Qanat - Knowledge

2163: 1598:(the garden of paradise) that Abdollah bin Tahir (from the Taherian dynasty) and Ismaeel Ahmed Samani (from the Samani dynasty) had several qanats constructed in Neyshaboor. Later, in the 11th century, a writer named Nasir Khosrow acknowledged all those qanats with the following words: "Neyshaboor is located in a vast plain at a distance of 40 Farsang (≈240 km) from Serakhs and 70 Farsang (≈420 km) from Mary (Marv) ... all the qanats of this city run underground, and it is said that an Arab who was offended by the people of Neyshaboor has complained that; what a beautiful city Neyshaboor could have become if its qanats would have flowed on the ground surface and instead its people would have been underground." These documents all certify the importance of qanats during the Islamic history within the cultural territories of Iran. 1682:'s documentation. Other than Naubad there are two more karez systems in Bidar, "Shukla Theerth" and "Jamna Mori". The Shukla theerth is the longest karez system in Bidar. The mother well of this karez has been discovered by near Gornalli Kere, a historic embankment. The third system called Jamna mori is more of a distribution system within the old city area with many channels crisscrossing the city lanes. Restoration efforts commenced in 2014, with the desilting and excavation of the Naubad Karez in 2015, uncovering 27 vertical shafts linked to the Karez. The rejuvenation of the system has had a significant impact on the water-deficit city of Bidar. A seventh line of the system was discovered in 2016 during a sewage line excavation. 1602: 1431: 1563:

coincided with the overthrow of the Sassanid dynasty, brought about a profound change in religious, political, social and cultural structures. But the qanats stayed intact because the economic infrastructure including qanats was of great importance to the Arabs. As an instance, M. Lombard reports that the Moslem clerics who lived during Abbasid period, such as Abooyoosef Ya'qoob (died 798 CE) stipulated that whoever can bring water to the idle lands in order to cultivate, his tax would be waived and he would be entitled to the lands cultivated. Therefore, this policy did not differ from that of the Achaemenids in not getting any tax from the people who revived abandoned lands.

2007: 777:. If this occurs, the waves that result can result in severe erosion that can damage or destroy the qanat. The choice of the slope is a trade off between erosion and sedimentation. Highly sloped tunnels are subject to more erosion as water flows at a higher speed. On the other hand, less sloped tunnels need frequent maintenance due to the problem of sedimentation. A lower downward gradient also contributes to reducing the solid contents and contamination in water. In shorter qanats the downward gradient varies between 1:1000 and 1:1500, while in longer qanats it may be almost horizontal. Such precision is routinely obtained with a 1142: 1689:, was responsible for rediscovery and mapping of the Naubad Karez System in 2012-2013. Later in 2014-2016 team YUVAA joined Govindankutty to help uncover Other two Karez Systems in Bidar. Detailed documentation of the Naubad karez system was done in August 2013 and a report was submitted to District Administration of Bidar that found several new facts. The research has led to the initiation of cleaning the debris and collapsed sections paving the way to its rejuvenation. The cleaning of karez has led to bringing water to higher areas of the plateau, and it has in turn recharged the wells in the vicinity. 1579:(The Book of Qanat). This book collected all the rulings on qanats which could be of use to whoever wanted to judge a dispute over this issue. Gardizi added that this book was still applicable to his time, and everyone made references to this book. One can deduce from these facts that during the above-mentioned period the number of qanats was so considerable that the authorities were prompted to put together some legal instructions concerning them. Also it shows that from the 9th to 11th centuries the qanats that were the hub of the agricultural systems were also of interest to the government. 1587:, examines just the technical issues associated with the qanat and tries to answer the common questions such as how to construct and repair a qanat, how to find a groundwater supply, how to do leveling, etc.. Some of the innovations described in this book were introduced for the first time in the history of hydrogeology, and some of its technical methods are still valid and can be applied in qanat construction. The content of the book implies that its writer (Karaji) did not have any idea that there was another book on qanats compiled by the clergymen. 1555:, it seems that the qanats were abandoned. In terms of the situation of qanats during this era, some historical records have been found. In a study by Russian orientalist scholars it has been mentioned that: the Persians used the side branches of rivers, mountain springs, wells and qanats to supply water. The subterranean galleries excavated to obtain groundwater were named as qanat. These galleries were linked to the surface through some vertical shafts which were sunk in order to get access to the gallery to repair it if necessary. 1408:, Qanat of Zarch, Hasan Abad-e Moshir Qanat, Ebrāhim Ābād Qanat in Markazi Province, Qanat of Vazvān in Esfahan Province, Mozd Ābād Qanat in Esfahan Province, Qanat of the Moon in Esfahan Province, Qanat of Gowhar-riz in Kerman Province, Jupār – Ghāsem Ābād Qanat in Kerman Province, and Akbar Ābād Qanat in Kerman Province. Since 2002, UNESCO's International Hydrological Programme Intergovernmental Council began investigating the possibility of an international qanat research center to be located in Yazd, Iran. 1531:

running across it. So he managed to discover the reason why the area could stay green and realized that there were some qanats behind the matter. In fact it was Ursa, the king of the region, who had rescued the people from thirst and turned Uhlu into a prosperous and green land. Golbot believes that the influence of the Medeans and Achaemenids made the technology of qanat spread from Urartu, in the western north of Iran and near the present border between Iran and Turkey, to all over the Iranian plateau.

522:. As transregional trade networks expanded and intensified, cotton spread from its homeland to India and into the Middle East. One theory is that the qanat was developed to irrigate cotton fields, first in what is now Iran, where it doubled the amount of available water for irrigation and urban use. Because of this, Persia enjoyed larger surpluses of agricultural products, thus increasing urbanization and social stratification. The qanat technology subsequently spread from Persia westward and eastward. 474: 2092: 1781:

some places, instead of hangam, anna used which is based on twelve-hour period for each quota. Therefore, if a person own 16 quotas it means that he is entitled for water for eight days in high seasons and 16 days in winter when water level went down as well as expectation of winter rain (Baharga) in Makran region. The twelve-hour water quota again subdivided into several sub-fractions of local measuring scales such as tas or pad (Dr Gul Hasan Pro VC LUAWMS, 2 day National conference on Kech).

42: 912: 2257:"The air is the most marvellous I ever was in, in any city. Mountain air, so sweet, dry and "preserving", delicious and life-giving.' She told of running streams, and fresh water bubbling up in the gardens. (This omnipresence of water, which doubtless spread from Persia to Baghdad and from there to Spain during its Muslim days, has given Spanish many a water-word: aljibe, for example, is Persian jub, brook; cano or pipe, is Arabic qanat—reed, canal. Thus J. T. Shipley, 1292: 1081: 542: 636:. Although both are excavated tunnels designed to extract water by gravity flow, there are crucial differences. Firstly, the origin of the qanat was a well that was turned into an artificial spring. In contrast, the origin of the spring-flow tunnel was the development of a natural spring to renew or increase flow following a recession of the water table. Secondly, the shafts essential for the construction of qanats are not essential to spring-flow tunnels. 1559:

fighting him. The historical records from this time indicate a perfect regulation on both water distribution and farmlands. All the water rights were recorded in a special document which was referred to in case of any transaction. The lists of farmlands – whether private or governmental – were kept at the tax department. During this period there were some official rulings on qanats, streams, construction of dam, operation and maintenance of qanats, etc.

689: 861: 1442: 992:(an area of Adrar 200 km from Gourara). The length of the foggaras in this region is estimated to be thousands of kilometers. Although sources suggest that the foggaras may have been in use as early as 200 CE, they were clearly in use by the 11th century after the Arabs took possession of the oases in the 10th century and the residents embraced Islam. The water is metered to the various users through the use of distribution 1885: 234: 214: 889: 1523:(The Qanats. A Technique for Obtaining Water), He argues that the ancient Iranians made use of the water that the miners wished to get rid of it, and founded a basic system named qanat or kariz to supply the required water to their farm lands. According to Golbot, this innovation took place in the northwest of the present Iran somewhere bordering Turkey and later was introduced to the neighboring 1046: 1072:: "The channels were generally very narrow – less than 2 feet wide and 5 high – but some were several miles long, and in total some 600 foggara extended for hundreds of miles underground. The channels were dug out and maintained using a series of regularly spaced vertical shafts, one every 30 feet or so, 100,000 in total, averaging 30 feet in depth, but sometimes reaching 130." 1575:

of Neyshaboor used to come to Abdollah bin Tahir in order to request him to intervene, for they fought over their qanats and found the relevant instruction or law on qanat as a solution neither in the prophet's quotations nor in the clerics' writings. So Abdollah bin Tahir managed to bring together all the clergymen from throughout Khorasan and Iraq to compile a book entitled

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amount of work required to excavate them and the amount of effort required to excavate the space between them, as well as the ultimate maintenance effort. In general, the shallower the qanat, the closer the vertical shafts. If the qanat is long, excavation may begin from both ends at once. Tributary channels are sometimes also constructed to supplement the water flow.

961: 1154:. Rainfall in the mountains enters the aquifer and moves toward the Saharan region to the south. The foggara, 1 to 3 km (0.62 to 1.9 mi) in length, penetrates the aquifer and collects water. Families maintain the foggara and own the land it irrigates over a ten-meter width, with length reckoned by the size of plot that the available water will irrigate. 3497:

Province) Western Representative, 7. Mozd Ābād Qanat (Esfahan Province) Western Representative, 8. Qanat of the Moon (Esfahan Province), Western Representative, 9. Qanat of Gowhar-riz (Kerman Province) Southern Representative, 10. Jupār – Ghāsem Ābād Qanat (Kerman Province) Southern Representative, 11. Akbar Ābād Qanat (Kerman Province) Southern Representative

1194:. Maintenance has not always been possible. The cost of labour has become very high, and maintaining the kariz structures is no longer possible. Lack of skilled artisans who have the traditional knowledge also poses difficulties. A number of the large farmers are abandoning their kariz which has been in their families sometimes for centuries, and moving to 1621:, was written by Seyyed Rokn al-Din on the same subject as Rashid's book. In this book, Seyyed Rokn al-Din names the properties he donated in the region of Yazd. These deeds of endowment indicate that much attention was given to the qanats during the reign of Ilkhanids, but it is attributable to their Persian ministers, who influenced them. 664:) which run downhill, with lateral branches to carry water to the neighborhood, gardens and fields. The streets normally parallel the jubs and their lateral branches. As a result, the cities and towns are oriented consistent with the gradient of the land; this is a practical response to efficient water distribution over varying terrain. 761:

excavate only 20 meters horizontally per day and at 60 m (200 ft) in depth this drops below 5 horizontal meters per day. In Algeria, a common speed is just 2 m (6.6 ft) per day at a depth of 15 m (49 ft). Deep, long qanats (which many are) require years and even decades to construct.

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to 5 generations. During this period, the technology of qanat was in its heyday and it even spread to other countries. For example, following Darius's order, Silaks the naval commander of the Persian army and Khenombiz the royal architect managed to construct a qanat in the oasis of Kharagha in Egypt.

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In 1984–1985 the ministry of energy took a census of 28,038 qanats whose total discharge was 9 billion cubic meters. In the years 1992–1993 the census of 28,054 qanats showed a total discharge of 10 billion cubic meters. 10 years later in 2002–2003 the number of the qanats was reported as 33,691 with

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Beadnell believes that qanat construction dates back to two distinct periods: they were first constructed by the Persians, and later the Romans dug some other qanats during their reign in Egypt from 30 BCE to 395 CE. The magnificent temple built in this area during Darius's reign shows that

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It was an Achaemenid ruling that in case someone succeeded in constructing a qanat and bringing groundwater to the surface in order to cultivate land, or in renovating an abandoned qanat, the tax he was supposed to pay the government would be waived not only for him but also for his successors for up

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Many of the Iranian qanats bear some characteristics which allow us to call them feat of engineering, considering the intricate techniques used in their construction. The eastern and central regions of Iran hold the most qanats due to low precipitation and lack of permanent surface streams, whereas a

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was home to numerous kahrizes many centuries ago. Archaeological findings suggest that long before the 9th century CE, kahrizes by which the inhabitants brought potable and irrigation water to their settlements were in use in Azerbaijan. Traditionally, kahrizes were built and maintained by a group of

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The crew typically begins from the destination to which the water will be delivered into the soil and works toward the source (the test well). Vertical shafts are excavated along the route, separated at a distance of 20–35 m (66–115 ft). The separation of the shafts is a balance between the

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The sharing of water is based on a complex indigenous system of measurement depends upon time and space particularly to the phases of moon; the hangams. Based on seasonal variations and share of water the hangams are apportioned among various owners over period of seven or fourteen days. However, in

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gained a qanat. The Persian historian Hamdollah Mostowfi writes: "Zobeyde Khatoon (Haroon al-Rashid's wife) constructed a qanat in Mecca. After the time of Haroon al-Rashid, during the caliph Moghtader's reign this qanat fell into decay, but he rehabilitated it, and the qanat was rehabilitated again

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According to an inscription left by Sargon II, the king of Assyria, in 714 BCE he invaded the city of Uhlu lying in the northwest of Uroomiye lake that lay in the territory of Urartu empire, and then he noticed that the occupied area enjoyed a very rich vegetation even though there was no river

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is one that has been extensively studied. There is evidence that as early as the second half of the 5th century BCE water brought in qanats was being used. The qanats were excavated through water-bearing sandstone rock, which seeps into the channel, with water collected in a basin behind a small dam

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are constructed as a series of well-like vertical shafts, connected by a gently sloping tunnel. This taps into underground water and delivers it to the surface by gravity, without need for pumping. The vertical shafts along the underground channel are for maintenance purposes, and water is typically

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There are also other historical texts proving that the Abbasids were concerned about qanats. For example, according to the "Incidents of Abdollah bin Tahir's Time" written by Gardizi, in 830 CE a terrible earthquake struck the town of Forghaneh and reduced many homes to rubble. The inhabitants

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in Armenian. There are 5 kahrezes in Shvanidzor. Four of them were constructed before the village was founded. The fifth kahrez was constructed in 2005. Potable water runs through three of them, and two are in poor condition. In the summer, especially in July and August, the amount of water reaches

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can provide cooling as well as a water supply. A wind tower is a chimney-like structure positioned above the house; of its four openings, the one opposite the wind direction is opened to move air out of the house. Incoming air is pulled from a qanat below the house. The air flow across the vertical

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Although the construction methods are simple, the construction of a qanat requires a detailed understanding of subterranean geology and a degree of engineering sophistication. The gradient of the qanat must be carefully controlled: too shallow a gradient yields no flow and too steep a gradient will

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Qanats are sometimes split into an underground distribution network of smaller canals called kariz. Like qanats, these smaller canals are below ground to avoid contamination and evaporation. In some cases water from a qanat is stored in a reservoir, typically with night flow stored for daytime use.

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In Burhanpur the karez is called "Kundi-Bhandara", sometimes wrongly referred to as"Khuni Bhandara". The system is approx 6 km long starts from the alluvial fans of Satpura hills in the north of the town. Unlike Bidar, Bijapur and Aurgangabad the System airvents are round in shape. Inside the

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The Bijapur karez system is much more complicated. A reveals that it has surface water and groundwater connections. The Bijapur karez is a network of shallow masonry aqueducts, terracotta/ceramic pipes, embankments and reservoirs, tanks etc. All weave together a network to ensure water reaches the

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The study says that a single karez has the potential to provide enough household water for nearly 9,000 individuals and irrigate over 200 hectares of farmland. UNESCO and the government of Iraq plan to rehabilitate the karez through a Karez Initiative for Community Revitalization launched in 2010.

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There are some records dating back to that time, signifying their concern about the legal vicinity of qanats. For example, Mohammad bin Hasan quotes Aboo-Hanifeh that in case someone constructs a qanat in abandoned land, someone else can dig another qanat in the same land on the condition that the

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The construction speed depends on the depth and nature of the ground. If the earth is soft and easy to work, at 20 m (66 ft) depth a crew of four workers can excavate a horizontal length of 40 m (130 ft) per day. When the vertical shaft reaches 40 m (130 ft), they can

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A typical town or city in Iran, and elsewhere where the qanat is used, has more than one qanat. Fields and gardens are located both over the qanats a short distance before they emerge from the ground and below the surface outlet. Water from the qanats define both the social regions in the city and

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is closest to the surface. From this source, the qanat tunnel slopes gently downward, slowly converging with the steeper slope of the land surface above, and the water finally flows out above ground where the two levels meet. To connect a populated or agricultural area with an aquifer, qanats must

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In the restricted regions there are 317,225 wells, qanats and springs that discharge 36,719 million cubic meters water per year, out of which 3,409 million cubic meters is surplus to the aquifer capacity. in 2005, in the country as a whole, there were 130,008 deep wells with a discharge of 31,403

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According to the historical records, the Parthian kings did not care about the qanats the way the Achaemenid kings and even Sassanid kings did. As an instance, Arsac III, one of the Parthian kings, destroyed some qanats in order to make it difficult for Seleucid Antiochus to advance further while

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The excavated material is usually transported by means of leather bags up the vertical shafts. It is mounded around the vertical shaft exit, providing a barrier that prevents windblown or rain driven debris from entering the shafts. These mounds may be covered to provide further protection to the

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In arid and semi-arid regions, owing to high evaporation, transportation routes were in the form of ganats, which lead groundwater to consumption areas along the tunnels. In the long run, the ganat system is not only economical but also sustainable for irrigation and agricultural purposes... The

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In Aurangabad the karez systems are called nahars. These are shallow aqueducts running through the city. There are 14 aqueducts in Aurangabad. The Nahar-i-Ambari is the oldest and longest. Its again a combination of shallow aqueducts, open channels, pipes, cisterns, etc. The source of water is a

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in 2009 found that out of 683 karez systems, some 380 were still active in 2004, but only 116 were active by 2009. Reasons for the decline of qanats include "abandonment and neglect" prior to 2004, "excessive pumping from wells" and, since 2005, drought. Water shortages are said to have forced,

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along with national and international NGOs made the effort. There were still functional qanat systems in 2009. American forces were reported to have unintentionally destroyed some of the channels during expansion of a military base, creating tensions between them and the local community. Some of

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In Farsi and English 1. Qasebeh Qanat Northern Representative, 2. Qanat of Baladeh Eastern Representative, 3. Qanat of Zarch Central Representative, 4. Hasan Abad-e Moshir Qanat Central Representative, 5. Ebrāhim Ābād Qanat (Markazi Province), Western Representative, 6. Qanat of Vazvān (Esfahan

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For instance, sarrishta, literally, head of the chain, is responsible for administration of channel. He normally owns the largest water quota. Under sarrishta, there are several heads of owners issadar who also possessed larger water quotas. The social hierarchy within Baloch society of Makoran

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follow the track of the main water courses coming from the mountains or foothills to identify evidence of subsurface water such as deep-rooted vegetation or seasonal seeps. A trial well is then dug to determine the depth of the water table and determine whether a sufficient flow is available to

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The humidity of the oases is also used to supplement the water supply to the foggara. The temperature gradient in the vertical shafts causes air to rise by natural convection, causing a draft to enter the foggara. The moist air of the agricultural area is drawn into the foggara in the opposite

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of evaporation as water evaporates into the air stream. In dry desert climates this can result in a greater than 15 °C reduction in the air temperature coming from the qanat; the mixed air still feels dry, so the basement is cool and only comfortably moist (not damp). Wind tower and qanat

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The acute shortage of water resources give water a decisive role in the regional conflicts arose in the course of history of Balochistan. Therefore, in Balochistan, the possession of water resources is more important than ownership of land. Hence afterward a complex system for the collection,

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In the 13th century, the invasion of Iran by Mongolian tribes reduced many qanats and irrigation systems to ruin, and many qanats were deserted and dried up. Later, in the era of the Ilkhanid dynasty especially at the time of Ghazan Khan and his Persian minister Rashid al-Din Fazl-Allah, some

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The government proceeded to repair or dredge the qanats that were abandoned or destroyed, and to construct the new qanats if necessary. A document written in the Pahlavi language points out the important role of qanats in developing the cities at that time. In Iran, the advent of Islam, which

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The qanat system has the advantage of being resistant to natural disasters such as floods, and to deliberate destruction in war. Furthermore, it is almost insensitive to the levels of precipitation, delivering a flow with only gradual variations from wet to dry years. From a sustainability

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Some damaged qanats have been restored. To be sustainable, restoration needs to take into account many nontechnical factors beginning with the process of selecting the qanat to be restored. In Syria, three sites were chosen based on a national inventory conducted in 2001. One of them, the

1614:(Rashid's Deeds of Endowment) that names all the properties located in Yazd, Shiraz, Maraghe, Tabriz, Isfahan and Mowsel that Rashid Fazl-Allah donated to the public or religious places. This book mentions many qanats running at that time and irrigating a considerable area of farmland. 2834:

ground water flow was known to depend on grain size of sediments, and, therefore, the tunnels in qanats are filled in with coarser material than the surrounding hose geological formations. The qanats are constructed mainly along the valleys where Quartenary sediments are deposited.

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and agricultural purposes.… The ground water flow was known to depend on grain size of sediments, and, therefore, the tunnels in qanats are filled in with coarser material than the surrounding host geological formations. The qanats are constructed mainly along the valleys where

1249:, existed in Azerbaijan. However, following the introduction of electric and fuel-pumped wells during Soviet times, kahrizes were neglected. Today, it is estimated that 800 are still functioning in Azerbaijan. These operational kahrizes are key to the life of many communities. 1024:

There is another instructive structure located at the Kharga Oasis. A well that apparently dried up was improved by driving a side shaft through the easily penetrated sandstone (presumably in the direction of greatest water seepage) into the hill of Ayn-Manâwîr (also written

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have been recorded with vertical shafts of up to 275 m (902 ft). The vertical shafts support construction and maintenance of the underground channel as well as air interchange. Deep shafts require intermediate platforms to facilitate the process of removing soil.

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at the end. The width is approximately 60 cm (24 in), but the height ranges from 5 to 9 meters; it is likely that the qanat was deepened to enhance seepage when the water table dropped (as is also seen in Iran). From there the water was used to irrigate fields.

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to allow collection of additional water. After this side shaft had been extended, another vertical shaft was driven to intersect the side shaft. Side chambers were built, and holes bored into the rock—presumably at points where water seeped from the rocks—are evident.

934:(ice pit). In winter, the qanat water would be channeled to the north side of the wall, whose shade made the water freeze more quickly, increasing the ice formed per winter day. Then the ice was stored in yakhchals—specially designed, naturally cooled refrigerators. 1773:

channeling and distribution of water was developed in Balochistan. Similarly, the distribution and unbiased flow of water to different stockholders also necessitate the importance of different societal classes in Balochistan in general and particularly in Makoran.

184:. The system has the advantage of being resistant to natural disasters such as floods and to deliberate destruction in war. Furthermore, it is almost insensitive to the levels of precipitation, delivering a flow with only gradual variations from wet to dry years. 2043:. Many of the qanats are now mapped and some can be visited. The famous Scirocco room has an air-conditioning system cooled by the flow of water in a qanat and a "wind tower", a structure able to catch the wind and use it to draw the cooled air up into the room. 1571:

after it collapsed during the reign of two other caliphs named Ghaem and Naser. After the era of the caliphs this qanat completely fell into ruin because the desert sand filled it up, but later Amir Choopan repaired the qanat and made it flow again in Mecca."

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depends upon the possession of largest quotas of water. The role of sarrishta in some cases hierarchical and passing from generations within the family and he must have the knowledge of the criteria of unbiased distribution of water among different issadar.

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old city. The system starts at Torwi and extends as shallow aqueducts and further as pipes; further it becomes deeper from the Sainik school area onward which exists as a tunnel dug through the geology. The system can be clearly traced up to Ibrahim Roja.

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The water is freshest, cleanest, and coolest in the upper reaches, and more prosperous people live at the outlet or immediately upstream of the outlet. When the qanat is still below ground, the water is drawn to the surface via wells or animal driven

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The lower reaches of the canals are less desirable for both residences and agriculture. The water grows progressively more polluted as it passes downstream. In dry years the lower reaches are the most likely to see substantial reductions in flow.

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In cases where the gradient is steeper, underground waterfalls may be constructed with appropriate design features (usually linings) to absorb the energy with minimal erosion. In some cases the water power has been harnessed to drive underground

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In arid and semi-arid regions, owing to high evaporation, transportation routes were in the form of qanats, which led groundwater to consumption areas along underground tunnels. In the long run, the qanat system is not only economical but also

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In India, there are karez systems are located at Bidar, Bijapur, Burhanpur "(Kundi Bhandara)", and Aurgangabad. The Bidar karez systems were probably the first dug in India. It dates to the Bahmani period. Bidar has three karez systems as per

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The vertical shafts may be covered to minimize blown-in sand. The channels of qanats must be periodically inspected for erosion or cave-ins, cleaned of sand and mud and otherwise repaired. For safety, air flow must be assured before entry.

1769:. The major concentration is in the north and northwest along the Pakistan-Afghanistan border and oasis of Makoran division. The karez system of the Balochistan desert is on the tentative list for future world heritage sites in Pakistan. 814:, was completed in 2002. Selection criteria included the availability of a steady groundwater flow, social cohesion and willingness to contribute of the community using the qanat, and the existence of a functioning water-rights system. 1629:

million cubic meters, 33,8041 semi deep wells with a discharge of 13,491 million cubic meters, 34,355 qanats with a discharge of 8,212 million cubic meters, and 55,912 natural springs with a discharge of 21,240 million cubic meters.

529:, was developed. Most archaeologists believe that the puquios are indigenous and date to about 500 CE, but a few believe they are of Spanish origin, brought to the Americas in the 16th century. Puquios were still in use in the 2633: 1543:

who states that: "the streams are running down from everywhere at the base of Alborz mountain, and people have transferred too much water from a long distance through some subterranean canals by spending much cost and labor."

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and dug wells backed by diesel pumps. However, the government of Afghanistan was aware of the importance of these structures and all efforts were made to repair, reconstruct and maintain (through the community) the kariz. The

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or wind towers was used to draw cool subterranean air up from the qanat to maintain temperatures inside the space at low levels, even during hot summer days. As a result, the ice melted slowly and was available year-round.

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Apart from "The Book of Alghani", which is considered as a law booklet focusing on qanat-related rulings based on Islamic principles, there is another book about groundwater written by Karaji in 1010. This book, entitled

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perspective, qanats are powered only by gravity and thus have low operation and maintenance costs. Qanats transfer fresh water from the mountain plateau to the lower-lying plains with saltier soil. This helps to control

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there was a considerable population depending on the water of qanats. Ragerz has estimated this population to be 10,000 people. The most reliable document confirming the existence of qanats at this time was written by

4283:"Portrait of Persian diplomat Ali Kuli Khan (1879–1966) and his wife, American Florence Khanum (nee Breed, 1875–1950) as they posed next to a carriage in front of the White House, Washington DC, 1913. January 01, 1913 716:

Equipment must be assembled. The equipment is straightforward: containers (usually leather bags), ropes, reels to raise the container to the surface at the shaft head, hatchets and shovels for excavation, lights, and

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The foggara water management system in Tunisia, used to create oases, is similar to that of the Iranian qanat. The foggara is dug into the foothills of a fairly steep mountain range such as the eastern ranges of the

768:

The qanat's water-carrying channel must have a sufficient downward slope that water flows easily. However the downward gradient must not be so great as to create conditions under which the water transitions between

1486:, was the most accurate and commonly used timekeeping device for calculating the amount or the time that a farmer must take water from the Qanats of Gonabad until it was replaced by more accurate current clocks. 1729:. Whereas some link their origin clearly to the Chinese karez, and therefore to the Iranian source, a Japanese conference in 2008 found insufficient scientific studies to evaluate the origins of the mambo. 2275:

An old tradition in Iran was to hold symbolic wedding ceremonies between widows and qanats in which the widow became the "wife" of the qanat. This was believed to help ensure the continued flow of water.

1461:

in 328 BCE to ensure a just and exact distribution of water from qanats to their shareholders for agricultural irrigation. The use of water clocks in Iran, especially in Qanats of Gonabad and kariz

4296: 1962:

in the 10th century, indicating extensive use of the falaj system. The falaj system is still operating in the city of Al Ain, as well as in multiple mountainous settlements, including the villages of

2151: 1812:

Qanats were found over much of Syria. The widespread installation of groundwater pumps has lowered the water table and qanat system. Qanats have gone dry and been abandoned across the country.

2253:, Florence Khanum, the American wife of Persian diplomat Ali Kuli Khan, described the use of qanats for the garden at the home of her brother-in-law, General Husayn Kalantar, January 1, 1913 1256:, the International Organization for Migration (IOM) began implementing a pilot programme to rehabilitate the kahrizes. By 2018 IOM rehabilitated more than 163 kahrizes with funds from the 2071:. To date, some 330 m of the total tunnel length of 600 m have been explored. Thirteen of the 20 to 25 shafts have been investigated. The qanat appears to have provided water for a large 1369:

were in use in Iran, each commissioned and maintained by local users. Of these, only 37,000 remain in use as of 2015. One of the oldest and largest known qanats is in the Iranian city of

2631: 653:. Private subterranean reservoirs could supply houses and buildings for domestic use and garden irrigation as well. Air flow from the qanat is used to cool an underground summer room ( 3871: 729:

result in excessive erosion, collapsing the qanat. And misreading the soil conditions leads to collapses, which at best require extensive rework and at worst are fatal for the crew.

3069: 1000:

direction to the water run-off. In the foggara it condenses on the tunnel walls and the air passes out of the vertical shafts. This condensed moisture is available for reuse.

822:

The primary applications of qanats are for irrigation, providing cattle with water, and drinking water supply. Other applications include watermills, cooling and ice storage.

3646:

Semsar Yazdi Ali Asghar, Labbaf Khaneiki Majid, 2011, Qanat in its Cradle; Volume 1, Iran: International Center on Qanats and Historic Hydraulic Structures (ICQHS), pp 75–145

3341: 1373:, and after 2,700 years still provides drinking and agricultural water to nearly 40,000 people. Its main well depth is more than 360 meters and its length is 45 kilometers. 3694: 2932:

Wessels, K. (2000), Renovating Qanats in a changing world, a case study in Syria, paper presented to the International Syposuim on Qanats, May 2000, Yazd, Iran, quoted in:

1872:

which is in use to this day. These systems date to before the Iron Age in Oman. In July 2006, five representative examples of this irrigation system were inscribed as a

741:. For a shallow qanat, one worker typically digs the horizontal shaft, one raises the excavated earth from the shaft and one distributes the excavated earth at the top. 20: 3090: 930:

The ice could be brought in during the winters from nearby mountains, but in a more usual and sophisticated method they built a wall in the east–west direction near a

4446:

Ozden, Dursun Directed & Written by; ANATOLIAN WATER CIVILIZATION & ANATOLIAN KARIZES-QANATS, The Documentary Film & Book, 2004–2011 Istanbul, Turkey.

3796: 2194:. The origin and dating of the Nazca puquios is disputed, although some archaeologists have asserted that they were constructed by the indigenous people of the 593:. Qanats efficiently deliver large amounts of subterranean water to the surface without need for pumping. The water drains by gravity, typically from an upland 3406:

Learning a Hard History Lesson in 'Talibanistan':To Accommodate New Troops, the U.S. Military Expanded a Base and Inadvertently Disrupted Ancient Afghan Canals

1490:

small number of qanats can be found in the northern and western parts which receive more rainfall and enjoy some permanent rivers. Respectively the provinces

1229:

its minimum, creating a critical situation in the water supply system. Still, kahrezes are the main source of potable and irrigation water for the community.

3659: 3508: 1632:

In 2021, a British trained architect Margot Krasojević designed a luxury eco hotel based on principles of qanat and windcatchers in a desert in Iran, called

880:

The air from the qanat is drawn into the tunnel at some distance away and is cooled both by contact with the cool tunnel walls/water and by the transfer of

4504: 1348: 4237:"Exploration, mapping and characterization of filtration galleries of the Pica Oasis, northern Chile: A contribution to the knowledge of the Pica aquifer" 1116:

plain, the qanats have been abandoned since the early 1970s, having dried up. In the Tafilaft area, half of the 400 khettaras are still in use. The 1971

4518: 4114: 1931:

have been found from the early Iron Age, as early as 1100 BC, and some sources claim these to be the earliest examples of the qanat irrigation system.

597:, with the destination lower than the source. Qanats allow water to be transported over long distances in hot dry climates without much water loss to 830:

Watermills within a qanat system had to be carefully situated, to make best use of the slow flow of water. In Iran, there were subterranean mills at

4542: 1283:. During the First Phase of the action which lasted until January 2013, a total of 20 kahrizes in the mainland of Azerbaijan have been renovated. 1200: 1824:' were constructed, a series of well-like vertical shafts, connected by gently sloping horizontal tunnels. There are three types of Falaj: Daudi ( 2487: 2147: 2322: 1360: 1848:) whose source is a water spring. These enabled large scale agriculture to flourish in a dryland environment. According to UNESCO, some 3,000 1701:

Karez one could see lime depositions on the walls. The Systems ends to carry water further to palaces and public fountains through pipe line.

1697:

surface water body. The karez has been constructed right below the bed of lake. The lake water seeps through the soil into the Karez Gallery.

1273: 1026: 3886: 1175:

and have been in use since the pre-Islamic period. It is estimated that more than 9,370 karizes were in use in the 20th century. The oldest

700:

The critical, initial step in qanat construction is identification of an appropriate water source. The search begins at the point where the

3474: 1269: 2532: 1636:. The project has not yet been built but offers ideas for applying ancient technology to modern-day cooling problems in the desert. 1265: 807: 3065: 2162: 748:

Most qanats in Iran run less than 5 km (3.1 mi), while some have been measured at ≈70 km (43 mi) in length near

3637:

According to Golbot, by 1979, the combined outflow of all kārēz worldwide had diminished to about 700–800 m3/sec (Golbot 1979:193).

3605: 1133:) of the south were the hereditary class of qanat diggers in Morocco who build and repair these systems. Their work was hazardous. 4235:

Lictevout, Elizabeth; Abellanosa, Carlos; Maass, Constanza; Pérez, Nicolás; Gonzalo, Yáñez; Véronique, Leonardi Véronique (2020).

3345: 2353:

Remini, B.; Kechard, R.; Achour, B. (2014-12-01). "THE COLLECTING OF GROUNDWATER BY THE QANATS: A MILLENNIUM TECHNIQUE DECAYING".

4092: 3369: 2479: 3691: 3116: 2308: 1466:, dates back to 500 BCE. Later they were also used to determine the exact holy days of pre-Islamic religions, such as the 1280: 4484: 4090:

Pierre Kayser and Guy Waringo: L'aqueduc souterrain des Raschpëtzer, un monument antique de l'art de l'ingénieur au Luxembourg

4577: 4436: 4423: 4358: 3954: 3720: 3426: 2826: 2718: 2693: 2500: 2404: 3094: 1124:

and its subsequent impact on local water tables is said to be one of the many reasons for the loss of half of the khettara.

493:

origin. Analogous systems appear to have been developed independently in China and in South America (specifically, southern

4466: 4433: 3422: 1257: 210:

historically depended upon the water from qanats; many populated areas are close to the areas where qanats are possible.

4509: 4073:

Lofrane, G. et al. (2013); "Water Collection and Distribution Systems in the Palermo Plain during the Middle Ages", in:

3970: 4121:– A good visible qanat can be seen to the west of the church of San Lorenzo, a suburb of Segovia, irrigating what were 1191: 2451: 1601: 4320: 4061: 3133: 2958: 489:

sometime in the early 1st millennium BCE and slowly spread westward and eastward from there. Other sources suggest a

4018: 1419:, is one of the oldest and largest qanats in the world built between 700 BCE to 500 BCE. It is located at 927:

By 400 BCE, Persian engineers had mastered the technique of storing ice in the middle of summer in the desert.

3763:"Water Quality Pilot Study for Traditional Water Structure Revitalization Potential in the Deccan Plateau of India" 2303: 1821: 1328:). There are nearly 1,000 karez systems in the area, and the total length of the canals is about 5,000 kilometers. 4179: 3516: 3259:"Khettaras in the Tafilalet oasis (Morocco): contribution to the promotion of tourism and sustainable development" 793:

or canal overground. This is avoided when possible to limit pollution, warming and water loss due to evaporation.

3208:

Clavero, Miguel; Qninba, Abdeljebbar; Riesco, María; Esquivias, Javier; Calzada, Javier; Delibes, Miguel (2017).

3125: 2630:

Nikravesh, Ardakanian and Alemohammad, Institutional Capacity Development of Water Resources Management in Iran:

1820:

In Oman from the Iron Age period (found in Salut, Bat and other sites) a system of underground aqueducts called '

1721:

In Japan there are several dozen qanat-like structures, locally known as 'mambo' or 'manbo', most notably in the

1253: 1246: 3762: 3466: 180:

that allows water to be transported over long distances in hot dry climates without losing much of the water to

1506:

accommodate the most qanats, but from the viewpoint of water discharge the provinces Isfahan, Khorasan Razavi,

752:. The vertical shafts usually range from 20 to 200 m (66 to 656 ft) in depth, although qanats in the 4528:"Engines of Ingenuity," episode no. 1250, "Water in the Desert," University of Houston, College of Engineering 4236: 1430: 4111: 3381: 2031:, was constructed using the qanat technique. It featured shafts up to 122 m deep. The entire ancient town of 4474: 1927:(qanat) irrigations for the palm groves and gardens, and form part of the city's ancient heritage. Multiple 1757:

in 129–130 CE. The Gadara Aqueduct was never totally finished and was put in service only in sections.

1657:

since 2005, over 100,000 people who depended for their livelihoods on karez systems to leave their homes.

789:. If it is not possible to bring the outlet of the qanat out near the settlement, it is necessary to run a 680:, with hand labor. The profession historically paid well and was typically handed down from father to son. 4567: 4552: 2817:

Andreas N. Angelakis; Eustathios Chiotis; Saeid Eslamian; Herbert Weingartner, eds. (November 22, 2016).

1686: 202:

climates, but the value of this system is directly related to the quality, volume, and regularity of the

3190: 1245:

It is estimated that until the 20th century, nearly 1,500 kahrizes, of which as many as 400 were in the

725:

and string. Depending upon the soil type, qanat liners (usually fired clay hoops) may also be required.

4572: 3857: 2816: 1610:

measures were taken to revive the qanats and irrigation systems. There is a 14th-century book entitled

525:

In the arid coastal desert of Peru, a technology of water supply similar to that of the qanats, called

3736: 3306:

Lightfoot, D. R. (May 1996). "Moroccan khettara: Traditional irrigation and progressive desiccation".

2506: 2006: 1939: 1649: 1405: 4489: 4471: 1633: 632:

The qanat should not be confused with the spring-flow tunnel typical to the mountainous area around

2951:

Technology, tradition and survival: aspects of material culture in the Middle East and Central Asia

2911: 2613: 1750: 1662: 1424: 1057: 874: 246: 4494: 1141: 157:, etc. The largest extant and functional qanat systems are located in Afghanistan, Algeria, Iran, 3409: 2919: 1800:, are found more broadly in this region. They are spread from Chaghai district all the way up to 1495: 70: 2241:

in the Pica oasis, yet these have since then been abandoned due to economic and social changes.

194:

The qanats still create a reliable supply of water for human settlements and irrigation in hot,

4440: 3430: 1920: 1789: 1242:

masons called 'Kankans' with manual labour. The profession was handed down from father to son.

937:

A large underground space with thick insulated walls was connected to a qanat, and a system of

35: 31: 27: 3942: 1749:

was possibly the longest continuous qanat ever built. Partly following the course of an older

1427:. This property contains 427 water wells with total length of 33,113 m (20.575 mi). 4562: 3177: 1766: 1187: 3554: 3091:"An excellent UNESCO article with numerous clear photographs showing the Foggara in Algeria" 1482:– the shortest, longest, and equal-length days and nights of the years. The water clock, or 4547: 3270: 3026: 2983: 2864: 2679: 2544: 2230: 1397: 1331:

Turpan has long been the center of a fertile oasis and an important trade center along the

753: 436: 144: 2592: 2560: 1938:(300 BC - 300 AD) and were reintroduced after the early Islamic conquests in the souqs of 8: 4557: 2327: 2024: 1984: 1873: 1861: 1552: 1378: 1311: 1295: 1261: 713:

justify construction. If these prerequisites are met, the route is laid out aboveground.

507: 162: 3609: 3274: 3030: 2987: 2868: 2548: 2452:"Article titled Etymological Conduit to the Land of Qanat by Dr. V. Sankaran Nair, 2004" 2198:

beginning about 500 CE. The Spanish introduced qanats into Mexico in 1520 CE.

4387: 4162: 4154: 3042: 3038: 2999: 2995: 2661: 2143: 1935: 1351:

because of the importance of the Turpan karez water system to the history of the area.

1332: 1013: 855: 770: 705: 502: 170: 46: 4192: 4089: 3827:

Fiorella Rispoli, 'Unmasking a mystery: the curious case of the Gua Made Green masks'

3488: 3256: 2556: 2128:

on the north facing slopes of the Sierra de Alhamilla has evidence of a qanat system.

1713:

reached by shafts, in which masks of a green metal were found, originated as a qanat.

1204:

these tunnels were used to store supplies, and to move men and equipment underground.

4434:"Adits, Caves, Karizi-Qanats, and Tunnels in Afghanistan: An Annotated Bibliography," 4419: 4354: 4212: 4166: 4057: 3950: 3804: 3778: 3716: 3667: 3423:"Adits, Caves, Karizi-Qanats, and Tunnels in Afghanistan: An Annotated Bibliography." 3323: 3319: 3288: 3129: 3046: 3003: 2954: 2822: 2714: 2689: 2652:

Tikriti, Walid Yasin AL (2002). "The south-east Arabian origin of the falaj system".

2496: 2483: 2400: 2117: 2040: 1904: 1666: 1446: 1412: 1401: 1113: 704:

meets the mountains or foothills; water is more abundant in the mountains because of

199: 3405: 2083:

period, probably around the year 150 and functioned for about 120 years thereafter.

4411: 4250: 4204: 4146: 3770: 3571:

The Persian Qanats were placed on the list of tenative World Heritage Sites in 2007

3315: 3278: 3221: 3156: 3034: 2991: 2872: 2552: 1912: 1524: 1499: 774: 604:

It is very common for a qanat to start below the foothills of mountains, where the

380: 366: 310: 3774: 3692:

Water shortage fueling displacement of people in northern Iraq, UNESCO study finds

846:

mills were placed at the outflow from the qanat, before irrigation of the fields.

4350: 4118: 4096: 3914: 3698: 2637: 2574: 1841: 1833: 1825: 1785: 1742: 1726: 1548: 1511: 1491: 1180: 1172: 1151: 693: 626: 482: 428: 4461: 3845: 3444: 3245: 3017:

Bahadori MN (February 1978). "Passive Cooling Systems in Iranian Architecture".

2974:

Bahadori MN (February 1978). "Passive Cooling Systems in Iranian Architecture".

2933: 2294: – Traditional water management system in Kerala and Karnataka, south India 2234: 4378:

English, Paul Ward (1968). "The Origin and Spread of Qanats in the Old World".

4241: 4014: 3872:"Wasser für Gadara – 94 km langer antiker Tunnel im Norden Jordaniens entdeckt" 3489:

Executive Summary: the Persian Qanat for inscription on the World Heritage List

3283: 3258: 2946: 2683: 2313: 2202: 2183: 1947: 1722: 1679: 1168: 1031: 617:

is an example of a traditional Persian qanat-fed reservoir for drinking water.

552: 490: 195: 4479: 3467:"New World Heritage sites 2016 - International Council on Monuments and Sites" 3257:

Beraaouz, M., Abioui, M., Hssaisoune, M., Martínez-Frías, J. (December 2022).

3226: 3209: 2877: 2852: 2091: 2052: 259: 206:. Much of the population of Iran and other arid countries in North Africa and 4536: 4415: 4255: 4216: 4078: 3808: 3782: 3671: 3327: 3292: 2195: 1908: 1900: 1507: 1503: 1221: 920: 660:

Downstream of the outlet, the water runs through surface canals called jubs (

622: 582: 473: 41: 4208: 2751:

Cotton, Climate, and Camels in Early Islamic Iran: A Moment in World History

911: 4399: 3210:"Moroccan desert rivers: fish on the arid extreme of Mediterranean streams" 2711:

Principles of water resources: history, development, management, and policy

2455: 2214: 2064: 1951: 1896: 1889: 1738: 1454: 1179:

kariz which is more than 300 years old and 8 kilometers long is located in

1117: 1017: 1008:

Qanat irrigation technology was introduced to Egypt by the Achaemenid king

778: 718: 701: 650: 515: 450: 222: 177: 154: 82: 4137:

Schreiber, Katharina; Lancho Rojas, Josue (1995). "The Puquios of Nasca".

1108:

have relied on qanat water for irrigation since the late 14th century. In

4029: 2222: 2080: 2072: 2067:

qanat. It is probably the most extensive system of its kind north of the

2028: 1992: 1793: 1458: 1435: 1416: 1344: 1343:

to the southwest. The historical record of the karez extends back to the

1291: 1080: 1012:

during his reign of 522 BCE-486 BCE, which is supported by the historian

938: 881: 605: 598: 203: 181: 96: 78: 2665: 1517:

Henri Golbot explored the genesis of the qanat in his 1979 publication,

916: 906: 4054:

Licht am Ende des Tunnels. Planung und Trassierung im antiken Tunnelbau

3929: 3506: 3151:

Michel Wuttmann, "The Qanats of 'Ayn-Manâwîr, Kharga Oasis, Egypt", in

2060: 1996: 1916: 1279:

In 2010, IOM began a kahriz rehabilitation project with funds from the

1238: 1217: 1101: 1061: 869: 839: 786: 688: 561: 556: 519: 390: 4391: 4158: 3606:"تارنمای امرداد - سايه‌ي شهرداري نجف‌آباد بر كهن‌ترين "ساعت آبي"‌ شهر" 3530: 2853:"Qanat Water Supply Systems: A Revisit of Sustainability Perspectives" 765:

qanat. From the air, these shafts look like a string of bomb craters.

541: 4527: 2682:; Chiotis, Eustathios; Eslamian, Saeid; Weingartner, Herbert (2017). 2125: 2121: 2056: 1963: 1957: 1645: 1340: 1195: 1121: 1109: 835: 811: 722: 654: 633: 207: 3996: 2795: 1753:

aqueduct, excavation work arguably started after a visit by emperor

1441: 1324:

in northwestern China, uses water provided by qanat (locally called

4150: 2678: 2096: 1566:

The Arabs' supportive policy on qanats was so successful that even

1540: 1321: 1303: 1105: 1009: 931: 893: 860: 843: 614: 486: 238: 166: 100: 4485:

Information on Qanats (includes photo of access shafts from above)

4472:

Useful information on Qanat provided by Farzad Kohandel, in arabic

2112:

or qanat systems in Spain, most likely brought to the area by the

1884: 1478: 1274:

Bureau of Population, Refugees, and Migration, US State Department

3840:

Planhol, X. de (2011); "KĀRIZ iv. Origin and Dissemination", in:

2425: 2297: 2291: 2226: 2179: 2171: 2129: 2100: 2076: 2032: 2003:-like tunnels carried the water from the spring and to the town. 1999:

around 550 BCE. At either end of the tunnel proper, shallow

1754: 1420: 1370: 1213: 1129: 996:

that meter flow to the various canals, each for a separate user.

985: 977: 594: 526: 400: 233: 130: 110: 62: 4490:

International Center on Qanats and Historic Hydraulic Structures

4448: 2027:, intended to partially drain the largest Italian inland water, 1591:

second qanat is 500 zera' (375 meters) away from the first one.

885:

cooling have been used in desert climates for over 1,000 years.

4193:"Puquios, qanats and springs: water management in ancient Perú" 3925: 3910: 2250: 2218: 2133: 2036: 1967: 1746: 1669:(13%), especially on the broad plain around and in Erbil city. 1653: 1468: 1393: 1385:

are zones known for their dependence on an extensive system of

1382: 1317: 1299: 1097: 888: 877:) and draws cool air up from the qanat tunnel, mixing with it. 749: 676:

Traditionally qanats are built by a group of skilled laborers,

586: 306: 242: 218: 213: 1709:

It has been suggested that underground temples at Gua Made in

737:

Construction of a qanat is usually performed by a crew of 3–4

4234: 3797:"A little praise to help commoners take it to the next level" 2796:"Puquios and Aqueducts in the Central Andes of South America" 2489:

Handbook of Engineering and Technology in the Classical World

2191: 2167: 2113: 1988: 1943: 1857: 1567: 1463: 1336: 1069: 1065: 1045: 989: 981: 960: 708:, and excavation in the alluvial fan is relatively easy. The 590: 530: 506:, is indigenous to South Asia and has been cultivated on the 481:

According to most sources, qanat technology was developed in

453:). Alternative terms for qanats in Asia and North Africa are 226: 120: 85:, but the system operates under a variety of regional names: 4462:

WaterHistory.org Article on Karez in Turpan, Xinjiang, China

3844:, section: (4) Agricultural uses outside the Iranian lands. 3207: 1685:

Valliyil Govindankutty, assistant professor in geography at

4505:

The art and science of water, in Saudi Aramco May/June 2006

3544:

This includes the list of eleven significant qanets in Iran

3507:

Remmelt Lukkien; Y. Wessels; Reza Ardakamia (14 May 2009).

2285: 2187: 2068: 1865: 1801: 1797: 1710: 1648:

region of Iraq conducted by the Department of Geography at

1594:

Ms. Lambton quotes Moeen al-din Esfarzi who wrote the book

1374: 1186:

Many of these ancient structures were destroyed during the

993: 965: 831: 578: 494: 440: 158: 140: 74: 66: 4130: 2850: 2763: 2174:

of the Americas are qanats by way of Spanish colonization

384: 359:) is also used in Persian. Other names for qanat include 73:; the system originated approximately 3,000 years ago in 2766:

Science and Technology in World History: An Introduction

1016:. There are four main oases in the Egyptian desert. The 4321:"Even Underground Tunnels Used to Get Married in Iran!" 2810: 2495:. New York: Oxford University Press. pp. 290–293. 2318:

Pages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets

2039:

was equipped with a huge qanat system built during the

1991:

runs for 1 kilometre through a hill to supply water to

1934:

The falaj system continued to be in use into the early

1765:

In Pakistan qanat irrigation system is endemic only in

1365:

In the middle of the 20th century, an estimated 50,000

1060:

reports foggara extending for hundreds of miles in the

4404:"Reasons behind Failure of Qanats in the 20th Century" 3971:"New evidence shows falaj in Al Ain is world's oldest" 3509:"Qanats and Historic Hydraulic Structures. Yazd, Iran" 2846: 2844: 2842: 1276:, and the self-contribution of the local communities. 1183:

and is still providing water to nearly 3,000 people.

1145:

At Sfax, showing how the rainwater was gathered (1918)

4467:

World Wildlife Fund Editorial on Karez in Afghanistan

4408:

World Environmental and Water Resources Congress 2008

4136: 3382:"The Necessity of Karez Water Systems in Balochistan" 3366:"Karez: Afghanistan's Traditional Irrigation System." 2482:(2008). "Hydraulic Engineering and Water Supply". In 2205:

of northern Chile the shafts of puquios are known as

477:

The possible geographic diffusion of qanat technology

416: 410: 374: 360: 348: 336: 323: 315: 3547: 444: 422: 394: 294: 3715:(1st Indian ed.). Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass. 2839: 2352: 2132:is another site with an extensive qanat system. In 1335:, at which time it was adjacent to the kingdoms of 191:used only once it emerges from the daylight point. 4347:Cultural Dynamics Of Water In Iranian Civilization 3494:(Report). Teheran, Iran: UNESCO. 2015. p. 20. 2394: 1840:) requiring a dam to collect the water, and Aini ( 980:) are the source of water for irrigation in large 77:. The function is essentially the same across the 16:Water management system using underground channels 4499:Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society 4380:Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society 4190: 3481: 2768:. Johns Hopkins University Press. pp. 113–4. 2530: 1551:era, which began after the occupation of Iran by 692:Alluvial fan in southern Iran. Image from NASA's 245:, currently used for watering the grounds of the 4534: 4495:The origin and spread of qanats in the Old World 4230: 4228: 4226: 3761:Bessette, Jonathan; Niblock, Eric (2020-07-20). 3633:Les Qanats. Une technique d'acquisition de l'eau 3305: 2713:(3. ed.). Hoboken, N.J.: Wiley. p. 9. 1520:Les Qanats. Une technique d'acquisition de l'eau 1349:Protected Area of the People's Republic of China 1252:In 1999, upon the request of the communities in 1201:Ministry of Rural Rehabilitation and Development 639: 3760: 3597: 3368:The Alternative Development Knowledge Network. 2945: 2778: 2413: 2178:Qanats in the Americas, usually referred to as 4271:"American Florence (Breed) Khanum (1875–1950)" 3858:SYMPOSIUM II RESEARCHES ON "MANBO & QANAT" 2910: 2736:A Dictionary of the Economic Products of India 2654:Proceedings of the Seminar for Arabian Studies 2647: 2645: 2330: – Ancient irrigation system in Sri Lanka 2323:Traditional water sources of Persian antiquity 2063:is a particularly well preserved example of a 1895:The oases of the city of Al Ain (particularly 1361:Traditional water sources of Persian antiquity 4223: 4122: 2764:McClellan III, James E.; et al. (2006). 2474: 2472: 2438:Reading in World Cultures - Paul Thomas Welty 2390: 2388: 2386: 2384: 2182:or filtration galleries, can be found in the 2137: 2107: 1625:a total discharge of 8 billion cubic meters. 1088:) at Figuig date palm oasis in Morocco (1913) 404: 354: 342: 330: 4398: 3949:. Oxford Business Group. 2010. p. 171. 3701:, October 2009, accessed on October 25, 2009 3654: 3652: 2382: 2380: 2378: 2376: 2374: 2372: 2370: 2368: 2366: 2364: 2142:and were used until the construction of the 1856:(singular), are still in use in Oman today. 1518: 1270:Swiss Agency for Development and Cooperation 873:shaft opening creates a lower pressure (see 657:) found in many older houses and buildings. 300: 3863: 3624: 3523: 3459: 3016: 2973: 2779:Hensel, Michael; Gharleghi, Mehran (2012). 2642: 2316: – Public garden in Marrakech, Morocco 2249:In an August 21, 1906, letter written from 61:is a system for transporting water from an 4263: 3869: 3147: 3145: 2851:Nasiri, F. & Mafakheri, M. S. (2015). 2802:. Boca Raton, Florida: CRC Press: 465–467. 2469: 4288: 4254: 3649: 3282: 3225: 2876: 2397:Iranian Cities: Formation and Development 2361: 1617:At the same time, another book, entitled 1266:Canadian International Development Agency 4344: 3581: 3579: 3577: 3241: 3239: 3237: 3114: 2906: 2904: 2902: 2900: 2898: 2896: 2894: 2892: 2890: 2888: 2753:. Columbia University Press. p. 16. 2288: – Irrigation canal of central Asia 2161: 2090: 2005: 1883: 1665:(84%). A large number are also found in 1600: 1440: 1429: 1290: 1224:, bordering with Iran. Qanats are named 1140: 1092:In southern Morocco, the qanat (locally 1079: 1044: 964:Water "metering" through a distribution 959: 910: 887: 859: 687: 540: 472: 232: 212: 40: 4543:Persian developed underground aqueducts 4377: 4013: 3997:"Julfar and the Ports of Northern Oman" 3935: 3710: 3660:"New 'surang bavi' line found in Bidar" 3142: 3060: 3058: 3056: 2748: 2651: 2422:Iranian Qanats: a heritage from ancient 1879: 1400:, listing the following eleven qanats: 510:for a long time. Cotton appears in the 4535: 4510:Carlo Trabia: "Kanats of Sicily", in: 4301:. George Ronald Publisher. p. 339 3635:. Paris: Éditions Mouton. p. 231. 3630: 2478: 2446: 2444: 2309:History of water supply and sanitation 2300: – Community-operated watercourse 2244: 2023:The 5,653 m (3.513 mi) long 1832:) with underground aqueducts, Ghaili ( 1281:Korea International Cooperation Agency 1096:) is also used. On the margins of the 577:Qanats are constructed as a series of 225:; it is thought to have served Iran's 69:to the surface through an underground 4437:United States Army Corps of Engineers 3915:UNESO Karez System Cultural Landscape 3574: 3234: 2885: 2152:Viajes de agua en el Madrid histórico 896:with wind towers connected to a qanat 864:Wind tower and qanat used for cooling 536: 4294: 4191:Ponce-Vega, L. A. (September 2015). 3214:Fishes in Mediterranean Environments 3053: 2793: 2787: 2733: 2708: 2419: 2348: 2346: 2344: 1258:United Nations Development Programme 4501:Volume 112, Number 3 June 21, 1968. 2441: 1845: 1837: 1829: 1796:and Iran. Qanats, locally known as 1741:, the 94 km (58 mi) long 1120:'s build in the main course of the 432: 370: 355: 343: 335:) and is derived from earlier word 331: 301: 13: 4197:Agricultura, Sociedad y Desarrollo 3442: 3039:10.1038/scientificamerican0278-144 2996:10.1038/scientificamerican0278-144 868:Qanats used in conjunction with a 14: 4589: 4455: 3994: 3445:"Karez (Qanats) of Turpan, China" 2953:. London: Routledge. p. 61. 2557:10.1038/scientificamerican0468-94 2341: 2106:There are still many examples of 1644:A survey of qanat systems in the 1396:inscribed the Persian Qanat as a 988:. The foggaras are also found at 609:often extend for long distances. 3930:Aflaj Irrigation Systems of Oman 3713:Bidar: Its History and Monuments 3585: 3066:"Yakchal: Ancient Refrigerators" 2304:Aflaj Irrigation Systems of Oman 2266:Florence Khanum (1906) cited in 2079:valley. It was built during the 1445:An ancient Persian clock in the 585:, connected by a gently sloping 4345:Khaneiki, Majid Labbaf (2021). 4338: 4313: 4273:. Getty Images. January 1, 1913 4184: 4173: 4102: 4083: 4067: 4046: 4007: 3988: 3963: 3919: 3904: 3851: 3834: 3821: 3789: 3754: 3729: 3704: 3684: 3640: 3500: 3436: 3415: 3398: 3374: 3359: 3334: 3299: 3250: 3201: 3162: 3126:The University of Chicago Press 3108: 3083: 3072:from the original on 2012-03-31 3010: 2967: 2939: 2926: 2806:Underground Aqueducts Handbook. 2772: 2757: 2742: 2727: 2702: 2672: 2624: 2606: 2424:. Seminar of Qanat in Gonabad. 2157: 1995:. It was built on the order of 1888:The falaj irrigation system at 1788:is in the north west corner of 1347:. The Turfan Water Museum is a 1247:Nakhichevan Autonomous Republic 1167:The qanats are called kariz in 976:Qanats (designated foggaras in 817: 683: 671: 3932:, accessed on October 25, 2009 3592:. Conference of Qanat in Iran. 3342:"Water: symbolism and culture" 2936:, accessed on October 25, 2009 2857:Environmental Systems Research 2819:Underground Aqueducts Handbook 2800:Underground Aqueducts Handbook 2781:Iran: Past, Present and Future 2738:. Sagwan Press. pp. 45–7. 2685:Underground aqueducts handbook 2614:"Kareez (kariz, karez, qanat)" 2585: 2567: 2524: 2432: 2237:mentioned the existence of 23 1956:: "Hafit {Tuwwam} abounds in 1923:in Oman, continue traditional 1737:Among the qanats built in the 1220:, in the southern province of 1212:Qanats have been preserved in 1162: 900: 796: 570:Underground Aqueducts Handbook 309:word that means "channel". In 1: 4449:http://www.dursunozden.com.tr 4371: 3775:10.7916/consilience.vi22.6739 3246:History from Waterhistory.org 3118:History of the Persian Empire 2399:. University of Texas Press. 2046: 1232: 945: 825: 732: 640:Impact on settlement patterns 4578:World Heritage Sites in Iran 4099:. Retrieved 2 December 2007. 3860:, J-STAGE, 25 December 2008. 3320:10.1016/0016-7185(96)00008-5 2783:. Academy Press. p. 64. 2749:Bulliet, Richard W. (2013). 1704: 1514:are ranked first to fourth. 1100:, the isolated oases of the 533:region in the 21st century. 375: 313:, the words for "qanat" are 7: 3848:retrieved 24 November 2015. 2949:; McLachlan, Keith (2003). 2395:Kheirabadi, Masoud (1991). 2279: 1792:, Pakistan, bordering with 1760: 1687:Government College, Chittur 1585:Extraction of Hidden Waters 445: 423: 417: 411: 395: 385: 361: 349: 337: 324: 316: 295: 229:area for thousands of years 10: 4594: 4523:, 1992, Saudi Aramco World 4521:Oman's "Unfailing Springs" 4432:Hadden, Robert Lee. 2005. 4028:(1): 30–40. Archived from 3711:Yazdani, G. (1995-10-01). 3589:Water clock in Persia 1383 3421:Hadden, Robert Lee. 2005. 3284:10.1186/s43238-022-00073-x 2916:Blind White Fish in Persia 2821:. CRC Press. p. 244. 2531:Goldsmith, Edward (1968). 2259:Dictionary of Word Origins 1457:, the Persians were using 1358: 1309: 1207: 1136: 1075: 955: 904: 853: 849: 468: 163:oases of the Turfan region 25: 18: 4180:Libyan web site on qanats 4112:Water supplies in Granada 3947:The Report Abu Dhabi 2010 3829:Current World Archaeology 3227:10.29094/FiSHMED.2017.003 3197:Current world Archaeology 2878:10.1186/s40068-015-0039-9 2138: 2116:during their rule of the 1978: 1973: 1732: 1661:Most of the karez are in 1650:Oklahoma State University 950: 405: 4512:Best of Sicily Magazine, 4256:10.5027/andgeoV47n3-3272 4139:Latin American Antiquity 3831:43 (Oct/Nov 2010), 42–9. 3737:"Resurrecting the Karez" 3172:(112): 14–19. July 2007. 3115:Olmstead, A. T. (1948). 2920:George Allen & Unwin 2709:Cech, Thomas V. (2010). 2334: 2086: 2018: 1807: 1716: 1672: 1663:Sulaymaniyah Governorate 1612:Al-Vaghfiya Al-Rashidiya 1425:Razavi Khorasan Province 1286: 1040: 1003: 645:the layout of the city. 564:sediments are deposited. 545:Cross-section of a qanat 518:and is mentioned in the 252: 247:National Library of Iran 19:Not to be confused with 4209:10.22231/asyd.v12i3.240 4077:, vol. 5, nr 4. Online 4026:Engineering and Science 3885:: 25–35. Archived from 3427:Army Corps of Engineers 3410:The Wall Street Journal 3170:The 153 Club Newsletter 2934:WaterHistory.org:Qanats 2420:Ajam, Mohammad (2003). 1815: 1639: 1354: 1157: 4514:March 2005, with Photo 4441:Army Geospatial Center 4295:Gail, Marzieh (1991). 4123: 3631:Golbot, Henri (1979). 3603:water clock in Persia 3431:Army Geospatial Center 2273: 2213:are known to exist in 2175: 2108: 2103: 2041:Arab period (827–1072) 2015: 1892: 1606: 1519: 1450: 1438: 1307: 1146: 1089: 1054: 973: 924: 897: 865: 697: 589:which carries a water 575: 546: 478: 249: 230: 50: 36:Kariz (disambiguation) 32:Falaj (disambiguation) 28:Qanat (disambiguation) 4349:. Cham, Switzerland: 4019:"The Tunnel of Samos" 3386:Middle East Institute 2734:Watt, George (2014). 2575:"The quanats of Iran" 2255: 2165: 2094: 2075:on the slopes of the 2009: 1950:. Islamic geographer 1887: 1868:, was built around a 1604: 1444: 1433: 1294: 1144: 1084:Irrigation cisterns ( 1083: 1048: 963: 914: 905:Further information: 891: 863: 854:Further information: 691: 548: 544: 476: 237:A kariz surfacing in 236: 221:surfacing within the 216: 44: 4497:– by PW English, in 4416:10.1061/40976(316)77 3842:Encyclopædia Iranica 3404:Michael M. Phillips 2794:Lane, Kevin (2017). 2680:Angelakis, Andreas N 2533:"The qanats of Iran" 2233:. In 1918 geologist 1880:United Arab Emirates 1415:, also called kariz 1320:, in the deserts of 1216:in the community of 754:province of Khorasan 437:United Arab Emirates 176:This is a system of 161:, Pakistan, and the 145:United Arab Emirates 26:For other uses, see 4519:Lynn Teo Simarski, 4298:Arches of the Years 3275:2022BuHer...6...24B 3031:1978SciAm.238b.144B 3019:Scientific American 2988:1978SciAm.238b.144B 2976:Scientific American 2869:2015EnvSR...4...13N 2549:1968SciAm.218d..94W 2537:Scientific American 2328:Tank cascade system 2268:Arches of the Years 2245:Cultural references 2025:Tunnels of Claudius 1985:Tunnel of Eupalinos 1874:World Heritage Site 1553:Alexander the Great 1434:An ancient Persian 1398:World Heritage Site 1312:Turpan water system 1262:European Commission 1127:The black berbers ( 512:Inquiry into Plants 508:Indian subcontinent 263:in English include 257:Common variants of 4568:Ancient technology 4553:Iranian inventions 4117:2011-06-09 at the 4095:2009-03-05 at the 3697:2009-10-19 at the 3447:. WaterHistory.org 2636:2016-10-18 at the 2618:Heritage Institute 2484:Oleson, John Peter 2176: 2144:Canal de Isabel II 2104: 2095:Irrigation at the 2016: 1893: 1652:(US) on behalf of 1607: 1605:Kariz Gonabad Iran 1451: 1439: 1333:Northern Silk Road 1308: 1192:War in Afghanistan 1147: 1118:Hassan Adahkil Dam 1090: 1055: 1014:Albert T. Olmstead 974: 925: 898: 866: 856:Evaporative cooler 706:orographic lifting 698: 547: 537:Technical features 503:Gossypium arboreum 500:A cotton species, 479: 250: 231: 171:Northwestern China 89:or kārīz in Iran, 51: 47:Qanats of Ghasabeh 4573:Aqueducts in Iran 4425:978-0-7844-0976-3 4360:978-3-030-58902-8 4127:(market gardens). 3956:978-1-9070-6521-7 3722:978-81-208-1071-6 3556:The Persian Qanat 3532:The Persian Qanat 3443:Hansen, Roger D. 3185:Missing or empty 2828:978-1-4987-4830-8 2720:978-0-470-13631-7 2695:978-1-315-36856-6 2502:978-0-19-973485-6 2406:978-0-292-78517-5 2217:and the oasis of 2136:they were called 2118:Iberian peninsula 1667:Erbil Governorate 1496:Southern Khorasan 1447:Qanats of Gonabad 1413:Qanats of Gonabad 1237:The territory of 491:Southeast Arabian 45:Water channel of 21:KANAT (insurance) 4585: 4429: 4395: 4365: 4364: 4342: 4336: 4335: 4333: 4332: 4317: 4311: 4310: 4308: 4306: 4292: 4286: 4285: 4280: 4278: 4267: 4261: 4260: 4258: 4232: 4221: 4220: 4188: 4182: 4177: 4171: 4170: 4134: 4128: 4126: 4110: 4106: 4100: 4087: 4081: 4071: 4065: 4050: 4044: 4043: 4041: 4040: 4034: 4023: 4011: 4005: 4004: 3995:Power, Timothy. 3992: 3986: 3985: 3983: 3982: 3967: 3961: 3960: 3939: 3933: 3923: 3917: 3908: 3902: 3900: 3898: 3897: 3891: 3876: 3870:Mathias Döring. 3867: 3861: 3855: 3849: 3838: 3832: 3825: 3819: 3818: 3816: 3815: 3793: 3787: 3786: 3758: 3752: 3751: 3749: 3748: 3733: 3727: 3726: 3708: 3702: 3688: 3682: 3681: 3679: 3678: 3656: 3647: 3644: 3638: 3636: 3628: 3622: 3620: 3618: 3617: 3608:. Archived from 3601: 3595: 3593: 3586:Ajam, Mohammad. 3583: 3572: 3570: 3569: 3567: 3561: 3551: 3545: 3543: 3542: 3540: 3527: 3521: 3520: 3515:. Archived from 3504: 3498: 3495: 3493: 3485: 3479: 3478: 3463: 3457: 3456: 3454: 3452: 3440: 3434: 3419: 3413: 3402: 3396: 3395: 3393: 3392: 3378: 3372: 3363: 3357: 3356: 3354: 3353: 3344:. Archived from 3338: 3332: 3331: 3303: 3297: 3296: 3286: 3254: 3248: 3243: 3232: 3231: 3229: 3205: 3199: 3194: 3188: 3183: 3181: 3173: 3166: 3160: 3149: 3140: 3139: 3123: 3112: 3106: 3105: 3103: 3102: 3093:. Archived from 3087: 3081: 3080: 3078: 3077: 3062: 3051: 3050: 3014: 3008: 3007: 2971: 2965: 2964: 2943: 2937: 2930: 2924: 2923: 2908: 2883: 2882: 2880: 2848: 2837: 2836: 2814: 2808: 2803: 2791: 2785: 2784: 2776: 2770: 2769: 2761: 2755: 2754: 2746: 2740: 2739: 2731: 2725: 2724: 2706: 2700: 2699: 2676: 2670: 2669: 2649: 2640: 2628: 2622: 2621: 2610: 2604: 2603: 2597: 2589: 2583: 2582: 2571: 2565: 2564: 2559:. Archived from 2528: 2522: 2521: 2519: 2517: 2511: 2505:. Archived from 2494: 2476: 2467: 2466: 2464: 2463: 2454:. Archived from 2448: 2439: 2436: 2430: 2429: 2417: 2411: 2410: 2392: 2359: 2358: 2350: 2319: 2271: 2190:and in northern 2141: 2111: 1847: 1839: 1831: 1727:Gifu Prefectures 1619:Jame' al-Kheyrat 1596:Rowzat al-Jannat 1525:Zagros Mountains 1522: 1406:Qanat of Baladeh 1188:Soviet–Aghan War 1035: 875:Bernoulli effect 775:subcritical flow 573: 448: 434: 426: 420: 414: 408: 398: 388: 378: 372: 364: 358: 357: 352: 346: 345: 340: 334: 333: 327: 319: 304: 303: 298: 4593: 4592: 4588: 4587: 4586: 4584: 4583: 4582: 4533: 4532: 4458: 4426: 4374: 4369: 4368: 4361: 4353:. p. 138. 4351:Springer Nature 4343: 4339: 4330: 4328: 4319: 4318: 4314: 4304: 4302: 4293: 4289: 4276: 4274: 4269: 4268: 4264: 4233: 4224: 4189: 4185: 4178: 4174: 4135: 4131: 4119:Wayback Machine 4108: 4107: 4103: 4097:Wayback Machine 4088: 4084: 4072: 4068: 4051: 4047: 4038: 4036: 4032: 4021: 4015:Apostol, Tom M. 4012: 4008: 3993: 3989: 3980: 3978: 3969: 3968: 3964: 3957: 3941: 3940: 3936: 3924: 3920: 3909: 3905: 3895: 3893: 3889: 3874: 3868: 3864: 3856: 3852: 3839: 3835: 3826: 3822: 3813: 3811: 3795: 3794: 3790: 3759: 3755: 3746: 3744: 3735: 3734: 3730: 3723: 3709: 3705: 3699:Wayback Machine 3689: 3685: 3676: 3674: 3658: 3657: 3650: 3645: 3641: 3629: 3625: 3615: 3613: 3604: 3602: 3598: 3584: 3575: 3565: 3563: 3559: 3553: 3552: 3548: 3538: 3536: 3529: 3528: 3524: 3505: 3501: 3491: 3487: 3486: 3482: 3465: 3464: 3460: 3450: 3448: 3441: 3437: 3420: 3416: 3403: 3399: 3390: 3388: 3380: 3379: 3375: 3364: 3360: 3351: 3349: 3340: 3339: 3335: 3304: 3300: 3255: 3251: 3244: 3235: 3206: 3202: 3195:reprinted from 3186: 3184: 3175: 3174: 3168: 3167: 3163: 3150: 3143: 3136: 3128:. p. 224. 3121: 3113: 3109: 3100: 3098: 3089: 3088: 3084: 3075: 3073: 3064: 3063: 3054: 3015: 3011: 2972: 2968: 2961: 2947:Tapper, Richard 2944: 2940: 2931: 2927: 2909: 2886: 2849: 2840: 2829: 2815: 2811: 2792: 2788: 2777: 2773: 2762: 2758: 2747: 2743: 2732: 2728: 2721: 2707: 2703: 2696: 2677: 2673: 2650: 2643: 2638:Wayback Machine 2629: 2625: 2612: 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4444: 4430: 4424: 4396: 4386:(3): 170–181. 4373: 4370: 4367: 4366: 4359: 4337: 4312: 4287: 4262: 4249:(3): 529–558. 4242:Andean Geology 4222: 4203:(3): 279–296. 4183: 4172: 4151:10.2307/971674 4145:(3): 252–253. 4129: 4101: 4082: 4066: 4056:, Mainz 1998, 4052:Grewe, Klaus: 4045: 4006: 3987: 3962: 3955: 3934: 3918: 3903: 3862: 3850: 3833: 3820: 3803:. 2021-03-22. 3788: 3753: 3728: 3721: 3703: 3683: 3666:. 2016-06-29. 3648: 3639: 3623: 3596: 3573: 3546: 3522: 3519:on 2017-11-07. 3513:www.unesco.org 3499: 3480: 3471:www.icomos.org 3458: 3435: 3414: 3412:, May 14, 2009 3397: 3373: 3358: 3333: 3314:(2): 261–273. 3298: 3263:Built Heritage 3249: 3233: 3200: 3161: 3141: 3134: 3107: 3082: 3052: 3009: 2966: 2959: 2938: 2925: 2912:Smith, Anthony 2884: 2838: 2827: 2809: 2786: 2771: 2756: 2741: 2726: 2719: 2701: 2694: 2671: 2641: 2623: 2605: 2584: 2566: 2563:on 2012-01-14. 2523: 2501: 2480:Wilson, Andrew 2468: 2440: 2431: 2412: 2405: 2360: 2357:(20): 259–277. 2339: 2338: 2336: 2333: 2332: 2331: 2325: 2320: 2314:Menara gardens 2311: 2306: 2301: 2295: 2289: 2281: 2278: 2263: 2246: 2243: 2203:Atacama Desert 2184:Nazca Province 2159: 2156: 2139:viajes de agua 2088: 2085: 2048: 2045: 2020: 2017: 1980: 1977: 1975: 1972: 1881: 1878: 1817: 1814: 1809: 1806: 1762: 1759: 1734: 1731: 1718: 1715: 1706: 1703: 1680:Ghulam Yazdani 1674: 1671: 1641: 1638: 1356: 1353: 1310:Main article: 1288: 1285: 1234: 1231: 1209: 1206: 1169:Dari (Persian) 1164: 1161: 1159: 1156: 1138: 1135: 1077: 1074: 1042: 1039: 1005: 1002: 957: 954: 952: 949: 947: 944: 902: 899: 851: 848: 827: 824: 819: 816: 798: 795: 734: 731: 685: 682: 673: 670: 641: 638: 566: 538: 535: 470: 467: 418:viajes de agua 254: 251: 15: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 4590: 4579: 4576: 4574: 4571: 4569: 4566: 4564: 4561: 4559: 4556: 4554: 4551: 4549: 4546: 4544: 4541: 4540: 4538: 4529: 4526: 4524: 4522: 4517: 4515: 4513: 4508: 4506: 4503: 4500: 4496: 4493: 4491: 4488: 4486: 4483: 4481: 4478: 4476: 4473: 4470: 4468: 4465: 4463: 4460: 4459: 4451: 4450: 4445: 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