Well - Knowledge

289: 656:(in mud rotary wells, also present in wells drilled into solid rock). The casing is constructed by welding, either chemically or thermally, segments of casing together. If the casing is installed during the drilling, most drills will drive the casing into the ground as the bore hole advances, while some newer machines will actually allow for the casing to be rotated and drilled into the formation in a similar manner as the bit advancing just below. PVC or plastic is typically solvent welded and then lowered into the drilled well, vertically stacked with their ends nested and either glued or splined together. The sections of casing are usually 6 metres (20 ft) or more in length, and 4 to 12 in (10 to 30 cm) in diameter, depending on the intended use of the well and local groundwater conditions. 389: 1377: 236: 434: 723: 369: 898: 928: 711: 699: 801: 500:

contamination from surface water, including sewage. Hand dug well construction generally requires the use of a well trained construction team, and the capital investment for equipment such as concrete ring moulds, heavy lifting equipment, well shaft formwork, motorized de-watering pumps, and fuel can be large for people in developing countries. Construction of hand dug wells can be dangerous due to collapse of the well bore, falling objects and asphyxiation, including from dewatering pump exhaust fumes.

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have been successfully excavated to 60 metres (200 ft). They have low operational and maintenance costs, in part because water can be extracted by hand, without a pump. The water often comes from an aquifer or groundwater, and can be easily deepened, which may be necessary if the ground water level drops, by telescoping the lining further down into the aquifer. The yield of existing hand dug wells may be improved by deepening or introducing vertical tunnels or perforated pipes.

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to pass through the screen. Allowing some material to pass through creates a large area filter out of the rest of the formation, as the amount of material present to pass into the well slowly decreases and is removed from the well. Rock wells are typically cased with a PVC liner/casing and screen or slotted casing at the bottom, this is mostly present just to keep rocks from entering the pump assembly. Some wells utilize a

422: 3701: 819:, this type of well involves sinking a caisson vertically below the top of the aquifer and then advancing lateral collectors out of the caisson and beneath the surface water body. Pumping from within the caisson induces infiltration of water from the surface water body into the aquifer, where it is collected by the collector well laterals and conveyed into the caisson where it can be pumped to the ground surface. 3814: 3730: 3653: 49: 3554: 619:, makes use of a specially made mud, or drilling fluid, which is constantly being altered during the drill so that it can consistently create enough hydraulic pressure to hold the side walls of the bore hole open, regardless of the presence of a casing in the well. Typically, boreholes drilled into solid rock are not cased until after the drilling process is completed, regardless of the machinery used. 3802: 3602: 663:. A large hole is drilled to a predetermined depth or to a confining formation (clay or bedrock, for example), and then a smaller hole for the well is completed from that point forward. The well is typically cased from the surface down into the smaller hole with a casing that is the same diameter as that hole. The annular space between the large bore hole and the smaller casing is filled with 863:, are often smaller diameter wells used to monitor the hydraulic head or sample the groundwater for chemical constituents. Piezometers are monitoring wells completed over a very short section of aquifer. Monitoring wells can also be completed at multiple levels, allowing discrete samples or measurements to be made at different vertical elevations at the same map location. 1477: 161:, or groundwater surveyor. Water may be pumped or hand drawn. Impurities from the surface can easily reach shallow sources and contamination of the supply by pathogens or chemical contaminants needs to be avoided. Well water typically contains more minerals in solution than surface water and may require 1233:

water processors; this process can remove very small particles. A simple, effective way of killing microorganisms is to bring the water to a full boil for one to three minutes, depending on location. A household well contaminated by microorganisms can initially be treated by shock chlorination using

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with an appropriate sealing material. The sealing material (grout) should be placed from immediately above the production zone back to surface, because, in the absence of a correctly constructed casing seal, contaminated fluid can travel into the well through the casing annulus. Centering devices are

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Well holes should be covered to prevent loose debris, animals, animal excrement, and wind-blown foreign matter from falling into the hole and decomposing. The cover should be able to be in place at all times, including when drawing water from the well. A suspended roof over an open hole helps to some

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At the bottom of wells, based on formation, a screening device, filter pack, slotted casing, or open bore hole is left to allow the flow of water into the well. Constructed screens are typically used in unconsolidated formations (sands, gravels, etc.), allowing water and a percentage of the formation

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The potential for soil salination is a large risk when choosing the placement of water wells. Soil salination is caused when the water table of the soil drops over time and salt begins to accumulate. In turn, the increased amount of salt begins to dry the soil out. The increased level of salt in the

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or other drilling device at the bottom end. Some rotary drilling machines are designed to install (by driving or drilling) a steel casing into the well in conjunction with the drilling of the actual bore hole. Air and/or water is used as a circulation fluid to displace cuttings and cool bits during

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excavation site was believed to have been built during the neolithic era. The well was cased by four rows of logs with a square frame attached to them at the top of the well. 60 additional tile wells southwest of Beijing are also believed to have been built around 600 BC for drinking and irrigation.

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uses pre-cast reinforced concrete well rings that are lowered into the hole. Driven wells can be created in unconsolidated material with a well hole structure, which consists of a hardened drive point and a screen of perforated pipe, after which a pump is installed to collect the water. Deeper wells

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For a well with impermeable walls, the water in the well is resupplied from the bottom of the well. The rate at which water flows into the well will depend on the pressure difference between the ground water at the well bottom and the well water at the well bottom. The pressure of a column of water

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Drilled wells can be excavated by simple hand drilling methods (augering, sludging, jetting, driving, hand percussion) or machine drilling (auger, rotary, percussion, down the hole hammer). Deep rock rotary drilling method is most common. Rotary can be used in 90% of formation types (consolidated).

477:. The excavation is braced horizontally to avoid landslide or erosion endangering the people digging. They can be lined with stone or brick; extending this lining upwards above the ground surface to form a wall around the well serves to reduce both contamination and accidental falls into the well. 219:

at a depth of 8 metres (26 ft). Well 2070 from Kissonerga-Mylouthkia, dating to the late PPN, reaches a depth of 13 metres (43 ft). Other slightly younger wells are known from this site and from neighbouring Parekklisha-Shillourokambos. A first stone lined well of 5.5 metres (18 ft)

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is the resistance to the flow, which depends on the well cross section, the pressure gradient at the bottom of the well, and the characteristics of the substrate at the well bottom. (e.g., porosity). The volume flow rate into the well can be written as a function of the rate of change of the well

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Hand-dug wells are inexpensive and low tech (compared to drilling) and they use mostly manual labour to access groundwater in rural locations of developing countries. They may be built with a high degree of community participation, or by local entrepreneurs who specialize in hand-dug wells. They

1274:, an asphyxiant, is a chemical compound that is the main component of natural gas. When methane is introduced into a confined space, it displaces oxygen, reducing oxygen concentration to a level low enough to pose a threat to humans and other aerobic organisms but still high enough for a risk of 783:

are sunk through an impermeable stratum into an aquifer that is sandwiched between two impermeable strata (aquitards or aquicludes). The majority of deep aquifers are classified as artesian because the hydraulic head in a confined well is higher than the level of the top of the aquifer. If the

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Upon the construction of a new test well, it is considered best practice to invest in a complete battery of chemical and biological tests on the well water in question. Point-of-use treatment is available for individual properties and treatment plants are often constructed for municipal water

948:. Dug and driven wells are relatively easy to contaminate; for instance, most dug wells are unreliable in the majority of the United States. Some research has found that, in cold regions, changes in river flow and flooding caused by extreme rainfall or snowmelt can degrade well water quality. 576:

Drilled wells with electric pumps are used throughout the world, typically in rural or sparsely populated areas, though many urban areas are supplied partly by municipal wells. Most shallow well drilling machines are mounted on large trucks, trailers, or tracked vehicle carriages. Water wells

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Drawbacks to hand-dug wells are numerous. It can be impractical to hand dig wells in areas where hard rock is present, and they can be time-consuming to dig and line even in favourable areas. Because they exploit shallow aquifers, the well may be susceptible to yield fluctuations and possible

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revolution per drop, thereby creating a drilling action. Unlike rotary drilling, cable tool drilling requires the drilling action to be stopped so that the bore hole can be bailed or emptied of drilled cuttings. Cable tool drilling rigs are rare as they tend to be 10x slower to drill through

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Minimum distances and soil percolation requirements between sewage disposal sites and water wells need to be observed. Rules regarding the design and installation of private and municipal septic systems take all these factors into account so that nearby drinking water sources are protected.

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and the time constant τ can be calculated. According to the above model, it will take an infinite amount of time for a well to fully recover, but if we consider a well that is 99% recovered to be "practically" recovered, the time for a well to practically recover from a level at

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at that location, and deep or confined wells, sunk through an impermeable stratum into an aquifer beneath. A collector well can be constructed adjacent to a freshwater lake or stream with water percolating through the intervening material. The site of a well can be selected by a

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method, where an undersized screen or slotted casing is placed inside the well and a filter medium is packed around the screen, between the screen and the borehole or casing. This allows the water to be filtered of unwanted materials before entering the well and pumping zone.

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Peltenburg, Edgar (2012). "East Mediterranean water wells of the 9th–7th millennium BC". In: Florian Klimscha (ed.), Wasserwirtschaftliche Innovationen im archäologischen Kontext. Von den prähistorischen Anfängen bis zu den Metropolen der Antike. Rahden/Westfalia: Leidorf:

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chain. PFAS are a group of "forever chemicals" that spread very quickly and very far in ground water polluting it permanently. Water wells near certain airports where any form fire fighting or training activities occurred up to 2010 are likely to be contaminated by PFAS.

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Low levels of methane in drinking water are not considered toxic. When methane seeps into a water supply, it is commonly referred to as "methane migration". This can be caused by old natural gas wells near water well systems becoming abandoned and no longer monitored.

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The quality of the well water can be significantly increased by lining the well, sealing the well head, fitting a self-priming hand pump, constructing an apron, ensuring the area is kept clean and free from stagnant water and animals, moving sources of contamination

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was dug in the Sichuan province of China around 2,250 years ago. This was the first time that ancient water well technology was applied successfully for the exploitation of salt, and marked the beginning of Sichuan's salt drilling industry. The earliest known

320:. Some of the world's oldest known wells, located in Cyprus, date to 7000–8,500 BC. Two wells from the Neolithic period, around 6500 BC, have been discovered in Israel. One is in Atlit, on the northern coast of Israel, and the other is in the Jezreel Valley. 1234:

bleach, generating concentrations hundreds of times greater than found in community water systems; however, this will not fix any structural problems that led to the contamination and generally requires some expertise and testing for effective application.

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which occurs when the water table of the soil begins to drop and salt begins to accumulate as the soil begins to dry out. Another environmental problem that is very prevalent in water well drilling is the potential for methane to seep through.

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at a very low cost. However, impurities from the surface easily reach shallow sources, which leads to a greater risk of contamination for these wells compared to deeper wells. Contaminated wells can lead to the spread of various

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Wells have traditionally been sunk by hand digging, as is still the case in rural areas of the developing world. These wells are inexpensive and low-tech as they use mostly manual labour, and the structure can be lined with

667:, concrete, or other sealant material. This creates an impermeable seal from the surface to the next confining layer that keeps contaminants from traveling down the outer sidewalls of the casing or borehole and into the 565:

Drilled wells are constructed using various types of drilling machines, such as top-head rotary, table rotary, or cable tool, which all use drilling stems that rotate to cut into the formation, thus the term "drilling."

2792: 671:. In addition, wells are typically capped with either an engineered well cap or seal that vents air through a screen into the well, but keeps insects, small animals, and unauthorized persons from accessing the well. 2125: 449:

in some rural developing areas, where they are routinely dug and used today. Their indispensability has produced a number of literary references, literal and figurative, including the reference to the incident of

280:, originally a divination text of the Western Zhou dynasty (1046 -771 BC), contains an entry describing how the ancient Chinese maintained their wells and protected their sources of water. A well excavated at the 883:. These professionals provide advice that is almost as accurate a driller who has experience and knowledge of nearby wells/bores and the most suitable drilling technique based on the expected target depth. 1212:

is generally very difficult. Contamination of groundwater from surface and subsurface sources can usually be dramatically reduced by correctly centering the casing during construction and filling the casing

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Rotary drilling machines use a segmented steel drilling string, typically made up of 3m (10ft), 6 m (20 ft) to 8m (26ft) sections of steel tubing that are threaded together, with a

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Site covering well basics, guidelines for proper siting and location of wells to avoid contamination, well testing, diseases related to wells, emergency well treatment and other topics.

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uses reinforced concrete or plain concrete pre-cast well rings that are lowered into the hole. A well-digging team digs under a cutting ring and the well column slowly sinks into the

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through the well. Wells were first constructed at least eight thousand years ago and historically vary in construction from a simple scoop in the sediment of a dry watercourse to the

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is the acceleration due to gravity. When the water in the well is below the water table level, the pressure at the bottom of the well due to the water in the well will be less than

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A special type of water well may be constructed adjacent to freshwater lakes or streams. Commonly called a collector well but sometimes referred to by the trade name Ranney well or

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are used. The sakia is much more efficient, as it can bring up water from a depth of 10 metres (versus the 3 metres of the shadoof). The sakia is the Egyptian version of the

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A water well constructed for pumping groundwater can be used passively as a monitoring well and a small diameter well can be pumped, but this distinction by use is common.

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Before excavation, information about the geology, water table depth, seasonal fluctuations, recharge area and rate should be found if possible. This work can be done by a

2029: 3581: 879:, or a groundwater surveyor using a variety of tools including electro-seismic surveying, any available information from nearby wells, geologic maps, and sometimes 833:, are large diameter (greater than 15 cm in diameter) cased (metal, plastic, or concrete) water wells, constructed for extracting water from the aquifer by a 3692: 2149:). Also, practical wells may have impermeable walls only up to, but not including the bedrock, which will give a larger surface area for water to enter the well. 3668: 2972: 1226:

of the contaminants of concern, and additional protection may be garnered by installing well-casing screens only at depths where contamination is not present.

149:. Drilled wells are usually cased with a factory-made pipe composed of steel or plastic. Drilled wells can access water at much greater depths than dug wells. 2357:

Galili, Ehud; Nir, Yaacov (1993). "The submerged Pre-Pottery Neolithic water well of Atlit-Yam, northern Israel, and its palaeoenvironmental implications".

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will be equal to the weight of the water in the column divided by the cross-sectional area of the column, so the pressure of the ground water a distance

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of the drill causes the bit to be raised and dropped onto the bottom of the hole, and the design of the cable causes the bit to twist at approximately

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or externally caused explosion. This potential for explosion is what poses such a danger in regards to the drilling and placement of water wells.

543:, which consists of a hardened drive point and a screen (perforated pipe). The point is simply hammered into the ground, usually with a tripod and 3041: 1218:

important (usually one per length of casing or at maximum intervals of 9 m) to ensure that the grouted annular space is of even thickness.

3656: 1185:) and carrying out hygiene education. The well should be cleaned with 1% chlorine solution after construction and periodically every 6 months. 722: 698: 547:, with pipe sections added as needed. A driver is a weighted pipe that slides over the pipe being driven and is repeatedly dropped on it. When 4631: 2042: 2659: 5179: 4467: 3466: 473:

Hand-dug wells are excavations with diameters large enough to accommodate one or more people with shovels digging down to below the

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The above model does not take into account the depletion of the aquifer due to the pumping which lowered the well water level (See

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typically range from 3 to 18 metres (10–60 ft) deep, but in some areas it can go deeper than 900 metres (3,000 ft).

515:, is billed as the world's largest hand-dug well, at 109 feet (33 m) deep and 32 feet (9.8 m) in diameter. However, the 169:

can occur as the water table falls and the surrounding soil begins to dry out. Another environmental problem is the potential for

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were also drilled in China, in 347 CE. These wells had depths of up to about 240 metres (790 ft) and were drilled using

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if local groundwater levels decline by less than five meters, or – as with many areas and possibly more than half of major

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Hand pump to pump water from a well in a village near Chennai in India, where the well water might be polluted by nearby

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Rybníček, Michal; Kočár, Petr; Muigg, Bernhard; Peška, Jaroslav; Sedláček, Radko; Tegel, Willy; Kolář, Tomáš (2020).

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Wiebe, Andrew J.; Rudolph, David L.; Pasha, Ehsan; Brook, Jacqueline M.; Christie, Mike; Menkveld, Paul G. (2021).

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The neolithic Chinese discovered and made extensive use of deep drilled groundwater for drinking. The Chinese text

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Drilled wells can get water from a much deeper level than dug wells can − often down to several hundred metres.

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Some chemicals are commonly present in water wells at levels that are not toxic, but can cause other problems.

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are said to contain many allusions to the use of natural gas for lighting and heating. Petroleum was known as

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is the distance from the bottom of the well to the top of the water table, the pressure difference will be:

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Education of the general population in society also plays an important role in protecting drinking water.

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degree, but ideally the cover should be tight fitting and fully enclosing, with only a screened air vent.

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Lately, however, the described wells/pumps are no longer very efficient and can be replaced by either

5112: 4386: 3781: 3437: 3045: 2146: 1081: 215:. At around 8400 BC a shaft (well 116) of circular diameter was driven through limestone to reach an 2343: 1293:. Another alternative is the use of self-dug wells, electrical deep-well pumps (for higher depths). 5169: 4906: 4462: 4452: 4324: 4314: 4144: 3882: 3680: 3511: 1662: 1438: 1331: 1205: 433: 152:

Two broad classes of well are shallow or unconfined wells completed within the uppermost saturated

2523: 507:, hand-dug between 1858 and 1862, is the deepest hand-dug well at 392 metres (1,285 ft). The 4866: 4655: 4302: 4277: 4217: 3897: 3838: 3170: 2886: 2755: 2616: 1999: 1209: 1093: 1044: 773:

are completed in the uppermost saturated aquifer at that location (the upper unconfined aquifer).

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hand-dug wells of varying degrees of sophistication, and they remain a very important source of

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Two additional broad classes of well types may be distinguished, based on the use of the well:

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Surface contamination of wells in the United States is typically controlled by the use of a

531:, at 61 metres (200 ft) deep by 13 metres (43 ft) wide are both larger by volume. 120:

of India. Placing a lining in the well shaft helps create stability, and linings of wood or

5159: 5071: 5055: 5050: 4605: 4457: 4414: 4307: 4232: 3615: 3208: 3121: 3007: 2893: 2473: 2413: 2366: 1656:) at which water is forced into the well will be proportional to this pressure difference: 996: 626:, still used today. Specifically designed to raise and lower a bit into the bore hole, the 200: 3463: 1158:

can appear as dark flecks that stain clothing and plumbing, and can promote the growth of

8: 5045: 5040: 4960: 4924: 4705: 4381: 4371: 3927: 3912: 3872: 3845: 3620: 3610: 945: 901: 880: 255:, for example in Ostrov, Czech Republic, dated 5265 BC, Kückhoven (an outlying centre of 3212: 3171:"The largest assessment of global groundwater wells finds many are at risk of drying up" 3125: 3011: 2477: 2417: 2370: 927: 611: 5000: 4882: 4623: 4332: 4041: 3824: 3743: 3240: 3145: 2496: 2461: 2429: 2382: 1392: 1381: 1371: 512: 264: 3196: 3109: 3087: 2998:

Meulemans, C. C. E. (1987-09-01). "The Basic Principles of UV–Disinfection of Water".

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supplies that suffer from contamination. Most of these treatment methods involve the

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are a particular problem for babies and young children. Pollutant chemicals include

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hydraulic head in a confined well is higher than the land surface it is a "flowing"

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Sustainable Groundwater Development theme of the Rural Water Supply Network (RWSN)

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soil can result in the degradation of soil and can be very harmful to vegetation.

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pipelines connected oil wells with salt springs. The ancient records of China and

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U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) Healthy Water – Water Wells

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Wells for other purposes came along much later, historically. The first recorded

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materials compared to similar diameter rotary air or rotary mud equipped rigs.

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or large water bags that are raised mechanically or by hand. Water can also be

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from rocket fuel, airbag inflators, and other artificial and natural sources.

26:"Village pump" redirects here. For the set of Knowledge discussion pages, see 5153: 4965: 4851: 4805: 4780: 4765: 4760: 4735: 4570: 4409: 4287: 4282: 4237: 4006: 3228: 3027: 2957: 2932:"Impacts of Event-Based Recharge on the Vulnerability of Public Supply Wells" 2402:"World's oldest dendrochronologically dated archaeological wood construction" 2203: 1752:

Combining the above three equations yields a simple differential equation in

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Committee on Environmental Health; Committee on Infectious Diseases (2009).

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Driven wells may be very simply created in unconsolidated material with a

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can be spread via a well which is contaminated with fecal pathogens from

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is the distance from the bottom of the well to the well water level and

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There are two broad classes of drilled-well types, based on the type of

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can be excavated by hand drilling methods or machine drilling, using a

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and water will be forced into the well. Referring to the diagram, if

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A study concluded that of ~39 million groundwater wells 6-20% are at

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from humans and other animals. Common bacterial contaminants include

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is encountered, the well is washed of sediment and a pump installed.

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Drilled wells are usually cased with a factory-made pipe, typically

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US Geological Survey – Water Science Pictures Flowing Artesian Well

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is sometimes claimed to have used a well in his calculation of the

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depth is documented from a drowned final PPN (c. 7000 BC) site at

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or stone as the excavation proceeds. A more modern method called

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Tegel W, Elburg R, Hakelberg D, Stäuble H, Büntgen U (2012).

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Chemical contamination is a common problem with groundwater.

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Association), NKBA (National Kitchen and Bath (2013-10-29).

704:

An automated water well system powered by a submersible pump

615:

the drilling. Another form of rotary-style drilling, termed

4669: 3980: 3975: 3965: 3960: 3955: 3940: 2575:"How the ancient Chinese looked after their drinking water" 2459: 2228: 1452:

take place around wells, such as the finding of a wife for

1237:

After the filtration process, it is common to implement an

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from electroplating and other sources, naturally occurring

1104: 834: 442: 97: 2889:"Drinking water from private wells and risks to children" 1996:

for a depleted well can be measured, it will be equal to

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Drilling wells 18 extremely useful questions and answers

3432: 3108:

Famiglietti, James S.; Ferguson, Grant (23 April 2021).

3044:. Ngm.nationalgeographic.com. 2002-10-17. Archived from 2448:"Kückhovener Brunnen – Dorfgemeinschaft Kückhoven E. V." 16:

Excavation or structure to provide access to groundwater

2818:

Arnold, L.R.; Flynn, J.L.; Paschke, S.S. (2009-10-20).

2794:

Kitchen & Bath Residential Construction and Systems

2399: 2152: 1123:—all of which can cause cancer—and naturally occurring 488:, whilst protecting the team from collapse of the well 19:

This article is about water wells. For other uses, see

2929: 2550:

Forest Hydrology: An Introduction to Water and Forests

1301:

are now supplying information on how to build/set-up (

72:

is an excavation or structure created in the earth by

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View into a hand-dug well cased with concrete rings.

1415:. Interest in health benefits led to the growth of 1162:

that can form slimy black colonies that clog pipes.

692:

An automated water well system powered by a jet-pump

251:

Wood-lined wells are known from the early Neolithic

3458: 3433:

Sustainable Sanitation and Water Management Toolbox

3107: 2817: 2119: 2023: 1981: 1917: 1826:{\displaystyle RA{\frac {dz}{dt}}=\rho g(z_{T}-z)} 1825: 1741: 1684: 1637: 1549: 1480:Diagram of a water well partially filled to level 1403:times, leading to the foundation of towns such as 1229:Wellwater for personal use is often filtered with 1127:, which is desirable in low quantities to prevent 1103:Several minerals are also contaminants, including 849:Schematic diagram of a groundwater monitoring well 804:An old-fashioned water well in the countryside of 441:Until recent centuries, all artificial wells were 56:is in the source of the water: a cistern collects 3197:"Global groundwater wells at risk of running dry" 3195:Jasechko, Scott; Perrone, Debra (23 April 2021). 1918:{\displaystyle z=z_{T}-(z_{T}-z_{0})e^{-t/\tau }} 5151: 2200:, for harvesting drinking water in polar regions 3401:(2nd ed.). Avebury, Cranfield University. 3194: 1312: 1107:leached from brass fittings or old lead pipes, 292:A Chinese ceramic model of a well with a water 3476:Well Construction Technical Resources for NGOs 3396: 3302:International Standard Bible Encyclopedia: E-J 728:A water well system with a pressurized cistern 4639: 3496: 3342: 2528:Canadian Society of Exploration Geophysicists 622:The oldest form of drilling machinery is the 437:Well with a flower bag shaped wall and podium 207:: The oldest reliably dated well is from the 3510: 2790: 1638:{\displaystyle \Delta P=\rho \,g\,(z_{T}-z)} 1249:A risk with the placement of water wells is 3304:, Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing, p. 955, 3275: 2970: 4646: 4632: 3503: 3489: 3444:US Geological Survey – Ground water: Wells 3330:. Cal Poly Humboldt, Department of Geology 2971:Association, American Water Works (2003). 2882: 2880: 2878: 2876: 2874: 2706:Joseph P. Riva Jr. and Gordon I. Atwater. 2678:"ASTM International – Standards Worldwide" 2323: 1982:{\displaystyle \tau ={\frac {RA}{\rho g}}} 1506:below the top of the water table will be: 740:A section of a stainless steel screen well 648:(in air rotary or cable tool drilling) or 3464:Lifewater International Technical Library 2997: 2947: 2906: 2657: 2495: 2485: 2356: 1678: 1612: 1608: 1536: 1532: 1244: 1055: 3373: 3317: 3299: 2593:"Sakieh explication/difference vs Sakia" 1475: 1464:'s talk with the Samaritan woman in the 1375: 926: 911: 896: 844: 799: 749: 593: 579: 432: 420: 408: 392:Well, Historical Village, Bhaini Sahib, 387: 379: 367: 287: 234: 186: 47: 32: 2871: 2826:. Data Series. U.S. Geological Survey. 2543: 2541: 972:that contaminate well water comes from 939:Shallow pumping wells can often supply 340:poles. The oil was burned to evaporate 211:(PPN) site of Kissonerga-Mylouthkia on 5152: 2699: 2517: 2515: 2292:History of water supply and sanitation 1472:A simple model for water well recovery 1365: 527:(St. Patrick's Well) built in 1527 in 384:Leather bucket used for the water well 183:History of water supply and sanitation 4627: 3484: 3350:"How Much Water Can the Well Deliver" 3289:. Berlin: Springer. pp. 273–277. 3281: 2547: 2299:Ancient water conservation techniques 1564:is the mass density of the water and 1550:{\displaystyle P_{g}=\rho \,g\,z_{T}} 523:at 280 feet (85 m) deep and the 296:system, excavated from a tomb of the 3264: 3258: 3110:"The hidden crisis beneath our feet" 2977:. American Water Works Association. 2851: 2670: 2572: 2538: 2521: 2219:, sacred wells in various religions 2153:Similar and related water structures 1000:. Common viral contaminants include 52:The difference between a well and a 5180:In situ geotechnical investigations 3642: 2658:Ashkenazi, Eli (November 9, 2012). 2512: 2306:Self-supply of water and sanitation 2270:, public place for washing clothes. 2130:For a well that is fully depleted ( 1742:{\displaystyle F=A{\frac {dz}{dt}}} 1318:Per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances 1208:tends to be very costly. Effective 13: 5031:Naples underground geothermal zone 2206:, piped water supply from the well 1666: 1596: 1257: 716:A water well system with a cistern 263:in Schletz (an outlying centre of 96:. The well water is drawn up by a 14: 5191: 3521:Offshore geotechnical engineering 3416: 2641:"Stone Age wells found in Cyprus" 2406:Journal of Archaeological Science 2231:, sacred in Hinduism and Buddhism 1349: 745: 348:. By the 10th century, extensive 191:Camel drawing water from a well, 124:date back at least as far as the 3812: 3800: 3788: 3776: 3764: 3752: 3738: 3728: 3711: 3699: 3687: 3675: 3663: 3651: 3629: 3600: 3588: 3576: 3564: 3552: 3000:Ozone: Science & Engineering 2134:) it would take a time of about 1935:is the well water level at time 886: 733: 721: 709: 697: 685: 554: 3367: 3293: 3188: 3163: 3101: 3080: 3067:"Practical Answers – Handpumps" 3059: 3034: 2991: 2964: 2923: 2845: 2811: 2784: 2769: 2748: 2726: 2651: 2633: 2609: 2573:Koon, Wee Kek (July 25, 2015). 2188:Modern construction techniques 1484:with the top of the aquifer at 534: 100:, or using containers, such as 5077:Forestiere Underground Gardens 4940:Underground mining (soft rock) 4935:Underground mining (hard rock) 4920:Subsurface utility engineering 3382:: Johnson Filtration Systems. 3300:Bromiley, Geoffrey W. (1982), 3268:The History of Tunbridge Wells 2585: 2566: 2453: 2440: 2393: 2350: 2317: 1891: 1865: 1820: 1801: 1632: 1613: 1423:in their name, examples being 106:injected back into the aquifer 1: 4171:Mechanically stabilized earth 2311: 1685:{\displaystyle \Delta P=R\,F} 1199: 1165: 360:in Japan in the 7th century. 4930:Underground mine ventilation 3923:Hydraulic conductivity tests 2859:. Bloemfontein, South Africa 2824:USGS Publications Wareahouse 2487:10.1371/journal.pone.0051374 1313:PFAS/PFOS Fire fighting foam 951: 480:A more modern method called 404: 7: 5175:Water supply infrastructure 5087:Underground House Las Vegas 4484:Stress distribution in soil 3459:American Ground Water Trust 3265:Burr, Thomas Benge (1766). 2522:Kuhn, Oliver (2004-06-30). 2278: 2024:{\displaystyle z_{T}/\tau } 1943:is the well time constant: 1330:) are a group of synthetic 1160:iron and manganese bacteria 587:water well drilling rig in 462:4:6) in the Bible and the " 425:A dug well in a village in 259:), dated 5300 BC, and 37:A dug well in a village in 10: 5196: 5082:Underground House Colorado 5011:Underground City, Montreal 5006:Underground City (Beijing) 3634:Pore pressure measurement 2781:, April 1952, pp. 177–181. 2524:"Ancient Chinese Drilling" 2379:10.1177/095968369300300309 1369: 1266: 1210:remediation of groundwater 1169: 1135:in higher concentrations. 1082:volatile organic compounds 890: 558: 224:off the coast near modern 180: 176: 25: 18: 5126: 5113:Hockerton Housing Project 5100: 5064: 4948: 4896: 4834: 4693: 4662: 4654:Man-made and man-related 4541: 4496: 4395: 4387:Preconsolidation pressure 4359: 4350: 4323: 4143: 4092: 4079: 3994: 3948: 3939: 3862: 3782:Standard penetration test 3540: 3527: 3518: 3090:. Dev.practicalaction.org 3020:10.1080/01919518708552146 2797:. John Wiley & Sons. 2426:10.1016/j.jas.2020.105082 2147:groundwater flow equation 870: 203:wells are known from the 5127:Earth shelters Australia 4907:underground construction 3883:California bearing ratio 3681:Rotary-pressure sounding 3512:Geotechnical engineering 3428:Water Portal – Akvopedia 3287:The Forgotten Revolution 2579:South China Morning Post 2242:Drainage and irrigation 2138:to practically recover. 1356:high risk of running dry 1206:contaminated groundwater 363: 300:(202 BC – 220 AD) period 173:to seep into the water. 60:where a well draws from 5165:Archaeological features 4867:Missile launch facility 4303:Geosynthetic clay liner 4278:Expanded clay aggregate 3898:Proctor compaction test 3839:Crosshole sonic logging 3825:Nuclear densometer test 3582:Geo-electrical sounding 3397:Raymond Rowles (1995). 3221:10.1126/science.abc2755 3134:10.1126/science.abh2867 2713:Encyclopædia Britannica 2548:Chang, Mingteh (2012). 2225:, sacred well in Israel 2169:, for use in the castle 2158:Types of ancient wells 1362:– continue to decline. 1146:cause what is known as 1094:methyl tert-butyl ether 1045:Cyclospora cayetanensis 916:Man cleaning a well in 598:Water well drilling in 470:about a cat in a well. 5092:Underground World Home 4566:Earthquake engineering 4377:Lateral earth pressure 4002:Hydraulic conductivity 3853:Wave equation analysis 3832:Exploration geophysics 3724:Deformation monitoring 3693:Rotary weight sounding 2908:10.1542/peds.2009-0751 2338:Cite journal requires 2121: 2025: 1983: 1919: 1827: 1743: 1686: 1639: 1551: 1491: 1448:Many incidents in the 1389: 1386:Biblioteca Casanatense 1295:Appropriate technology 1245:Environmental problems 1172:Onsite sewage facility 1056:Chemical contamination 936: 924: 909: 850: 812: 755: 607: 591: 589:Kimball, West Virginia 505:Woodingdean Water Well 438: 430: 418: 401: 385: 377: 301: 271:, dated 5200 BC. 253:Linear Pottery culture 248: 241:Linear Pottery culture 196: 165:before being potable. 65: 45: 28:Knowledge:Village pump 4981:Kőbánya cellar system 4976:Houston tunnel system 4915:Rock-cut architecture 3744:Settlement recordings 3669:Rock control drilling 3570:Cone penetration test 3376:Groundwater and Wells 3374:Driscoll, F. (1986). 3325:"Well Flow Equations" 3069:. Practicalaction.org 2776:"How I drill a Well." 2192:Baptist well drilling 2122: 2026: 1984: 1920: 1836:which may be solved: 1828: 1744: 1687: 1640: 1552: 1479: 1439:Earth's circumference 1429:Royal Tunbridge Wells 1397:cultural significance 1379: 1341:atoms attached to an 1183:on-site sewer systems 1170:Further information: 930: 915: 900: 893:Groundwater pollution 891:Further information: 848: 803: 753: 597: 583: 559:Further information: 525:Pozzo di San Patrizio 436: 424: 412: 391: 383: 371: 291: 238: 209:pre-pottery neolithic 205:Eastern Mediterranean 195:island, Tunisia, 1960 190: 51: 36: 21:Well (disambiguation) 5056:Subterranean fiction 5051:Subterranean warfare 4606:Agricultural science 4308:Cellular confinement 2756:"St. Patrick's Well" 2043: 2000: 1950: 1843: 1763: 1707: 1663: 1593: 1513: 1419:including many with 1092:, the fuel additive 1030:. Parasites include 997:Campylobacter jejuni 837:(if the well is not 5046:Subterranean Toledo 5041:Subterranean London 4961:Caves of Maastricht 4925:Tunnel construction 4706:Burial vault (tomb) 4498:Numerical analysis 4382:Overburden pressure 4372:Pore water pressure 4152:Shoring structures 4027:Reynolds' dilatancy 3928:Water content tests 3913:Triaxial shear test 3873:Soil classification 3846:Pile integrity test 3213:2021Sci...372..418J 3126:2021Sci...372..344F 3012:1987OzSE....9..299M 2852:Du Preez, Michael. 2617:"Sakia explication" 2478:2012PLoSO...751374T 2418:2020JArSc.115j5082R 2371:1993Holoc...3..265G 1652:, the volume rate ( 1395:and wells have had 1366:Society and culture 1337:that have multiple 946:waterborne diseases 902:Waterborne diseases 881:geophysical imaging 541:well hole structure 454:meeting a woman at 277:The Book of Changes 84:resources, usually 5001:Underground living 4883:Underground hangar 4473:Slab stabilisation 4453:Stability analysis 3469:2013-06-16 at the 3399:Drilling for Water 2949:10.3390/su13147695 2758:. Umbriatravel.com 2734:"Woodingdean Well" 2194:, simple technique 2117: 2021: 1979: 1915: 1823: 1739: 1682: 1635: 1547: 1492: 1390: 1382:Tacuinum Sanitatis 1372:Wells in the Bible 1335:chemical compounds 937: 925: 910: 851: 813: 756: 608: 592: 513:Greensburg, Kansas 439: 431: 419: 402: 386: 378: 302: 265:Asparn an der Zaya 249: 197: 66: 46: 5147: 5146: 5101:Earth shelters UK 5072:Bill Gates' house 5065:Earth shelters US 4835:Military features 4826:Ventilation shaft 4694:Civilian features 4621: 4620: 4492: 4491: 4468:Sliding criterion 4430:Response spectrum 4346: 4345: 4176:Pressure grouting 4075: 4074: 3935: 3934: 3888:Direct shear test 3594:Permeability test 3389:978-0-9616456-0-1 3207:(6540): 418–421. 3120:(6540): 344–345. 2246:Drainage by wells 2111: 1977: 1790: 1737: 1425:Llandrindod Wells 1297:organizations as 112:of Iran, and the 5187: 5108:Underhill, Holme 5016:Mine exploration 4878:Underground base 4873:Scallywag bunker 4842:Air raid shelter 4821:Smuggling tunnel 4786:Underground city 4726:Dugout (shelter) 4663:Natural features 4648: 4641: 4634: 4625: 4624: 4480:Bearing capacity 4367:Effective stress 4357: 4356: 4258:Land reclamation 4198:Land development 4093:Natural features 4090: 4089: 4057:Specific storage 3946: 3945: 3878:Atterberg limits 3816: 3804: 3792: 3780: 3768: 3756: 3742: 3732: 3717:Screw plate test 3715: 3703: 3691: 3679: 3667: 3655: 3633: 3604: 3592: 3580: 3568: 3556: 3538: 3537: 3505: 3498: 3491: 3482: 3481: 3412: 3393: 3362: 3361: 3359: 3357: 3346: 3340: 3339: 3337: 3335: 3329: 3321: 3315: 3314: 3297: 3291: 3290: 3279: 3273: 3272: 3262: 3256: 3255: 3253: 3251: 3192: 3186: 3185: 3183: 3181: 3167: 3161: 3160: 3158: 3156: 3105: 3099: 3098: 3096: 3095: 3084: 3078: 3077: 3075: 3074: 3063: 3057: 3056: 3054: 3053: 3038: 3032: 3031: 2995: 2989: 2988: 2968: 2962: 2961: 2951: 2927: 2921: 2920: 2910: 2901:(6): 1599–1605. 2884: 2869: 2868: 2866: 2864: 2858: 2849: 2843: 2842: 2840: 2838: 2815: 2809: 2808: 2788: 2782: 2773: 2767: 2766: 2764: 2763: 2752: 2746: 2745: 2743: 2741: 2730: 2724: 2723: 2721: 2720: 2703: 2697: 2696: 2694: 2693: 2684:. Archived from 2674: 2668: 2667: 2655: 2649: 2648: 2637: 2631: 2630: 2628: 2627: 2613: 2607: 2606: 2604: 2603: 2589: 2583: 2582: 2570: 2564: 2563: 2545: 2536: 2535: 2519: 2510: 2509: 2499: 2489: 2457: 2451: 2450: 2444: 2438: 2437: 2397: 2391: 2390: 2354: 2348: 2347: 2341: 2336: 2334: 2326: 2321: 2162:Brick-lined well 2126: 2124: 2123: 2118: 2116: 2112: 2110: 2099: 2098: 2097: 2088: 2073: 2055: 2054: 2030: 2028: 2027: 2022: 2017: 2012: 2011: 1988: 1986: 1985: 1980: 1978: 1976: 1968: 1960: 1924: 1922: 1921: 1916: 1914: 1913: 1909: 1890: 1889: 1877: 1876: 1861: 1860: 1832: 1830: 1829: 1824: 1813: 1812: 1791: 1789: 1781: 1773: 1748: 1746: 1745: 1740: 1738: 1736: 1728: 1720: 1691: 1689: 1688: 1683: 1644: 1642: 1641: 1636: 1625: 1624: 1556: 1554: 1553: 1548: 1546: 1545: 1525: 1524: 1305:) handpumps and 1299:Practical Action 1181:, garbage pits, 1133:dental fluorosis 1131:, but can cause 855:monitoring wells 817:Ranney collector 771:unconfined wells 762:the well is in: 754:Water well types 737: 725: 713: 701: 689: 639: 638: 634: 372:Water well near 5195: 5194: 5190: 5189: 5188: 5186: 5185: 5184: 5170:Bodies of water 5150: 5149: 5148: 5143: 5139:Lightning Ridge 5122: 5096: 5060: 4944: 4905: 4892: 4862:Fallout shelter 4830: 4689: 4658: 4652: 4622: 4617: 4596:Earth materials 4537: 4499: 4488: 4397: 4391: 4342: 4319: 4273:Earth structure 4268:Erosion control 4166:Ground freezing 4156:Retaining walls 4139: 4081: 4071: 4032:Angle of repose 3990: 3931: 3865: 3858: 3857: 3818:Visible bedrock 3770:Simple sounding 3758:Shear vane test 3534:instrumentation 3533: 3531: 3523: 3514: 3509: 3471:Wayback Machine 3419: 3409: 3390: 3370: 3365: 3355: 3353: 3352:. Inspectapedia 3348: 3347: 3343: 3333: 3331: 3327: 3323: 3322: 3318: 3312: 3298: 3294: 3280: 3276: 3263: 3259: 3249: 3247: 3193: 3189: 3179: 3177: 3169: 3168: 3164: 3154: 3152: 3106: 3102: 3093: 3091: 3086: 3085: 3081: 3072: 3070: 3065: 3064: 3060: 3051: 3049: 3048:on May 22, 2009 3040: 3039: 3035: 2996: 2992: 2985: 2969: 2965: 2928: 2924: 2885: 2872: 2862: 2860: 2856: 2850: 2846: 2836: 2834: 2816: 2812: 2805: 2789: 2785: 2779:Popular Science 2774: 2770: 2761: 2759: 2754: 2753: 2749: 2739: 2737: 2732: 2731: 2727: 2718: 2716: 2704: 2700: 2691: 2689: 2676: 2675: 2671: 2656: 2652: 2639: 2638: 2634: 2625: 2623: 2615: 2614: 2610: 2601: 2599: 2591: 2590: 2586: 2571: 2567: 2560: 2546: 2539: 2520: 2513: 2458: 2454: 2446: 2445: 2441: 2398: 2394: 2355: 2351: 2339: 2337: 2328: 2327: 2322: 2318: 2314: 2281: 2181:, ancient India 2175:, ancient Greek 2155: 2100: 2093: 2089: 2084: 2074: 2072: 2068: 2050: 2046: 2044: 2041: 2040: 2013: 2007: 2003: 2001: 1998: 1997: 1969: 1961: 1959: 1951: 1948: 1947: 1933: 1905: 1898: 1894: 1885: 1881: 1872: 1868: 1856: 1852: 1844: 1841: 1840: 1808: 1804: 1782: 1774: 1772: 1764: 1761: 1760: 1729: 1721: 1719: 1708: 1705: 1704: 1664: 1661: 1660: 1620: 1616: 1594: 1591: 1590: 1584: 1573: 1541: 1537: 1520: 1516: 1514: 1511: 1510: 1504: 1489: 1474: 1374: 1368: 1352: 1315: 1269: 1260: 1258:Soil salination 1251:soil salination 1247: 1231:reverse osmosis 1202: 1174: 1168: 1058: 1039:Cryptosporidium 1033:Giardia lamblia 954: 895: 889: 873: 748: 741: 738: 729: 726: 717: 714: 705: 702: 693: 690: 636: 632: 631: 563: 557: 537: 407: 376:, eastern Qatar 366: 243:well, 5300 BC, 185: 179: 167:Soil salination 92:in underground 39:Faryab Province 31: 24: 17: 12: 11: 5: 5193: 5183: 5182: 5177: 5172: 5167: 5162: 5145: 5144: 5142: 5141: 5136: 5130: 5128: 5124: 5123: 5121: 5120: 5115: 5110: 5104: 5102: 5098: 5097: 5095: 5094: 5089: 5084: 5079: 5074: 5068: 5066: 5062: 5061: 5059: 5058: 5053: 5048: 5043: 5038: 5033: 5028: 5023: 5021:Mines of Paris 5018: 5013: 5008: 5003: 4998: 4996:Trench warfare 4993: 4991:Tunnel network 4988: 4986:Tunnel warfare 4983: 4978: 4973: 4968: 4963: 4958: 4952: 4950: 4949:Related topics 4946: 4945: 4943: 4942: 4937: 4932: 4927: 4922: 4917: 4911: 4909: 4894: 4893: 4891: 4890: 4885: 4880: 4875: 4870: 4864: 4859: 4854: 4849: 4844: 4838: 4836: 4832: 4831: 4829: 4828: 4823: 4818: 4813: 4808: 4803: 4801:Secret passage 4798: 4793: 4788: 4783: 4778: 4773: 4768: 4763: 4758: 4753: 4748: 4743: 4738: 4733: 4728: 4723: 4718: 4713: 4708: 4703: 4697: 4695: 4691: 4690: 4688: 4687: 4682: 4677: 4672: 4666: 4664: 4660: 4659: 4651: 4650: 4643: 4636: 4628: 4619: 4618: 4616: 4615: 4614: 4613: 4603: 4598: 4593: 4588: 4583: 4578: 4573: 4568: 4563: 4558: 4553: 4547: 4545: 4543:Related fields 4539: 4538: 4536: 4535: 4530: 4525: 4520: 4515: 4510: 4504: 4502: 4494: 4493: 4490: 4489: 4487: 4486: 4477: 4476: 4475: 4470: 4465: 4463:Classification 4460: 4455: 4444: 4443: 4442: 4437: 4435:Seismic hazard 4432: 4422: 4417: 4412: 4407: 4401: 4399: 4393: 4392: 4390: 4389: 4384: 4379: 4374: 4369: 4363: 4361: 4354: 4348: 4347: 4344: 4343: 4341: 4340: 4335: 4329: 4327: 4321: 4320: 4318: 4317: 4312: 4311: 4310: 4305: 4300: 4295: 4285: 4280: 4275: 4270: 4265: 4260: 4255: 4250: 4245: 4240: 4235: 4230: 4225: 4220: 4215: 4210: 4205: 4200: 4195: 4194: 4193: 4188: 4183: 4178: 4173: 4168: 4163: 4158: 4149: 4147: 4141: 4140: 4138: 4137: 4132: 4127: 4122: 4117: 4112: 4107: 4102: 4096: 4094: 4087: 4077: 4076: 4073: 4072: 4070: 4069: 4064: 4062:Shear strength 4059: 4054: 4049: 4044: 4039: 4037:Friction angle 4034: 4029: 4024: 4019: 4014: 4009: 4004: 3998: 3996: 3992: 3991: 3989: 3988: 3983: 3978: 3973: 3968: 3963: 3958: 3952: 3950: 3943: 3937: 3936: 3933: 3932: 3930: 3925: 3920: 3918:Oedometer test 3915: 3910: 3908:Sieve analysis 3905: 3900: 3895: 3890: 3885: 3880: 3875: 3870: 3868: 3860: 3859: 3856: 3855: 3849: 3848: 3842: 3841: 3835: 3834: 3828: 3827: 3821: 3820: 3809: 3808: 3797: 3796: 3794:Total sounding 3785: 3784: 3773: 3772: 3761: 3760: 3749: 3748: 3747: 3746: 3736: 3720: 3719: 3708: 3707: 3696: 3695: 3684: 3683: 3672: 3671: 3660: 3659: 3648: 3647: 3646: 3645: 3640: 3626: 3625: 3624: 3623: 3618: 3613: 3597: 3596: 3585: 3584: 3573: 3572: 3561: 3560: 3549: 3548: 3546: 3535: 3525: 3524: 3519: 3516: 3515: 3508: 3507: 3500: 3493: 3485: 3479: 3478: 3473: 3461: 3456: 3451: 3446: 3441: 3435: 3430: 3425: 3418: 3417:External links 3415: 3414: 3413: 3407: 3394: 3388: 3369: 3366: 3364: 3363: 3341: 3316: 3310: 3292: 3274: 3257: 3187: 3162: 3100: 3088:"Treadle pump" 3079: 3058: 3033: 3006:(4): 299–313. 2990: 2983: 2963: 2936:Sustainability 2922: 2870: 2844: 2810: 2803: 2783: 2768: 2747: 2725: 2698: 2669: 2650: 2632: 2621:Britannica.com 2608: 2597:Britannica.com 2584: 2565: 2559:978-1439879948 2558: 2537: 2511: 2472:(12): e51374. 2452: 2439: 2392: 2365:(3): 265–270. 2349: 2340:|journal= 2315: 2313: 2310: 2309: 2308: 2302: 2301: 2295: 2294: 2288: 2287: 2280: 2277: 2276: 2275: 2274: 2273: 2272: 2271: 2259: 2258: 2257: 2256: 2255: 2254: 2248: 2237: 2236: 2235: 2234: 2233: 2232: 2226: 2223:Abraham's well 2210: 2209: 2208: 2207: 2201: 2198:Rodriguez well 2195: 2185: 2184: 2183: 2182: 2176: 2170: 2164: 2154: 2151: 2128: 2127: 2115: 2109: 2106: 2103: 2096: 2092: 2087: 2083: 2080: 2077: 2071: 2067: 2064: 2061: 2058: 2053: 2049: 2020: 2016: 2010: 2006: 1990: 1989: 1975: 1972: 1967: 1964: 1958: 1955: 1931: 1926: 1925: 1912: 1908: 1904: 1901: 1897: 1893: 1888: 1884: 1880: 1875: 1871: 1867: 1864: 1859: 1855: 1851: 1848: 1834: 1833: 1822: 1819: 1816: 1811: 1807: 1803: 1800: 1797: 1794: 1788: 1785: 1780: 1777: 1771: 1768: 1750: 1749: 1735: 1732: 1727: 1724: 1718: 1715: 1712: 1693: 1692: 1681: 1677: 1674: 1671: 1668: 1646: 1645: 1634: 1631: 1628: 1623: 1619: 1615: 1611: 1607: 1604: 1601: 1598: 1582: 1571: 1558: 1557: 1544: 1540: 1535: 1531: 1528: 1523: 1519: 1502: 1487: 1473: 1470: 1388:(14th century) 1367: 1364: 1351: 1350:Water security 1348: 1332:organofluorine 1314: 1311: 1268: 1265: 1259: 1256: 1246: 1243: 1201: 1198: 1167: 1164: 1057: 1054: 974:fecal material 953: 950: 941:drinking water 888: 885: 877:hydrogeologist 872: 869: 865: 864: 843: 842: 798: 797: 781:confined wells 774: 747: 746:Classification 744: 743: 742: 739: 732: 730: 727: 720: 718: 715: 708: 706: 703: 696: 694: 691: 684: 665:bentonite clay 556: 553: 536: 533: 529:Orvieto, Italy 517:Well of Joseph 464:Ding Dong Bell 415:Ouelessebougou 406: 403: 365: 362: 181:Main article: 178: 175: 159:hydrogeologist 76:, driving, or 15: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 5192: 5181: 5178: 5176: 5173: 5171: 5168: 5166: 5163: 5161: 5158: 5157: 5155: 5140: 5137: 5135: 5132: 5131: 5129: 5125: 5119: 5116: 5114: 5111: 5109: 5106: 5105: 5103: 5099: 5093: 5090: 5088: 5085: 5083: 5080: 5078: 5075: 5073: 5070: 5069: 5067: 5063: 5057: 5054: 5052: 5049: 5047: 5044: 5042: 5039: 5037: 5034: 5032: 5029: 5027: 5024: 5022: 5019: 5017: 5014: 5012: 5009: 5007: 5004: 5002: 4999: 4997: 4994: 4992: 4989: 4987: 4984: 4982: 4979: 4977: 4974: 4972: 4969: 4967: 4966:Civil defense 4964: 4962: 4959: 4957: 4954: 4953: 4951: 4947: 4941: 4938: 4936: 4933: 4931: 4928: 4926: 4923: 4921: 4918: 4916: 4913: 4912: 4910: 4908: 4903: 4899: 4895: 4889: 4886: 4884: 4881: 4879: 4876: 4874: 4871: 4868: 4865: 4863: 4860: 4858: 4855: 4853: 4852:Blast shelter 4850: 4848: 4845: 4843: 4840: 4839: 4837: 4833: 4827: 4824: 4822: 4819: 4817: 4814: 4812: 4809: 4807: 4806:Semi-basement 4804: 4802: 4799: 4797: 4794: 4792: 4789: 4787: 4784: 4782: 4781:Utility vault 4779: 4777: 4774: 4772: 4769: 4767: 4766:Rock-cut tomb 4764: 4762: 4761:Rapid transit 4759: 4757: 4754: 4752: 4749: 4747: 4744: 4742: 4739: 4737: 4736:Earth shelter 4734: 4732: 4729: 4727: 4724: 4722: 4719: 4717: 4714: 4712: 4709: 4707: 4704: 4702: 4699: 4698: 4696: 4692: 4686: 4683: 4681: 4678: 4676: 4673: 4671: 4668: 4667: 4665: 4661: 4657: 4649: 4644: 4642: 4637: 4635: 4630: 4629: 4626: 4612: 4609: 4608: 4607: 4604: 4602: 4599: 4597: 4594: 4592: 4589: 4587: 4584: 4582: 4579: 4577: 4574: 4572: 4571:Geomorphology 4569: 4567: 4564: 4562: 4559: 4557: 4554: 4552: 4549: 4548: 4546: 4544: 4540: 4534: 4531: 4529: 4526: 4524: 4521: 4519: 4516: 4514: 4511: 4509: 4506: 4505: 4503: 4501: 4495: 4485: 4481: 4478: 4474: 4471: 4469: 4466: 4464: 4461: 4459: 4456: 4454: 4451: 4450: 4448: 4445: 4441: 4438: 4436: 4433: 4431: 4428: 4427: 4426: 4423: 4421: 4418: 4416: 4415:Consolidation 4413: 4411: 4410:Frost heaving 4408: 4406: 4403: 4402: 4400: 4394: 4388: 4385: 4383: 4380: 4378: 4375: 4373: 4370: 4368: 4365: 4364: 4362: 4358: 4355: 4353: 4349: 4339: 4336: 4334: 4331: 4330: 4328: 4326: 4322: 4316: 4313: 4309: 4306: 4304: 4301: 4299: 4296: 4294: 4291: 4290: 4289: 4288:Geosynthetics 4286: 4284: 4283:Crushed stone 4281: 4279: 4276: 4274: 4271: 4269: 4266: 4264: 4261: 4259: 4256: 4254: 4251: 4249: 4246: 4244: 4241: 4239: 4238:Cut-and-cover 4236: 4234: 4231: 4229: 4226: 4224: 4221: 4219: 4216: 4214: 4211: 4209: 4206: 4204: 4201: 4199: 4196: 4192: 4189: 4187: 4184: 4182: 4179: 4177: 4174: 4172: 4169: 4167: 4164: 4162: 4159: 4157: 4154: 4153: 4151: 4150: 4148: 4146: 4142: 4136: 4133: 4131: 4128: 4126: 4123: 4121: 4118: 4116: 4113: 4111: 4108: 4106: 4103: 4101: 4098: 4097: 4095: 4091: 4088: 4085: 4078: 4068: 4065: 4063: 4060: 4058: 4055: 4053: 4050: 4048: 4045: 4043: 4040: 4038: 4035: 4033: 4030: 4028: 4025: 4023: 4020: 4018: 4015: 4013: 4010: 4008: 4007:Water content 4005: 4003: 4000: 3999: 3997: 3993: 3987: 3984: 3982: 3979: 3977: 3974: 3972: 3969: 3967: 3964: 3962: 3959: 3957: 3954: 3953: 3951: 3947: 3944: 3942: 3938: 3929: 3926: 3924: 3921: 3919: 3916: 3914: 3911: 3909: 3906: 3904: 3901: 3899: 3896: 3894: 3891: 3889: 3886: 3884: 3881: 3879: 3876: 3874: 3871: 3869: 3867: 3861: 3854: 3851: 3850: 3847: 3844: 3843: 3840: 3837: 3836: 3833: 3830: 3829: 3826: 3823: 3822: 3819: 3815: 3811: 3810: 3807: 3803: 3799: 3798: 3795: 3791: 3787: 3786: 3783: 3779: 3775: 3774: 3771: 3767: 3763: 3762: 3759: 3755: 3751: 3750: 3745: 3741: 3737: 3735: 3731: 3727: 3726: 3725: 3722: 3721: 3718: 3714: 3710: 3709: 3706: 3705:Sample series 3702: 3698: 3697: 3694: 3690: 3686: 3685: 3682: 3678: 3674: 3673: 3670: 3666: 3662: 3661: 3658: 3654: 3650: 3649: 3644: 3641: 3639: 3636: 3635: 3632: 3628: 3627: 3622: 3619: 3617: 3614: 3612: 3609: 3608: 3607: 3603: 3599: 3598: 3595: 3591: 3587: 3586: 3583: 3579: 3575: 3574: 3571: 3567: 3563: 3562: 3559: 3555: 3551: 3550: 3547: 3544: 3539: 3536: 3530: 3529:Investigation 3526: 3522: 3517: 3513: 3506: 3501: 3499: 3494: 3492: 3487: 3486: 3483: 3477: 3474: 3472: 3468: 3465: 3462: 3460: 3457: 3455: 3452: 3450: 3447: 3445: 3442: 3439: 3436: 3434: 3431: 3429: 3426: 3424: 3421: 3420: 3410: 3408:1-85628-984-2 3404: 3400: 3395: 3391: 3385: 3381: 3377: 3372: 3371: 3351: 3345: 3326: 3320: 3313: 3311:9780802837820 3307: 3303: 3296: 3288: 3284: 3278: 3270: 3269: 3261: 3246: 3242: 3238: 3234: 3230: 3226: 3222: 3218: 3214: 3210: 3206: 3202: 3198: 3191: 3176: 3172: 3166: 3151: 3147: 3143: 3139: 3135: 3131: 3127: 3123: 3119: 3115: 3111: 3104: 3089: 3083: 3068: 3062: 3047: 3043: 3037: 3029: 3025: 3021: 3017: 3013: 3009: 3005: 3001: 2994: 2986: 2984:9781583212295 2980: 2976: 2975: 2974:Water Sources 2967: 2959: 2955: 2950: 2945: 2941: 2937: 2933: 2926: 2918: 2914: 2909: 2904: 2900: 2896: 2895: 2890: 2883: 2881: 2879: 2877: 2875: 2855: 2848: 2833: 2832:10.3133/ds456 2829: 2825: 2821: 2814: 2806: 2804:9781118711040 2800: 2796: 2795: 2787: 2780: 2777: 2772: 2757: 2751: 2735: 2729: 2715: 2714: 2709: 2702: 2688:on 2020-08-01 2687: 2683: 2679: 2673: 2665: 2661: 2654: 2646: 2642: 2636: 2622: 2618: 2612: 2598: 2594: 2588: 2580: 2576: 2569: 2561: 2555: 2551: 2544: 2542: 2533: 2529: 2525: 2518: 2516: 2507: 2503: 2498: 2493: 2488: 2483: 2479: 2475: 2471: 2467: 2463: 2456: 2449: 2443: 2435: 2431: 2427: 2423: 2419: 2415: 2411: 2407: 2403: 2396: 2388: 2384: 2380: 2376: 2372: 2368: 2364: 2360: 2353: 2345: 2332: 2320: 2316: 2307: 2304: 2303: 2300: 2297: 2296: 2293: 2290: 2289: 2286: 2283: 2282: 2269: 2266: 2265: 2263: 2262: 2261: 2260: 2252: 2249: 2247: 2244: 2243: 2241: 2240: 2239: 2238: 2230: 2227: 2224: 2221: 2220: 2218: 2215: 2214: 2212: 2211: 2205: 2204:Spring supply 2202: 2199: 2196: 2193: 2190: 2189: 2187: 2186: 2180: 2177: 2174: 2171: 2168: 2165: 2163: 2160: 2159: 2157: 2156: 2150: 2148: 2144: 2139: 2137: 2133: 2113: 2107: 2104: 2101: 2094: 2090: 2085: 2081: 2078: 2075: 2069: 2065: 2062: 2059: 2056: 2051: 2047: 2039: 2038: 2037: 2035: 2018: 2014: 2008: 2004: 1995: 1992:Note that if 1973: 1970: 1965: 1962: 1956: 1953: 1946: 1945: 1944: 1942: 1938: 1934: 1910: 1906: 1902: 1899: 1895: 1886: 1882: 1878: 1873: 1869: 1862: 1857: 1853: 1849: 1846: 1839: 1838: 1837: 1817: 1814: 1809: 1805: 1798: 1795: 1792: 1786: 1783: 1778: 1775: 1769: 1766: 1759: 1758: 1757: 1755: 1733: 1730: 1725: 1722: 1716: 1713: 1710: 1703: 1702: 1701: 1700:water level: 1698: 1679: 1675: 1672: 1669: 1659: 1658: 1657: 1655: 1651: 1629: 1626: 1621: 1617: 1609: 1605: 1602: 1599: 1589: 1588: 1587: 1585: 1578: 1574: 1567: 1563: 1542: 1538: 1533: 1529: 1526: 1521: 1517: 1509: 1508: 1507: 1505: 1498: 1490: 1483: 1478: 1469: 1467: 1463: 1459: 1455: 1451: 1446: 1444: 1440: 1436: 1432: 1430: 1426: 1422: 1418: 1414: 1410: 1406: 1402: 1398: 1394: 1387: 1383: 1378: 1373: 1363: 1361: 1357: 1347: 1344: 1340: 1336: 1333: 1329: 1325: 1324: 1319: 1310: 1309:in practice. 1308: 1307:treadle pumps 1304: 1300: 1296: 1292: 1291:treadle pumps 1288: 1283: 1279: 1277: 1273: 1264: 1255: 1252: 1242: 1240: 1235: 1232: 1227: 1225: 1219: 1216: 1211: 1207: 1197: 1194: 1190: 1186: 1184: 1180: 1173: 1163: 1161: 1157: 1153: 1149: 1145: 1141: 1136: 1134: 1130: 1126: 1122: 1118: 1114: 1110: 1106: 1101: 1099: 1095: 1091: 1087: 1083: 1079: 1075: 1071: 1070:sewage sludge 1067: 1063: 1053: 1051: 1050:microsporidia 1047: 1046: 1041: 1040: 1035: 1034: 1029: 1025: 1021: 1020:enteroviruses 1017: 1016: 1011: 1010: 1005: 1004: 999: 998: 993: 992: 987: 986: 981: 980: 975: 971: 967: 963: 959: 949: 947: 942: 934: 929: 923: 919: 914: 907: 903: 899: 894: 887:Contamination 884: 882: 878: 868: 862: 861: 856: 853: 852: 847: 840: 836: 832: 831:pumping wells 828: 825: 824: 823: 820: 818: 811: 807: 802: 795: 791: 788:(named after 787: 786:artesian well 782: 778: 775: 772: 768: 765: 764: 763: 761: 752: 736: 731: 724: 719: 712: 707: 700: 695: 688: 683: 682: 681: 678: 672: 670: 666: 662: 657: 655: 651: 647: 642: 629: 625: 620: 618: 613: 605: 601: 596: 590: 586: 582: 578: 574: 571: 567: 562: 561:Well drilling 555:Drilled wells 552: 550: 546: 542: 532: 530: 526: 522: 521:Cairo Citadel 518: 514: 510: 506: 501: 497: 493: 491: 487: 483: 478: 476: 471: 469: 468:nursery rhyme 465: 461: 457: 453: 448: 447:potable water 444: 435: 428: 423: 416: 411: 399: 395: 390: 382: 375: 370: 361: 359: 358:Burning water 355: 351: 347: 343: 339: 335: 331: 326: 321: 319: 315: 311: 307: 299: 295: 290: 286: 283: 279: 278: 272: 270: 266: 262: 258: 254: 246: 242: 237: 233: 231: 227: 223: 218: 214: 210: 206: 202: 194: 189: 184: 174: 172: 168: 164: 160: 155: 150: 148: 144: 139: 135: 129: 127: 123: 119: 115: 111: 107: 103: 99: 95: 91: 87: 83: 79: 75: 71: 63: 59: 55: 50: 44: 40: 35: 29: 22: 4956:Cave dweller 4816:Storm cellar 4790: 4591:Biogeography 4586:Hydrogeology 4576:Soil science 4556:Geochemistry 4315:Infiltration 4243:Cut and fill 4186:Soil nailing 4052:Permeability 4017:Bulk density 3734:Inclinometer 3657:Ram sounding 3542: 3398: 3375: 3368:Bibliography 3354:. Retrieved 3344: 3332:. Retrieved 3319: 3301: 3295: 3286: 3283:Russo, Lucio 3277: 3267: 3260: 3248:. Retrieved 3204: 3200: 3190: 3178:. Retrieved 3175:ScienceDaily 3174: 3165: 3153:. Retrieved 3117: 3113: 3103: 3092:. Retrieved 3082: 3071:. Retrieved 3061: 3050:. Retrieved 3046:the original 3036: 3003: 2999: 2993: 2973: 2966: 2942:(14): 7695. 2939: 2935: 2925: 2898: 2892: 2861:. Retrieved 2847: 2835:. Retrieved 2823: 2813: 2793: 2786: 2778: 2771: 2760:. Retrieved 2750: 2738:. Retrieved 2728: 2717:. Retrieved 2711: 2701: 2690:. Retrieved 2686:the original 2682:www.astm.org 2681: 2672: 2663: 2653: 2644: 2635: 2624:. Retrieved 2620: 2611: 2600:. Retrieved 2596: 2587: 2578: 2568: 2549: 2531: 2527: 2469: 2465: 2455: 2442: 2409: 2405: 2395: 2362: 2359:The Holocene 2358: 2352: 2331:cite journal 2319: 2285:Fossil water 2143:aquifer test 2140: 2135: 2131: 2129: 2033: 1993: 1991: 1940: 1936: 1929: 1927: 1835: 1753: 1751: 1696: 1694: 1653: 1647: 1580: 1576: 1569: 1565: 1561: 1559: 1500: 1496: 1493: 1485: 1481: 1447: 1435:Eratosthenes 1433: 1420: 1391: 1353: 1327: 1321: 1317: 1316: 1284: 1280: 1270: 1261: 1248: 1236: 1228: 1220: 1203: 1195: 1191: 1187: 1179:pit latrines 1175: 1137: 1102: 1096:(MTBE), and 1090:dry-cleaning 1059: 1043: 1037: 1031: 1013: 1007: 1001: 995: 989: 983: 977: 956:Most of the 955: 938: 933:pit latrines 906:pit latrines 874: 866: 858: 854: 830: 826: 821: 814: 780: 776: 770: 766: 757: 676: 673: 661:surface seal 660: 658: 643: 627: 621: 616: 609: 575: 572: 568: 564: 544: 540: 538: 535:Driven wells 516: 502: 498: 494: 479: 472: 440: 357: 344:and produce 336:attached to 322: 303: 275: 273: 250: 198: 151: 130: 69: 67: 5160:Water wells 5134:Coober Pedy 5026:Mole people 4971:Coober Pedy 4888:Spider hole 4771:Root cellar 4656:subterranea 4601:Archaeology 4325:Foundations 4298:Geomembrane 4181:Slurry wall 4120:Water table 4084:Interaction 4080:Structures 4067:Sensitivity 3864:Laboratory 2708:"petroleum" 2167:Castle well 1650:Darcy's Law 1401:prehistoric 1380:Water use, 1276:spontaneous 1239:ultraviolet 1204:Cleanup of 1129:tooth decay 1109:chromium VI 1098:perchlorate 1024:hepatitis A 860:piezometers 677:filter pack 549:groundwater 475:water table 298:Han Dynasty 199:Very early 90:groundwater 62:groundwater 43:Afghanistan 5154:Categories 4458:Mitigation 4440:Shear wave 4425:Earthquake 4420:Compaction 4405:Permafrost 4396:Phenomena/ 4293:Geotextile 4218:Embankment 4208:Excavation 4145:Earthworks 4105:Vegetation 4100:Topography 4022:Thixotropy 4012:Void ratio 3995:Properties 3893:Hydrometer 3638:Piezometer 3558:Core drill 3094:2011-12-19 3073:2011-12-19 3052:2011-12-19 2894:Pediatrics 2762:2011-12-19 2719:2008-06-30 2692:2019-02-01 2626:2011-12-19 2602:2011-12-19 2312:References 2136:4.6 τ 1495:of height 1370:See also: 1224:filtration 1200:Mitigation 1166:Prevention 1148:hard water 1078:pesticides 1074:fertilizer 985:Salmonella 827:production 624:cable tool 617:mud rotary 606:circa 1964 585:Cable tool 482:caissoning 239:Neolithic 222:‘Atlit-Yam 138:caissoning 122:wickerwork 80:to access 4902:quarrying 4796:Wine cave 4716:Catacombs 4581:Hydrology 4561:Petrology 4449:analysis 4447:Landslide 4352:Mechanics 4263:Track bed 4248:Fill dirt 4233:Terracing 3806:Trial pit 3621:Statnamic 3606:Load test 3271:. 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