 241: 185: 144: 41: 4206: 3998: 3625: 3606: 3596: 3045: 3035: 3014: 3004: 2983: 2973: 2952: 2942: 2894: 2886: 2869: 2317:, pp. 205–13; Verhovek, "Air Force Officer Is Acquitted in Downing of Army Aircraft". 1428: 894: 837: 833: 786: 300: 268: 83: 2281:

Bacon, "DoD Press Briefing"; Schmitt, "Chief of Air Force Grounds 5 Pilots"; Piper,

4038: 3084: 3065: 2997: 1423: 1024: 841: 763: 755: 684: 526: 147: 136: 95: 4467: 4400: 4378: 4356: 2935: 2849: 1052: 976: 590: 49: 3621:

Two Causal Analyses of the Black Hawk Shootdown During Operation Provide Comfort

2461:

Schmitt, "Chief of Air Force Grounds 5 Pilots", GAO, "Operation Provide Comfort"

1136:

interview key USAF officials including Santarelli, Dallager, Starr, and Mangin.

4088: 2448: 2404:

Verhovek, "Air Force Officer Is Acquitted in Downing of Army Aircraft"; Diehl,

2369:

Verhovek, "Air Force Officer Is Acquitted in Downing of Army Aircraft"; Piper,

2287: 1814:, p. 4; Weiner, "Court-Martial Nears in Case of Helicopters Shot Down"; Snook, 1709:, p. 4; Weiner, "Court-Martial Nears in Case of Helicopters Shot Down"; Piper, 1153: 913: 889: 825: 813: 626: 491: 384: 380: 331: 162: 79: 3561: 3030:

Friendly Fire: The Accidental Shootdown of U.S. Black Hawks over Northern Iraq

2912:"Storied 53rd Fighter Squadron reactivated in partnership with D.C. Air Guard" 438: 334:

Patrick McKenna, commander of the Eagle Flight detachment of six helicopters.

4640: 4522: 4325: 4308: 4271: 3049: 2937:

Silent Knights: Blowing the Whistle on Military Accidents and Their Cover-Ups

1916: 1903: 1095: 735: 547: 534: 512: 499: 394: 306:

At 08:22, two U.S. Army UH-60 Black Hawk helicopters from the 6th Battalion,

280: 117: 3619: 3610: 3018: 2987: 2956: 1650:, pp. 23–24; Weiner, "Court-Martial Nears in Case of Helicopters Shot Down". 315: 2339:

Peterson, "Court-Martial Begins in 'Friendly Fire' Deaths in Iraq"; Piper,

1537:, p. 30. The other OPC co-commander was a Turkish military general officer. 1023:, wrote a letter to Roth in which he asked that those four officers not be 845: 607: 2898: 1625:, p. 105. Martin was a rated navigator with 2,000 flying hours, mainly in 586:

crew members at their stations aboard their aircraft during an OPC mission

579: 358: 3155: 1462: 1088: 802: 311: 256: 150: 2234:

Novak, Robert, "Past Fiasco dims General's new Third Star", reported in

4367: 4175: 2041:

Weiner, "Court-Martial Nears in Case of Helicopters Shot Down", Snook,

1751:

Weiner, "Court-Martial Nears in Case of Helicopters Shot Down"; Snook,

1592:

Weiner, "Court-Martial Nears in Case of Helicopters Shot Down"; Piper,

1108: 1084: 964: 870: 611: 284: 797:, to undergo instructor pilot training with a follow-on assignment to 422: 3113: 2872:

was named in honor of Cornelius Bass on 26 March 1998 (Hall, p. 293).

2204:, p. 246; Novak, "Past Fiasco dims General's new Third Star"; Piper, 971: 470: 426:

Northern Iraqi terrain similar to that in which the incident occurred

229: 154: 3197: 3180: 1039: 208: 3772: 3176: 3134: 2842: 2759:

Washington, "So, Who's to Blame?"; GAO, "Operation Provide Comfort"

2574: 1672: 1032: 751: 296: 233: 4672:

Accidents and incidents involving United States Air Force aircraft

2883:

F-15 Eagle Engaged – The World's Most Successful Jet Fighter

1466: 637:

findings about what they believed caused the shootdown to occur:

375: 196:

released. The U.S. House investigation, conducted in part by the

2595:, pp. 262–63; Novak, "Past Fiasco dims General's new Third Star" 2530:, pp. 50–251; Novak, "Past Fiasco dims General's new Third Star" 1444:

September 2001. Dallager was appointed as superintendent of the

446: 216: 98:

destroyed, all 26 military and civilian personnel aboard killed.

4667:

Accidents and incidents involving the Sikorsky UH-60 Black Hawk

3149: 2395:

Arana-Barradas, "Black hawk incident "tragic series of errors".

1989:

Schmitt, "Copter Deaths: Pentagon Finds Human Failure"; Piper,

1668: 1512:

Schmitt, "Copter Deaths: Pentagon Finds Human Failure"; Snook,

339: 158: 2866:

Air Force Intelligence, Surveillance and Reconnaissance Agency

568: 406:

Meanwhile, at 09:35, two USAF F-15C fighter aircraft from the

220:

An AWACS aircraft operates out of Incirlik Air Base during OPC

19:"Black Hawk Incident" redirects here. Not to be confused with 2968:

Michael, My Son, and the Story of the Eagle Flight Detachment

1583:

2 and their tail numbers were #88-26060 and #87-26000 (Hall).

794: 738:

or administrative action. Wickson was given immunity by USAF

699: 474: 451: 371: 343: 323: 237: 75: 3668: 3481:"Air Force Officer Is Acquitted in Downing of Army Aircraft" 956:, begin his own review of accountability for the incident. 710: 463: 232:

conditions and resolutions, thereby officially ending the

3559: 2781:

Chu Lin, "Friendly Fire Doesn't Shoot Down Wang"; Piper,

3219:"Court-Martial Begins in 'Friendly Fire' Deaths in Iraq" 2697:, pp. 251, 262; GAO, "Operation Provide Comfort"; Hall, 1448:

in June 2000 and was promoted to lieutenant general on 1

920: 3453: 3428: 3403: 3378: 3353: 3328: 3303: 3281:"DoD NewsBriefing: Major General Nolan Sklute, AF/ SJA" 1882:

Schmitt, "Chief of Air Force Grounds 5 Pilots"; Snook,

362:

An OPC Eagle Flight Black Hawk with external fuel tanks

3526:"Court-Martial Nears in Case of Helicopters Shot Down" 3198:"Article 3: Past Fiasco dims General's new Third Star" 3135:"About the Eagle Flight Detachment Memorial Monument" 959:

The House Committee on National Security hearing on 3

884:

Frank Spinner, Wang's civilian attorney, argued that

251:

OPC took place in an area of northern Iraq above the

1469:

on 10 March 2006, and rededicated on 14 April 2007.

848:. Richardson was transferred to a staff position at 346:

scopes, noted that both helicopters were displaying

3137:. Eagle Flight Detachment Memorial Monument Friends 1429:

Frankfurt Rhein-Main International Airport, Germany

873:. Wang had also previously failed two check rides. 563: 3588: 3089:"DoD News Briefing: Mr. Kenneth H. Bacon, ATSD PA" 3027: 2996: 2965: 2934: 2272:, pp. 246, 252; Washington, "So, Who's to Blame?". 1457:September 2003, but at the rank of major general. 3595:. New York: McGraw-Hill Professional Publishing. 2843:Eagle Flight Detachment Memorial Monument Friends 2824:Chu Lin, "Friendly Fire Doesn't Shoot Down Wang". 2749:Eagle Flight Detachment Memorial Monument Friends 941:Armed Services Subcommittee on Military Personnel 840:, Germany. O'Brien and Emery were transferred to 4638: 3431:"Brigadier General Douglas J. "Doug" Richardson" 486:... The Black Hawk did not even cross my mind." 442:An Eagle Flight Black Hawk as seen from the side 3066:"Black hawk incident 'tragic series of errors'" 2452:, and Frank J. Spinner, Wang's attorney (Hall). 1019:four officers. A short time later, John White, 860:Wang's court-martial took place, beginning on 2 4662:20th-century history of the United States Army 3617: 3063: 228:April 1991, Iraq accepted United Nations (UN) 4191: 3758: 3654: 3241:"Copter Deaths: Pentagon Finds Human Failure" 2836: 473:helicopter, a helicopter that the Iraqi and 402:fighter departs Incirlik Air Base during OPC 3899:Assassination of Habyarimana and Ntaryamira 3560:General Accounting Office (November 2007). 2291:, quoted at "Specialist Cornelius A. Bass". 1688:, pp. 4–6, 55, 60, 83–86, 101, 116; Piper, 267:In April 1994 OPC was co-commanded by USAF 4198: 4184: 3765: 3751: 3661: 3647: 3498: 2093:Washington, "So, Who's to Blame?"; Snook, 1742:, p. 4; Washington, "So, Who's to Blame?". 1659:Washington, "So, Who's to Blame?"; Piper, 1567:Washington, "So, Who's to Blame?"; Snook, 314:, Germany), called Eagle Flight, departed 4657:20th-century aircraft shootdown incidents 3618:Ladkin, Peter B.; Stuphorn, Jörn (2004). 3456:"Lieutenant General Eugene D. Santarelli" 3406:"Brigadier General Jeffrey S. Pilkington" 2625:GAO, "Operation Provide Comfort"; Diehl, 2200:Wickson did not request immunity. Diehl, 2144:GAO, "Operation Provide Comfort"; Piper, 2020:GAO, "Operation Provide Comfort"; Snook, 1968:GAO, "Operation Provide Comfort"; Diehl, 1894:, pp. 32–34, 53, 124–25, 139, 156; Hall, 943:scheduled a hearing on the incident for 3 850:Supreme Headquarters Allied Powers Europe 4687:Aviation accidents and incidents in Iraq 4682:Aviation accidents and incidents in 1994 4205: 3669:Aviation accidents and incidents in Iraq 3478: 3216: 3150:General Accounting Office (GAO) (1998). 1422: 1038: 970: 963:August was presided over by Congressman 934:Permanent Subcommittee on Investigations 807: 709: 698: 683:The United States Secretary of Defense, 589: 578: 567: 445: 437: 421: 393: 357: 215: 207: 139:, operating under the control of a USAF 3819:Pulkovo Aviation Enterprise Flight 9045 3499:Washington, Mark Thomas (3 July 1995). 3258: 3238: 3109:"Friendly Fire Doesn't Shoot Down Wang" 3106: 2881:Davies, Steve, and Dildy, Doug (2007). 1009: 898:report, published also in the European 855: 4677:April 1994 events in the United States 4639: 3591:Darker Shades of Blue: The Rogue Pilot 3523: 3331:"Lieutenant General Stephen B. Croker" 3278: 2581:from the original on 16 September 2002 1158:Subcommittee on Immigration and Claims 410:, piloted by Captain Eric Wickson and 124:that occurred on 14 April 1994 during 4179: 3746: 3642: 3574:from the original on 29 February 2008 3550: 3356:"Lieutenant General John R. Dallager" 3261:"Chief of Air Force Grounds 5 Pilots" 3195: 3170: 3083: 3025: 2994: 2932: 2813:Friendly Fire Doesn't Shoot Down Wang 2487:, p. 240; Sklute, "DoD NewsBriefing". 921:Additional investigations and actions 689:Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff 3959:China Northwest Airlines Flight 2303 3586: 2963: 2659:GAO, pp. 32–33, discussed in Snook, 2646:GAO, pp. 32–33, discussed in Snook, 1102: 988:and that the American people expect. 742:Eugene Santarelli, commander of the 143:(AWACS) aircraft, misidentified two 4554:Cougar Helicopters Flight 91 (2009) 3969:Fairchild Air Force Base B-52 crash 3479:Verhovek, Sam Howe (21 June 1995). 3381:"Brigadier General Curtis H. Emery" 141:airborne warning and control system 16:US friendly fire incident over Iraq 13: 3929:South Pacific Airmotive DC-3 crash 3722:Royal Air Force Hercules shootdown 3544: 631:United States Air Forces in Europe 289:963d Airborne Air Control Squadron 110:1994 Black Hawk shootdown incident 31:1994 Black Hawk shootdown incident 14: 4733: 4697:Events that led to courts-martial 3849:Iranian Air Force C-130 shootdown 3064:Arana-Barradas, Louis A. (1996). 2238:, Soldiers for the Truth; Piper, 1738:, pp. 6, 60–62, 102, 118; Diehl, 4569:2017 Blackrock Island S-92 crash 3775:Aviation accidents and incidents 3454:United States Air Force (1998). 3429:United States Air Force (2000). 3404:United States Air Force (1996). 3379:United States Air Force (1997). 3354:United States Air Force (2003). 3329:United States Air Force (1996). 3304:United States Air Force (1995). 3259:Schmitt, Eric (15 August 1995). 1835:GAO, "Operation Provide Comfort" 1755:, pp. 6, 60–63, 76, 102; Piper, 1734:, pp. 26–29, 52–53, 217; Snook, 1113:Government Accountability Office 1021:U.S. Deputy Secretary of Defense 830:Supreme Allied Commander, Europe 694: 564:Air Force accident investigation 198:Government Accountability Office 48: 21:Black Hawk Down (disambiguation) 4059:Iran Aseman Airlines Flight 746 3839:Indira Gandhi Airport collision 3714:Baghdad DHL attempted shootdown 3306:"Major General James G. Andrus" 2904: 2875: 2854: 2827: 2818: 2805: 2792: 2775: 2762: 2753: 2742: 2725: 2704: 2683: 2674: 2653: 2640: 2619: 2598: 2563: 2546: 2533: 2516: 2499: 2490: 2477: 2464: 2455: 2432: 2415: 2398: 2389: 2376: 2363: 2346: 2333: 2320: 2303: 2294: 2275: 2268:, pp. 186–88, 196, 201; Diehl, 2258: 2245: 2228: 2211: 2194: 2177: 2164: 2151: 2138: 2125: 2104: 2087: 2074: 2061: 2048: 2035: 2014: 2004: 1983: 1962: 1949: 1932: 1876: 1855: 1838: 1829: 1822:, pp. 30–31, 53, 211–16; Hall, 1804: 1783: 1766: 1745: 1720: 1699: 1678: 1139: 758:. May's hearing, beginning on 7 352:Tactical Area of Responsibility 112:, sometimes referred to as the 4099:Philippine Airlines Flight 434 3217:Peterson, Iver (3 June 1995). 3034:. Princeton University Press. 2680:Snook, "Friendly Fire", p. 96. 1653: 1636: 1629:aircraft and had flown in the 1607: 1586: 1561: 1540: 1523: 1506: 1485: 1099:States Senate to go to hell." 938:U.S. House of Representatives' 1: 4109:Flagship Airlines Flight 3379 3949:Mull of Kintyre Chinook crash 3691:Black Hawk shootdown incident 3524:Weiner, Tim (15 April 1995). 3239:Schmitt, Eric (1 July 1994). 2921: 2571:"'A Great Deal of Arrogance'" 1976:, pp. 67–68, 117, 227; Hall, 1818:, pp. 6, 63, 76, 102; Piper, 1094:In January 1997 U.S. Senator 606:Within hours, U.S. President 203: 4009:Alas Chiricanas Flight 00901 3202:Defending America Newsletter 2236:Defending America Newsletter 1172:Black Hawk shootdown victims 1163: 348:identification friend or foe 171:identification friend or foe 169:situation. In addition, the 7: 4717:United States Army aviation 4707:Iraqi no-fly zones conflict 4600:Canadian CH-148 procurement 4149:Turkish Airlines Flight 278 4119:Nigeria Airways Flight 9805 3979:Airbus Industrie Flight 129 3859:British Army Lynx shootdown 2972:. New York: Vantage Press. 2496:Sklute, "DoD NewsBriefing". 2442:, pp. 70–71, 233–36; Hall, 1600:, pp. 4, 55, 100–01; Hall, 1550:, pp. 4, 46, 53–54; Piper, 274: 10: 4738: 4559:2015 Eglin AFB UH-60 crash 4549:1994 Erbil UH-60 shootdown 4069:American Eagle Flight 4184 4029:Royal Air Maroc Flight 630 3909:Federal Express Flight 705 3809:United Express Flight 6291 3799:Baikal Airlines Flight 130 2509:, pp. 243, 247–50; Diehl, 2425:, pp. 224, 231–32; Diehl, 2300:Sklute, "DoD NewsBriefing" 2221:, pp. 186–88, 196; Diehl, 2187:, pp. 151–54, 161; Diehl, 1869:, pp. 6–7, 63, 102; Hall, 1865:, pp. 32, 53, 119; Snook, 1692:, pp. 15–26, 51–52; Hall, 1440:July 1999 and retired on 1 1077:U.S. Department of Justice 911:Secretary of the Air Force 620:U.S. Department of Defense 18: 4722:Military history of Erbil 4652:April 1994 events in Iraq 4621:Sikorsky S-55/S-58 family 4613: 4587: 4564:2015 Colombia UH-60 crash 4541: 4435: 4409: 4387: 4365: 4343: 4334: 4301: 4216: 4158: 3989:Air Mauritanie Flight 625 3939:China Airlines Flight 140 3889:KLM Cityhopper Flight 433 3790: 3701: 3674: 1797:, pp. 6, 76, 102; Piper, 1495:, pp. 3–4, 27–29; Piper, 1000:non-commissioned officers 264:or other military units. 246:Operation Provide Comfort 128:(OPC). The pilots of two 126:Operation Provide Comfort 58: 47: 38:Operation Provide Comfort 35: 30: 3204:. Soldiers for the Truth 3026:Snook, Scott A. (2000). 2926: 2097:, pp. 8, 142–61; Piper, 1942:, pp. 48–49, 107; Hall, 1801:, pp. 30–31, 53, 211–16. 1713:, pp. 15–27, 52; Snook, 1621:, pp. 4, 55, 100; Hall, 1516:, pp. 7–8, 29–30; Hall, 1479: 1004:Senior Executive Service 703:USAF Lieutenant General 677:crew resource management 4702:Friendly fire incidents 4574:2017 Shabwa UH-60 crash 4542:Accidents and incidents 4129:Air Algérie Flight 702P 3551:Piper, Joan L. (2000). 3171:Moran, Michael (2005). 2995:Piper, Joan L. (2001). 2964:Hall, Allen L. (2002). 2933:Diehl, Alan E. (2003). 2735:, pp. 264, 269; Diehl, 1759:, pp. 29–30, 53; Hall, 1596:, pp. 6–21, 51; Snook, 1554:, pp. 10–12, 51; Hall, 799:Columbus Air Force Base 791:Randolph Air Force Base 714:USAF Brigadier General 308:159th Aviation Regiment 130:United States Air Force 120:incident over northern 4647:1994 disasters in Iraq 4579:2020 Wulai UH-60 crash 4139:Air France Flight 8969 4019:Korean Air Flight 2033 3683:KLM Douglas DC-2 crash 3587:Kern, Tony T. (1999). 3279:Sklute, Nolan (1995). 3196:Novak, Robert (2000). 3070:Air Force News Service 3057: 2885:, Oxford, UK: Osprey, 2714:, pp. 51, 245; Piper, 1886:, pp. 6–7, 64; Diehl, 1646:, pp. 56, 101; Piper, 1627:General Dynamics F-111 1432: 1048: 990: 979: 816: 718: 707: 595: 587: 576: 455: 443: 427: 403: 363: 338:"friendly helicopter" 257:"no-fly" security zone 221: 213: 4049:Vanavara air disaster 3501:"So, Who's to Blame?" 3107:Chu Lin, Sam (2005). 2848:14 April 2008 at the 2693:, pp. 252–53; Piper, 2629:, pp. 252–53; Snook, 2612:, pp. 241–42; Snook, 2285:, pp. 132, 222, 240; 2114:, pp. 142–61; Piper, 1993:, pp. 123–29; Snook, 1730:, pp. 278–79; Piper, 1631:1986 Bombing of Libya 1426: 1152:In 1998, Congressman 1111:, requested that the 1081:U.S. Attorney General 1042: 985: 974: 950:Joint Chiefs of Staff 811: 748:Tinker Air Force Base 713: 702: 629:, USAF, Commander of 593: 582: 571: 454:as seen from the side 449: 441: 425: 397: 361: 293:Tinker Air Force Base 279:On 14 April 1994, at 219: 211: 4626:Sikorsky S-61 family 3919:Black Hawk shootdown 3730:Balad aircraft crash 2718:, pp. 145–50; Hall, 2667:, pp. 252–53; Hall, 2577:. 27 February 2001. 2024:, pp. 66–67; Piper, 1848:, pp. 79–80; Piper, 1068:separation of powers 1043:Judith Miller, U.S. 1010:Senate investigation 856:Wang's court-martial 822:letters of reprimand 705:Eugene D. Santarelli 408:53d Fighter Squadron 4595:Armament subsystems 4167:► 1995 4161:1993 ◄ 3879:Green Ramp disaster 3869:Aeroflot Flight 593 3829:Banja Luka incident 3705:during the Iraq War 3291:on 30 December 2006 3183:on 23 December 2015 2604:GAO report; Diehl, 1972:, pp. 8–10; Piper, 1913: / 1717:, pp. 4–6, 60, 102. 1474:495th Fighter Group 1245:Michael S. Robinson 1208:John W. Garrett Jr. 1070:" principle in the 995:military decoration 886:USAF Chief of Staff 616:François Mitterrand 572:USAF Major General 544: / 509: / 460:rules of engagement 283:local time, a USAF 114:Black Hawk Incident 4164: 3703:Aviation incidents 3530:The New York Times 3485:The New York Times 3265:The New York Times 3245:The New York Times 3224:The New York Times 3121:on 17 January 2013 1890:, pp. 4–6; Piper, 1433: 1431:, on 15 April 1994 1310:, U.S. State Dept 1290:Jerald L. Thompson 1272:Richard A. Mulhern 1227:Patrick M. McKenna 1189:Jeffrey C. Colbert 1156:, chairman of the 1049: 980: 954:Ronald R. Fogleman 932:, chairman of the 817: 740:Lieutenant General 728:Article 32 hearing 719: 708: 596: 588: 577: 456: 444: 428: 412:Lieutenant Colonel 404: 364: 320:Pirinçlik Air Base 287:aircraft from the 261:United States Army 242:John Shalikashvili 222: 214: 186:Ronald R. Fogleman 145:United States Army 42:Iraqi no-fly zones 4692:Conflicts in 1994 4634: 4633: 4431: 4430: 4416: 4394: 4372: 4350: 4173: 4172: 3999:USAir Flight 1016 3740: 3739: 3631:978-1-920682-15-6 3602:978-0-07-034927-8 3085:Bacon, Kenneth H. 3041:978-1-4008-4097-7 3010:978-1-57488-344-2 2979:978-0-533-13789-3 2948:978-1-57488-412-8 2941:. Potomac Books. 2891:978-1-84603-169-4 2870:Kelly Field Annex 2608:, p. 251; Piper, 2556:, p. 252; Piper, 2526:, p. 252; Piper, 2408:, p. 251; Piper, 2356:, p. 252; Piper, 2313:, p. 247; Piper, 2135:, pp. 10–13, 247. 1917:36.767°N 44.100°E 1533:, p. 162; Snook, 1413: 1412: 1326:Jonathan C. Swann 1308:Barbara L. Schell 1301:, U.S. Air Force 1281:Ricky L. Robinson 1263:Benjamin T. Hodge 1180:Cornelius A. Bass 1103:GAO investigation 1072:U.S. Constitution 925:On 17 July 1995, 901:Stars and Stripes 895:Los Angeles Times 844:positions at the 838:Ramstein Air Base 834:86th Airlift Wing 787:52nd Fighter Wing 762:November 1994 at 548:36.917°N 43.500°E 513:36.767°N 44.083°E 368:Chaldean-Catholic 301:Incirlik Air Base 269:Brigadier General 188:, the USAF's new 106: 105: 102: 101: 96:UH-60 Black Hawks 80:Arbil Governorate 4729: 4415:(United Kingdom) 4410: 4388: 4366: 4344: 4341: 4340: 4200: 4193: 4186: 4177: 4176: 4165: 4039:USAir Flight 427 3785: 3784: 3782: 3767: 3760: 3753: 3744: 3743: 3733: 3725: 3717: 3694: 3686: 3663: 3656: 3649: 3640: 3639: 3635: 3614: 3594: 3583: 3581: 3579: 3573: 3566: 3556: 3555:. Potomac Books. 3540: 3538: 3536: 3520: 3518: 3516: 3511:on 17 April 2008 3507:. Archived from 3495: 3493: 3491: 3475: 3473: 3471: 3466:on 19 March 2007 3462:. Archived from 3450: 3448: 3446: 3441:on 19 March 2007 3437:. Archived from 3425: 3423: 3421: 3416:on 19 March 2007 3412:. Archived from 3400: 3398: 3396: 3391:on 19 March 2007 3387:. Archived from 3375: 3373: 3371: 3366:on 19 March 2007 3362:. Archived from 3350: 3348: 3346: 3341:on 19 March 2007 3337:. Archived from 3325: 3323: 3321: 3316:on 19 March 2007 3312:. Archived from 3300: 3298: 3296: 3287:. Archived from 3275: 3273: 3271: 3255: 3253: 3251: 3235: 3233: 3231: 3213: 3211: 3209: 3192: 3190: 3188: 3179:. Archived from 3167: 3165: 3163: 3154:. Archived from 3146: 3144: 3142: 3130: 3128: 3126: 3117:. Archived from 3103: 3101: 3099: 3080: 3078: 3076: 3053: 3033: 3022: 3002: 2991: 2971: 2960: 2940: 2916: 2915: 2908: 2902: 2879: 2873: 2858: 2852: 2840: 2834: 2831: 2825: 2822: 2816: 2809: 2803: 2796: 2790: 2785:, p. 196; Hall, 2779: 2773: 2766: 2760: 2757: 2751: 2746: 2740: 2729: 2723: 2708: 2702: 2687: 2681: 2678: 2672: 2663:, p. 96; Diehl, 2657: 2651: 2644: 2638: 2623: 2617: 2602: 2596: 2590: 2588: 2586: 2567: 2561: 2550: 2544: 2537: 2531: 2520: 2514: 2503: 2497: 2494: 2488: 2481: 2475: 2468: 2462: 2459: 2453: 2436: 2430: 2419: 2413: 2402: 2396: 2393: 2387: 2380: 2374: 2367: 2361: 2350: 2344: 2337: 2331: 2324: 2318: 2307: 2301: 2298: 2292: 2279: 2273: 2262: 2256: 2249: 2243: 2232: 2226: 2215: 2209: 2198: 2192: 2181: 2175: 2168: 2162: 2155: 2149: 2142: 2136: 2129: 2123: 2108: 2102: 2091: 2085: 2078: 2072: 2065: 2059: 2052: 2046: 2039: 2033: 2028:, p. 128; Hall, 2018: 2012: 2008: 2002: 1987: 1981: 1966: 1960: 1953: 1947: 1936: 1930: 1928: 1927: 1925: 1924: 1923: 1918: 1914: 1911: 1910: 1909: 1906: 1880: 1874: 1859: 1853: 1842: 1836: 1833: 1827: 1808: 1802: 1787: 1781: 1776:, p. 41; Snook, 1770: 1764: 1749: 1743: 1724: 1718: 1703: 1697: 1682: 1676: 1663:, p. 25; Snook, 1657: 1651: 1640: 1634: 1611: 1605: 1590: 1584: 1582: 1578: 1565: 1559: 1544: 1538: 1527: 1521: 1510: 1504: 1499:, p. 143; Hall, 1489: 1456: 1451: 1443: 1439: 1168: 1167: 962: 946: 863: 764:Sembach Air Base 761: 724: 559: 558: 556: 555: 554: 549: 545: 542: 541: 540: 537: 527:AIM-9 Sidewinder 524: 523: 521: 520: 519: 514: 510: 507: 506: 505: 502: 485: 227: 148:UH-60 Black Hawk 137:fighter aircraft 60: 59: 52: 28: 27: 4737: 4736: 4732: 4731: 4730: 4728: 4727: 4726: 4637: 4636: 4635: 4630: 4609: 4583: 4537: 4528:Super Blue Hawk 4427: 4414: 4405: 4392: 4383: 4370: 4361: 4348: 4336: 4330: 4297: 4218: 4212: 4204: 4174: 4169: 4163: 4154: 4153: 4152: 4151: 4146: 4142: 4141: 4136: 4132: 4131: 4126: 4122: 4121: 4116: 4112: 4111: 4106: 4102: 4101: 4096: 4092: 4091: 4086: 4082: 4081: 4076: 4072: 4071: 4066: 4062: 4061: 4056: 4052: 4051: 4046: 4042: 4041: 4036: 4032: 4031: 4026: 4022: 4021: 4016: 4012: 4011: 4006: 4002: 4001: 3996: 3992: 3991: 3986: 3982: 3981: 3976: 3972: 3971: 3966: 3962: 3961: 3956: 3952: 3951: 3946: 3942: 3941: 3936: 3932: 3931: 3926: 3922: 3921: 3916: 3912: 3911: 3906: 3902: 3901: 3896: 3892: 3891: 3886: 3882: 3881: 3876: 3872: 3871: 3866: 3862: 3861: 3856: 3852: 3851: 3846: 3842: 3841: 3836: 3832: 3831: 3826: 3822: 3821: 3816: 3812: 3811: 3806: 3802: 3801: 3796: 3786: 3780: 3778: 3773: 3771: 3741: 3736: 3728: 3720: 3716:(November 2003) 3712: 3704: 3697: 3689: 3685:(December 1934) 3681: 3670: 3667: 3632: 3603: 3577: 3575: 3571: 3564: 3547: 3545:Further reading 3534: 3532: 3514: 3512: 3489: 3487: 3469: 3467: 3444: 3442: 3419: 3417: 3394: 3392: 3369: 3367: 3344: 3342: 3319: 3317: 3294: 3292: 3269: 3267: 3249: 3247: 3229: 3227: 3207: 3205: 3186: 3184: 3161: 3159: 3158:on 2 March 2007 3140: 3138: 3133: 3124: 3122: 3097: 3095: 3074: 3072: 3060: 3042: 3011: 2980: 2949: 2929: 2924: 2919: 2910: 2909: 2905: 2880: 2876: 2862:Michael, My Son 2859: 2855: 2850:Wayback Machine 2841: 2837: 2832: 2828: 2823: 2819: 2810: 2806: 2800:Chain of Events 2797: 2793: 2787:Michael, My Son 2783:Chain of Events 2780: 2776: 2770:Chain of Events 2767: 2763: 2758: 2754: 2747: 2743: 2733:Chain of Events 2730: 2726: 2720:Michael, My Son 2716:Chain of Events 2709: 2705: 2699:Michael, My Son 2695:Chain of Events 2688: 2684: 2679: 2675: 2669:Michael, My Son 2658: 2654: 2645: 2641: 2635:Michael, My Son 2633:, p. 65, Hall; 2624: 2620: 2610:Chain of Events 2603: 2599: 2593:Chain of Events 2584: 2582: 2569: 2568: 2564: 2558:Chain of Events 2551: 2547: 2541:Chain of Events 2538: 2534: 2528:Chain of Events 2521: 2517: 2507:Chain of Events 2504: 2500: 2495: 2491: 2485:Chain of Events 2482: 2478: 2472:Chain of Events 2469: 2465: 2460: 2456: 2444:Michael, My Son 2440:Chain of Events 2437: 2433: 2423:Chain of Events 2420: 2416: 2410:Chain of Events 2403: 2399: 2394: 2390: 2384:Chain of Events 2381: 2377: 2371:Chain of Events 2368: 2364: 2358:Chain of Events 2351: 2347: 2341:Chain of Events 2338: 2334: 2330:, pp. 161, 171. 2328:Chain of Events 2325: 2321: 2315:Chain of Events 2308: 2304: 2299: 2295: 2283:Chain of Events 2280: 2276: 2266:Chain of Events 2263: 2259: 2253:Chain of Events 2250: 2246: 2240:Chain of Events 2233: 2229: 2225:, pp. 246, 252. 2219:Chain of Events 2216: 2212: 2206:Chain of Events 2199: 2195: 2185:Chain of Events 2182: 2178: 2172:Chain of Events 2169: 2165: 2156: 2152: 2146:Chain of Events 2143: 2139: 2130: 2126: 2120:Michael, My Son 2118:, p. 42; Hall, 2116:Chain of Events 2109: 2105: 2099:Chain of Events 2092: 2088: 2079: 2075: 2066: 2062: 2053: 2049: 2040: 2036: 2030:Michael, My Son 2019: 2015: 2009: 2005: 1999:Michael, My Son 1997:, p. 16; Hall, 1991:Chain of Events 1988: 1984: 1978:Michael, My Son 1974:Chain of Events 1967: 1963: 1957:Chain of Events 1954: 1950: 1944:Michael, My Son 1940:Chain of Events 1937: 1933: 1929:(Hall, p. 158). 1921: 1919: 1915: 1912: 1907: 1904: 1902: 1900: 1899: 1896:Michael, My Son 1892:Chain of Events 1881: 1877: 1871:Michael, My Son 1863:Chain of Events 1860: 1856: 1850:Chain of Events 1843: 1839: 1834: 1830: 1824:Michael, My Son 1820:Chain of Events 1809: 1805: 1799:Chain of Events 1793:, p. 4; Snook, 1788: 1784: 1774:Chain of Events 1771: 1767: 1761:Michael, My Son 1757:Chain of Events 1750: 1746: 1732:Chain of Events 1728:Michael, My Son 1725: 1721: 1711:Chain of Events 1704: 1700: 1694:Michael, My Son 1690:Chain of Events 1683: 1679: 1661:Chain of Events 1658: 1654: 1648:Chain of Events 1641: 1637: 1623:Michael, My Son 1615:Chain of Events 1612: 1608: 1602:Michael, My Son 1594:Chain of Events 1591: 1587: 1580: 1576: 1573:Michael, My Son 1571:, p. 76; Hall, 1566: 1562: 1556:Michael, My Son 1552:Chain of Events 1545: 1541: 1531:Chain of Events 1528: 1524: 1518:Michael, My Son 1511: 1507: 1501:Michael, My Son 1497:Chain of Events 1490: 1486: 1482: 1454: 1449: 1441: 1437: 1371:Abdulsatur Arab 1236:Erik S. Mounsey 1218:Michael A. Hall 1166: 1147:Feres precedent 1142: 1105: 1057:adjournment of 1053:general counsel 1047:General Counsel 1012: 977:Ronald Fogleman 960: 944: 923: 876:Pilkington, an 861: 858: 759: 722: 716:Curtis H. Emery 697: 574:James G. Andrus 566: 552: 550: 546: 543: 538: 535: 533: 531: 530: 517: 515: 511: 508: 503: 500: 498: 496: 495: 483: 277: 225: 206: 86: 53: 24: 17: 12: 11: 5: 4735: 4725: 4724: 4719: 4714: 4709: 4704: 4699: 4694: 4689: 4684: 4679: 4674: 4669: 4664: 4659: 4654: 4649: 4632: 4631: 4629: 4628: 4623: 4618: 4614: 4611: 4610: 4608: 4607: 4602: 4597: 4591: 4589: 4585: 4584: 4582: 4581: 4576: 4571: 4566: 4561: 4556: 4551: 4545: 4543: 4539: 4538: 4536: 4535: 4530: 4525: 4520: 4515: 4510: 4505: 4500: 4495: 4490: 4485: 4480: 4478:Jolly Green II 4475: 4470: 4465: 4460: 4455: 4450: 4445: 4439: 4437: 4433: 4432: 4429: 4428: 4426: 4425: 4419: 4417: 4407: 4406: 4404: 4403: 4397: 4395: 4385: 4384: 4382: 4381: 4375: 4373: 4363: 4362: 4360: 4359: 4353: 4351: 4338: 4332: 4331: 4329: 4328: 4323: 4318: 4317: 4316: 4305: 4303: 4299: 4298: 4296: 4295: 4289: 4288: 4282: 4281: 4280: 4279: 4269: 4268: 4267: 4262: 4245: 4244: 4243: 4238: 4222: 4220: 4214: 4213: 4203: 4202: 4195: 4188: 4180: 4171: 4170: 4159: 4156: 4155: 4147: 4144: 4143: 4137: 4134: 4133: 4127: 4124: 4123: 4117: 4114: 4113: 4107: 4104: 4103: 4097: 4094: 4093: 4089:TWA Flight 427 4087: 4084: 4083: 4079:SAS Flight 347 4077: 4074: 4073: 4067: 4064: 4063: 4057: 4054: 4053: 4047: 4044: 4043: 4037: 4034: 4033: 4027: 4024: 4023: 4017: 4014: 4013: 4007: 4004: 4003: 3997: 3994: 3993: 3987: 3984: 3983: 3977: 3974: 3973: 3967: 3964: 3963: 3957: 3954: 3953: 3947: 3944: 3943: 3937: 3934: 3933: 3927: 3924: 3923: 3917: 3914: 3913: 3907: 3904: 3903: 3897: 3894: 3893: 3887: 3884: 3883: 3877: 3874: 3873: 3867: 3864: 3863: 3857: 3854: 3853: 3847: 3844: 3843: 3837: 3834: 3833: 3827: 3824: 3823: 3817: 3814: 3813: 3807: 3804: 3803: 3797: 3794: 3793: 3792: 3791: 3788: 3787: 3770: 3769: 3762: 3755: 3747: 3738: 3737: 3735: 3734: 3732:(January 2007) 3726: 3724:(January 2005) 3718: 3709: 3707: 3699: 3698: 3696: 3695: 3687: 3678: 3676: 3672: 3671: 3666: 3665: 3658: 3651: 3643: 3637: 3636: 3630: 3615: 3601: 3584: 3557: 3546: 3543: 3542: 3541: 3521: 3496: 3476: 3460:Air Force Link 3451: 3435:Air Force Link 3426: 3410:Air Force Link 3401: 3385:Air Force Link 3376: 3360:Air Force Link 3351: 3335:Air Force Link 3326: 3310:Air Force Link 3301: 3276: 3256: 3236: 3214: 3193: 3168: 3147: 3131: 3104: 3081: 3059: 3056: 3055: 3054: 3040: 3023: 3009: 2992: 2978: 2961: 2947: 2928: 2925: 2923: 2920: 2918: 2917: 2903: 2874: 2853: 2835: 2826: 2817: 2804: 2791: 2774: 2761: 2752: 2741: 2737:Silent Knights 2724: 2712:Silent Knights 2703: 2691:Silent Knights 2682: 2673: 2665:Silent Knights 2652: 2639: 2627:Silent Knights 2618: 2606:Silent Knights 2597: 2562: 2554:Silent Knights 2545: 2532: 2524:Silent Knights 2515: 2511:Silent Knights 2498: 2489: 2476: 2463: 2454: 2449:Military Times 2431: 2427:Silent Knights 2414: 2406:Silent Knights 2397: 2388: 2375: 2362: 2354:Silent Knights 2345: 2332: 2319: 2311:Silent Knights 2302: 2293: 2288:Military Times 2274: 2270:Silent Knights 2257: 2244: 2227: 2223:Silent Knights 2210: 2202:Silent Knights 2193: 2189:Silent Knights 2176: 2163: 2150: 2137: 2133:Silent Knights 2124: 2103: 2086: 2073: 2060: 2047: 2034: 2013: 2003: 1982: 1970:Silent Knights 1961: 1948: 1931: 1922:36.767; 44.100 1888:Silent Knights 1875: 1854: 1837: 1828: 1812:Silent Knights 1803: 1791:Silent Knights 1782: 1765: 1744: 1740:Silent Knights 1719: 1707:Silent Knights 1698: 1677: 1652: 1635: 1606: 1585: 1560: 1539: 1522: 1505: 1483: 1481: 1478: 1411: 1410: 1402: 1401: 1393: 1392: 1384: 1383: 1380:Ghandi Hussein 1375: 1374: 1366: 1365: 1362:Barlas Gultepe 1357: 1356: 1348: 1347: 1339: 1338: 1330: 1329: 1321: 1320: 1317:Harry Shapland 1312: 1311: 1303: 1302: 1299:Laura A. Piper 1294: 1293: 1285: 1284: 1276: 1275: 1267: 1266: 1258: 1257: 1249: 1248: 1240: 1239: 1231: 1230: 1222: 1221: 1213: 1212: 1202: 1201: 1198:Mark A. Ellner 1193: 1192: 1184: 1183: 1175: 1174: 1165: 1162: 1154:Lamar S. Smith 1141: 1138: 1104: 1101: 1064:104th Congress 1011: 1008: 922: 919: 914:Sheila Widnall 890:Merrill McPeak 857: 854: 826:George Joulwan 814:Merrill McPeak 744:17th Air Force 696: 693: 661: 660: 657: 654: 651: 648: 645: 642: 627:Robert C. Oaks 565: 562: 553:36.917; 43.500 518:36.767; 44.083 492:AIM-120 AMRAAM 385:Jalal Talabani 381:Masoud Barzani 328:American flags 276: 273: 205: 202: 190:Chief of Staff 104: 103: 100: 99: 94:Two U.S. Army 92: 88: 87: 74: 72: 68: 67: 64: 56: 55: 45: 44: 33: 32: 15: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 4734: 4723: 4720: 4718: 4715: 4713: 4712:Sikorsky S-70 4710: 4708: 4705: 4703: 4700: 4698: 4695: 4693: 4690: 4688: 4685: 4683: 4680: 4678: 4675: 4673: 4670: 4668: 4665: 4663: 4660: 4658: 4655: 4653: 4650: 4648: 4645: 4644: 4642: 4627: 4624: 4622: 4619: 4616: 4615: 4612: 4606: 4603: 4601: 4598: 4596: 4593: 4592: 4590: 4586: 4580: 4577: 4575: 4572: 4570: 4567: 4565: 4562: 4560: 4557: 4555: 4552: 4550: 4547: 4546: 4544: 4540: 4534: 4531: 4529: 4526: 4524: 4521: 4519: 4516: 4514: 4511: 4509: 4506: 4504: 4501: 4499: 4496: 4494: 4491: 4489: 4486: 4484: 4481: 4479: 4476: 4474: 4471: 4469: 4466: 4464: 4461: 4459: 4456: 4454: 4451: 4449: 4446: 4444: 4441: 4440: 4438: 4434: 4424: 4421: 4420: 4418: 4413: 4408: 4402: 4399: 4398: 4396: 4391: 4386: 4380: 4377: 4376: 4374: 4369: 4364: 4358: 4355: 4354: 4352: 4347: 4342: 4339: 4333: 4327: 4324: 4322: 4319: 4315: 4312: 4311: 4310: 4307: 4306: 4304: 4302:Model numbers 4300: 4294: 4291: 4290: 4287: 4284: 4283: 4278: 4275: 4274: 4273: 4270: 4266: 4263: 4261: 4257: 4253: 4249: 4246: 4242: 4239: 4237: 4234: 4233: 4232: 4229: 4228: 4227: 4224: 4223: 4221: 4215: 4211: 4208: 4201: 4196: 4194: 4189: 4187: 4182: 4181: 4178: 4168: 4162: 4157: 4150: 4140: 4130: 4120: 4110: 4100: 4090: 4080: 4070: 4060: 4050: 4040: 4030: 4020: 4010: 4000: 3990: 3980: 3970: 3960: 3950: 3940: 3930: 3920: 3910: 3900: 3890: 3880: 3870: 3860: 3850: 3840: 3830: 3820: 3810: 3800: 3789: 3776: 3768: 3763: 3761: 3756: 3754: 3749: 3748: 3745: 3731: 3727: 3723: 3719: 3715: 3711: 3710: 3708: 3706: 3700: 3692: 3688: 3684: 3680: 3679: 3677: 3673: 3664: 3659: 3657: 3652: 3650: 3645: 3644: 3641: 3633: 3627: 3623: 3622: 3616: 3612: 3608: 3604: 3598: 3593: 3592: 3585: 3570: 3563: 3558: 3554: 3549: 3548: 3531: 3527: 3522: 3510: 3506: 3502: 3497: 3486: 3482: 3477: 3465: 3461: 3457: 3452: 3440: 3436: 3432: 3427: 3415: 3411: 3407: 3402: 3390: 3386: 3382: 3377: 3365: 3361: 3357: 3352: 3340: 3336: 3332: 3327: 3315: 3311: 3307: 3302: 3290: 3286: 3282: 3277: 3266: 3262: 3257: 3246: 3242: 3237: 3226: 3225: 3220: 3215: 3203: 3199: 3194: 3182: 3178: 3174: 3169: 3157: 3153: 3148: 3136: 3132: 3120: 3116: 3115: 3110: 3105: 3094: 3090: 3086: 3082: 3071: 3067: 3062: 3061: 3051: 3047: 3043: 3037: 3032: 3031: 3024: 3020: 3016: 3012: 3006: 3003:. Brassey's. 3001: 3000: 2993: 2989: 2985: 2981: 2975: 2970: 2969: 2962: 2958: 2954: 2950: 2944: 2939: 2938: 2931: 2930: 2913: 2907: 2900: 2896: 2892: 2888: 2884: 2878: 2871: 2867: 2863: 2857: 2851: 2847: 2844: 2839: 2830: 2821: 2814: 2808: 2801: 2795: 2788: 2784: 2778: 2771: 2765: 2756: 2750: 2745: 2738: 2734: 2728: 2721: 2717: 2713: 2707: 2701:, pp. 274–82. 2700: 2696: 2692: 2686: 2677: 2671:, pp. 274–82. 2670: 2666: 2662: 2661:Friendly Fire 2656: 2649: 2648:Friendly Fire 2643: 2637:, pp. 274–82. 2636: 2632: 2631:Friendly Fire 2628: 2622: 2615: 2614:Friendly Fire 2611: 2607: 2601: 2594: 2580: 2576: 2572: 2566: 2560:, pp. 254–56. 2559: 2555: 2549: 2543:, pp. 53–254. 2542: 2536: 2529: 2525: 2519: 2512: 2508: 2502: 2493: 2486: 2480: 2474:, pp. 239–40. 2473: 2467: 2458: 2451: 2450: 2445: 2441: 2435: 2428: 2424: 2418: 2411: 2407: 2401: 2392: 2385: 2379: 2373:, pp. 220–21. 2372: 2366: 2359: 2355: 2349: 2343:, pp. 214–15. 2342: 2336: 2329: 2323: 2316: 2312: 2306: 2297: 2290: 2289: 2284: 2278: 2271: 2267: 2261: 2255:, pp. 183–84. 2254: 2248: 2241: 2237: 2231: 2224: 2220: 2214: 2207: 2203: 2197: 2190: 2186: 2180: 2173: 2167: 2160: 2159:Friendly Fire 2154: 2147: 2141: 2134: 2128: 2121: 2117: 2113: 2112:Friendly Fire 2107: 2100: 2096: 2095:Friendly Fire 2090: 2083: 2082:Friendly Fire 2077: 2070: 2069:Friendly Fire 2064: 2057: 2056:Friendly Fire 2051: 2044: 2043:Friendly Fire 2038: 2032:, pp. 281–82. 2031: 2027: 2026:Friendly Fire 2023: 2022:Friendly Fire 2017: 2007: 2000: 1996: 1995:Friendly Fire 1992: 1986: 1979: 1975: 1971: 1965: 1958: 1952: 1945: 1941: 1935: 1926: 1897: 1893: 1889: 1885: 1884:Friendly Fire 1879: 1873:, pp. 109–10. 1872: 1868: 1867:Friendly Fire 1864: 1858: 1851: 1847: 1846:Friendly Fire 1841: 1832: 1825: 1821: 1817: 1816:Friendly Fire 1813: 1807: 1800: 1796: 1795:Friendly Fire 1792: 1786: 1779: 1778:Friendly Fire 1775: 1769: 1763:, pp. 108–09. 1762: 1758: 1754: 1753:Friendly Fire 1748: 1741: 1737: 1736:Friendly Fire 1733: 1729: 1723: 1716: 1715:Friendly Fire 1712: 1708: 1702: 1696:, pp. 106–07. 1695: 1691: 1687: 1686:Friendly Fire 1681: 1674: 1670: 1666: 1665:Friendly Fire 1662: 1656: 1649: 1645: 1644:Friendly Fire 1639: 1632: 1628: 1624: 1620: 1619:Friendly Fire 1616: 1610: 1603: 1599: 1598:Friendly Fire 1595: 1589: 1574: 1570: 1569:Friendly Fire 1564: 1557: 1553: 1549: 1548:Friendly Fire 1543: 1536: 1535:Friendly Fire 1532: 1526: 1519: 1515: 1514:Friendly Fire 1509: 1502: 1498: 1494: 1493:Friendly Fire 1488: 1484: 1477: 1475: 1470: 1468: 1464: 1458: 1447: 1430: 1425: 1421: 1417: 1408: 1407:Ahmad Mohamad 1404: 1403: 1399: 1395: 1394: 1390: 1386: 1385: 1381: 1377: 1376: 1372: 1368: 1367: 1363: 1359: 1358: 1354: 1350: 1349: 1345: 1341: 1340: 1336: 1332: 1331: 1327: 1323: 1322: 1318: 1314: 1313: 1309: 1305: 1304: 1300: 1296: 1295: 1291: 1287: 1286: 1282: 1278: 1277: 1273: 1269: 1268: 1264: 1260: 1259: 1255: 1251: 1250: 1246: 1242: 1241: 1237: 1233: 1232: 1228: 1224: 1223: 1219: 1215: 1214: 1210: 1209: 1204: 1203: 1199: 1195: 1194: 1190: 1186: 1185: 1181: 1177: 1176: 1173: 1170: 1169: 1161: 1159: 1155: 1150: 1148: 1137: 1133: 1129: 1126: 1120: 1116: 1114: 1110: 1100: 1097: 1096:Fred Thompson 1092: 1090: 1086: 1082: 1078: 1073: 1069: 1065: 1061: 1060: 1054: 1046: 1041: 1037: 1034: 1028: 1026: 1022: 1016: 1007: 1005: 1001: 996: 989: 984: 978: 975:USAF General 973: 969: 966: 957: 955: 951: 942: 939: 935: 931: 928: 918: 915: 912: 906: 903: 902: 897: 896: 891: 887: 882: 879: 874: 872: 866: 853: 851: 847: 843: 839: 835: 831: 828:, U.S. Army, 827: 823: 815: 812:USAF General 810: 806: 804: 800: 796: 792: 788: 784: 779: 777: 772: 767: 765: 757: 756:8th Air Force 753: 749: 745: 741: 737: 736:court-martial 732: 729: 717: 712: 706: 701: 695:Actions taken 692: 690: 686: 685:William Perry 681: 678: 673: 669: 665: 658: 655: 652: 649: 646: 643: 640: 639: 638: 634: 632: 628: 623: 621: 617: 613: 609: 604: 602: 592: 585: 581: 575: 570: 561: 557: 528: 522: 493: 487: 479: 476: 472: 468: 465: 461: 453: 448: 440: 436: 432: 424: 420: 416: 413: 409: 401: 396: 392: 388: 386: 382: 377: 373: 369: 360: 356: 353: 349: 345: 341: 335: 333: 329: 325: 321: 317: 313: 309: 304: 302: 298: 294: 290: 286: 282: 272: 270: 265: 262: 258: 254: 253:36th parallel 249: 247: 243: 239: 235: 231: 218: 210: 201: 199: 193: 191: 187: 183: 179: 174: 172: 166: 164: 160: 156: 152: 149: 146: 142: 138: 135: 131: 127: 123: 119: 118:friendly fire 115: 111: 97: 93: 90: 89: 85: 81: 77: 73: 70: 69: 66:14 April 1994 65: 62: 61: 57: 51: 46: 43: 39: 34: 29: 26: 22: 4548: 4219:designations 3918: 3693:(April 1994) 3690: 3620: 3590: 3576:. 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1994 Black Hawk shootdown incident

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