Epistemology - Knowledge

1923: 1355: 2083: 646: 1347:. Particularists start their inquiry by looking at specific cases. For example, to find a definition of knowledge, they rely on their intuitions about concrete instances of knowledge and particular thought experiments. They use these observations as methodological constraints that any theory of more general principles needs to follow. Generalists proceed in the opposite direction. They give preference to general epistemic principles, saying that it is not possible to accurately identify and describe specific cases without a grasp of these principles. Other methods in contemporary epistemology aim to extract 572: 430: 996:, which are subjective attitudes toward propositions that differ regarding their level of confidence. Doubt involves questioning the validity or truth of a proposition. Certainty, by contrast, is a strong affirmative conviction, meaning that the person is free of doubt that the proposition is true. In epistemology, doubt and certainty play central roles in attempts to find a secure foundation of all knowledge and in skeptical projects aiming to establish that no belief is immune to doubt. 17655: 1236: 1261:. In this context, evidence for a belief is any information in the individual's mind that supports the belief. For example, the perceptual experience of rain is evidence for the belief that it is raining. Evidentialists have suggested various other forms of evidence, including memories, intuitions, and other beliefs. According to evidentialism, a belief is justified if the individual's evidence supports the belief and they hold the belief on the basis of this evidence. 587:. A sentence is analytically true if its truth depends only on the meaning of the words it uses. For instance, the sentence "all bachelors are unmarried" is analytically true because the word "bachelor" already includes the meaning "unmarried". A sentence is synthetically true if its truth depends on additional facts. For example, the sentence "snow is white" is synthetically true because its truth depends on the color of snow in addition to the meanings of the words 405:, which is often simply defined as the absence of knowledge. Knowledge is usually accompanied by ignorance since people rarely have complete knowledge of a field, forcing them to rely on incomplete or uncertain information when making decisions. Even though many forms of ignorance can be mitigated through education and research, there are certain limits to human understanding that are responsible for inevitable ignorance. Some limitations are inherent in the human 665:, philosophers proposed various alternative definitions of knowledge by modifying or expanding the traditional analysis. According to one view, the known fact has to cause the belief in the right way. Another theory states that the belief is the product of a reliable belief formation process. Further approaches require that the person would not have the belief if it was false, that the belief is not inferred from a falsehood, that the justification cannot be 19768: 17587: 17621: 1127: 17638: 17604: 17672: 1118: 318:, are also interested in beliefs and related cognitive processes. Unlike epistemology, they study the beliefs people have and how people acquire them instead of examining the evaluative norms of these processes. Epistemology is relevant to many descriptive and normative disciplines, such as the other branches of philosophy and the sciences, by exploring the principles of how they may arrive at knowledge. 19755: 2277: 1268:

A belief-formation process is reliable if most of the beliefs it causes are true. A slightly different view focuses on beliefs rather than belief-formation processes, saying that a belief is justified if it is a reliable indicator of the fact it presents. This means that the belief tracks the fact: the person believes it because it is a fact but would not believe it otherwise.

459:, in the case above between the person Ravi and the proposition "kangaroos hop". It is use-independent since it is not tied to one specific purpose. It is a mental representation that relies on concepts and ideas to depict reality. Because of its theoretical nature, it is often held that only relatively sophisticated creatures, such as humans, possess propositional knowledge. 891:

support another belief. Memory depends on information provided by other sources, which it retains and recalls, like remembering a phone number perceived earlier. Justification by testimony relies on information one person communicates to another person. This can happen by talking to each other but can also occur in other forms, like a letter, a newspaper, and a blog.

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justified by another belief. For example, the belief that it rained last night is a non-basic belief if it is inferred from the observation that the street is wet. According to foundationalism, basic beliefs are the foundation on which all other knowledge is built while non-basic beliefs constitute the superstructure resting on this foundation.

732:. For instance, to believe that snow is white is to affirm the proposition "snow is white". According to this view, beliefs are representations of what the world is like. They are kept in memory and can be retrieved when actively thinking about reality or when deciding how to act. A different view understands beliefs as behavioral patterns or 1082:. It starts from the observation that, while people are dreaming, they are usually unaware of this. This inability to distinguish between dream and regular experience is used to argue that there is no certain knowledge since a person can never be sure that they are not dreaming. Some critics assert that global skepticism is a 1302:, knowledge is a comparative term, meaning that to know something involves distinguishing it from relevant alternatives. For example, if a person spots a bird in the garden, they may know that it is a sparrow rather than an eagle but they may not know that it is a sparrow rather than an indistinguishable sparrow hologram. 1312:. It gives preference to the beliefs a person already has, asserting that a person should only change their beliefs if they have a good reason to. One motivation for adopting epistemic conservatism is that the cognitive resources of humans are limited, meaning that it is not feasible to constantly reexamine every belief. 1621:

psychology describes what beliefs people have and how they acquire them, thereby explaining why someone has a specific belief. The focus of epistemology is on evaluating beliefs, leading to a judgment about whether a belief is justified and rational in a particular case. Epistemology has a similar intimate connection to

1454:. Further topics include the nature of scientific evidence and the aims of science. The epistemology of mathematics studies the origin of mathematical knowledge. In exploring how mathematical theories are justified, it investigates the role of proofs and whether there are empirical sources of mathematical knowledge. 922:. There are different conceptions about what it means for something to be rational. According to one view, a mental state is rational if it is based on or responsive to good reasons. Another view emphasizes the role of coherence, stating that rationality requires that the different mental states of a person are 1251:

belief that a cup of coffee stands on the table, externalists are not only interested in the perceptual experience that led to this belief but also consider the quality of the person's eyesight, their ability to differentiate coffee from other beverages, and the circumstances under which they observed the cup.

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the importance of the cognitive perspective of the individual in the form of their mental states. It is commonly associated with the idea that the relevant factors are accessible, meaning that the individual can become aware of their reasons for holding a justified belief through introspection and reflection.

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examine the reasoning involved in decision-making and the standards of good decisions. They identify beliefs as a central aspect of decision-making. One of their innovations is to distinguish between weaker and stronger beliefs. This helps them take the effect of uncertainty on decisions into consideration.

357:), literally, the study of knowledge. Yet, even though ancient Greek philosophers practiced what is today considered epistemology, they did not understand their investigations in these terms. The word was only coined in the 19th century to label this field and conceive it as a distinct branch of philosophy. 1854:

discussions and online communications. It understands knowledge in a wide sense that encompasses various forms of understanding and culture, including practical skills. Unlike epistemology, it is not interested in whether a belief is true or justified but in how understanding is reproduced in society. The

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disagree about the connection between the perceiver and the perceived object. Direct realists say that this connection is direct, meaning that there is no difference between the object present in perceptual experience and the physical object causing this experience. According to indirect realism, the

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is an externalist theory asserting that a reliable connection between belief and truth is required for justification. Some reliabilists explain this in terms of reliable processes. According to this view, a belief is justified if it is produced by a reliable belief-formation process, like perception.

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were not defined as distinct fields until the 19th century; earlier investigations about knowledge often do not fit neatly into today's academic categories. Both contemporary disciplines study beliefs and the mental processes responsible for their formation and change. One important contrast is that

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in epistemology is the theory that how people view the world is not a simple reflection of external reality but an invention or a social construction. This view emphasizes the creative role of interpretation while undermining objectivity since social constructions may differ from society to society.

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Epistemic relativism is a related view. It does not question the existence of knowledge in general but rejects the idea that there are universal epistemic standards or absolute principles that apply equally to everyone. This means that what a person knows depends on the subjective criteria or social

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and epistemology are interested in the foundations of rational thought and the role of beliefs. Unlike many approaches in epistemology, the main focus of decision theory lies less in the theoretical and more in the practical side, exploring how beliefs are translated into action. Decision theorists

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but are unable to explicitly articulate those rules. Epistemologists of modality examine knowledge about what is possible and necessary. Epistemic problems that arise when two people have diverging opinions on a topic are covered by the epistemology of disagreement. Epistemologists of ignorance are

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focuses on the social dimension of knowledge. While traditional epistemology is mainly interested in knowledge possessed by individuals, social epistemology covers knowledge acquisition, transmission, and evaluation within groups, with specific emphasis on how people rely on each other when seeking

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on knowledge. Among other topics, it explores how preconceptions about gender influence who has access to knowledge, how knowledge is produced, and which types of knowledge are valued in society. Decolonial scholarship criticizes the global influence of Western knowledge systems, often with the aim

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for a belief is information that favors or supports it. Epistemologists understand evidence primarily in terms of mental states, for example, as sensory impressions or as other propositions that a person knows. But in a wider sense, it can also include physical objects, like bloodstains examined by

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in their area. By coincidence, they stop in front of the only real barn and form a justified true belief that it is a real barn. Many epistemologists agree that this is not knowledge because the justification is not directly relevant to the truth. More specifically, this and similar counterexamples

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is a closely related field with a similar conception of knowledge. It explores how physical, demographic, economic, and sociocultural factors impact knowledge. It examines in what sociohistorical contexts knowledge emerges and the effects it has on people, for example, how socioeconomic conditions

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is another type of externalism and is sometimes understood as a form of reliabilism. It says that a belief is justified if it manifests intellectual virtues. Intellectual virtues are capacities or traits that perform cognitive functions and help people form true beliefs. Suggested examples include

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The disagreement between internalism and externalism is about the sources of justification. Internalists say that justification depends only on factors within the individual. Examples of such factors include perceptual experience, memories, and the possession of other beliefs. This view emphasizes

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Coherentists reject the distinction between basic and non-basic beliefs, saying that the justification of any belief depends on other beliefs. They assert that a belief must be in tune with other beliefs to amount to knowledge. This is the case if the beliefs are consistent and support each other.

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of knowledge examines how knowledge is acquired, stored, retrieved, and communicated. It studies the social and cultural circumstances that affect how knowledge is reproduced and changes, covering the role of institutions like university departments and scientific journals as well as face-to-face

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epistemology emphasizes the importance of first-person experience. It distinguishes between the natural and the phenomenological attitudes. The natural attitude focuses on objects belonging to common sense and natural science. The phenomenological attitude focuses on the experience of objects and

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that only develops ideas about the external world through the sense data it receives from the sensory organs. According to them, the mind can arrive at various additional insights by comparing impressions, combining them, generalizing to arrive at more abstract ideas, and deducing new conclusions

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Fallibilism is another response to skepticism. Fallibilists agree with skeptics that absolute certainty is impossible. Most fallibilists disagree with skeptics about the existence of knowledge, saying that there is knowledge since it does not require absolute certainty. They emphasize the need to

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rather than knowledge. Understanding is a more holistic notion that involves a wider grasp of a subject. To understand something, a person requires awareness of how different things are connected and why they are the way they are. For example, knowledge of isolated facts memorized from a textbook

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by helping a person achieve their goals. For example, knowledge of a disease helps a doctor cure their patient, and knowledge of when a job interview starts helps a candidate arrive on time. The usefulness of a known fact depends on the circumstances. Knowledge of some facts may have little to no

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Externalism rejects this view, saying that at least some relevant factors are external to the individual. This means that the cognitive perspective of the individual is less central while other factors, specifically the relation to truth, become more important. For instance, when considering the

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Foundationalists and coherentists disagree about the structure of knowledge. Foundationalism distinguishes between basic and non-basic beliefs. A belief is basic if it is justified directly, meaning that its validity does not depend on the support of other beliefs. A belief is non-basic if it is

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examines how the understanding of knowledge and related concepts has changed over time. It asks whether the main issues in epistemology are perennial and to what extent past epistemological theories are relevant to contemporary debates. It is particularly concerned with scientific knowledge and

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In epistemology, justification is a property of beliefs that fulfill certain norms about what a person should believe. According to a common view, this means that the person has sufficient reasons for holding this belief because they have information that supports it. Another view states that a

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to act rather than as representational items stored in the mind. This view says that to believe that there is mineral water in the fridge is nothing more than a group of dispositions related to mineral water and the fridge. Examples are the dispositions to answer questions about the presence of

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uses, like memorizing random phone numbers from an outdated phone book. Being able to assess the value of knowledge matters in choosing what information to acquire and transmit to others. It affects decisions like which subjects to teach at school and how to allocate funds to research projects.

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Rationalists understand reason as a source of justification for non-empirical facts. It is often used to explain how people can know about mathematical, logical, and conceptual truths. Reason is also responsible for inferential knowledge, in which one or several beliefs are used as premises to

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assuming that a person does not have a body but is merely a brain receiving electrical stimuli indistinguishable from the stimuli a brain in a body would receive. This argument also leads to the conclusion of global skepticism based on the claim that it is not possible to distinguish stimuli

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theory. Fallacies are faulty arguments based on incorrect reasoning. The epistemic approach to fallacies explains why they are faulty, stating that arguments aim to expand knowledge. According to this view, an argument is a fallacy if it fails to do so. A further intersection is found in

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that helps them understand, interpret, and interact with the world. While this core sense is of particular interest to epistemologists, the term also has other meanings. Understood on a social level, knowledge is a characteristic of a group of people that share ideas, understanding, or

2141:(1724–1804) tried to find a middle position between rationalism and empiricism by identifying a type of knowledge that Hume had missed. For Kant, this is knowledge about principles that underlie all experience and structure it, such as spatial and temporal relations and fundamental 2105:(1596–1650), who claimed that philosophy must begin from a position of indubitable knowledge of first principles. Inspired by skepticism, he aimed to find absolutely certain knowledge by encountering truths that cannot be doubted. He thought that this is the case for the assertion " 309:

As a normative field of inquiry, epistemology explores how people should acquire beliefs. This way, it determines which beliefs fulfill the standards or epistemic goals of knowledge and which ones fail, thereby providing an evaluation of beliefs. Descriptive fields of inquiry, like

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Of particular interest to epistemologists is the question of whether knowledge is more valuable than a mere opinion that is true. Knowledge and true opinion often have a similar usefulness since both are accurate representations of reality. For example, if a person wants to go to

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Knowledge is an awareness, familiarity, understanding, or skill. Its various forms all involve a cognitive success through which a person establishes epistemic contact with reality. Knowledge is typically understood as an aspect of individuals, generally as a cognitive

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epistemology discusses the causal relation between the knower and the object of knowledge, which happens through reliable knowledge-formation processes. It sees perception as the primary source of knowledge, drawing a close connection between it and successful action.

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and support each other. A slightly different approach holds that rationality is about achieving certain goals. Two goals of theoretical rationality are accuracy and comprehensiveness, meaning that a person has as few false beliefs and as many true beliefs as possible.

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Despite this contrast, epistemologists may rely on insights from the empirical sciences in formulating their normative theories. According to one interpretation, the aim of naturalized epistemology is to answer descriptive questions, but this characterization is

2137:(1711–1776) used this idea to explore the limits of what people can know. He said that knowledge of facts is never certain, adding that knowledge of relations between ideas, like mathematical truths, can be certain but contains no information about the world. 702:. It proposes that people put more trust in knowledge than in mere true beliefs when drawing conclusions and deciding what to do. A different response says that knowledge has intrinsic value, meaning that it is good in itself independent of its usefulness. 1043:

say that it is impossible to have certain knowledge about the existence of deities or other religious doctrines. Similarly, moral skeptics challenge the existence of moral knowledge and metaphysical skeptics say that humans cannot know ultimate reality.

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is an intermediary position combining elements of both foundationalism and coherentism. It accepts the distinction between basic and non-basic beliefs while asserting that the justification of non-basic beliefs depends on coherence with other beliefs.

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knowledge is knowledge of empirical facts based on sensory experience, like seeing that the sun is shining and smelling that a piece of meat has gone bad. Knowledge belonging to the empirical science and knowledge of everyday affairs belongs to

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connection is indirect since there are mental entities, like ideas or sense data, that mediate between the perceiver and the external world. The contrast between direct and indirect realism is important for explaining the nature of illusions.

1067:. Overall, not many epistemologists have explicitly defended global skepticism. The influence of this position derives mainly from attempts by other philosophers to show that their theory overcomes the challenge of skepticism. For example, 741:

is an oversimplification of much more complex psychological processes. Beliefs play a central role in various epistemological debates, which cover their status as a component of propositional knowledge, the question of whether people have

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is the study of correct reasoning. For epistemology, it is relevant to inferential knowledge, which arises when a person reasons from one known fact to another. This is the case, for example, if a person does not know directly that

474:. It is usually tied to a specific goal and not mastered in the abstract without concrete practice. To know something by acquaintance means to be familiar with it as a result of experiental contact. Examples are knowing the city of 1008:

is similar in this regard and is sometimes considered the highest epistemic good. It encompasses a reflective understanding with practical applications. It helps people grasp and evaluate complex situations and lead a good life.

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epistemology is a form of fallibilism that emphasizes the close relation between knowing and acting. It sees the pursuit of knowledge as an ongoing process guided by common sense and experience while always open to revision.

698:, a true opinion about how to get there may help them in the same way as knowledge does. Plato already considered this problem and suggested that knowledge is better because it is more stable. Another suggestion focuses on 2300: – term used in philosophy, economics, and virtually any field of study to refer to different ways of knowing things, different epistemological methodologies for attaining a fuller description of a particular field 1543:, relying on their methods and theories to examine knowledge. Naturalistic epistemologists focus on empirical observation to formulate their theories and are often critical of approaches to epistemology that proceed by 2133:. This means that all ideas depend on sense experience, either as "ideas of sense", which are directly presented through the senses, or as "ideas of reflection", which the mind creates by reflecting on ideas of sense. 416:

Epistemologists disagree on how much people know, for example, whether fallible beliefs about everyday affairs can amount to knowledge or whether absolute certainty is required. The most stringent position is taken by

10343: 827:. For example, if a person has sufficient reason to believe that a neighborhood is dangerous but forms this belief based on superstition then they have propositional justification but lack doxastic justification. 225:

was characterized by the contrasting perspectives of empiricism and rationalism. Epistemologists in the 20th century examined the components, structure, and value of knowledge while integrating insights from the

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because denying the existence of knowledge is itself a knowledge claim. Another objection says that the abstract reasoning leading to skepticism is not convincing enough to overrule common sense.

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defended a similar position but limited themselves to lucid and specific sensations, which they regarded as true. The skepticists questioned that knowledge is possible, recommending instead

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examines how scientific knowledge is generated and what problems arise in the process of validating, justifying, and interpreting scientific claims. A key issue concerns the problem of how

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epistemology tends to focus on immediate experience, understood as the presentation of unique particulars without the involvement of secondary cognitive processes, like thought and desire.

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investigate whether knowledge of ultimate reality is possible and what sources this knowledge could have. Knowledge of moral statements, like the claim that lying is wrong, belongs to the

1559:. Epistemologists of language explore the nature of linguistic knowledge. One of their topics is the role of tacit knowledge, for example, when native speakers have mastered the rules of 266:, to determine how knowledge is created. Another topic is the extent and limits of knowledge, confronting questions about what people can and cannot know. Other central concepts include 819:

Epistemologists often identify justification as one component of knowledge. Usually, they are not only interested in whether a person has a sufficient reason to hold a belief, known as

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Sturm, Thomas (2011). "Historical Epistemology or History of Epistemology? The Case of the Relation Between Perception and Judgment: Dedicated to Günther Patzig on His 85th Birthday".

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As a label for a branch of philosophy, the term "epistemology" was first employed in 1854 by James E. Ferrier. In a different context, the word was used as early as 1847 in New York's

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presents another approach to the structure of knowledge. It agrees with coherentism that there are no basic beliefs while rejecting the view that beliefs can support each other in a

13125: 1991:) aimed to combine empirical observation and rational inquiry. He emphasized the importance of clarity and standards of reasoning without excluding the role of feeling and emotion. 757:, to be true means to stand in the right relation to the world by accurately describing what it is like. This means that truth is objective: a belief is true if it corresponds to a 2233:(1927–2021) conceived counterexamples against the idea that knowledge is the same as justified true belief. These counterexamples prompted many philosophers to suggest alternative 1221:. Instead, it argues that beliefs form infinite justification chains, in which each link of the chain supports the belief following it and is supported by the belief preceding it. 2373:. As the term had not been coined before the 19th century, earlier philosophers did not explicitly label their theories as epistemology and often explored it in combination with 2152:(1770–1831) argued against empiricism, saying that sensory impressions on their own cannot amount to knowledge since all knowledge is actively structured by the knowing subject. 2219:'s (1873–1958) epistemology. He used trivial observations, like the fact that he has two hands, to argue against abstract philosophical theories that deviate from common sense. 816:

and lucky guesses. However, justification does not guarantee truth. For example, if a person has strong but misleading evidence, they may form a justified belief that is false.

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practices associated with it. It contrasts with the history of epistemology, which presents, reconstructs, and evaluates epistemological theories of philosophers in the past.

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Epistemic norms are criteria to assess the cognitive quality of beliefs, like their justification and rationality. Epistemologists distinguish between deontic norms, which are

447:. It is a theoretical knowledge that can be expressed in declarative sentences using a that-clause, like "Ravi knows that kangaroos hop". For this reason, it is also called 10327: 7510: 1586:

focuses on the practical application of epistemological principles to diverse real-world problems, like the reliability of knowledge claims on the internet, how to assess

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understood knowledge as an interconnected phenomenon fundamentally linked to ethical behavior and social involvement. Many saw wisdom as the goal of attaining knowledge.

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have a shared interest in knowledge, with one difference being that education focuses on the transmission of knowledge, exploring the roles of both learner and teacher.

12737: 2377:. According to philosopher Thomas Sturm, it is an open question how relevant the epistemological problems addressed by past philosophers are to contemporary philosophy. 2253:(1908–2000), employs concepts and ideas from the natural sciences to formulate its theories. Other developments in late 20th-century epistemology were the emergence of 15581: 1942:

between 700 and 300 BCE, examined how people acquire knowledge, including the role of introspection, comparison, and deduction. In the 6th century BCE, the school of

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There are distinct areas of epistemology dedicated to specific sources of knowledge. Examples are the epistemology of perception, the epistemology of memory, and the

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says that a belief is true if it belongs to a coherent system of beliefs. A result of this view is that truth is relative since it depends on other beliefs. Further

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Meirmans, Stephanie; Butlin, Roger K.; Charmantier, Anne; Engelstädter, Jan; Groot, Astrid T.; King, Kayla C.; Kokko, Hanna; Reid, Jane M.; Neiman, Maurine (2019).

12988: 12173: 9569: 8867: 1895:(384–322 BCE) was particularly interested in scientific knowledge, exploring the role of sensory experience and how to make inferences from general principles. The 1774: 1710: 550: 16593: 16129: 13825: 12306: 6544: 1090:

keep an open and inquisitive mind since doubt can never be fully excluded, even for well-established knowledge claims like thoroughly tested scientific theories.

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are sometimes used as synonyms. However, rationality has a wider scope that encompasses both a theoretical side, covering beliefs, and a practical side, covering

1840:, the teacher mainly supports and facilitates the learning process while the students take a more active role. The beliefs students have about knowledge, called 1172:, through which people acquire nonempirical knowledge. Some rationalists limit their discussion to the origin of concepts, saying that the mind relies on inborn 669:, or that the belief is infallible. There is no consensus on which of the proposed modifications and reconceptualizations is correct. Some philosophers, such as 14495: 1608:, it does not directly defend a position about which epistemological theories are correct but examines their fundamental concepts and background assumptions. 2056:(1225–1274) developed an empiricist theory, stating that "nothing is in the intellect unless it first appeared in the senses". According to an early form of 1004:

does not amount to understanding. According to one view, understanding is a special epistemic good that, unlike knowledge, is always intrinsically valuable.

186:, which describes the beliefs people hold, while epistemology studies the norms governing the evaluation of beliefs. It also intersects with fields such as 9165: 2539:

To argue for this point, Plato used the example of a slave boy, who manages to answer a series of geometry questions even though he never studied geometry.

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emerged in the 2nd century BCE and provided a systematic treatment of how people acquire knowledge, distinguishing between valid and invalid sources. When

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Sharpe, Matthew (2018). "The Demise of Grand Narratives? Postmodernism, Power-knowledge, and Applied Epistemology". In Coady, David; Chase, James (eds.).

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they may employ. In teacher-centered methods, the teacher takes the role of the main authority delivering knowledge and guiding the learning process. In

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Even though rationalists usually accept sense experience as one source of knowledge, they also say that important forms of knowledge come directly from

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knowledge is primarily associated with synthetic sentences. However, it is controversial whether this is true for all cases. Some philosophers, such as

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used, in particular, that the process does not violate the laws of logic. Another overlap between the two fields is found in the epistemic approach to

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mineral water affirmatively and to go to the fridge when thirsty. Some theorists deny the existence of beliefs, saying that this concept borrowed from

633:, knowledge has three components: it is a belief that is justified and true. In the second half of the 20th century, this view was put into doubt by a 12790: 298:. The term is also used in a slightly different sense to refer not to the branch of philosophy but to a particular position within that branch, as in 162:

Separate branches of epistemology are dedicated to knowledge found in specific fields, like scientific, mathematical, moral, and religious knowledge.

16552: 16063: 8619: 954:. Epistemic virtues help individuals form true beliefs and acquire knowledge. They contrast with epistemic vices and act as foundational concepts of 11323: 2245:, a closely related response, analyses belief formation in terms of the intellectual virtues or cognitive competencies involved in the process. 1969:(470–391 BCE) proposed a pragmatic approach to knowledge using historical records, sensory evidence, and practical outcomes to validate beliefs. 11852: 9742: 2079:(1472–1529) explored the unity of knowledge and action, holding that moral knowledge is inborn and can be attained by overcoming self-interest. 1511:

studies the role of knowledge and justification for religious doctrines and practices. It evaluates the weight and reliability of evidence from

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are closely related to the idea of justification and are sometimes used as synonyms. Justification is what distinguishes justified beliefs from

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of previous Islamic philosophers, saying that they rely on unproven assumptions that do not amount to knowledge. In Western philosophy,

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As propositional attitudes, beliefs are true or false depending on whether they affirm a true or a false proposition. According to the

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questions the human ability to arrive at knowledge. Some skeptics limit their criticism to certain domains of knowledge. For example,

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perception. Perception is not merely the reception of sense impressions but an active process that selects, organizes, and interprets

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Sources of justification are ways or cognitive capacities through which people acquire justification. Often-discussed sources include

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involve some form of epistemic luck, that is, a cognitive success that results from fortuitous circumstances rather than competence.

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knowledge is knowledge of non-empirical facts and does not depend on evidence from sensory experience. It belongs to fields such as

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from them. Empiricists say that all these mental operations depend on material from the senses and do not function on their own.

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which it can access without the help of the senses. Others hold that there is an additional cognitive faculty, sometimes called

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without sense experience, like knowledge of mathematical and logical truths. According to some rationalists, the mind possesses

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Mchugh, Conor; Way, Jonathan; Whiting, Daniel (2019). "Introduction". In Mchugh, Conor; Way, Jonathan; Whiting, Daniel (eds.).

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later became interested in epistemology, they relied on concepts developed in Nyaya and other traditions. Buddhist philosopher

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that aimed to show that some justified true beliefs do not amount to knowledge. In one of them, a person is unaware of all the

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Schmitt, Frederick F. (2004). "Epistemology and Cognitive Science". In Niiniluoto, I.; Sintonen, Matti; Wolenski, Jan (eds.).

2195:. By not judging whether an experience is accurate or not, he tried to describe the internal structure of experience instead. 17558: 16849: 16778: 16695: 16674: 16587: 16546: 16525: 16468: 16433: 16398: 16371: 16272: 16237: 16202: 16123: 16090: 16057: 15941: 15765: 15715: 15672: 15612: 15570: 15539: 15485: 15437: 15406: 15373: 15340: 15211: 15155: 15083: 15064: 15045: 15026: 14993: 14927: 14894: 14834: 14801: 14727: 14696: 14638: 14615: 14590: 14513: 14472: 14387: 14344: 14311: 14176: 14143: 14110: 14052: 14017: 13984: 13891: 13870: 13835: 13802: 13756: 13672: 13651: 13632: 13613: 13572: 13539: 13506: 13471: 13405: 13372: 13333: 13297: 13278: 13238: 13187: 13154: 13119: 13071: 13015: 12982: 12958: 12939: 12908: 12885: 12817: 12776: 12686: 12653: 12597: 12564: 12475: 12454: 12410: 12391: 12358: 12300: 12259: 12236: 12217: 12198: 12167: 12134: 12099: 11983: 11929: 11846: 11817: 11773: 11754: 11723: 11690: 11657: 11624: 11531: 11427: 11402: 11317: 11274: 11188: 11155: 11126: 11107: 11088: 11057: 11024: 10983: 10933: 10900: 10867: 10803: 10757: 10713: 10674: 10591: 10545: 10514: 10493: 10405: 10370: 10337: 10304: 10236: 10203: 10129: 10094: 10071: 10007: 9986: 9945: 9912: 9879: 9831: 9800: 9736: 9695: 9662: 9604: 9563: 9528: 9482: 9398: 9365: 9332: 9299: 9258: 9192: 9159: 9056: 9035: 8929: 8896: 8861: 8838: 8807: 8745: 8644: 8613: 16784: 16208: 16020: 15379: 15313: 14149: 14023: 13046: 12709: 12481: 11696: 11663: 11589: 10680: 10520: 10267: 9918: 2919: 104:

to understand the nature of knowledge. To discover how knowledge arises, they investigate sources of justification, such as

15972: 13747:

Mele, Alfred R.; Rawling, Piers (2004). "Introduction: Aspects of Rationality". In Mele, Alfred R.; Rawling, Piers (eds.).

12759: 11792: 11136:

Fumerton, Richard (19 January 2011). "Skepticism and Epistemic Externalism". In Bernecker, Sven; Pritchard, Duncan (eds.).

32: 12506: 859:

to gain empirical information. There are various forms of perception corresponding to different physical stimuli, such as

785:. Truth plays a central role in epistemology as a goal of cognitive processes and a component of propositional knowledge. 441:

Epistemologists distinguish between different types of knowledge. Their primary interest is in knowledge of facts, called

433:

The distinction between propositional knowledge and knowledge by acquaintance plays a central role in the epistemology of

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relies on the insights of epistemology and cognitive science to implement concrete solutions to problems associated with

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is debated since it suggests widespread acceptance within the history of philosophy, an idea not shared by all scholars.

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analyze justification in terms of evidence by saying that to be justified, a belief needs to rest on adequate evidence.

18036: 17367: 11348: 10769:"Practical Theology and the Call for the Decolonisation of Higher Education in South Africa: Reflections and Proposals" 10471: 9010: 939: 584: 19093: 8960: 2227:(1889–1951), is a similar approach that tries to extract epistemological insights from how ordinary language is used. 1230: 965:

forensic analysts or financial records studied by investigative journalists. Evidence is often understood in terms of

19118: 17338: 17215: 15634:

Siegel, Susanna; Silins, Nicholas; Matthen, Mohan (2014). "The Epistemology of Perception". In Matthen, Mohan (ed.).

15591: 2071:), perception of mind-independent objects happens directly without intermediaries. Meanwhile, in 14th-century India, 1325:

is a formal approach based on the idea that people have degrees of belief representing how certain they are. It uses

8118:, § 2g. Wang Yangming on liangzhi: Direct, Clear, Universal Knowledge, § 3h. Wang Yangming: Moral Willing as Knowing 1148:

The debate between empiricism and rationalism centers on the origins of human knowledge. Empiricism emphasizes that

19650: 16495: 12522:

Kelly, Leanne M; Cordeiro, Maya (2020). "Three Principles of Pragmatism for Research on Organizational Processes".

12464:

Kelly, Kevin (2004). "Learning Theory and Epistemology". In Niiniluoto, I.; Sintonen, Matti; Wolenski, Jan (eds.).

9457: 4484:, § 1. The Neo-classical Theories of Truth, § 2. Tarski’s Theory of Truth, § 4.4 Truth Pluralism, § 5. Deflationism 2048:(1033–1109) proposed that theological teaching and philosophical inquiry are in harmony and complement each other. 390:

stored in documents, such as "knowledge housed in the library" or knowledge stored in computers in the form of the

17644: 14774: 8691: 19680: 17702: 16894: 13288:

Lyons, Jack C. (2016). "Goldman on Evidence and Reliability". In McLaughlin, Brian P.; Kornblith, Hilary (eds.).

8813: 2318: 2041: 1373:

of a constant progress of scientific knowledge leading to a universal and foundational understanding of reality.

887:. For example, seeing a bus at a bus station belongs to perception while feeling tired belongs to introspection. 19288: 11679:

Haas, Jens; Vogt, Katja Maria (2015). "Ignorance and Investigation". In Gross, Matthias; McGoey, Linsey (eds.).

9139: 2172:

is encountered. He used this idea to argue against Cartesian foundationalism seeking absolutely certain truths.

855:, but there is no universal agreement to what extent they all provide valid justification. Perception relies on 19706: 18866: 17478: 16871: 15816: 13916: 12860: 11446: 754: 685:

The value of knowledge is the worth it holds by expanding understanding and guiding action. Knowledge can have

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developed a reliabilist theory of knowledge and considered the problems of testimony and fallacies. In China,

1579: 18280: 17865: 10284: 2149: 1828:

learning theories study how the cognitive processes that affect knowledge acquisition transform information.

14132:

Murawski, Roman (2004). "Mathematical Knowledge". In Niiniluoto, I.; Sintonen, Matti; Wolenski, Jan (eds.).

19685: 19590: 19238: 17955: 17417: 16809: 16767:

Wolenski, Jan (2004). "History of Epistemology". In Niiniluoto, I.; Sintonen, Matti; Wolenski, Jan (eds.).

16175: 12754: 12041: 12016: 11564: 11471: 10647: 10622: 10564: 9501: 2486:

The internalist-externalist debate in epistemology is different from the internalism-externalism debate in

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Some branches of epistemology focus on the problems of knowledge within specific academic disciplines. The

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epistemology criticizes the conditions of knowledge in advanced societies. This concerns in particular the

1348: 1047:

Global skepticism is the widest form of skepticism, asserting that there is no knowledge in any domain. In

794: 782: 674: 275: 101: 16536: 16037: 14669: 12350:

How to Think in Medicine: Reasoning, Decision Making, and Communication in Health Sciences and Professions

8985: 8595: 7483: 2156:(1806–1873) defended a wide-sweeping form of empiricism and explained knowledge of general truths through 800:

belief is justified if it is formed by a reliable belief formation process, such as perception. The terms

19489: 19203: 17832: 17412: 17318: 17228: 12429: 2142: 1813: 1482: 1383: 1284: 1152:

is the primary source of all knowledge. Some empiricists express this view by stating that the mind is a

778: 413:

to conceive. Others depend on external circumstances when no access to the relevant information exists.

152: 16913: 15580:

Shen, Vincent (2006). "Chinese Philosophy: Metaphysics and Epistemology". In Borchert, Donald M. (ed.).

10732: 10536:

Dancy, Jonathan (2010). "Moral Epistemology". In Dancy, Jonathan; Sosa, Ernest; Steup, Matthias (eds.).

2530:

Nonetheless, metaepistemological insights can have various indirect effects on disputes in epistemology.

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of sense data and indirect knowledge by description, which is inferred from knowledge by acquaintance.

2192: 1907:

outlook, stating that sensations are always accurate and act as the supreme standard of judgments. The

1336: 17741: 14919:

Applying Cognitive Science to Education: Thinking and Learning in Scientific and Other Complex Domains

12876:

Kvanvig, Jonathan L. (2011). "Epistemic Justification". In Bernecker, Sven; Pritchard, Duncan (eds.).

1946:

developed a radical skepticism questioning the possibility and usefulness of knowledge. The school of

883:. Introspection is a closely related process focused not on external physical objects but on internal 19562: 17774: 17764: 17553: 17354: 17346: 17243: 17088: 15507:

Segura, Jordi Vallverdú i (2009). "Computational Epistemology and e-Science: A New Way of Thinking".

13794:

Training Complex Cognitive Skills: A Four-Component Instructional Design Model for Technical Training

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Bernecker, Sven (3 September 2013). "Triangular Externalism". In Lepore, Ernie; Ludwig, Kirk (eds.).

8734:"Knowledge as Presence and Presentation: Highlights from the History of Knowledge-First Epistemology" 2297: 2208: 2114: 1837: 1568: 1548: 1505:. It examines the norms governing belief formation and asks whether violating them is morally wrong. 1344: 770: 762: 626: 490: 467: 206: 89: 17661: 13696:"Science Policies: How Should Science Funding Be Allocated? An Evolutionary Biologists' Perspective" 12057:

Hofer, Barbara K. (2001). "Personal Epistemology Research: Implications for Learning and Teaching".

2473:

The theory of classical foundationalism has a stronger requirement by saying that basic beliefs are

19665: 19228: 18478: 18318: 18315: 18041: 17875: 17860: 17627: 17515: 17427: 17323: 17288: 17048: 16743: 14075: 11646:

Gross, Matthias; McGoey, Linsey (2015). "Introduction". In Gross, Matthias; McGoey, Linsey (eds.).

11488: 2448: 2246: 2241:, which says that knowledge requires reliable sources, shifting the focus away from justification. 2234: 1872: 1825: 1634: 1536: 1036: 774: 616: 418: 251: 202: 163: 128: 14975: 10063: 973:

is evidence against a belief or evidence that undermines another piece of evidence. For instance,

151:, by contrast, maintain that the justification of basic beliefs does not depend on other beliefs. 19243: 19184: 19137: 18995: 18958: 18326: 18241: 18231: 18155: 18021: 17993: 17495: 17328: 17204: 17138: 16960: 15652: 13453: 11894: 10185: 9281: 6571: 2306: 2290: 2262: 2250: 2106: 1651: 1630: 1529: 1447: 1390: 604: 443: 179: 81: 16687:

The External World and Our Knowledge of It: Hume's Critical Realism, an Exposition and a Defence

13352: 12079: 9627: 7456: 6862: 1958:(6th or 7th century CE) analyzed the process of knowing as a series of causally related events. 39: 19376: 19308: 18388: 18226: 17804: 17779: 17769: 17442: 17362: 15280: 13325: 13316: 2951: 2184: 2082: 1896: 1888: 1855: 1821: 1508: 1486: 1305: 725: 16685: 16388: 16225: 16080: 15931: 15755: 15602: 15396: 15145: 14686: 14460: 14334: 14040: 13974: 13858: 13562: 13395: 13177: 12676: 12641: 12587: 11973: 11005:

Foley, Richard (2011). "Epistemic Rationality". In Bernecker, Sven; Pritchard, Duncan (eds.).

10890: 10360: 10117: 10082: 9937:

Critical Thinking: Your Guide to Effective Argument, Successful Analysis and Independent Study

9935: 9867: 9788: 9652: 9357:

The Basic Ways of Knowing: An In-depth Study of Kumārila's Contribution to Indian Epistemology

9322: 8884: 8224: 8173: 7984: 7957: 7423: 7405: 7207: 7168: 7153: 7123: 7054: 6937: 6715: 6454: 6343: 6310: 5806: 5719: 5680: 5662: 5599: 5512: 5257: 4771: 4077: 3425: 3300: 3192: 3155: 3118: 3043: 2759: 2657: 2490:, which asks whether mental states depend only on the individual or also on their environment. 254:

and what types of knowledge there are. It further investigates the sources of knowledge, like

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Wheeler, Gregory R.; Pereira, Luís Moniz (2004). "Epistemology and Artificial Intelligence".

16456: 16421: 16260: 15695: 15643: 15529: 15473: 15330: 15199: 14917: 14882: 14824: 14626: 14607: 14601: 14166: 13792: 13662: 13529: 13494: 13428: 13210: 13142: 13005: 12896: 12348: 12247: 12157: 12122: 11919: 11713: 11262: 11178: 11047: 10923: 10393: 10226: 9997: 9685: 9586: 9551: 9518: 9388: 9355: 9248: 9182: 9046: 8849: 8733: 8575: 8482: 8347: 8074: 8011: 7810: 7768: 7735: 7720: 7648: 7528: 7414: 7267: 6724: 6670: 6526: 6505: 6427: 6388: 6289: 6208: 6101: 5779: 5758: 5629: 5423: 5314: 5305: 5284: 5110: 4832: 4679: 4655: 4625: 4212: 4155: 4053: 4035: 4026: 3999: 3600: 3591: 3416: 3183: 3127: 3004: 2816: 2666: 2648: 2312: 2258: 1842: 1555:, examining knowledge and the cognitive faculties responsible for it from the perspective of 1458: 1359: 1322: 747: 483: 452: 16113: 15016: 14791: 14299: 14100: 12807: 12554: 12381: 11869: 10705: 10581: 8919: 8708: 7930: 7228: 6199: 4700: 4092: 3990: 3797: 3668: 3636: 3618: 3395: 3330: 2995: 2735: 2693: 2109:", from which he constructed the rest of his philosophical system. Descartes, together with 1715: 1578:

employs formal tools found in logic and mathematics to investigate the nature of knowledge.

1354: 1257:

is an influential internalist view. It says that justification depends on the possession of

823:, but also in whether the person holds the belief because or based on this reason, known as 720:

Beliefs are mental states about what is the case, like believing that snow is white or that

470:. Knowledge-how is a practical ability or skill, like knowing how to read or how to prepare 19630: 19585: 19547: 19494: 19423: 19179: 18975: 18886: 18709: 18679: 18420: 17948: 17794: 17789: 17452: 17437: 15178: 10922:

Fletcher, Robert; Romero, Paola; Talbot, Marianne; Warburton, Nigel; Whiston, Amna (2020).

2168:, emphasizing that knowledge seekers should always be ready to revise their beliefs if new 2045: 1747: 1683: 1583: 1512: 1490: 1451: 1173: 1040: 1031: 868: 743: 729: 645: 523: 463: 46: 17068: 14274: 11418:

Goldman, Alvin; Bender, John (2005). "Justification, Epistemic". In Honderich, Ted (ed.).

2129:(1632–1704) rejected this view in favor of an empiricism according to which the mind is a 1871:

Early reflections on the nature and sources of knowledge are found in ancient history. In

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Grimm, Stephen R. (2011). "Understanding". In Bernecker, Sven; Pritchard, Duncan (eds.).

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as a key source of knowledge while discussing the problem of their right interpretation.

1409:

are sources discussed by most schools. Other sources only considered by some schools are

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aspect determined by the whole system of beliefs, which resembles an interconnected web.

1056: 1052: 999:

While propositional knowledge is the main topic in epistemology, some theorists focus on

955: 919: 699: 315: 175: 167: 85: 18483: 16226:"How Does Technology Influence Students'Motivation Towards Learning Kiswahili Proverbs?" 13827:

A Philosophical Approach to MOND: Assessing the Milgromian Research Program in Cosmology

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Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. Series B, Biological Sciences

2521:

Epistemic injustice happens when valid knowledge claims are dismissed or misrepresented.

1423: 1340:

aims to provide a presuppositionless description of how objects appear to the observer.

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Engel, Pascal (2011). "Epistemic Norms". In Bernecker, Sven; Pritchard, Duncan (eds.).

10836: 10453: 10428: 9775: 9449: 8784: 8683: 8671: 2487: 2434: 2007: 1962: 1887:

by being based on good reasons. According to him, the process of learning something is

1326: 1218: 1169: 1083: 1048: 686: 670: 662: 210: 16261:"Historical Epistemology and the 'Marriage' Between History and Philosophy of Science" 15833: 14950: 14857: 13499:

What Is Scientific Knowledge?: An Introduction to Contemporary Epistemology of Science

2207:(1872–1970) developed an empiricist sense-datum theory, distinguishing between direct 19759: 19660: 19655: 19640: 19580: 19542: 19527: 19484: 19055: 19015: 18933: 18861: 18844: 18822: 18450: 18425: 18236: 18056: 17799: 17432: 16867: 16855: 16845: 16774: 16691: 16670: 16583: 16542: 16521: 16490: 16464: 16429: 16394: 16350: 16268: 16233: 16198: 16119: 16086: 16053: 15937: 15761: 15711: 15668: 15608: 15587: 15566: 15535: 15481: 15433: 15402: 15369: 15336: 15207: 15151: 15136: 15116: 15079: 15060: 15041: 15022: 14989: 14923: 14890: 14830: 14797: 14758: 14754: 14723: 14692: 14634: 14611: 14586: 14509: 14468: 14383: 14340: 14307: 14244: 14236: 14172: 14139: 14106: 14048: 14013: 13980: 13953: 13866: 13831: 13798: 13752: 13735: 13668: 13647: 13628: 13609: 13568: 13535: 13502: 13467: 13401: 13368: 13339: 13329: 13293: 13274: 13261: 13234: 13183: 13150: 13115: 13067: 13011: 12978: 12954: 12935: 12904: 12881: 12852: 12813: 12782: 12772: 12733: 12682: 12649: 12593: 12560: 12544: 12471: 12450: 12406: 12387: 12354: 12296: 12255: 12232: 12213: 12194: 12163: 12130: 12095: 11979: 11925: 11842: 11813: 11769: 11750: 11719: 11686: 11653: 11620: 11527: 11423: 11313: 11270: 11249: 11231: 11184: 11151: 11122: 11103: 11084: 11053: 11020: 10979: 10929: 10896: 10863: 10840: 10799: 10753: 10709: 10670: 10587: 10541: 10510: 10489: 10458: 10401: 10366: 10333: 10300: 10232: 10199: 10164: 10125: 10090: 10067: 10003: 9982: 9941: 9908: 9875: 9827: 9796: 9732: 9691: 9658: 9600: 9559: 9524: 9478: 9441: 9394: 9361: 9328: 9295: 9254: 9188: 9155: 9117:

Baumann, Peter (2016). "Epistemic Contrastivism, Knowledge and Practical Reasoning".

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Philosophy and Its History: Aims and Methods in the Study of Early Modern Philosophy

16230:

Handbook of Research on Pedagogical Models for Next-Generation Teaching and Learning

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The Inquiring Organization: How Organizations Acquire Knowledge and Seek Information

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Audi, Robert (1988). "Foundationalism, Coherentism, and Epistemological Dogmatism".

8605: 3434: 2102: 2086: 1820:

learning theories explain the process in terms of behavior changes, for example, by

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Schwitzgebel, Eric (2011). "Belief". In Bernecker, Sven; Pritchard, Duncan (eds.).

15106: 14981: 14750: 14501: 14375: 14232: 13945: 13725: 13715: 13707: 13601: 13459: 13360: 13257: 12764: 12721: 12642:"Piaget's Genetic Epistemology: Epistemological Implications for Science Education" 12628: 12539: 12531: 12288: 12087: 12066: 11960: 11838: 11834: 11612: 11519: 11373: 11305: 11239: 11223: 11143: 11012: 10971: 10952: 10855: 10826: 10780: 10701: 10485: 10481: 10448: 10440: 10292: 10191: 10160: 10059: 9972: 9767: 9724: 9592: 9433: 9287: 9223: 9184:

Epistemology as Theology: An Evaluation of Alvin Plantinga's Religious Epistemology

9147: 9126: 9095: 9087: 8776: 8667: 8601: 2204: 2153: 1601: 1540: 1498: 1466: 1149: 943: 673:, reject the basic assumption underlying the analysis of knowledge by arguing that 638: 434: 227: 17283: 16363: 16263:. In Herring, Emily; Jones, Kevin; Kiprijanov, Konstantin; Sellers, Laura (eds.). 15870: 13881: 13594:

McGrew, Timothy (2011). "Evidence". In Bernecker, Sven; Pritchard, Duncan (eds.).

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Kaplan, Mark (2005). "Decision Theory and Epistemology". In Moser, Paul K. (ed.).

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Propositional knowledge contrasts with non-propositional knowledge in the form of

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Whitcomb, Dennis (2011). "Wisdom". In Bernecker, Sven; Pritchard, Duncan (eds.).

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Lynch, Michael P. (2011). "Truth". In Bernecker, Sven; Pritchard, Duncan (eds.).

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Foundations and Applications of Decision Theory: Volume I Theoretical Foundations

11680: 11647: 11581: 11523: 10975: 10664: 10504: 10296: 10259: 10195: 9902: 9728: 9596: 9151: 7519: 2627: 2600: 2512:, which examines the interrelation between knowledge and computational processes. 2461: 2090: 1833: 1801: 1786: 1309: 1185: 1072: 947: 911: 738: 634: 218: 187: 148: 18557: 17610: 15964: 14253: 13949: 13364: 12675:

Klauer, Bernd; Manstetten, Reiner; Petersen, Thomas; Schiller, Johannes (2016).

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Philosophy of Science, Cognitive Psychology, and Educational Theory and Practice

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Hamlyn, D. W. (2006). "Epistemology, History of". In Borchert, Donald M. (ed.).

9977: 666: 38:"Epistemic" redirects here. For the alternative name for cognitive science, see 19326: 19321: 19189: 19154: 19086: 19060: 18896: 18745: 18684: 18597: 18440: 18336: 18079: 17759: 17178: 17173: 17163: 17073: 17038: 17028: 17003: 16978: 16968: 12498: 12084:

Knowing, Knowledge and Beliefs: Epistemological Studies Across Diverse Cultures

9758:

Brown, Harold I. (1992). "Direct Realism, Indirect Realism, and Epistemology".

9291: 2430: 2230: 2188: 2161: 2110: 2057: 2053: 1587: 1582:

rely in their research on empirical evidence about common knowledge practices.

1516: 1501:

is a closely related field covering the interrelation between epistemology and

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The Value of Knowledge: The Economics of Enterprise Knowledge and Intelligence

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Leong, Wong Yew (2007). "Epistemology And Education". In Tan, Charlene (ed.).

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Dunne, John D. (2006). "Buddhist Epistemology". In Borchert, Donald M. (ed.).

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looks at the transmission of knowledge from the teacher's side, exploring the

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Early reflections on the nature, sources, and scope of knowledge are found in

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The Past, Present, and Future of Integrated History and Philosophy of Science

15448: 15120: 14762: 13957: 12856: 12535: 11235: 10815:"Teacher-Centered or Student-Centered Learning Approach To Promote Learning?" 10444: 9445: 9109: 8679: 2474: 2138: 2076: 2049: 1939: 1519:

while also asking whether the norms of reason should be applied to religious

1370: 1299: 1254: 1239: 1000: 982: 884: 840: 576: 395: 326: 303: 286:. Epistemology is one of the main branches of philosophy besides fields like 156: 109: 16859: 15707: 12786: 11340: 9002: 5440:, § 1. The Philosophical Problem of Scepticism, § 2. Responses to Scepticism 5061:, Lead section, § 1. The Nature of Evidence: What Is It and What Does It Do? 1776:. Whether an inferential belief amounts to knowledge depends on the form of 1362:

combines the perspectives of feminist, social, and naturalized epistemology.

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St. Martin's Press. pp. 13317:"Conversation with Karl Popper" 12334:from the original on 2 May 2022 11464:"Understanding in Epistemology" 10509:(2 ed.). Broadview Press. 10506:An Introduction to Epistemology 9520:Historical Dictionary of Ethics 9308:from the original on 9 May 2024 8732:Antognazza, Maria Rosa (2024). 8606:10.1002/9781118339893.wbeccp025 8586: 6985:Crichton, Carel & Kidd 2017 6609:, § 5. Is Metaphysics Possible? 4989: 4965: 4941: 4905: 4875: 4840: 4797: 4785: 4758: 4730: 4687: 4660: 4645: 4633: 4606: 4594: 4570: 4547: 4496: 4466: 4430: 4394: 4364: 4340: 4316: 4292: 4262: 4226: 4199: 4187: 4163: 4130: 4100: 4058: 4043: 4013: 3977: 3974:, § 7. Is Knowledge Analyzable? 3965: 3935: 3907: 3895: 3871: 3859: 3847: 3835: 3811: 3784: 3760: 3724: 3700: 3676: 3649: 3623: 3608: 3578: 3544: 3516: 3482: 3458:, § 1a. Knowing by Acquaintance 3442: 3403: 3372: 3335: 3320: 3287: 3234: 3200: 3160: 3145: 3105: 3081: 3051: 3018: 2982: 2959: 2933: 2906: 2877: 2865: 2853: 2842: 2830: 2797: 2767: 2410: 2397: 2380: 2363: 2353: 2319:Theory of Knowledge (IB Course) 1539:is closely associated with the 1386:to undermine Western hegemony. 1180:Foundationalism and coherentism 17717: 17368:Analytic–synthetic distinction 16836:. Blackwell. pp. 92–116. 16459:. In Machuca, Diego E. (ed.). 16112:Titelbaum, Michael G. (2022). 16085:. Cambridge University Press. 15395:Schoenbaum, Thomas J. (2015). 14720:History of Indian Epistemology 14459:Payne, William Harold (2003). 13932:Montmarquet, James A. (1987). 13830:. Cambridge University Press. 13667:. Cambridge University Press. 13646:. Cambridge University Press. 12708:Klausen, Søren Harnow (2015). 12254:. Cambridge University Press. 12125:. In Lagerlund, Henrik (ed.). 11978:. Cambridge University Press. 11972:Hendricks, Vincent F. (2006). 11839:10.1002/9781444367072.wbiee181 11553:Green, Christopher R. (2022). 11489:"Feminist Social Epistemology" 10928:. Dorling Kindersley Limited. 10486:10.4324/9780415249126-P081R1-1 10165:10.1093/obo/9780195396577-0346 9477:. Edinburgh University Press. 9283:A Companion to Donald Davidson 8635:Alston, William Payne (2006). 7981:Vassilopoulou & Clark 2009 7009:Mchugh, Way & Whiting 2019 3601:2. Deductivism and Inductivism 2740: 2732:O′Donohue & Kitchener 1996 2725: 2701: 2674: 2635: 2608: 2563: 2552: 2340: 1483:Epistemologists of metaphysics 755:correspondence theory of truth 728:, which can be expressed in a 13: 1: 19450: 16518:A Course in Indian Philosophy 16036:Tanesini, Alessandra (2017). 15871:10.1080/02691728.2016.1172366 14583:Phenomenological Epistemology 13642:McNabb, Tyler Dalton (2019). 12633:10.1080/24740500.2021.1964239 12059:Educational Psychology Review 11117:Fumerton, Richard A. (2006). 10832:10.12962/j24433527.v10i2.2161 10580:Degenhardt, M. A. B. (2019). 8854:The Epistemology of Testimony 6523:McCain & Kampourakis 2019 6498:, § 2. Epistemology and Logic 3361:Stanley & Willlamson 2001 2328: 2150:Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel 2065: 2034: 2015: 1985: 1974: 1391:traditional Indian philosophy 635:series of thought experiments 585:analytic and synthetic truths 455:between a knower and a known 237: 19239:Ordinary language philosophy 17730: 16914:Resources in other libraries 16079:Tieszen, Richard L. (2005). 15665:10.1007/978-94-009-1465-0_23 15531:Ahiṃsā, Anekānta and Jainism 15304:Sayre-McCord, Geoff (2023). 15281:"Naturalism in Epistemology" 14986:10.4324/9780415249126-P019-1 14606:. Hackett Pub. Co. pp. 14506:10.4324/9780415249126-F042-1 14380:10.4324/9780415249126-P018-1 14304:The Philosophy of Psychology 13661:McPherson, Tristram (2020). 13464:10.4324/9780415249126-V023-1 13429:"Rationalism Vs. Empiricism" 12806:Koterski, Joseph W. (2011). 12769:10.4324/9780415249126-P031-1 12422:"Ockham (Occam), William of" 12293:10.4324/9780415249126-P038-1 11524:10.4324/9780415249126-P059-3 11183:. Emerald Group Publishing. 10976:10.4324/9780415249126-P030-1 10503:Crumley II, Jack S. (2009). 10394:"Confirmation and Induction" 10365:. Rowman & Littlefield. 10297:10.4324/9780415249126-P032-1 10196:10.4324/9780415249126-P045-1 9791:. In Costreie, Sorin (ed.). 9729:10.4324/9780415249126-P064-1 9684:Brenner, William H. (1993). 9597:10.4324/9780415249126-V006-2 9523:. Rowman & Littlefield. 9354:Bhatt, Govardhan P. (1989). 9152:10.4324/9780415249126-P067-1 9048:The Idea Of Higher Education 8707:Anderson, Elizabeth (2024). 8654:Anderson, Elizabeth (1995). 8639:. Cornell University Press. 7396:Watkins & Mortimore 1999 7303:Steele & Stefánsson 2020 7282:Steele & Stefánsson 2020 7258:Steele & Stefánsson 2020 7107:, pp. 469–470, 472, 491 6732:, pp. 303–304, 306, 308 6568:Sierpinska & Lerman 1996 5946:Carter & Littlejohn 2021 4868:Michaelian & Sutton 2017 4622:Comesaña & Comesaña 2022 4442:, § 1.2 The Coherence Theory 4412:, § 3. Correspondence Theory 3588:Carter & Littlejohn 2021 3464:, § St. Anselm of Canterbury 2849:Oxford University Press 2024 2717:Carter & Littlejohn 2021 2591:Carter & Littlejohn 2021 2546: 2350:" is also used as a synonym. 2221:Ordinary language philosophy 1580:Experimental epistemologists 1285:direct and indirect realists 1051:, this view was accepted by 795:Justification (epistemology) 365: 7: 19289:Contemporary utilitarianism 19204:Internalism and externalism 17413:Internalism and externalism 16802:"Naturalistic Epistemology" 16742:Windt, Jennifer M. (2021). 16541:. Oxford University Press. 16428:. Oxford University Press. 16228:. In Jared, Keengwe (ed.). 16118:. Oxford University Press. 16011:"Defeaters in Epistemology" 15936:. Oxford University Press. 15638:. Oxford University Press. 15447:Schwitzgebel, Eric (2024). 15401:. McFarland & Company. 15055:Rescher, Nicholas (2009a). 14889:. Oxford University Press. 14885:. In Matthen, Mohan (ed.). 14883:"Skepticism and Perception" 14585:. Oxford University Press. 14333:Palmquist, Stephen (2010). 14206:. Oxford University Press. 14105:. Oxford University Press. 14047:. Oxford University Press. 14012:. Oxford University Press. 13751:. Oxford University Press. 13627:. Oxford University Press. 13365:10.1007/978-94-017-9309-4_4 13233:. Oxford University Press. 13066:. Oxford University Press. 12977:. Oxford University Press. 12953:. Oxford University Press. 12934:. Oxford University Press. 12640:Kitchener, Richard (1992). 12592:. Pearson Education India. 12449:. Oxford University Press. 12405:. Oxford University Press. 12324:"The Analysis of Knowledge" 12231:. Oxford University Press. 12212:. Oxford University Press. 12193:. Oxford University Press. 12092:10.1007/978-1-4020-6596-5_1 11953:The Philosophical Quarterly 11749:. Oxford University Press. 11555:"Epistemology of Testimony" 11439:"Evolutionary Epistemology" 11422:. Oxford University Press. 11339:Glanzberg, Michael (2023). 11269:. Oxford University Press. 11083:. Oxford University Press. 10752:. Oxford University Press. 10700:. Oxford University Press. 10669:. Oxford University Press. 10586:. Routledge. pp. 1–6. 10538:A Companion to Epistemology 10400:. Oxford University Press. 10159:. Oxford University Press. 10081:Clark, Kelly James (2009). 9978:10.1007/978-3-030-83925-3_3 9841:Campbell, Richmond (2024). 9628:"Evolutionary Epistemology" 9253:. Oxford University Press. 9140:"Experimental Epistemology" 9030:. Oxford University Press. 8978:"A Priori and A Posteriori" 8924:. Oxford University Press. 8740:. Oxford University PRess. 8553:, pp. 183–184, 188–189 8221:Coventry & Merrill 2018 7525:Scheler & Stikkers 2012 7464:, pp. 353–354, 369–370 6913:Douven & Schupbach 2014 5692:Blaauw & Pritchard 2005 5218:Blaauw & Pritchard 2005 5182:Blaauw & Pritchard 2005 5152:Blaauw & Pritchard 2005 5128:Blaauw & Pritchard 2005 5053:Blaauw & Pritchard 2005 5023:Blaauw & Pritchard 2005 4999:Blaauw & Pritchard 2005 4981:Blaauw & Pritchard 2005 4915:Blaauw & Pritchard 2005 4640:Blaauw & Pritchard 2005 4512:Blaauw & Pritchard 2005 4488:Blaauw & Pritchard 2005 4350:Blaauw & Pritchard 2005 3357:, § The Nature of Knowledge 3256:, § The Nature of Knowledge 3228:, § The Nature of Knowledge 3010:Blaauw & Pritchard 2005 2579:Blaauw & Pritchard 2005 2268: 2223:, as practiced by the late 2143:categories of understanding 2125:independent of experience. 2002:was a central topic in the 1673:{\displaystyle 572+382=954} 1441: 1225:Internalism and externalism 821:propositional justification 610: 217:was a central topic in the 153:Internalism and externalism 88:in the form of skills, and 10: 19810: 18553:Svatantrika and Prasangika 18192: 16717:Wilson, Robert A. (2023). 16455:Vogt, Katja Maria (2011). 15583:Encyclopedia of Philosophy 15036:Rescher, Nicholas (2009). 15015:Rescher, Nicholas (2005). 14823:Pritchard, Duncan (2013). 14790:Pritchard, Duncan (2005). 14737:Pritchard, Duncan (2004). 14535:Phillips, Stephen (2024). 14368:"Epistemology, History of" 14366:Pappas, George S. (1998). 13772:Merriam-Webster Dictionary 13768:"Definition of Gnoseology" 12974:The Epistemology of Groups 12757:. In Craig, Edward (ed.). 12524:Methodological Innovations 12121:Holopainen, Toivo (2010). 12078:Hofer, Barbara K. (2008). 11808:Harasim, Linda M. (2017). 11766:Encyclopedia of Philosophy 11395:"Reliabilist Epistemology" 11177:Gabriel, Cle-Anne (2022). 10889:Evans, C. Stephen (2018). 10796:Encyclopedia of Philosophy 9550:BonJour, Laurence (2016). 9292:10.1002/9781118328408.ch25 9247:Bergmann, Michael (2021). 8769:Philosophical Perspectives 8532:, § 4.1 Virtue Reliabilism 7105:Wheeler & Pereira 2004 6747:, pp. 303–304, 08–309 6418:Phillips & Vaidya 2024 6209:Confirmation and Induction 4220:, § The Value of Knowledge 4181:, § The Value of Knowledge 4124:, § The Value of Knowledge 3718:, § 3. The Gettier Problem 2510:computational epistemology 2403:The accuracy of the label 2288: 1866: 1228: 1183: 1101: 1098:Empiricism and rationalism 1021: 830: 792: 709: 627:conditions of all and only 614: 369: 345: 331: 55: 29: 19747: 19699: 19599: 19561: 19508: 19475: 19466: 19462: 19445: 19395: 19307: 19145: 19136: 19069: 18852: 18843: 18821: 18776: 18718: 18670: 18624: 18615: 18578: 18449: 18314: 18261: 18252: 18202: 18198: 18187: 18126: 18098: 18055: 18007: 17964: 17917: 17889: 17841: 17813: 17775:Philosophy of mathematics 17765:Philosophy of information 17740: 17736: 17725: 17539: 17488: 17337: 17244:Evolutionary epistemology 17214: 16959: 16909:Resources in your library 16842:10.1002/9781405164863.ch3 16661:(0 ed.). Routledge. 16648:10.1016/j.jal.2004.07.007 16337:10.1007/s11229-018-1860-2 16194:New Catholic Encyclopedia 16159:10.1007/s11229-006-9108-y 16050:10.4324/0123456789-P046-2 16002:10.1007/s10670-011-9338-3 15930:Stoltz, Jonathan (2021). 15521:10.1007/s11023-009-9168-0 15335:. Routledge. p. 23. 15266:. Oxford University Press 15258:Russell, Gillian (2023). 14581:Pietersma, Henry (2000). 14434:Pavese, Carlotta (2022). 14260:. Oxford University Press 14258:Oxford English Dictionary 13973:Morrison, Robert (2005). 13950:10.1093/mind/XCVI.384.482 13600:(0 ed.). Routledge. 13567:. John Wiley & Sons. 13394:Margolis, Joseph (2007). 13322:Modern British Philosophy 13320:. In Magee, Bryan (ed.). 13292:. John Wiley & Sons. 13145:. In Levine, Alan (ed.). 13114:. Cengage Learning Asia. 13010:. Routledge. p. 67. 12812:. John Wiley & Sons. 12726:10.1007/s11229-014-0589-9 11812:(2 ed.). Routledge. 11712:Hales, Steven D. (2009). 11611:(0 ed.). Routledge. 11487:Grasswick, Heidi (2018). 11366:The Journal of Philosophy 11310:10.4324/0123456789-P076-1 11261:Gardiner, Georgi (2015). 11142:(0 ed.). Routledge. 11079:Fricker, Miranda (2007). 11011:(0 ed.). Routledge. 10854:(0 ed.). Routledge. 10540:. John Wiley & Sons. 10285:"Memory, Epistemology of" 10089:. John Wiley & Sons. 10029:Chignell, Andrew (2018). 9907:. John Wiley & Sons. 9826:. John Wiley & Sons. 9657:. Bloomsbury Publishing. 9558:. John Wiley & Sons. 9438:10.1007/s11229-010-9740-4 9327:. Bloomsbury Publishing. 9131:10.1007/s10670-015-9728-z 8833:(2 ed.). Routledge. 8738:Putting Knowledge to Work 8530:Goldman & Beddor 2021 8506:Goldman & Beddor 2021 7305:, § 7. Concluding Remarks 6835:Vaidya & Wallner 2021 6825:, pp. 1–3, 10–11, 15 6633:, § 5. Moral Epistemology 6424:Bhatt & Mehrotra 2017 6178:Kelly & Cordeiro 2020 6125:Cockram & Morton 2017 5620:Markie & Folescu 2023 5581:Markie & Folescu 2023 5542:Markie & Folescu 2023 5338:Comesaña & Klein 2024 4676:Silva & Oliveira 2022 4670:Ichikawa & Steup 2018 4652:Silva & Oliveira 2022 4601:Ichikawa & Steup 2018 4533:Goldman & Bender 2005 3972:Ichikawa & Steup 2018 3953:, pp. 93–94, 104–105 3945:Ichikawa & Steup 2018 3887:Ichikawa & Steup 2018 3866:Ichikawa & Steup 2018 3854:Ichikawa & Steup 2018 3827:Ichikawa & Steup 2018 3776:Ichikawa & Steup 2018 3752:Ichikawa & Steup 2018 3716:Ichikawa & Steup 2018 3686:Ichikawa & Steup 2018 3562:A Priori and A Posteriori 3528:A Priori and A Posteriori 3500:A Priori and A Posteriori 3351:, § 1. Kinds of Knowledge 3176:, § 1. Kinds of Knowledge 3028:Markie & Folescu 2023 2508:It is closely related to 2346:Less commonly, the term " 2298:Epistemological pluralism 2289:For a topical guide, see 2209:knowledge by acquaintance 2115:Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz 2008:Arabic–Persian philosophy 1926:The Buddhist philosopher 1569:epistemology of testimony 1549:Evolutionary epistemology 1489:. It studies the role of 1278: 763:coherence theory of truth 468:knowledge by acquaintance 401:Knowledge contrasts with 90:knowledge by acquaintance 17516:Philosophy of perception 17319:Representational realism 17289:Naturalized epistemology 16770:Handbook of Epistemology 16636:Journal of Applied Logic 16259:Vagelli, Matteo (2019). 15659:. Springer Netherlands. 15472:Scott, Julie F. (2002). 15365:Handbook of Epistemology 15279:Rysiew, Patrick (2021). 14916:Reif, Frederick (2008). 14858:"The Value of Knowledge" 14685:Powell, Timothy (2020). 14198:Olsson, Erik J. (2016). 14135:Handbook of Epistemology 14043:. In Greco, John (ed.). 13882:"Memory: 3. Episodicity" 13766:Merriam-Webster (2024). 12753:Klein, Peter D. (1998). 12536:10.1177/2059799120937242 12467:Handbook of Epistemology 11210:Gardiner, J. M. (2001). 10767:Dreyer, Jaco S. (2017). 10445:10.1192/pb.bp.115.050682 9874:. Taylor & Francis. 9866:Carter, J. Adam (2017). 9787:Brown, Derek H. (2016). 9651:Bradley, Darren (2015). 9517:Bonevac, Daniel (2023). 9420:Bird, Alexander (2010). 9214:Benton, Matthew (2024). 9045:Barnett, Ronald (1990). 9028:Epistemology of Language 8344:Kvasz & Zeleňák 2009 8100:, pp. 2, 8, 200–202 6712:Ávila & Almeida 2023 6471:, § 2. Nyāya Reliabilism 6307:Clough & McHugh 2020 4304:, § 1.2 Dispositionalism 3754:, § 10.2 Fake Barn Cases 2449:ancient Greek philosophy 2333: 2247:Naturalized epistemology 2235:definitions of knowledge 1873:ancient Greek philosophy 1838:student-centered methods 1635:knowledge representation 1537:Naturalized epistemology 1037:Philosophical skepticism 680: 617:Definitions of knowledge 424: 164:Naturalized epistemology 56:Not to be confused with 19244:Postanalytic philosophy 19185:Experimental philosophy 17496:Outline of epistemology 17329:Transcendental idealism 16296:"Doxastic Conservatism" 15969:Encyclopædia Britannica 15708:10.4324/9781003008101-1 15601:Siderits, Mark (2021). 15476:. In Marsh, Ian (ed.). 15233:Russell, Bruce (2020). 15144:Rosenberg, Jay (2002). 14409:Pappas, George (2023). 14074:Moser, Paul K. (2016). 14039:Moser, Paul K. (2011). 13561:McDaniel, Kris (2020). 13290:Goldman and His Critics 13004:Lee, Jerry Won (2017). 12755:"Knowledge, Concept of" 12586:Khatoon, Naima (2012). 12347:Jenicek, Milos (2018). 12071:10.1023/A:1011965830686 12032:Hetherington, Stephen. 12005:Hetherington, Stephen. 11918:Hazlett, Allan (2014). 11893:HarperCollins (2022b). 11868:HarperCollins (2022a). 11580:Griffel, Frank (2020). 11296:Gerken, Mikkel (2018). 10819:Jurnal Sosial Humaniora 9934:Chatfield, Tom (2017). 9556:Goldman and His Critics 8918:Ayers, Michael (2019). 7833:, pp. 215–216, 219 7520:Knowledge, Sociology of 7511:Knowledge, Sociology of 7299:, pp. 434, 443–444 7254:, pp. 434, 443–444 7131:, § 4.1 Foundationalism 6802:Bradie & Harms 2023 6340:Best & Kellner 1991 6172:Legg & Hookway 2021 6109:, pp. 215–216, 301 6098:Chiari & Nuzzo 2009 4933:Mele & Rawling 2004 2992:Gross & McGoey 2015 2948:Magee & Popper 1971 2386:Other synonyms include 2307:Knowledge falsification 2291:Outline of epistemology 2263:historical epistemology 2251:Willard Van Orman Quine 2215:had a central place in 2107:I think, therefore I am 1631:Artificial intelligence 1530:Historical epistemology 1448:epistemology of science 1434:states that reality is 605:Willard Van Orman Quine 552:. The contrast between 478:, knowing the taste of 444:propositional knowledge 180:historical epistemology 170:uses formal tools from 82:propositional knowledge 19377:Social constructionism 18389:Hellenistic philosophy 17805:Theoretical philosophy 17780:Philosophy of religion 17770:Philosophy of language 17443:Problem of other minds 16535:Warren, Jared (2020). 16420:Vermeir, Koen (2013). 16166:Truncellito, David A. 15963:Stroll, Avrum (2023). 15754:Stairs, Allen (2017). 15607:. Hackett Publishing. 15604:Buddhism As Philosophy 15147:Thinking About Knowing 15076:Kant and Phenomenology 14718:Prasad, Jwala (1987). 14099:Moss, Jessica (2021). 14041:"Religious Skepticism" 13644:Religious Epistemology 13351:Maguire, Kate (2015). 13081:Leonard, Nick (2021). 12845:Discipline Filosofiche 12497:Kelly, Thomas (2016). 12123:"Anselm of Canterbury" 11228:10.1098/rstb.2001.0955 10895:. InterVarsity Press. 10813:Emaliana, Ive (2017). 10786:10.4102/hts.v73i4.4805 10470:Croce, Michel (2023). 10392:Cozic, Mikaël (2018). 10228:Skepticism: The Basics 10031:"The Ethics of Belief" 9181:Beilby, James (2017). 7674:, § Ancient Philosophy 7587:, § Ancient Philosophy 7572:, § Ancient Philosophy 7554:, § Ancient Philosophy 4752:, § 3. Ways of Knowing 4724:, § 3. Ways of Knowing 4068:Stehr & Adolf 2016 3889:, § 4. No False Lemmas 3633:Juhl & Loomis 2009 3615:Juhl & Loomis 2009 3284:, § 1b. Knowledge-That 3250:, § 1b. Knowledge-That 3222:, § 1b. Knowledge-That 3069:, pp. x–xi, 57–58 2185:continental philosophy 2094: 1931: 1913:suspension of judgment 1889:a form of recollection 1879:(427–347 BCE) studied 1856:sociology of knowledge 1770: 1738: 1737:{\displaystyle 8+7=15} 1706: 1674: 1509:Religious epistemology 1487:epistemology of ethics 1395: 1384:decolonizing knowledge 1363: 1306:Epistemic conservatism 1243: 1063:to achieve a state of 825:doxastic justification 658: 580: 546: 438: 19760:Philosophy portal 19279:Scientific skepticism 19259:Reformed epistemology 17785:Philosophy of science 17521:Philosophy of science 17501:Faith and rationality 17383:Descriptive knowledge 17254:Feminist epistemology 17194:Nicholas Wolterstorff 16744:"Dreams and Dreaming" 16723:Oxford Bibliographies 16684:Wilson, Fred (2008). 16667:10.4324/9780203839065 16580:10.4135/9781446219454 16038:"Social Epistemology" 15793:Journal of Philosophy 15528:Sethia, Tara (2004). 15264:Oxford Bibliographies 15177:Rošker, Jana (2021). 14691:. Walter de Gruyter. 14625:Popper, Karl (2014). 14339:. Walter de Gruyter. 14275:"Social Epistemology" 14204:Oxford Bibliographies 14165:O'Brien, Dan (2006). 13857:Mi, Chienkuo (2007). 13606:10.4324/9780203839065 13141:Levine, Alan (1999). 12553:Kern, Andrea (2017). 12545:10536/DRO/DU:30142042 11833:(1 ed.). Wiley. 11783:Hansen, Hans (2023). 11617:10.4324/9780203839065 11148:10.4324/9780203839065 11017:10.4324/9780203839065 10945:Philosophical Studies 10860:10.4324/9780203839065 10157:Oxford Bibliographies 9390:Buddhist Epistemology 9138:Beebe, James (2017). 9003:"George Edward Moore" 9001:Baldwin, Tom (2010). 8953:"Virtue Epistemology" 8848:Audi, Robert (2006). 8829:Audi, Robert (2003). 8490:, § Twentieth Century 8409:, § Twentieth Century 8340:, § Twentieth Century 7129:Steup & Neta 2024 6966:, pp. 3, 8–9, 13 6663:, pp. 1–3, 22–23 5414:Steup & Neta 2024 5396:Steup & Neta 2024 4885:Steup & Neta 2024 4850:Steup & Neta 2024 4817:Steup & Neta 2024 4794:, § 5.2 Introspection 4792:Steup & Neta 2024 4740:Steup & Neta 2024 4712:Steup & Neta 2024 4148:, § 1. Value Problems 4112:, § 1. Value Problems 3959:, § 2.3 Knowing Facts 3957:Steup & Neta 2020 3778:, § 8. Epistemic Luck 2893:Steup & Neta 2020 2807:Steup & Neta 2024 2684:Steup & Neta 2024 2392:descriptive knowledge 2388:declarative knowledge 2313:Reformed epistemology 2148:In the 19th-century, 2085: 1994:The relation between 1952:Buddhist philosophers 1925: 1843:personal epistemology 1771: 1769:{\displaystyle 5+3=8} 1739: 1707: 1705:{\displaystyle 2+2=4} 1675: 1590:allegations, and how 1459:epistemology of logic 1360:Elizabeth S. Anderson 1357: 1323:Bayesian epistemology 1238: 783:deflationary theories 648: 574: 547: 545:{\displaystyle 2+2=4} 484:Marta Vieira da Silva 432: 19180:Critical rationalism 18887:Edo neo-Confucianism 18731:Acintya bheda abheda 18710:Renaissance humanism 18421:School of the Sextii 17795:Practical philosophy 17790:Political philosophy 17453:Procedural knowledge 17438:Problem of induction 16830:"What Is Knowledge?" 14881:Reed, Baron (2015). 14743:Philosophical Issues 13250:Philosophical Issues 13209:Littlejohn, Ronnie. 10663:Dika, Tarek (2023). 10283:Conee, Earl (1998). 9843:"Moral Epistemology" 9222:. early view: 1–20. 9080:Current Anthropology 7732:Fletcher et al. 2020 6837:, pp. 1909–1910 5154:, pp. 18–19, 44 4923:, pp. 37, 39–40 4864:, pp. 1351–1352 4825:, pp. 85, 90–91 4242:Bunnin & Yu 2008 4083:Meirmans et al. 2019 3001:Haas & Vogt 2015 2559:Merriam-Webster 2024 2405:traditional analysis 2091:methodological doubt 2046:Anselm of Canterbury 1963:Chinese philosophers 1917:state of tranquility 1748: 1716: 1684: 1652: 1584:Applied epistemology 1513:religious experience 1073:methodological doubt 1061:suspension of belief 1032:Epistemic relativism 730:declarative sentence 651:traditional analysis 631:traditional analysis 623:essential components 524: 520:, like knowing that 302:'s epistemology and 18751:Nimbarka Sampradaya 18662:Korean Confucianism 18409:Academic Skepticism 17531:Virtue epistemology 17526:Social epistemology 17506:Formal epistemology 17393:Epistemic injustice 17388:Exploratory thought 17189:Ludwig Wittgenstein 15859:Social Epistemology 15747:10.1017/epi.2023.49 15150:. Clarendon Press. 15040:. Lexington books. 14796:. Clarendon Press. 13774:. Merriam-Webster. 13149:. Lexington Books. 12839:Kraft, Tim (2012). 11437:Gontier, Nathalie. 11222:(1413): 1351–1361. 11052:. Springer Nature. 8891:. Springer Nature. 8856:. Clarendon Press. 6234:, § Article Summary 6054:Virtue Epistemology 5483:, § Article Summary 5465:, § Article Summary 5244:, § Article Summary 5037:, pp. 482–483] 4410:Dowden & Swartz 3868:, § 5.1 Sensitivity 3388:, § 1d. Knowing-How 3030:, § 1. Introduction 2969:HarperCollins 2022b 2943:HarperCollins 2022a 2899:HarperCollins 2022a 2243:Virtue epistemology 2225:Ludwig Wittgenstein 2197:Logical positivists 2193:study of experience 2158:inductive reasoning 1897:Hellenistic schools 1859:are related to the 1639:automatic reasoning 1602:Metaepistemologists 1596:epistemic injustice 1576:Formal epistemology 1525:Social epistemology 1329:to define norms of 1272:Virtue epistemology 1057:Pyrrhonian skeptics 956:virtue epistemology 700:practical reasoning 663:thought experiments 407:cognitive faculties 335:(episteme, meaning 316:cognitive sociology 248:theory of knowledge 176:Social epistemology 168:formal epistemology 86:practical knowledge 77:theory of knowledge 45:For the album, see 18:Theory of knowledge 19372:Post-structuralism 19274:Scientific realism 19229:Quinean naturalism 19209:Logical positivism 19165:Analytical Marxism 18384:Peripatetic school 18296:Chinese naturalism 17823:Aesthetic response 17750:Applied philosophy 17184:Timothy Williamson 16974:Augustine of Hippo 16491:Walton, Douglas N. 16009:Sudduth, Michael. 15509:Minds and Machines 14225:Philosophy Compass 13934:"Epistemic Virtue" 13907:Mittag, Daniel M. 12589:General Psychology 11965:10.1093/pq/pqac083 11298:"Metaepistemology" 10957:10.1007/bf00372381 10555:Dasti, Matthew R. 9475:Epistemology A - Z 9228:10.1111/nous.12499 8460:, pp. 317–318 8367:, pp. 131–132 8199:, pp. 298–299 8124:, pp. 219–222 8049:, pp. 289–290 7617:, pp. 287–288 7350:, pp. 183–184 7086:, pp. 841–842 7068:, pp. 841–842 6930:, pp. 557–558 6564:, pp. 571–572 6336:, pp. 318–319 6264:, pp. 532–533 6258:, pp. 488–489 6048:, pp. 175–176 6025:, pp. 160–162 5996:, pp. 83, 301 5981:, pp. 99, 298 5942:, pp. 99, 298 5912:, pp. 159–160 5850:, pp. 159–160 5814:, pp. 155–156 5787:, pp. 215–216 5751:, pp. 156–157 5712:, pp. 155–156 5655:, pp. 155–156 5649:, pp. 407–408 5520:, pp. 271–272 4983:, pp. 123–124 4959:, pp. 332–334 4953:, pp. 312–314 4917:, pp. 123–124 4742:, § 5.1 Perception 4490:, pp. 148–149 4478:, pp. 5–7, 10 4448:, pp. 926–927 4142:, pp. 874–875 4118:, pp. 874–875 4085:, pp. 754–756 4070:, pp. 483–485 4007:, pp. 874–875 3742:, pp. 771–773 3422:Klauer et al. 2016 3099:, pp. 140–141 2927:, pp. 111–112 2874:, pp. 308–309 2779:, pp. 258–259 2488:philosophy of mind 2435:thought experiment 2249:, as conceived by 2095: 1989: 310-220 BCE 1978: 372–289 BCE 1932: 1766: 1734: 1702: 1670: 1491:ethical intuitions 1364: 1327:probability theory 1244: 1170:rational intuition 1084:self-refuting idea 1049:ancient philosophy 1041:religious skeptics 1013:Schools of thought 687:instrumental value 671:Timothy Williamson 659: 581: 542: 439: 211:Chinese philosophy 19781: 19780: 19743: 19742: 19739: 19738: 19735: 19734: 19441: 19440: 19437: 19436: 19433: 19432: 19160:Analytic feminism 19132: 19131: 19094:Kierkegaardianism 19056:Transcendentalism 19016:Neo-scholasticism 18862:Classical Realism 18839: 18838: 18611: 18610: 18426:Neopythagoreanism 18183: 18182: 18179: 18178: 17800:Social philosophy 17567: 17566: 17433:Privileged access 17069:Søren Kierkegaard 16895:Library resources 16851:978-0-631-20290-5 16780:978-1-4020-1986-9 16697:978-0-8020-9764-4 16676:978-1-136-88201-2 16611:"Jain Philosophy" 16609:Webb, Mark Owen. 16589:978-1-85396-453-4 16548:978-0-19-008615-2 16527:978-81-208-1482-0 16470:978-94-007-1991-0 16435:978-0-19-985714-2 16400:978-0-230-24077-3 16331:(S8): 1909–1935. 16274:978-1-351-21481-0 16239:978-1-5225-3874-5 16204:978-0-7876-4008-8 16125:978-0-19-870760-8 16092:978-0-521-83782-8 16059:978-0-415-25069-6 15943:978-0-19-090756-3 15834:"Decision Theory" 15767:978-1-351-21981-5 15717:978-1-003-00810-1 15674:978-94-009-1465-0 15614:978-1-62466-983-5 15572:978-1-317-39314-6 15541:978-81-208-2036-4 15487:978-0-13-026553-1 15439:978-1-136-88200-5 15408:978-1-4766-1074-0 15375:978-1-4020-1986-9 15342:978-0-415-62334-6 15213:978-3-319-24969-8 15157:978-0-19-925133-9 15085:978-0-226-72340-2 15066:978-0-8229-6014-0 15047:978-0-7391-3615-7 15028:978-0-8229-7092-7 14995:978-0-415-25069-6 14951:"Epistemic Logic" 14929:978-0-262-18263-8 14896:978-0-19-960047-2 14836:978-1-134-57367-7 14803:978-0-19-153566-6 14729:978-81-215-0072-2 14698:978-3-11-059304-4 14640:978-1-135-62683-9 14617:978-0-87220-633-5 14592:978-0-19-513190-1 14515:978-0-415-25069-6 14474:978-0-8229-7246-4 14389:978-0-415-25069-6 14346:978-3-11-022623-2 14313:978-0-85702-612-5 14178:978-0-7456-3316-9 14145:978-1-4020-1986-9 14112:978-0-19-263735-2 14054:978-0-19-990985-8 14019:978-0-19-020818-9 13986:978-0-521-82417-0 13872:978-90-420-2198-3 13837:978-1-108-66568-1 13804:978-0-87778-298-8 13758:978-0-19-803324-0 13712:10.1111/jeb.13497 13674:978-1-108-71340-5 13653:978-1-108-45753-8 13634:978-0-19-880536-6 13615:978-1-136-88201-2 13574:978-1-118-40077-7 13541:978-1-136-68268-1 13508:978-1-351-33661-1 13473:978-0-415-25069-6 13407:978-1-4411-6728-6 13374:978-94-017-9309-4 13335:978-0-19-283047-0 13299:978-1-118-60917-0 13280:978-1-136-88200-5 13240:978-0-19-926479-7 13189:978-0-19-877541-6 13156:978-0-7391-0024-0 13143:"1. Introduction" 13121:978-981-4239-76-9 13073:978-0-19-513005-8 13017:978-1-315-31051-0 12984:978-0-19-965660-8 12960:978-0-19-926479-7 12941:978-0-19-926479-7 12910:978-1-4020-9338-8 12901:Rethinking Popper 12887:978-1-136-88200-5 12819:978-1-4443-6067-7 12778:978-0-415-25069-6 12688:978-1-134-98618-7 12655:978-1-4384-0171-3 12599:978-81-317-5999-8 12566:978-0-674-41611-6 12477:978-1-4020-1986-9 12456:978-0-19-926479-7 12412:978-0-19-513005-8 12393:978-1-135-27841-0 12360:978-1-351-68402-6 12302:978-0-415-25069-6 12261:978-1-009-05145-3 12238:978-0-19-926479-7 12219:978-0-19-926479-7 12200:978-0-19-926479-7 12169:978-94-009-9789-9 12136:978-1-4020-9728-7 12101:978-1-4020-6596-5 11985:978-0-521-85789-5 11931:978-1-4411-4407-2 11901:. HarperCollins. 11876:. 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7819: 7813: 7804: 7798: 7780: 7774: 7747: 7741: 7728:, pp. 43–44 7711: 7705: 7699: 7693: 7687: 7678: 7660: 7654: 7633: 7627: 7609: 7603: 7579: 7573: 7567: 7558: 7540: 7534: 7501: 7495: 7474: 7468: 7447: 7441: 7440:, pp. 59–61 7435: 7429: 7390: 7384: 7383:, pp. 11–12 7378: 7372: 7366: 7360: 7342: 7336: 7315: 7309: 7291: 7285: 7279: 7273: 7246: 7240: 7219: 7213: 7192: 7186: 7180: 7171: 7162: 7156: 7147: 7141: 7114: 7108: 7102: 7096: 7078: 7072: 7045: 7039: 7033: 7027: 7021: 7015: 6997: 6991: 6987:, pp. 65–66 6973: 6967: 6961: 6955: 6949: 6943: 6922: 6916: 6910: 6904: 6895: 6889: 6883: 6877: 6871: 6865: 6856: 6850: 6844: 6838: 6832: 6826: 6820: 6814: 6796: 6790: 6766: 6760: 6754: 6748: 6742: 6736: 6706: 6700: 6682: 6676: 6655: 6649: 6643: 6637: 6619: 6613: 6595: 6589: 6583: 6577: 6556: 6550: 6517: 6511: 6490: 6484: 6478: 6472: 6466: 6460: 6439: 6433: 6406: 6400: 6379: 6373: 6355: 6349: 6328: 6322: 6301: 6295: 6274: 6268: 6244: 6238: 6220: 6214: 6190: 6184: 6166: 6160: 6142: 6136: 6132:, pp. 59–60 6119: 6113: 6092: 6086: 6068: 6062: 6040: 6034: 6011: 6005: 5988: 5982: 5976: 5970: 5969:, § 2b. Evidence 5964: 5958: 5934: 5928: 5922: 5916: 5892: 5883: 5866: 5860: 5836: 5830: 5824: 5818: 5797: 5791: 5770: 5764: 5743: 5737: 5731: 5725: 5704: 5695: 5689: 5683: 5674: 5668: 5641: 5635: 5608: 5602: 5593: 5587: 5569: 5560: 5554: 5548: 5530: 5524: 5503: 5497: 5475: 5469: 5447: 5441: 5435: 5429: 5408: 5402: 5384: 5378: 5350: 5344: 5326: 5320: 5296: 5290: 5269: 5263: 5236: 5230: 5206: 5200: 5176: 5170: 5146: 5140: 5122: 5116: 5095: 5089: 5083: 5077: 5073:, pp. 58–59 5055:, pp. 50–51 5047: 5041: 5035:Montmarquet 1987 5031:, pp. 91–92 5017: 5011: 4993: 4987: 4977:, pp. 39–40 4969: 4963: 4957:Kiesewetter 2020 4951:Heinzelmann 2023 4945: 4939: 4909: 4903: 4879: 4873: 4858:, pp. 72–75 4844: 4838: 4801: 4795: 4789: 4783: 4762: 4756: 4734: 4728: 4691: 4685: 4664: 4658: 4649: 4643: 4642:, pp. 92–93 4637: 4631: 4610: 4604: 4598: 4592: 4574: 4568: 4559:, pp. 83–84 4551: 4545: 4541:, pp. 25–26 4527: 4518: 4500: 4494: 4470: 4464: 4434: 4428: 4398: 4392: 4368: 4362: 4352:, pp. 14–15 4344: 4338: 4320: 4314: 4310:, pp. 17–18 4296: 4290: 4286:, pp. 14–15 4266: 4260: 4244:, pp. 80–81 4230: 4224: 4203: 4197: 4191: 4185: 4167: 4161: 4134: 4128: 4104: 4098: 4062: 4056: 4047: 4041: 4017: 4011: 3981: 3975: 3969: 3963: 3939: 3933: 3929:, pp. 49–50 3911: 3905: 3899: 3893: 3875: 3869: 3863: 3857: 3851: 3845: 3844:, pp. 67–68 3839: 3833: 3815: 3809: 3788: 3782: 3772:, pp. 61–62 3764: 3758: 3736:, pp. 29–32 3728: 3722: 3712:, pp. 61–62 3704: 3698: 3694:, pp. 53–54 3680: 3674: 3661:, pp. 54–55 3653: 3647: 3627: 3621: 3612: 3606: 3592:§ 3. The Apriori 3582: 3576: 3548: 3542: 3520: 3514: 3486: 3480: 3446: 3440: 3413:Merriënboer 1997 3407: 3401: 3376: 3370: 3339: 3333: 3324: 3318: 3291: 3285: 3275: 3266: 3238: 3232: 3204: 3198: 3164: 3158: 3149: 3143: 3109: 3103: 3085: 3079: 3055: 3049: 3022: 3016: 2986: 2980: 2963: 2957: 2937: 2931: 2910: 2904: 2881: 2875: 2869: 2863: 2857: 2851: 2846: 2840: 2834: 2828: 2801: 2795: 2771: 2765: 2744: 2738: 2729: 2723: 2705: 2699: 2678: 2672: 2639: 2633: 2612: 2606: 2581:, pp. 49–50 2567: 2561: 2556: 2540: 2537: 2531: 2528: 2522: 2519: 2513: 2506: 2500: 2497: 2491: 2484: 2478: 2471: 2465: 2458: 2452: 2445: 2439: 2427: 2421: 2414: 2408: 2401: 2395: 2384: 2378: 2367: 2361: 2357: 2351: 2344: 2324: 2303: 2285: 2280: 2279: 2278: 2205:Bertrand Russell 2183:(1902–1994). In 2179:(1911–1960) and 2154:John Stuart Mill 2113:(1632–1677) and 2070: 2069: 1285–1349 2067: 2039: 2038: 1056–1111 2036: 2020: 2017: 1990: 1987: 1979: 1976: 1834:teaching methods 1775: 1773: 1772: 1767: 1743: 1741: 1740: 1735: 1711: 1709: 1708: 1703: 1679: 1677: 1676: 1671: 1541:natural sciences 1499:ethics of belief 1400: 1337:Phenomenological 1308:is a view about 1150:sense experience 1129: 1120: 1059:recommended the 908:justified belief 706:Belief and truth 661:Following these 551: 549: 548: 543: 435:Bertrand Russell 419:radical skeptics 361:Central concepts 349:(logos, meaning 348: 347: 334: 333: 228:natural sciences 149:Foundationalists 53: 43: 36: 21: 19809: 19808: 19804: 19803: 19802: 19800: 19799: 19798: 19784: 19783: 19782: 19777: 19754: 19752: 19731: 19695: 19595: 19557: 19504: 19458: 19457: 19429: 19418:Russian cosmism 19391: 19387:Western Marxism 19352:New Historicism 19317:Critical theory 19303: 19299:Wittgensteinian 19195:Foundationalism 19128: 19065: 19046:Social contract 18902:Foundationalism 18835: 18817: 18801:Illuminationism 18786:Aristotelianism 18772: 18761:Vishishtadvaita 18714: 18666: 18607: 18574: 18445: 18374:Megarian school 18369:Eretrian school 18310: 18271:Agriculturalism 18248: 18194: 18175: 18122: 18094: 18051: 18003: 17960: 17944:Incompatibilism 17913: 17885: 17837: 17809: 17732: 17721: 17716: 17686: 17676: 17671: 17669: 17659: 17654: 17652: 17642: 17637: 17635: 17631:from Wikisource 17625: 17620: 17618: 17608: 17603: 17601: 17597:from Wiktionary 17591: 17586: 17584: 17581: 17577:sister projects 17574:at Knowledge's 17568: 17563: 17535: 17484: 17403:Gettier problem 17333: 17264:Foundationalism 17210: 17159:Wilfrid Sellars 17114:Alvin Plantinga 16994:George Berkeley 16961:Epistemologists 16955: 16950: 16920: 16919: 16918: 16903: 16902: 16898: 16891: 16886: 16877: 16875: 16852: 16815: 16813: 16790: 16788: 16781: 16757: 16755: 16732: 16730: 16707: 16705: 16698: 16677: 16624: 16622: 16599: 16597: 16590: 16558: 16556: 16549: 16528: 16480: 16478: 16471: 16445: 16443: 16436: 16410: 16408: 16401: 16377: 16375: 16309: 16307: 16284: 16282: 16275: 16249: 16247: 16240: 16214: 16212: 16205: 16181: 16179: 16135: 16133: 16126: 16102: 16100: 16093: 16069: 16067: 16060: 16026: 16024: 15978: 15976: 15953: 15951: 15944: 15920: 15918: 15895: 15893: 15847: 15845: 15822: 15820: 15805:10.2307/2678403 15777: 15775: 15768: 15727: 15725: 15718: 15684: 15682: 15675: 15624: 15622: 15615: 15594: 15573: 15551: 15549: 15542: 15497: 15495: 15488: 15462: 15460: 15440: 15418: 15416: 15409: 15385: 15383: 15376: 15352: 15350: 15343: 15319: 15317: 15294: 15292: 15269: 15267: 15248: 15246: 15223: 15221: 15214: 15188: 15186: 15167: 15165: 15158: 15086: 15067: 15048: 15029: 15005: 15003: 14996: 14964: 14962: 14939: 14937: 14930: 14906: 14904: 14897: 14871: 14869: 14846: 14844: 14837: 14813: 14811: 14804: 14780: 14778: 14730: 14708: 14706: 14699: 14675: 14673: 14650: 14648: 14641: 14618: 14593: 14571: 14569: 14546: 14544: 14525: 14523: 14516: 14484: 14482: 14475: 14449: 14447: 14436:"Knowledge How" 14424: 14422: 14399: 14397: 14390: 14356: 14354: 14347: 14323: 14321: 14314: 14288: 14286: 14263: 14261: 14231:(12): 874–883. 14213: 14211: 14188: 14186: 14179: 14155: 14153: 14146: 14122: 14120: 14113: 14089: 14087: 14064: 14062: 14055: 14029: 14027: 14020: 13996: 13994: 13987: 13922: 13920: 13909:"Evidentialism" 13897: 13895: 13873: 13847: 13845: 13838: 13814: 13812: 13805: 13781: 13779: 13759: 13684: 13682: 13675: 13654: 13635: 13616: 13584: 13582: 13575: 13551: 13549: 13542: 13518: 13516: 13509: 13483: 13481: 13474: 13442: 13440: 13417: 13415: 13408: 13384: 13382: 13375: 13336: 13312:Popper, Karl R. 13300: 13281: 13241: 13219: 13217: 13199: 13197: 13190: 13166: 13164: 13157: 13131: 13129: 13122: 13098: 13096: 13074: 13052: 13050: 13027: 13025: 13018: 12994: 12992: 12985: 12961: 12942: 12920: 12918: 12911: 12888: 12866: 12864: 12829: 12827: 12820: 12796: 12794: 12779: 12743: 12741: 12698: 12696: 12689: 12665: 12663: 12656: 12609: 12607: 12600: 12576: 12574: 12567: 12512: 12510: 12487: 12485: 12478: 12457: 12435: 12433: 12413: 12394: 12370: 12368: 12361: 12337: 12335: 12312: 12310: 12303: 12271: 12269: 12262: 12239: 12220: 12201: 12179: 12177: 12170: 12146: 12144: 12137: 12111: 12109: 12102: 12047: 12045: 12022: 12020: 11995: 11993: 11986: 11941: 11939: 11932: 11908: 11906: 11883: 11881: 11858: 11856: 11849: 11820: 11798: 11796: 11776: 11757: 11735: 11733: 11726: 11702: 11700: 11693: 11669: 11667: 11660: 11636: 11634: 11627: 11595: 11593: 11570: 11568: 11543: 11541: 11534: 11502: 11500: 11477: 11475: 11452: 11450: 11430: 11408: 11406: 11378:10.2307/2025679 11372:(20): 771–791. 11354: 11352: 11329: 11327: 11320: 11286: 11284: 11277: 11200: 11198: 11191: 11167: 11165: 11158: 11129: 11110: 11091: 11069: 11067: 11060: 11036: 11034: 11027: 10995: 10993: 10986: 10936: 10912: 10910: 10903: 10879: 10877: 10870: 10806: 10760: 10738: 10736: 10716: 10686: 10684: 10677: 10653: 10651: 10628: 10626: 10603: 10601: 10594: 10570: 10568: 10548: 10526: 10524: 10517: 10496: 10417: 10415: 10408: 10382: 10380: 10373: 10349: 10347: 10340: 10316: 10314: 10307: 10273: 10271: 10248: 10246: 10239: 10215: 10213: 10206: 10174: 10172: 10153:"Contrastivism" 10141: 10139: 10132: 10106: 10104: 10097: 10074: 10044: 10042: 10019: 10017: 10010: 9989: 9957: 9955: 9948: 9924: 9922: 9915: 9891: 9889: 9882: 9856: 9854: 9834: 9812: 9810: 9803: 9772:10.2307/2107939 9748: 9746: 9739: 9707: 9705: 9698: 9674: 9672: 9665: 9641: 9639: 9616: 9614: 9607: 9575: 9573: 9566: 9540: 9538: 9531: 9507: 9505: 9485: 9463: 9461: 9410: 9408: 9401: 9377: 9375: 9368: 9344: 9342: 9335: 9311: 9309: 9302: 9270: 9268: 9261: 9237: 9235: 9204: 9202: 9195: 9171: 9169: 9162: 9068: 9066: 9059: 9038: 9016: 9014: 8991: 8989: 8966: 8964: 8941: 8939: 8932: 8908: 8906: 8899: 8873: 8871: 8864: 8841: 8819: 8817: 8810: 8781:10.2307/2214083 8757: 8755: 8748: 8722: 8720: 8697: 8695: 8647: 8625: 8623: 8616: 8589: 8584: 8580: 8561: 8557: 8551:Crumley II 2009 8549: 8545: 8541: 8536:Crumley II 2009 8525: 8521: 8517: 8501: 8497: 8493: 8468: 8464: 8456: 8452: 8448: 8432: 8428: 8424: 8402: 8398: 8390: 8386: 8382: 8360: 8356: 8352: 8333: 8329: 8321: 8317: 8313: 8297: 8293: 8289: 8273: 8269: 8265: 8249: 8245: 8241: 8216: 8212: 8208: 8186: 8182: 8178: 8159: 8155: 8151: 8135: 8131: 8127: 8111: 8107: 8103: 8087: 8083: 8079: 8071:Antognazza 2024 8060: 8056: 8052: 8036: 8032: 8024: 8020: 8016: 8008:Holopainen 2010 7997: 7993: 7989: 7970: 7966: 7962: 7954:Schoenbaum 2015 7943: 7939: 7935: 7916: 7912: 7908: 7892: 7888: 7884: 7868: 7864: 7860: 7844: 7840: 7836: 7820: 7816: 7805: 7801: 7797: 7781: 7777: 7773: 7748: 7744: 7740: 7712: 7708: 7700: 7696: 7688: 7681: 7677: 7661: 7657: 7653: 7634: 7630: 7626: 7610: 7606: 7602: 7580: 7576: 7568: 7561: 7557: 7541: 7537: 7533: 7502: 7498: 7494: 7475: 7471: 7467: 7448: 7444: 7436: 7432: 7428: 7391: 7387: 7379: 7375: 7367: 7363: 7359: 7343: 7339: 7335: 7316: 7312: 7308: 7292: 7288: 7280: 7276: 7272: 7247: 7243: 7239: 7220: 7216: 7212: 7193: 7189: 7181: 7174: 7163: 7159: 7148: 7144: 7140: 7115: 7111: 7103: 7099: 7095: 7079: 7075: 7071: 7060:Crumley II 2009 7046: 7042: 7034: 7030: 7022: 7018: 7014: 6998: 6994: 6990: 6974: 6970: 6962: 6958: 6950: 6946: 6942: 6923: 6919: 6911: 6907: 6896: 6892: 6884: 6880: 6872: 6868: 6857: 6853: 6845: 6841: 6833: 6829: 6821: 6817: 6813: 6797: 6793: 6789: 6772:Crumley II 2009 6767: 6763: 6755: 6751: 6743: 6739: 6735: 6707: 6703: 6699: 6683: 6679: 6675: 6656: 6652: 6644: 6640: 6636: 6620: 6616: 6612: 6596: 6592: 6584: 6580: 6576: 6557: 6553: 6549: 6518: 6514: 6510: 6491: 6487: 6479: 6475: 6467: 6463: 6459: 6440: 6436: 6432: 6407: 6403: 6399: 6380: 6376: 6372: 6356: 6352: 6348: 6329: 6325: 6321: 6302: 6298: 6294: 6275: 6271: 6267: 6245: 6241: 6237: 6221: 6217: 6213: 6191: 6187: 6183: 6167: 6163: 6159: 6143: 6139: 6135: 6120: 6116: 6112: 6107:Crumley II 2009 6093: 6089: 6085: 6080:Crumley II 2009 6069: 6065: 6061: 6046:Crumley II 2009 6041: 6037: 6033: 6017:Crumley II 2009 6012: 6008: 6004: 5994:Crumley II 2009 5989: 5985: 5979:Crumley II 2009 5977: 5973: 5965: 5961: 5957: 5940:Crumley II 2009 5935: 5931: 5925:Crumley II 2009 5923: 5919: 5915: 5910:Crumley II 2009 5893: 5886: 5882: 5867: 5863: 5859: 5848:Crumley II 2009 5837: 5833: 5825: 5821: 5817: 5798: 5794: 5790: 5771: 5767: 5763: 5744: 5740: 5732: 5728: 5724: 5705: 5698: 5690: 5686: 5675: 5671: 5667: 5642: 5638: 5634: 5609: 5605: 5594: 5590: 5586: 5570: 5563: 5555: 5551: 5547: 5531: 5527: 5523: 5504: 5500: 5496: 5487:Hetherington, " 5476: 5472: 5468: 5453:Hetherington, " 5448: 5444: 5436: 5432: 5428: 5409: 5405: 5401: 5385: 5381: 5377: 5368:Hetherington, " 5351: 5347: 5343: 5327: 5323: 5319: 5297: 5293: 5289: 5270: 5266: 5262: 5237: 5233: 5229: 5207: 5203: 5199: 5177: 5173: 5169: 5147: 5143: 5139: 5123: 5119: 5115: 5096: 5092: 5084: 5080: 5076: 5048: 5044: 5040: 5018: 5014: 5010: 4994: 4990: 4986: 4970: 4966: 4962: 4946: 4942: 4938: 4910: 4906: 4902: 4880: 4876: 4872: 4845: 4841: 4837: 4807:Hetherington, " 4802: 4798: 4790: 4786: 4782: 4763: 4759: 4755: 4746:Hetherington, " 4735: 4731: 4727: 4718:Hetherington, " 4692: 4688: 4684: 4665: 4661: 4650: 4646: 4638: 4634: 4630: 4616:Crumley II 2009 4611: 4607: 4599: 4595: 4591: 4575: 4571: 4567: 4557:Crumley II 2009 4552: 4548: 4544: 4528: 4521: 4517: 4501: 4497: 4493: 4471: 4467: 4463: 4458:Crumley II 2009 4435: 4431: 4427: 4422:Crumley II 2009 4399: 4395: 4391: 4386:Crumley II 2009 4369: 4365: 4361: 4345: 4341: 4337: 4321: 4317: 4313: 4297: 4293: 4289: 4267: 4263: 4259: 4254:Crumley II 2009 4231: 4227: 4223: 4204: 4200: 4192: 4188: 4184: 4168: 4164: 4160: 4135: 4131: 4127: 4105: 4101: 4097: 4089:Degenhardt 2019 4063: 4059: 4048: 4044: 4040: 4018: 4014: 4010: 3987:Degenhardt 2019 3982: 3978: 3970: 3966: 3962: 3940: 3936: 3932: 3917:Hetherington, " 3912: 3908: 3902:Crumley II 2009 3900: 3896: 3892: 3881:Crumley II 2009 3876: 3872: 3864: 3860: 3852: 3848: 3842:Crumley II 2009 3840: 3836: 3832: 3821:Crumley II 2009 3816: 3812: 3808: 3789: 3785: 3781: 3770:Crumley II 2009 3765: 3761: 3757: 3729: 3725: 3721: 3710:Crumley II 2009 3705: 3701: 3697: 3692:Crumley II 2009 3681: 3677: 3673: 3659:Crumley II 2009 3654: 3650: 3646: 3628: 3624: 3613: 3609: 3605: 3583: 3579: 3575: 3549: 3545: 3541: 3521: 3517: 3513: 3487: 3483: 3479: 3452:Hetherington, " 3447: 3443: 3439: 3408: 3404: 3400: 3382:Hetherington, " 3377: 3373: 3369: 3345:Hetherington, " 3340: 3336: 3325: 3321: 3317: 3292: 3288: 3278:Hetherington, " 3276: 3269: 3265: 3244:Hetherington, " 3239: 3235: 3231: 3216:Hetherington, " 3205: 3201: 3197: 3170:Hetherington, " 3165: 3161: 3150: 3146: 3142: 3133:Hetherington, " 3110: 3106: 3102: 3093:, pp. 2, 6 3086: 3082: 3078: 3056: 3052: 3048: 3036:, pp. 2, 6 3023: 3019: 3015: 2987: 2983: 2979: 2964: 2960: 2956: 2938: 2934: 2930: 2911: 2907: 2903: 2882: 2878: 2870: 2866: 2858: 2854: 2847: 2843: 2835: 2831: 2827: 2802: 2798: 2794: 2772: 2768: 2764: 2750:Crumley II 2009 2745: 2741: 2730: 2726: 2722: 2711:Crumley II 2009 2706: 2702: 2698: 2679: 2675: 2671: 2640: 2636: 2632: 2613: 2609: 2605: 2585:Crumley II 2009 2568: 2564: 2557: 2553: 2549: 2544: 2543: 2538: 2534: 2529: 2525: 2520: 2516: 2507: 2503: 2498: 2494: 2485: 2481: 2477:or indubitable. 2472: 2468: 2462:regress problem 2459: 2455: 2446: 2442: 2428: 2424: 2418:basing relation 2415: 2411: 2402: 2398: 2385: 2381: 2368: 2364: 2358: 2354: 2345: 2341: 2336: 2331: 2322: 2301: 2294: 2281: 2276: 2274: 2271: 2068: 2037: 2018: 2004:medieval period 1988: 1977: 1915:to arrive at a 1869: 1814:Learning theory 1802:decision theory 1787:epistemic logic 1749: 1746: 1745: 1717: 1714: 1713: 1685: 1682: 1681: 1653: 1650: 1649: 1614: 1517:holy scriptures 1444: 1310:belief revision 1281: 1233: 1227: 1219:circular manner 1192: 1186:Foundationalism 1184:Main articles: 1182: 1146: 1145: 1144: 1143: 1132: 1131: 1130: 1122: 1121: 1110: 1102:Main articles: 1100: 1034: 1022:Main articles: 1020: 1015: 981:is a defeater. 948:open-mindedness 904:rational belief 897: 881:sensory signals 833: 797: 791: 739:folk psychology 718: 710:Main articles: 708: 683: 619: 613: 525: 522: 521: 427: 374: 368: 363: 325:comes from the 240: 219:medieval period 188:decision theory 61: 54: 44: 37: 30: 28: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 19807: 19797: 19796: 19779: 19778: 19776: 19775: 19763: 19748: 19745: 19744: 19741: 19740: 19737: 19736: 19733: 19732: 19730: 19729: 19724: 19719: 19714: 19709: 19703: 19701: 19697: 19696: 19694: 19693: 19688: 19683: 19678: 19673: 19668: 19663: 19658: 19653: 19648: 19643: 19638: 19633: 19628: 19627: 19626: 19616: 19611: 19605: 19603: 19597: 19596: 19594: 19593: 19588: 19583: 19578: 19573: 19567: 19565: 19563:Middle Eastern 19559: 19558: 19556: 19555: 19550: 19545: 19540: 19535: 19530: 19525: 19520: 19514: 19512: 19506: 19505: 19503: 19502: 19497: 19492: 19487: 19481: 19479: 19470: 19460: 19459: 19456: 19455: 19451: 19443: 19442: 19439: 19438: 19435: 19434: 19431: 19430: 19428: 19427: 19420: 19415: 19410: 19405: 19399: 19397: 19393: 19392: 19390: 19389: 19384: 19379: 19374: 19369: 19364: 19359: 19354: 19349: 19344: 19339: 19334: 19329: 19327:Existentialism 19324: 19322:Deconstruction 19319: 19313: 19311: 19305: 19304: 19302: 19301: 19296: 19291: 19286: 19281: 19276: 19271: 19266: 19261: 19256: 19251: 19246: 19241: 19236: 19231: 19226: 19221: 19216: 19211: 19206: 19201: 19192: 19187: 19182: 19177: 19172: 19167: 19162: 19157: 19155:Applied ethics 19151: 19149: 19140: 19134: 19133: 19130: 19129: 19127: 19126: 19121: 19119:Nietzscheanism 19116: 19111: 19106: 19101: 19096: 19091: 19090: 19089: 19079: 19073: 19071: 19067: 19066: 19064: 19063: 19061:Utilitarianism 19058: 19053: 19048: 19043: 19038: 19033: 19028: 19023: 19018: 19013: 19008: 19003: 18998: 18993: 18988: 18983: 18978: 18973: 18968: 18963: 18962: 18961: 18959:Transcendental 18956: 18951: 18946: 18941: 18936: 18926: 18925: 18924: 18914: 18909: 18904: 18899: 18897:Existentialism 18894: 18889: 18884: 18879: 18874: 18869: 18864: 18859: 18853: 18847: 18841: 18840: 18837: 18836: 18834: 18833: 18827: 18825: 18819: 18818: 18816: 18815: 18810: 18803: 18798: 18793: 18788: 18782: 18780: 18774: 18773: 18771: 18770: 18765: 18764: 18763: 18758: 18753: 18748: 18743: 18738: 18733: 18722: 18720: 18716: 18715: 18713: 18712: 18707: 18702: 18697: 18692: 18687: 18685:Augustinianism 18682: 18676: 18674: 18668: 18667: 18665: 18664: 18659: 18654: 18649: 18644: 18639: 18634: 18628: 18626: 18619: 18613: 18612: 18609: 18608: 18606: 18605: 18600: 18598:Zoroastrianism 18595: 18590: 18584: 18582: 18576: 18575: 18573: 18572: 18571: 18570: 18565: 18560: 18555: 18550: 18545: 18540: 18535: 18530: 18520: 18519: 18518: 18513: 18503: 18502: 18501: 18496: 18491: 18486: 18481: 18476: 18471: 18466: 18455: 18453: 18447: 18446: 18444: 18443: 18441:Church Fathers 18438: 18433: 18428: 18423: 18418: 18413: 18412: 18411: 18406: 18401: 18396: 18386: 18381: 18376: 18371: 18366: 18361: 18356: 18355: 18354: 18349: 18344: 18339: 18334: 18323: 18321: 18312: 18311: 18309: 18308: 18303: 18298: 18293: 18288: 18283: 18278: 18273: 18267: 18265: 18256: 18250: 18249: 18247: 18246: 18245: 18244: 18239: 18234: 18229: 18224: 18214: 18208: 18206: 18196: 18195: 18185: 18184: 18181: 18180: 18177: 18176: 18174: 18173: 18168: 18163: 18158: 18153: 18148: 18143: 18138: 18132: 18130: 18124: 18123: 18121: 18120: 18115: 18110: 18104: 18102: 18096: 18095: 18093: 18092: 18087: 18082: 18077: 18072: 18067: 18061: 18059: 18053: 18052: 18050: 18049: 18044: 18039: 18034: 18029: 18024: 18019: 18013: 18011: 18005: 18004: 18002: 18001: 17996: 17991: 17986: 17981: 17976: 17970: 17968: 17962: 17961: 17959: 17958: 17956:Libertarianism 17953: 17952: 17951: 17941: 17940: 17939: 17929: 17923: 17921: 17915: 17914: 17912: 17911: 17906: 17901: 17895: 17893: 17887: 17886: 17884: 17883: 17878: 17873: 17868: 17863: 17858: 17853: 17847: 17845: 17839: 17838: 17836: 17835: 17830: 17825: 17819: 17817: 17811: 17810: 17808: 17807: 17802: 17797: 17792: 17787: 17782: 17777: 17772: 17767: 17762: 17760:Metaphilosophy 17757: 17752: 17746: 17744: 17734: 17733: 17723: 17722: 17715: 17714: 17707: 17700: 17692: 17685: 17684: 17667: 17650: 17648:from Wikibooks 17633: 17616: 17614:from Wikiquote 17599: 17570: 17565: 17564: 17562: 17561: 17556: 17551: 17546: 17540: 17537: 17536: 17534: 17533: 17528: 17523: 17518: 17513: 17508: 17503: 17498: 17492: 17490: 17486: 17485: 17483: 17482: 17475: 17470: 17465: 17460: 17455: 17450: 17445: 17440: 17435: 17430: 17425: 17420: 17415: 17410: 17405: 17400: 17395: 17390: 17385: 17380: 17375: 17370: 17365: 17360: 17352: 17343: 17341: 17335: 17334: 17332: 17331: 17326: 17321: 17316: 17311: 17306: 17301: 17296: 17291: 17286: 17281: 17276: 17271: 17266: 17261: 17256: 17251: 17246: 17241: 17236: 17231: 17229:Constructivism 17226: 17220: 17218: 17212: 17211: 17209: 17208: 17201: 17196: 17191: 17186: 17181: 17179:Baruch Spinoza 17176: 17174:P. F. Strawson 17171: 17166: 17164:Susanna Siegel 17161: 17156: 17151: 17146: 17141: 17139:W. V. O. Quine 17136: 17131: 17126: 17121: 17116: 17111: 17106: 17101: 17096: 17091: 17086: 17081: 17076: 17071: 17066: 17061: 17056: 17051: 17046: 17041: 17039:Nelson Goodman 17036: 17031: 17029:Edmund Gettier 17026: 17021: 17016: 17014:René Descartes 17011: 17006: 17004:Gilles Deleuze 17001: 16996: 16991: 16986: 16981: 16979:William Alston 16976: 16971: 16969:Thomas Aquinas 16965: 16963: 16957: 16956: 16949: 16948: 16941: 16934: 16926: 16917: 16916: 16911: 16905: 16904: 16893: 16892: 16890: 16889:External links 16887: 16885: 16884: 16850: 16822: 16797: 16779: 16764: 16739: 16714: 16696: 16681: 16675: 16652: 16642:(4): 469–493. 16631: 16606: 16588: 16565: 16547: 16532: 16526: 16513: 16487: 16469: 16452: 16434: 16417: 16399: 16384: 16359: 16316: 16294:Vahid, Hamid. 16291: 16273: 16256: 16238: 16232:. IGI Global. 16221: 16203: 16188: 16168:"Epistemology" 16163: 16153:(2): 215–228. 16142: 16124: 16109: 16091: 16076: 16058: 16033: 16006: 15985: 15965:"Epistemology" 15960: 15942: 15927: 15907:"Epistemology" 15902: 15880:"Epistemology" 15875: 15854: 15829: 15799:(8): 411–444. 15784: 15766: 15751: 15734: 15716: 15696:"Introduction" 15691: 15673: 15648: 15631: 15613: 15598: 15592: 15577: 15571: 15558: 15540: 15525: 15515:(4): 557–567. 15504: 15486: 15469: 15444: 15438: 15425: 15407: 15392: 15374: 15359: 15341: 15326: 15301: 15276: 15255: 15230: 15212: 15195: 15174: 15156: 15141: 15105:(148): 29–54. 15090: 15084: 15071: 15065: 15052: 15046: 15033: 15027: 15012: 14994: 14971: 14946: 14928: 14913: 14895: 14878: 14853: 14835: 14820: 14802: 14793:Epistemic Luck 14787: 14734: 14728: 14715: 14697: 14682: 14657: 14639: 14622: 14616: 14608:89–90, 97b–98a 14603:Five Dialogues 14600:Plato (2002). 14597: 14591: 14578: 14553: 14532: 14514: 14491: 14473: 14456: 14431: 14406: 14388: 14363: 14345: 14330: 14312: 14300:"Introduction" 14295: 14270: 14254:"Epistemology" 14249: 14220: 14195: 14177: 14162: 14144: 14129: 14111: 14096: 14076:"A Posteriori" 14071: 14053: 14036: 14018: 14003: 13985: 13970: 13929: 13904: 13877: 13871: 13854: 13836: 13821: 13803: 13788: 13763: 13757: 13744: 13706:(8): 754–768. 13691: 13673: 13658: 13652: 13639: 13633: 13620: 13614: 13591: 13573: 13558: 13540: 13525: 13507: 13490: 13472: 13449: 13424: 13406: 13391: 13373: 13348: 13334: 13304: 13298: 13285: 13279: 13266: 13256:(1): 271–295. 13245: 13239: 13226: 13206: 13188: 13173: 13155: 13138: 13120: 13105: 13078: 13072: 13059: 13034: 13016: 13001: 12983: 12965: 12959: 12946: 12940: 12927: 12909: 12892: 12886: 12873: 12836: 12818: 12803: 12777: 12750: 12720:(3): 813–839. 12705: 12687: 12672: 12654: 12637: 12627:(4): 332–342. 12616: 12598: 12583: 12565: 12550: 12519: 12494: 12476: 12461: 12455: 12442: 12420:Kaye, Sharon. 12417: 12411: 12398: 12392: 12377: 12359: 12344: 12319: 12301: 12278: 12260: 12243: 12237: 12224: 12218: 12205: 12199: 12186: 12168: 12153: 12135: 12118: 12100: 12075: 12065:(4): 353–383. 12054: 12029: 12002: 11984: 11969: 11959:(1): 312–332. 11948: 11930: 11924:. Bloomsbury. 11915: 11890: 11865: 11847: 11824: 11818: 11805: 11780: 11774: 11761: 11755: 11742: 11724: 11709: 11691: 11676: 11658: 11643: 11625: 11602: 11577: 11550: 11532: 11509: 11484: 11459: 11434: 11428: 11415: 11390: 11361: 11336: 11318: 11293: 11275: 11258: 11207: 11189: 11174: 11156: 11133: 11127: 11114: 11108: 11095: 11089: 11076: 11058: 11043: 11025: 11002: 10984: 10961: 10951:(2): 165–182. 10940: 10934: 10919: 10901: 10886: 10868: 10845: 10810: 10804: 10791: 10764: 10758: 10745: 10720: 10714: 10693: 10675: 10660: 10635: 10610: 10592: 10577: 10552: 10546: 10533: 10515: 10500: 10494: 10467: 10424: 10406: 10389: 10371: 10356: 10338: 10323: 10305: 10280: 10255: 10237: 10222: 10204: 10181: 10148: 10130: 10113: 10095: 10078: 10072: 10051: 10026: 10008: 9993: 9987: 9964: 9946: 9931: 9913: 9898: 9880: 9863: 9838: 9832: 9819: 9801: 9784: 9766:(2): 341–363. 9755: 9737: 9714: 9696: 9681: 9663: 9648: 9623: 9605: 9582: 9564: 9547: 9529: 9514: 9492:Black, Brian. 9489: 9483: 9470: 9417: 9399: 9384: 9366: 9351: 9333: 9318: 9300: 9277: 9259: 9244: 9211: 9193: 9178: 9160: 9135: 9114: 9092:10.1086/324131 9075: 9057: 9042: 9036: 9023: 8998: 8973: 8948: 8930: 8915: 8897: 8880: 8862: 8845: 8839: 8826: 8808: 8793: 8764: 8746: 8729: 8704: 8651: 8645: 8632: 8614: 8590: 8588: 8585: 8583: 8582: 8579: 8578: 8569: 8562: 8555: 8543: 8540: 8539: 8533: 8526: 8519: 8516: 8515: 8509: 8502: 8495: 8492: 8491: 8485: 8476: 8469: 8462: 8450: 8447: 8446: 8440: 8433: 8426: 8423: 8422: 8416: 8410: 8403: 8396: 8384: 8381: 8380: 8374: 8368: 8361: 8354: 8351: 8350: 8341: 8334: 8327: 8315: 8312: 8311: 8305: 8298: 8291: 8288: 8287: 8281: 8274: 8267: 8264: 8263: 8257: 8250: 8243: 8240: 8239: 8233: 8227: 8217: 8210: 8207: 8206: 8200: 8194: 8187: 8180: 8177: 8176: 8167: 8160: 8153: 8150: 8149: 8143: 8136: 8129: 8126: 8125: 8119: 8112: 8105: 8102: 8101: 8095: 8094:, Lead section 8088: 8081: 8078: 8077: 8068: 8061: 8054: 8051: 8050: 8044: 8037: 8030: 8018: 8015: 8014: 8005: 7998: 7991: 7988: 7987: 7978: 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7138: 7132: 7126: 7120:Rosenberg 2002 7116: 7109: 7097: 7094: 7093: 7092:, pp. 2–3 7087: 7080: 7073: 7070: 7069: 7063: 7057: 7051:Kitchener 1992 7047: 7040: 7028: 7026:, Lead section 7016: 7013: 7012: 7011:, pp. 1–2 7006: 7005:, Lead section 6999: 6992: 6989: 6988: 6982: 6981:, pp. 1–2 6975: 6968: 6956: 6954:, Lead section 6944: 6941: 6940: 6934:Hendricks 2006 6931: 6924: 6917: 6915:, Lead section 6905: 6898:Pritchard 2004 6890: 6888:, Lead section 6878: 6866: 6851: 6849:, Lead section 6839: 6827: 6815: 6812: 6811: 6810:, Lead section 6805: 6804:, Lead section 6798: 6791: 6788: 6787: 6781: 6780:, Lead section 6775: 6768: 6761: 6749: 6737: 6734: 6733: 6727: 6718: 6708: 6701: 6698: 6697: 6691: 6690:, Lead section 6684: 6677: 6674: 6673: 6664: 6657: 6650: 6648:, Lead section 6638: 6635: 6634: 6628: 6621: 6614: 6611: 6610: 6604: 6597: 6590: 6578: 6575: 6574: 6565: 6558: 6551: 6548: 6547: 6538: 6529: 6519: 6512: 6509: 6508: 6499: 6492: 6485: 6473: 6461: 6458: 6457: 6448: 6441: 6434: 6431: 6430: 6421: 6420:, Lead section 6415: 6414:, Lead section 6408: 6401: 6398: 6397: 6396:, pp. 1–7 6391: 6381: 6374: 6371: 6370: 6369:, Lead section 6364: 6357: 6350: 6347: 6346: 6337: 6330: 6323: 6320: 6319: 6318:, Lead section 6316:Grasswick 2018 6313: 6303: 6296: 6293: 6292: 6283: 6276: 6269: 6266: 6265: 6259: 6253: 6246: 6239: 6236: 6235: 6229: 6228:, pp. 3–4 6226:Pietersma 2000 6222: 6215: 6212: 6211: 6202: 6196:Titelbaum 2022 6192: 6185: 6182: 6181: 6175: 6168: 6161: 6158: 6157: 6151: 6144: 6137: 6134: 6133: 6127: 6121: 6114: 6111: 6110: 6104: 6094: 6087: 6084: 6083: 6077: 6070: 6063: 6060: 6059: 6049: 6042: 6035: 6032: 6031: 6026: 6020: 6013: 6006: 6003: 6002: 5997: 5990: 5983: 5971: 5959: 5956: 5955: 5954:, Lead section 5949: 5943: 5936: 5929: 5917: 5914: 5913: 5907: 5906:, Lead section 5901: 5900:, Lead section 5894: 5884: 5881: 5880: 5875: 5872:Bernecker 2013 5868: 5861: 5858: 5857: 5856:, Lead section 5851: 5845: 5844:, Lead section 5838: 5831: 5819: 5816: 5815: 5809: 5799: 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4937: 4936: 4935:, pp. 3–4 4930: 4924: 4918: 4911: 4904: 4901: 4900: 4899:, Lead section 4894: 4888: 4881: 4874: 4871: 4870: 4865: 4859: 4853: 4852:, § 5.3 Memory 4846: 4839: 4836: 4835: 4826: 4820: 4819:, § 5.4 Reason 4814: 4803: 4796: 4784: 4781: 4780: 4779:, Lead section 4774: 4764: 4757: 4754: 4753: 4743: 4736: 4729: 4726: 4725: 4715: 4709: 4703: 4693: 4686: 4683: 4682: 4673: 4666: 4659: 4644: 4632: 4629: 4628: 4619: 4612: 4605: 4593: 4590: 4589: 4588:, Lead section 4583: 4576: 4569: 4566: 4565: 4560: 4553: 4546: 4543: 4542: 4536: 4529: 4519: 4516: 4515: 4509: 4502: 4495: 4492: 4491: 4485: 4482:Glanzberg 2023 4479: 4472: 4465: 4462: 4461: 4455: 4449: 4443: 4440:Glanzberg 2023 4436: 4429: 4426: 4425: 4419: 4418:, pp. 3–5 4413: 4407: 4400: 4393: 4390: 4389: 4383: 4377: 4370: 4363: 4360: 4359: 4353: 4346: 4339: 4336: 4335: 4329: 4322: 4315: 4312: 4311: 4305: 4298: 4291: 4288: 4287: 4281: 4275: 4274:, Lead section 4268: 4261: 4258: 4257: 4251: 4245: 4239: 4238:, Lead section 4232: 4225: 4222: 4221: 4215: 4209:Pritchard 2013 4205: 4198: 4186: 4183: 4182: 4176: 4169: 4162: 4159: 4158: 4156:89–90, 97b–98a 4149: 4143: 4136: 4129: 4126: 4125: 4119: 4113: 4106: 4099: 4096: 4095: 4086: 4080: 4071: 4064: 4057: 4050:Pritchard 2013 4042: 4039: 4038: 4032:McCormick 2014 4029: 4023:Pritchard 2013 4019: 4012: 4009: 4008: 4002: 3996:Pritchard 2013 3993: 3983: 3976: 3964: 3961: 3960: 3954: 3951:Zagzebski 1999 3948: 3941: 3934: 3931: 3930: 3924: 3913: 3906: 3894: 3891: 3890: 3884: 3877: 3870: 3858: 3846: 3834: 3831: 3830: 3824: 3817: 3810: 3807: 3806: 3805:, Lead section 3800: 3794:Pritchard 2005 3790: 3783: 3780: 3779: 3773: 3766: 3759: 3756: 3755: 3749: 3743: 3737: 3734:Rodríguez 2018 3730: 3723: 3720: 3719: 3713: 3706: 3699: 3696: 3695: 3689: 3688:, Lead section 3682: 3675: 3672: 3671: 3662: 3655: 3648: 3645: 3644: 3639: 3629: 3622: 3607: 3604: 3603: 3594: 3584: 3577: 3574: 3573: 3572:, Lead section 3567: 3557: 3556:, Lead section 3550: 3543: 3540: 3539: 3538:, Lead section 3533: 3532:, Lead section 3522: 3515: 3512: 3511: 3510:, Lead section 3505: 3504:, Lead section 3495: 3488: 3481: 3478: 3477: 3471: 3468:Zagzebski 1999 3465: 3459: 3448: 3441: 3438: 3437: 3428: 3419: 3409: 3402: 3399: 3398: 3392:Pritchard 2013 3389: 3378: 3371: 3368: 3367: 3358: 3352: 3341: 3334: 3327:Pritchard 2013 3319: 3316: 3315: 3312:Zagzebski 1999 3309: 3303: 3293: 3286: 3267: 3264: 3263: 3260:Zagzebski 1999 3257: 3251: 3240: 3233: 3230: 3229: 3223: 3213: 3206: 3199: 3196: 3195: 3186: 3177: 3166: 3159: 3144: 3141: 3140: 3130: 3124:Pritchard 2005 3121: 3111: 3104: 3101: 3100: 3094: 3087: 3080: 3077: 3076: 3070: 3064: 3057: 3050: 3047: 3046: 3037: 3031: 3024: 3017: 3014: 3013: 3007: 2998: 2988: 2981: 2978: 2977: 2971: 2965: 2958: 2955: 2954: 2945: 2939: 2932: 2929: 2928: 2922: 2912: 2905: 2902: 2901: 2896: 2890: 2887:Zagzebski 1999 2883: 2876: 2864: 2862:, pp. 1–2 2852: 2841: 2829: 2826: 2825: 2819: 2810: 2809:, Lead section 2803: 2796: 2793: 2792: 2791:, Lead section 2786: 2785:, pp. 3–4 2780: 2773: 2766: 2763: 2762: 2753: 2746: 2739: 2724: 2721: 2720: 2714: 2707: 2700: 2697: 2696: 2687: 2686:, Lead section 2680: 2673: 2670: 2669: 2660: 2654:Palmquist 2010 2651: 2641: 2634: 2631: 2630: 2621: 2620:, pp. 1–2 2614: 2607: 2604: 2603: 2594: 2588: 2582: 2576: 2575:, Lead section 2569: 2562: 2550: 2548: 2545: 2542: 2541: 2532: 2523: 2514: 2501: 2492: 2479: 2466: 2453: 2440: 2431:brain in a vat 2422: 2409: 2396: 2379: 2362: 2352: 2338: 2337: 2335: 2332: 2330: 2327: 2326: 2325: 2316: 2310: 2304: 2287: 2286: 2270: 2267: 2231:Edmund Gettier 2189:Edmund Husserl 2162:Charles Peirce 2111:Baruch Spinoza 2103:René Descartes 2101:was shaped by 2097:The course of 2087:René Descartes 2058:direct realism 2054:Thomas Aquinas 2019: 870–950 1868: 1865: 1863:in a society. 1765: 1762: 1759: 1756: 1753: 1733: 1730: 1727: 1724: 1721: 1701: 1698: 1695: 1692: 1689: 1669: 1666: 1663: 1660: 1657: 1613: 1612:Related fields 1610: 1588:sexual assault 1479:contradictions 1443: 1440: 1411:non-perception 1292:Constructivism 1280: 1277: 1229:Main article: 1226: 1223: 1208:foundherentism 1181: 1178: 1134: 1133: 1124: 1123: 1115: 1114: 1113: 1112: 1111: 1099: 1096: 1080:dream argument 1069:René Descartes 1019: 1016: 1014: 1011: 983:Evidentialists 896: 895:Other concepts 893: 857:sensory organs 832: 829: 793:Main article: 790: 787: 707: 704: 682: 679: 655:Edmund Gettier 649:The so-called 615:Main article: 612: 609: 541: 538: 535: 532: 529: 482:, and knowing 449:knowledge-that 426: 423: 392:knowledge base 370:Main article: 367: 364: 362: 359: 250:, it examines 246:. Also called 239: 236: 127:The school of 74:. Also called 26: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 19806: 19795: 19792: 19791: 19789: 19774: 19773: 19764: 19762: 19761: 19750: 19749: 19746: 19728: 19725: 19723: 19720: 19718: 19715: 19713: 19710: 19708: 19705: 19704: 19702: 19700:Miscellaneous 19698: 19692: 19689: 19687: 19684: 19682: 19679: 19677: 19674: 19672: 19669: 19667: 19664: 19662: 19659: 19657: 19654: 19652: 19649: 19647: 19644: 19642: 19639: 19637: 19634: 19632: 19629: 19625: 19622: 19621: 19620: 19617: 19615: 19612: 19610: 19607: 19606: 19604: 19602: 19598: 19592: 19589: 19587: 19584: 19582: 19579: 19577: 19574: 19572: 19569: 19568: 19566: 19564: 19560: 19554: 19551: 19549: 19546: 19544: 19541: 19539: 19536: 19534: 19531: 19529: 19526: 19524: 19521: 19519: 19516: 19515: 19513: 19511: 19507: 19501: 19498: 19496: 19493: 19491: 19488: 19486: 19483: 19482: 19480: 19478: 19474: 19471: 19469: 19465: 19461: 19453: 19452: 19448: 19444: 19426: 19425: 19421: 19419: 19416: 19414: 19411: 19409: 19406: 19404: 19401: 19400: 19398: 19396:Miscellaneous 19394: 19388: 19385: 19383: 19382:Structuralism 19380: 19378: 19375: 19373: 19370: 19368: 19367:Postmodernism 19365: 19363: 19360: 19358: 19357:Phenomenology 19355: 19353: 19350: 19348: 19345: 19343: 19340: 19338: 19335: 19333: 19330: 19328: 19325: 19323: 19320: 19318: 19315: 19314: 19312: 19310: 19306: 19300: 19297: 19295: 19294:Vienna Circle 19292: 19290: 19287: 19285: 19282: 19280: 19277: 19275: 19272: 19270: 19267: 19265: 19262: 19260: 19257: 19255: 19252: 19250: 19247: 19245: 19242: 19240: 19237: 19235: 19232: 19230: 19227: 19225: 19224:Moral realism 19222: 19220: 19217: 19215: 19212: 19210: 19207: 19205: 19202: 19200: 19196: 19193: 19191: 19188: 19186: 19183: 19181: 19178: 19176: 19173: 19171: 19168: 19166: 19163: 19161: 19158: 19156: 19153: 19152: 19150: 19148: 19144: 19141: 19139: 19135: 19125: 19122: 19120: 19117: 19115: 19112: 19110: 19107: 19105: 19102: 19100: 19097: 19095: 19092: 19088: 19085: 19084: 19083: 19080: 19078: 19075: 19074: 19072: 19068: 19062: 19059: 19057: 19054: 19052: 19049: 19047: 19044: 19042: 19039: 19037: 19034: 19032: 19029: 19027: 19026:Phenomenology 19024: 19022: 19019: 19017: 19014: 19012: 19009: 19007: 19004: 19002: 18999: 18997: 18994: 18992: 18989: 18987: 18984: 18982: 18979: 18977: 18974: 18972: 18969: 18967: 18966:Individualism 18964: 18960: 18957: 18955: 18952: 18950: 18947: 18945: 18942: 18940: 18937: 18935: 18932: 18931: 18930: 18927: 18923: 18920: 18919: 18918: 18915: 18913: 18910: 18908: 18905: 18903: 18900: 18898: 18895: 18893: 18890: 18888: 18885: 18883: 18880: 18878: 18875: 18873: 18870: 18868: 18865: 18863: 18860: 18858: 18855: 18854: 18851: 18848: 18846: 18842: 18832: 18831:Judeo-Islamic 18829: 18828: 18826: 18824: 18820: 18814: 18811: 18809: 18808: 18807:ʿIlm al-Kalām 18804: 18802: 18799: 18797: 18794: 18792: 18789: 18787: 18784: 18783: 18781: 18779: 18775: 18769: 18766: 18762: 18759: 18757: 18756:Shuddhadvaita 18754: 18752: 18749: 18747: 18744: 18742: 18739: 18737: 18734: 18732: 18729: 18728: 18727: 18724: 18723: 18721: 18717: 18711: 18708: 18706: 18703: 18701: 18698: 18696: 18693: 18691: 18690:Scholasticism 18688: 18686: 18683: 18681: 18678: 18677: 18675: 18673: 18669: 18663: 18660: 18658: 18655: 18653: 18650: 18648: 18645: 18643: 18640: 18638: 18635: 18633: 18630: 18629: 18627: 18623: 18620: 18618: 18614: 18604: 18601: 18599: 18596: 18594: 18591: 18589: 18586: 18585: 18583: 18581: 18577: 18569: 18566: 18564: 18561: 18559: 18556: 18554: 18551: 18549: 18546: 18544: 18541: 18539: 18536: 18534: 18531: 18529: 18526: 18525: 18524: 18521: 18517: 18514: 18512: 18509: 18508: 18507: 18504: 18500: 18497: 18495: 18492: 18490: 18487: 18485: 18482: 18480: 18477: 18475: 18472: 18470: 18467: 18465: 18462: 18461: 18460: 18457: 18456: 18454: 18452: 18448: 18442: 18439: 18437: 18434: 18432: 18429: 18427: 18424: 18422: 18419: 18417: 18414: 18410: 18407: 18405: 18402: 18400: 18397: 18395: 18392: 18391: 18390: 18387: 18385: 18382: 18380: 18377: 18375: 18372: 18370: 18367: 18365: 18362: 18360: 18357: 18353: 18350: 18348: 18345: 18343: 18340: 18338: 18335: 18333: 18330: 18329: 18328: 18325: 18324: 18322: 18320: 18317: 18313: 18307: 18304: 18302: 18299: 18297: 18294: 18292: 18289: 18287: 18284: 18282: 18279: 18277: 18274: 18272: 18269: 18268: 18266: 18264: 18260: 18257: 18255: 18251: 18243: 18240: 18238: 18235: 18233: 18230: 18228: 18225: 18223: 18220: 18219: 18218: 18215: 18213: 18210: 18209: 18207: 18205: 18201: 18197: 18190: 18186: 18172: 18169: 18167: 18164: 18162: 18159: 18157: 18154: 18152: 18149: 18147: 18144: 18142: 18141:Conceptualism 18139: 18137: 18134: 18133: 18131: 18129: 18125: 18119: 18116: 18114: 18111: 18109: 18106: 18105: 18103: 18101: 18097: 18091: 18088: 18086: 18083: 18081: 18078: 18076: 18073: 18071: 18070:Particularism 18068: 18066: 18063: 18062: 18060: 18058: 18054: 18048: 18045: 18043: 18040: 18038: 18037:Functionalism 18035: 18033: 18030: 18028: 18025: 18023: 18022:Eliminativism 18020: 18018: 18015: 18014: 18012: 18010: 18006: 18000: 17997: 17995: 17992: 17990: 17987: 17985: 17982: 17980: 17977: 17975: 17972: 17971: 17969: 17967: 17963: 17957: 17954: 17950: 17947: 17946: 17945: 17942: 17938: 17935: 17934: 17933: 17930: 17928: 17927:Compatibilism 17925: 17924: 17922: 17920: 17916: 17910: 17907: 17905: 17902: 17900: 17897: 17896: 17894: 17892: 17888: 17882: 17879: 17877: 17874: 17872: 17869: 17867: 17866:Particularism 17864: 17862: 17859: 17857: 17854: 17852: 17849: 17848: 17846: 17844: 17840: 17834: 17831: 17829: 17826: 17824: 17821: 17820: 17818: 17816: 17812: 17806: 17803: 17801: 17798: 17796: 17793: 17791: 17788: 17786: 17783: 17781: 17778: 17776: 17773: 17771: 17768: 17766: 17763: 17761: 17758: 17756: 17753: 17751: 17748: 17747: 17745: 17743: 17739: 17735: 17728: 17724: 17720: 17713: 17708: 17706: 17701: 17699: 17694: 17693: 17690: 17682:from Wikidata 17681: 17680: 17668: 17664: 17663: 17651: 17647: 17646: 17634: 17630: 17629: 17617: 17613: 17612: 17600: 17596: 17595: 17583: 17582: 17579: 17573: 17560: 17557: 17555: 17552: 17550: 17547: 17545: 17542: 17541: 17538: 17532: 17529: 17527: 17524: 17522: 17519: 17517: 17514: 17512: 17509: 17507: 17504: 17502: 17499: 17497: 17494: 17493: 17491: 17487: 17481: 17480: 17476: 17474: 17471: 17469: 17466: 17464: 17461: 17459: 17456: 17454: 17451: 17449: 17446: 17444: 17441: 17439: 17436: 17434: 17431: 17429: 17426: 17424: 17421: 17419: 17418:Justification 17416: 17414: 17411: 17409: 17406: 17404: 17401: 17399: 17396: 17394: 17391: 17389: 17386: 17384: 17381: 17379: 17376: 17374: 17371: 17369: 17366: 17364: 17361: 17359: 17357: 17353: 17351: 17349: 17345: 17344: 17342: 17340: 17336: 17330: 17327: 17325: 17322: 17320: 17317: 17315: 17312: 17310: 17307: 17305: 17302: 17300: 17297: 17295: 17294:Phenomenalism 17292: 17290: 17287: 17285: 17284:Naïve realism 17282: 17280: 17277: 17275: 17272: 17270: 17267: 17265: 17262: 17260: 17257: 17255: 17252: 17250: 17247: 17245: 17242: 17240: 17237: 17235: 17234:Contextualism 17232: 17230: 17227: 17225: 17222: 17221: 17219: 17217: 17213: 17207: 17206: 17202: 17200: 17199:Vienna Circle 17197: 17195: 17192: 17190: 17187: 17185: 17182: 17180: 17177: 17175: 17172: 17170: 17167: 17165: 17162: 17160: 17157: 17155: 17152: 17150: 17147: 17145: 17142: 17140: 17137: 17135: 17134:Hilary Putnam 17132: 17130: 17127: 17125: 17122: 17120: 17117: 17115: 17112: 17110: 17109:Robert Nozick 17107: 17105: 17104:John McDowell 17102: 17100: 17097: 17095: 17092: 17090: 17087: 17085: 17082: 17080: 17077: 17075: 17072: 17070: 17067: 17065: 17064:Immanuel Kant 17062: 17060: 17057: 17055: 17052: 17050: 17047: 17045: 17042: 17040: 17037: 17035: 17034:Alvin Goldman 17032: 17030: 17027: 17025: 17022: 17020: 17017: 17015: 17012: 17010: 17007: 17005: 17002: 17000: 16997: 16995: 16992: 16990: 16987: 16985: 16982: 16980: 16977: 16975: 16972: 16970: 16967: 16966: 16964: 16962: 16958: 16954: 16947: 16942: 16940: 16935: 16933: 16928: 16927: 16924: 16915: 16912: 16910: 16907: 16906: 16901: 16896: 16873: 16869: 16865: 16861: 16857: 16853: 16847: 16843: 16839: 16835: 16831: 16827: 16823: 16811: 16807: 16803: 16798: 16786: 16782: 16776: 16772: 16771: 16765: 16753: 16749: 16745: 16740: 16728: 16724: 16720: 16715: 16703: 16699: 16693: 16689: 16688: 16682: 16678: 16672: 16668: 16664: 16660: 16659: 16653: 16649: 16645: 16641: 16637: 16632: 16620: 16616: 16612: 16607: 16595: 16591: 16585: 16581: 16577: 16573: 16572: 16566: 16554: 16550: 16544: 16540: 16539: 16533: 16529: 16523: 16519: 16514: 16510: 16506: 16503:(1): 59–69 . 16502: 16498: 16497: 16492: 16488: 16476: 16472: 16466: 16462: 16458: 16453: 16441: 16437: 16431: 16427: 16423: 16418: 16406: 16402: 16396: 16392: 16391: 16385: 16373: 16369: 16365: 16364:"Metaphysics" 16360: 16356: 16352: 16347: 16342: 16338: 16334: 16330: 16326: 16322: 16317: 16305: 16301: 16297: 16292: 16280: 16276: 16270: 16267:. Routledge. 16266: 16262: 16257: 16245: 16241: 16235: 16231: 16227: 16222: 16210: 16206: 16200: 16196: 16195: 16189: 16177: 16173: 16169: 16164: 16160: 16156: 16152: 16148: 16143: 16131: 16127: 16121: 16117: 16116: 16110: 16098: 16094: 16088: 16084: 16083: 16077: 16065: 16061: 16055: 16051: 16047: 16044:. Routledge. 16043: 16039: 16034: 16022: 16018: 16017: 16012: 16007: 16003: 15999: 15995: 15991: 15986: 15974: 15970: 15966: 15961: 15949: 15945: 15939: 15935: 15934: 15928: 15916: 15912: 15908: 15903: 15891: 15887: 15886: 15881: 15876: 15872: 15868: 15864: 15860: 15855: 15843: 15839: 15835: 15830: 15818: 15814: 15810: 15806: 15802: 15798: 15794: 15790: 15789:"Knowing How" 15785: 15773: 15769: 15763: 15760:. Routledge. 15759: 15758: 15752: 15748: 15744: 15740: 15735: 15723: 15719: 15713: 15709: 15705: 15702:. Routledge. 15701: 15697: 15692: 15680: 15676: 15670: 15666: 15662: 15658: 15654: 15649: 15645: 15641: 15637: 15632: 15620: 15616: 15610: 15606: 15605: 15599: 15595: 15593:0-02-865782-9 15589: 15585: 15584: 15578: 15574: 15568: 15565:. Routledge. 15564: 15559: 15547: 15543: 15537: 15533: 15532: 15526: 15522: 15518: 15514: 15510: 15505: 15493: 15489: 15483: 15480:. Routledge. 15479: 15475: 15470: 15458: 15454: 15450: 15445: 15441: 15435: 15432:. Routledge. 15431: 15426: 15414: 15410: 15404: 15400: 15399: 15393: 15381: 15377: 15371: 15367: 15366: 15360: 15348: 15344: 15338: 15334: 15333: 15327: 15315: 15311: 15307: 15302: 15290: 15286: 15282: 15277: 15265: 15261: 15256: 15244: 15240: 15236: 15231: 15219: 15215: 15209: 15205: 15201: 15196: 15184: 15180: 15175: 15163: 15159: 15153: 15149: 15148: 15142: 15138: 15134: 15130: 15126: 15122: 15118: 15113: 15108: 15104: 15100: 15096: 15091: 15087: 15081: 15077: 15072: 15068: 15062: 15058: 15053: 15049: 15043: 15039: 15034: 15030: 15024: 15020: 15019: 15013: 15001: 14997: 14991: 14987: 14983: 14980:. Routledge. 14979: 14978: 14972: 14960: 14956: 14952: 14947: 14935: 14931: 14925: 14922:. MIT Press. 14921: 14920: 14914: 14902: 14898: 14892: 14888: 14884: 14879: 14867: 14863: 14859: 14854: 14842: 14838: 14832: 14829:. Routledge. 14828: 14827: 14821: 14809: 14805: 14799: 14795: 14794: 14788: 14776: 14772: 14768: 14764: 14760: 14756: 14752: 14748: 14744: 14740: 14735: 14731: 14725: 14721: 14716: 14704: 14700: 14694: 14690: 14689: 14683: 14671: 14667: 14663: 14660:Poston, Ted. 14658: 14646: 14642: 14636: 14633:. Routledge. 14632: 14628: 14623: 14619: 14613: 14609: 14605: 14604: 14598: 14594: 14588: 14584: 14579: 14567: 14563: 14559: 14554: 14542: 14538: 14533: 14521: 14517: 14511: 14507: 14503: 14500:. Routledge. 14499: 14498: 14492: 14480: 14476: 14470: 14466: 14462: 14457: 14445: 14441: 14437: 14432: 14420: 14416: 14412: 14407: 14395: 14391: 14385: 14381: 14377: 14374:. Routledge. 14373: 14369: 14364: 14352: 14348: 14342: 14338: 14337: 14331: 14319: 14315: 14309: 14305: 14301: 14296: 14284: 14280: 14276: 14271: 14259: 14255: 14250: 14246: 14242: 14238: 14234: 14230: 14226: 14221: 14209: 14205: 14201: 14200:"Reliabilism" 14196: 14184: 14180: 14174: 14170: 14169: 14163: 14151: 14147: 14141: 14137: 14136: 14130: 14118: 14114: 14108: 14104: 14103: 14097: 14085: 14082:. Routledge. 14081: 14077: 14072: 14060: 14056: 14050: 14046: 14042: 14037: 14025: 14021: 14015: 14011: 14010: 14004: 13992: 13988: 13982: 13978: 13977: 13971: 13967: 13963: 13959: 13955: 13951: 13947: 13943: 13939: 13935: 13930: 13918: 13914: 13910: 13905: 13893: 13889: 13888: 13883: 13878: 13874: 13868: 13864: 13860: 13855: 13843: 13839: 13833: 13829: 13828: 13822: 13810: 13806: 13800: 13796: 13795: 13789: 13777: 13773: 13769: 13764: 13760: 13754: 13750: 13745: 13741: 13737: 13732: 13727: 13722: 13717: 13713: 13709: 13705: 13701: 13697: 13692: 13680: 13676: 13670: 13666: 13665: 13659: 13655: 13649: 13645: 13640: 13636: 13630: 13626: 13621: 13617: 13611: 13607: 13603: 13599: 13598: 13592: 13580: 13576: 13570: 13566: 13565: 13559: 13547: 13543: 13537: 13534:. Routledge. 13533: 13532: 13526: 13514: 13510: 13504: 13501:. Routledge. 13500: 13496: 13491: 13479: 13475: 13469: 13465: 13461: 13458:. Routledge. 13457: 13456: 13450: 13438: 13434: 13430: 13425: 13413: 13409: 13403: 13399: 13398: 13392: 13380: 13376: 13370: 13366: 13362: 13358: 13354: 13349: 13345: 13341: 13337: 13331: 13327: 13323: 13318: 13313: 13309: 13305: 13301: 13295: 13291: 13286: 13282: 13276: 13273:. Routledge. 13272: 13267: 13263: 13259: 13255: 13251: 13246: 13242: 13236: 13232: 13227: 13216: 13212: 13207: 13195: 13191: 13185: 13181: 13180: 13174: 13162: 13158: 13152: 13148: 13144: 13139: 13127: 13123: 13117: 13113: 13112: 13106: 13094: 13090: 13089: 13084: 13079: 13075: 13069: 13065: 13060: 13048: 13044: 13040: 13035: 13023: 13019: 13013: 13009: 13008: 13002: 12990: 12986: 12980: 12976: 12975: 12970: 12966: 12962: 12956: 12952: 12947: 12943: 12937: 12933: 12928: 12916: 12912: 12906: 12902: 12898: 12893: 12889: 12883: 12880:. Routledge. 12879: 12874: 12862: 12858: 12854: 12850: 12846: 12842: 12837: 12825: 12821: 12815: 12811: 12810: 12804: 12792: 12788: 12784: 12780: 12774: 12770: 12766: 12763:. Routledge. 12762: 12761: 12756: 12751: 12739: 12735: 12731: 12727: 12723: 12719: 12715: 12711: 12706: 12694: 12690: 12684: 12680: 12679: 12673: 12661: 12657: 12651: 12647: 12643: 12638: 12634: 12630: 12626: 12622: 12617: 12605: 12601: 12595: 12591: 12590: 12584: 12572: 12568: 12562: 12558: 12557: 12551: 12546: 12541: 12537: 12533: 12529: 12525: 12520: 12508: 12504: 12500: 12495: 12483: 12479: 12473: 12469: 12468: 12462: 12458: 12452: 12448: 12443: 12431: 12427: 12423: 12418: 12414: 12408: 12404: 12399: 12395: 12389: 12386:. Routledge. 12385: 12384: 12378: 12366: 12362: 12356: 12353:. CRC Press. 12352: 12351: 12345: 12333: 12329: 12325: 12320: 12308: 12304: 12298: 12294: 12290: 12287:. Routledge. 12286: 12285: 12279: 12267: 12263: 12257: 12253: 12249: 12244: 12240: 12234: 12230: 12225: 12221: 12215: 12211: 12206: 12202: 12196: 12192: 12187: 12175: 12171: 12165: 12161: 12160: 12154: 12142: 12138: 12132: 12128: 12124: 12119: 12107: 12103: 12097: 12093: 12089: 12085: 12081: 12076: 12072: 12068: 12064: 12060: 12055: 12043: 12039: 12035: 12034:"Fallibilism" 12030: 12018: 12014: 12013: 12008: 12003: 11991: 11987: 11981: 11977: 11976: 11970: 11966: 11962: 11958: 11954: 11949: 11937: 11933: 11927: 11923: 11922: 11916: 11904: 11900: 11896: 11891: 11879: 11875: 11871: 11866: 11854: 11850: 11844: 11840: 11836: 11832: 11831: 11825: 11821: 11815: 11811: 11806: 11794: 11790: 11786: 11781: 11777: 11771: 11767: 11762: 11758: 11752: 11748: 11743: 11731: 11727: 11721: 11718:. MIT Press. 11717: 11716: 11710: 11698: 11694: 11688: 11685:. Routledge. 11684: 11683: 11677: 11665: 11661: 11655: 11652:. Routledge. 11651: 11650: 11644: 11632: 11628: 11622: 11618: 11614: 11610: 11609: 11603: 11591: 11587: 11583: 11578: 11566: 11562: 11561: 11556: 11551: 11539: 11535: 11529: 11525: 11521: 11518:. Routledge. 11517: 11516: 11510: 11498: 11494: 11490: 11485: 11473: 11469: 11465: 11460: 11448: 11444: 11440: 11435: 11431: 11425: 11421: 11416: 11404: 11400: 11396: 11391: 11387: 11383: 11379: 11375: 11371: 11367: 11362: 11350: 11346: 11342: 11337: 11325: 11321: 11315: 11311: 11307: 11304:. Routledge. 11303: 11299: 11294: 11282: 11278: 11272: 11268: 11264: 11259: 11255: 11251: 11246: 11241: 11237: 11233: 11229: 11225: 11221: 11217: 11213: 11208: 11196: 11192: 11186: 11182: 11181: 11175: 11163: 11159: 11153: 11149: 11145: 11141: 11140: 11134: 11130: 11124: 11121:. Blackwell. 11120: 11115: 11111: 11105: 11101: 11096: 11092: 11086: 11082: 11077: 11065: 11061: 11055: 11051: 11050: 11044: 11032: 11028: 11022: 11018: 11014: 11010: 11009: 11003: 10991: 10987: 10981: 10977: 10973: 10970:. Routledge. 10969: 10968: 10962: 10958: 10954: 10950: 10946: 10941: 10937: 10931: 10927: 10926: 10920: 10908: 10904: 10898: 10894: 10893: 10887: 10875: 10871: 10865: 10861: 10857: 10853: 10852: 10846: 10842: 10838: 10833: 10828: 10824: 10820: 10816: 10811: 10807: 10801: 10797: 10792: 10787: 10782: 10778: 10774: 10770: 10765: 10761: 10755: 10751: 10746: 10734: 10730: 10726: 10721: 10717: 10711: 10707: 10703: 10699: 10694: 10682: 10678: 10672: 10668: 10667: 10661: 10649: 10645: 10641: 10636: 10624: 10620: 10616: 10611: 10599: 10595: 10589: 10585: 10584: 10578: 10566: 10562: 10558: 10553: 10549: 10543: 10539: 10534: 10522: 10518: 10512: 10508: 10507: 10501: 10497: 10491: 10487: 10483: 10480:. Routledge. 10479: 10478: 10473: 10468: 10464: 10460: 10455: 10450: 10446: 10442: 10438: 10434: 10430: 10425: 10413: 10409: 10403: 10399: 10395: 10390: 10378: 10374: 10368: 10364: 10363: 10357: 10345: 10341: 10335: 10331: 10330: 10324: 10312: 10308: 10302: 10298: 10294: 10291:. Routledge. 10290: 10286: 10281: 10269: 10265: 10261: 10256: 10244: 10240: 10234: 10231:. Routledge. 10230: 10229: 10223: 10211: 10207: 10201: 10197: 10193: 10190:. Routledge. 10189: 10188: 10182: 10170: 10166: 10162: 10158: 10154: 10149: 10137: 10133: 10127: 10124:. Routledge. 10123: 10119: 10114: 10102: 10098: 10092: 10088: 10084: 10079: 10075: 10069: 10065: 10061: 10057: 10052: 10040: 10036: 10032: 10027: 10015: 10011: 10005: 10002:. Routledge. 10001: 10000: 9994: 9990: 9984: 9979: 9974: 9970: 9965: 9953: 9949: 9943: 9939: 9938: 9932: 9920: 9916: 9910: 9906: 9905: 9899: 9887: 9883: 9877: 9873: 9869: 9864: 9852: 9848: 9844: 9839: 9835: 9829: 9825: 9820: 9808: 9804: 9798: 9794: 9790: 9785: 9781: 9777: 9773: 9769: 9765: 9761: 9756: 9744: 9740: 9734: 9730: 9726: 9723:. Routledge. 9722: 9721: 9715: 9703: 9699: 9693: 9689: 9688: 9682: 9670: 9666: 9660: 9656: 9655: 9649: 9637: 9633: 9629: 9624: 9612: 9608: 9602: 9598: 9594: 9591:. Routledge. 9590: 9589: 9583: 9571: 9567: 9561: 9557: 9553: 9548: 9536: 9532: 9526: 9522: 9521: 9515: 9503: 9499: 9495: 9490: 9486: 9480: 9476: 9471: 9459: 9455: 9451: 9447: 9443: 9439: 9435: 9431: 9427: 9423: 9418: 9406: 9402: 9396: 9392: 9391: 9385: 9373: 9369: 9363: 9359: 9358: 9352: 9340: 9336: 9330: 9326: 9325: 9319: 9307: 9303: 9297: 9293: 9289: 9285: 9284: 9278: 9266: 9262: 9256: 9252: 9251: 9245: 9233: 9229: 9225: 9221: 9217: 9212: 9200: 9196: 9190: 9187:. Routledge. 9186: 9185: 9179: 9167: 9163: 9157: 9153: 9149: 9146:. Routledge. 9145: 9141: 9136: 9132: 9128: 9124: 9120: 9115: 9111: 9107: 9102: 9097: 9093: 9089: 9085: 9081: 9076: 9064: 9060: 9054: 9050: 9049: 9043: 9039: 9033: 9029: 9024: 9012: 9008: 9004: 8999: 8987: 8983: 8979: 8974: 8962: 8958: 8954: 8949: 8937: 8933: 8927: 8923: 8922: 8916: 8904: 8900: 8894: 8890: 8886: 8881: 8869: 8865: 8859: 8855: 8851: 8846: 8842: 8836: 8832: 8827: 8815: 8811: 8805: 8801: 8800: 8794: 8790: 8786: 8782: 8778: 8774: 8770: 8765: 8753: 8749: 8743: 8739: 8735: 8730: 8718: 8714: 8710: 8705: 8693: 8689: 8685: 8681: 8677: 8673: 8669: 8665: 8661: 8657: 8652: 8648: 8642: 8638: 8633: 8621: 8617: 8611: 8607: 8603: 8599: 8598: 8592: 8591: 8577: 8573: 8570: 8567: 8564: 8563: 8559: 8552: 8547: 8538:, p. 175 8537: 8534: 8531: 8528: 8527: 8523: 8513: 8510: 8507: 8504: 8503: 8499: 8489: 8486: 8484: 8480: 8477: 8475:, p. 262 8474: 8471: 8470: 8466: 8459: 8454: 8444: 8443:Wolenski 2004 8441: 8438: 8435: 8434: 8430: 8420: 8419:Wolenski 2004 8417: 8415:, p. 315 8414: 8411: 8408: 8405: 8404: 8400: 8394:, p. 262 8393: 8388: 8379:, p. 312 8378: 8375: 8372: 8371:Wolenski 2004 8369: 8366: 8365:Rockmore 2011 8363: 8362: 8358: 8349: 8345: 8342: 8339: 8336: 8335: 8331: 8324: 8319: 8310:, p. 312 8309: 8306: 8304:, p. 262 8303: 8300: 8299: 8295: 8286:, p. 262 8285: 8282: 8279: 8276: 8275: 8271: 8261: 8258: 8255: 8254:Wolenski 2004 8252: 8251: 8247: 8237: 8236:Wolenski 2004 8234: 8231: 8228: 8226: 8222: 8219: 8218: 8214: 8205:, p. 261 8204: 8201: 8198: 8195: 8192: 8191:Wolenski 2004 8189: 8188: 8184: 8175: 8171: 8168: 8166:, p. 261 8165: 8162: 8161: 8157: 8148:, p. 291 8147: 8144: 8141: 8140:Wolenski 2004 8138: 8137: 8133: 8123: 8120: 8117: 8114: 8113: 8109: 8099: 8096: 8093: 8092:Phillips 2024 8090: 8089: 8085: 8076: 8072: 8069: 8066: 8063: 8062: 8058: 8048: 8045: 8042: 8041:Wolenski 2004 8039: 8038: 8034: 8027: 8026:Wolenski 2004 8022: 8013: 8009: 8006: 8003: 8002:Wolenski 2004 8000: 7999: 7995: 7986: 7982: 7979: 7976: 7973: 7972: 7968: 7959: 7955: 7952: 7949: 7948:Wolenski 2004 7946: 7945: 7941: 7932: 7928: 7927:Koterski 2011 7925: 7922: 7921:Wolenski 2004 7919: 7918: 7914: 7905:, p. 216 7904: 7901: 7898: 7895: 7894: 7890: 7881:, p. 216 7880: 7877: 7874: 7871: 7870: 7866: 7857:, p. 216 7856: 7853: 7850: 7847: 7846: 7842: 7832: 7829: 7826: 7823: 7822: 7818: 7812: 7808: 7803: 7794:, p. 753 7793: 7790: 7787: 7784: 7783: 7779: 7770: 7766: 7763: 7760: 7757: 7754: 7751: 7750: 7746: 7737: 7733: 7730: 7727: 7724: 7722: 7718: 7715: 7714: 7710: 7703: 7698: 7692:, p. 753 7691: 7686: 7684: 7673: 7670: 7667: 7666:Wolenski 2004 7664: 7663: 7659: 7650: 7646: 7643: 7641:, p. 288 7640: 7637: 7636: 7632: 7622: 7621:Wolenski 2004 7619: 7616: 7613: 7612: 7608: 7598: 7597:Wolenski 2004 7595: 7593:, p. 260 7592: 7589: 7586: 7583: 7582: 7578: 7571: 7566: 7564: 7553: 7550: 7548:, p. 260 7547: 7544: 7543: 7539: 7530: 7526: 7523: 7521: 7517: 7514: 7512: 7508: 7505: 7504: 7500: 7490: 7487: 7485: 7481: 7478: 7477: 7473: 7463: 7460: 7458: 7454: 7451: 7450: 7446: 7439: 7438:Emaliana 2017 7434: 7425: 7421: 7418: 7416: 7412: 7409: 7407: 7403: 7400: 7397: 7394: 7393: 7389: 7382: 7377: 7370: 7365: 7355: 7352: 7349: 7346: 7345: 7341: 7332: 7328: 7325: 7322: 7319: 7318: 7314: 7304: 7301: 7298: 7295: 7294: 7290: 7283: 7278: 7269: 7265: 7262: 7259: 7256: 7253: 7250: 7249: 7245: 7235: 7232: 7230: 7226: 7223: 7222: 7218: 7209: 7205: 7202: 7199: 7196: 7195: 7191: 7184: 7179: 7177: 7170: 7166: 7161: 7155: 7151: 7146: 7136: 7133: 7130: 7127: 7125: 7121: 7118: 7117: 7113: 7106: 7101: 7091: 7088: 7085: 7082: 7081: 7077: 7067: 7064: 7061: 7058: 7056: 7052: 7049: 7048: 7044: 7037: 7032: 7025: 7020: 7010: 7007: 7004: 7001: 7000: 6996: 6986: 6983: 6980: 6977: 6976: 6972: 6965: 6960: 6953: 6948: 6939: 6935: 6932: 6929: 6926: 6925: 6921: 6914: 6909: 6903: 6899: 6894: 6887: 6882: 6876:, p. 781 6875: 6870: 6864: 6860: 6855: 6848: 6843: 6836: 6831: 6824: 6819: 6809: 6806: 6803: 6800: 6799: 6795: 6785: 6782: 6779: 6776: 6773: 6770: 6769: 6765: 6759:, p. 304 6758: 6753: 6746: 6741: 6731: 6728: 6726: 6722: 6719: 6717: 6713: 6710: 6709: 6705: 6695: 6692: 6689: 6688:Tanesini 2017 6686: 6685: 6681: 6672: 6668: 6665: 6662: 6659: 6658: 6654: 6647: 6646:Chignell 2018 6642: 6632: 6629: 6626: 6623: 6622: 6618: 6608: 6605: 6602: 6601:McDaniel 2020 6599: 6598: 6594: 6587: 6582: 6573: 6569: 6566: 6563: 6562:Murawski 2004 6560: 6559: 6555: 6546: 6542: 6539: 6537: 6533: 6530: 6528: 6524: 6521: 6520: 6516: 6507: 6503: 6500: 6497: 6494: 6493: 6489: 6482: 6481:Phillips 1998 6477: 6470: 6469:Phillips 1998 6465: 6456: 6452: 6451:Siderits 2021 6449: 6446: 6445:Phillips 1998 6443: 6442: 6438: 6429: 6425: 6422: 6419: 6416: 6413: 6412:Phillips 1998 6410: 6409: 6405: 6395: 6392: 6390: 6386: 6383: 6382: 6378: 6368: 6367:Anderson 2024 6365: 6362: 6361:Anderson 1995 6359: 6358: 6354: 6345: 6341: 6338: 6335: 6332: 6331: 6327: 6317: 6314: 6312: 6308: 6305: 6304: 6300: 6291: 6287: 6286:Gardiner 2015 6284: 6281: 6278: 6277: 6273: 6263: 6260: 6257: 6254: 6251: 6248: 6247: 6243: 6233: 6230: 6227: 6224: 6223: 6219: 6210: 6206: 6203: 6201: 6197: 6194: 6193: 6189: 6179: 6176: 6173: 6170: 6169: 6165: 6155: 6152: 6150:, p. 165 6149: 6146: 6145: 6141: 6131: 6128: 6126: 6123: 6122: 6118: 6108: 6105: 6103: 6099: 6096: 6095: 6091: 6081: 6078: 6076:, p. 341 6075: 6072: 6071: 6067: 6057: 6055: 6050: 6047: 6044: 6043: 6039: 6030: 6027: 6024: 6021: 6018: 6015: 6014: 6010: 6001: 5998: 5995: 5992: 5991: 5987: 5980: 5975: 5968: 5963: 5953: 5950: 5947: 5944: 5941: 5938: 5937: 5933: 5927:, p. 160 5926: 5921: 5911: 5908: 5905: 5902: 5899: 5896: 5895: 5891: 5889: 5879: 5876: 5873: 5870: 5869: 5865: 5855: 5854:Fumerton 2011 5852: 5849: 5846: 5843: 5840: 5839: 5835: 5828: 5823: 5813: 5810: 5808: 5804: 5801: 5800: 5796: 5786: 5783: 5781: 5777: 5774: 5773: 5769: 5760: 5756: 5753: 5750: 5747: 5746: 5742: 5736:, p. 155 5735: 5730: 5721: 5717: 5716:Margolis 2007 5714: 5711: 5708: 5707: 5703: 5701: 5693: 5688: 5682: 5678: 5673: 5664: 5660: 5659:Margolis 2007 5657: 5654: 5651: 5648: 5645: 5644: 5640: 5631: 5627: 5624: 5621: 5618: 5616:, p. 783 5615: 5612: 5611: 5607: 5601: 5597: 5592: 5582: 5579: 5577:, p. 783 5576: 5573: 5572: 5568: 5566: 5559:, p. 783 5558: 5553: 5543: 5540: 5538:, p. 242 5537: 5534: 5533: 5529: 5519: 5516: 5514: 5510: 5507: 5506: 5502: 5492: 5490: 5485: 5482: 5479: 5478: 5474: 5464: 5461: 5458: 5456: 5451: 5450: 5446: 5439: 5434: 5425: 5421: 5418: 5415: 5412: 5411: 5407: 5397: 5394: 5392:, p. 838 5391: 5388: 5387: 5383: 5373: 5371: 5366: 5363: 5360: 5357: 5354: 5353: 5349: 5339: 5336: 5334:, p. 838 5333: 5330: 5329: 5325: 5316: 5312: 5309: 5307: 5303: 5300: 5299: 5295: 5286: 5282: 5281:Bergmann 2021 5279: 5277:, p. 838 5276: 5273: 5272: 5268: 5259: 5255: 5252: 5250:, p. 838 5249: 5246: 5243: 5240: 5239: 5235: 5225: 5224:Whitcomb 2011 5222: 5220:, p. 157 5219: 5216: 5214:, p. 959 5213: 5210: 5209: 5205: 5195: 5192: 5189: 5186: 5184:, p. 150 5183: 5180: 5179: 5175: 5166:, p. 220 5165: 5164:Hookway 2005b 5162: 5160:, p. 134 5159: 5158:Hookway 2005a 5156: 5153: 5150: 5149: 5145: 5135: 5132: 5129: 5126: 5125: 5121: 5112: 5108: 5105: 5102: 5099: 5098: 5094: 5087: 5082: 5072: 5069: 5066: 5063: 5060: 5057: 5054: 5051: 5050: 5046: 5036: 5033: 5030: 5027: 5024: 5021: 5020: 5016: 5006: 5003: 5001:, p. 109 5000: 4997: 4996: 4992: 4982: 4979: 4976: 4973: 4972: 4968: 4958: 4955: 4952: 4949: 4948: 4944: 4934: 4931: 4928: 4925: 4922: 4919: 4916: 4913: 4912: 4908: 4898: 4895: 4892: 4889: 4886: 4883: 4882: 4878: 4869: 4866: 4863: 4862:Gardiner 2001 4860: 4857: 4854: 4851: 4848: 4847: 4843: 4834: 4830: 4827: 4824: 4821: 4818: 4815: 4812: 4810: 4805: 4804: 4800: 4793: 4788: 4778: 4775: 4773: 4769: 4766: 4765: 4761: 4751: 4749: 4744: 4741: 4738: 4737: 4733: 4723: 4721: 4716: 4713: 4710: 4707: 4704: 4702: 4698: 4695: 4694: 4690: 4681: 4677: 4674: 4671: 4668: 4667: 4663: 4657: 4653: 4648: 4641: 4636: 4627: 4623: 4620: 4618:, p. 149 4617: 4614: 4613: 4609: 4602: 4597: 4587: 4584: 4581: 4578: 4577: 4573: 4564: 4561: 4558: 4555: 4554: 4550: 4540: 4537: 4535:, p. 465 4534: 4531: 4530: 4526: 4524: 4514:, p. 148 4513: 4510: 4507: 4504: 4503: 4499: 4489: 4486: 4483: 4480: 4477: 4474: 4473: 4469: 4459: 4456: 4453: 4450: 4447: 4444: 4441: 4438: 4437: 4433: 4423: 4420: 4417: 4414: 4411: 4408: 4406:, p. 926 4405: 4402: 4401: 4397: 4387: 4384: 4382:, p. 926 4381: 4378: 4375: 4372: 4371: 4367: 4357: 4354: 4351: 4348: 4347: 4343: 4333: 4330: 4327: 4324: 4323: 4319: 4309: 4306: 4303: 4300: 4299: 4295: 4285: 4282: 4279: 4276: 4273: 4270: 4269: 4265: 4255: 4252: 4249: 4246: 4243: 4240: 4237: 4234: 4233: 4229: 4219: 4216: 4214: 4210: 4207: 4206: 4202: 4195: 4190: 4180: 4177: 4175:, p. 875 4174: 4171: 4170: 4166: 4157: 4153: 4150: 4147: 4144: 4141: 4138: 4137: 4133: 4123: 4120: 4117: 4114: 4111: 4108: 4107: 4103: 4094: 4090: 4087: 4084: 4081: 4079: 4075: 4072: 4069: 4066: 4065: 4061: 4055: 4051: 4046: 4037: 4033: 4030: 4028: 4024: 4021: 4020: 4016: 4006: 4003: 4001: 3997: 3994: 3992: 3988: 3985: 3984: 3980: 3973: 3968: 3958: 3955: 3952: 3949: 3946: 3943: 3942: 3938: 3928: 3925: 3922: 3920: 3915: 3914: 3910: 3903: 3898: 3888: 3885: 3882: 3879: 3878: 3874: 3867: 3862: 3855: 3850: 3843: 3838: 3828: 3825: 3822: 3819: 3818: 3814: 3804: 3801: 3799: 3795: 3792: 3791: 3787: 3777: 3774: 3771: 3768: 3767: 3763: 3753: 3750: 3747: 3744: 3741: 3738: 3735: 3732: 3731: 3727: 3717: 3714: 3711: 3708: 3707: 3703: 3693: 3690: 3687: 3684: 3683: 3679: 3670: 3666: 3663: 3660: 3657: 3656: 3652: 3643: 3640: 3638: 3634: 3631: 3630: 3626: 3620: 3616: 3611: 3602: 3598: 3595: 3593: 3589: 3586: 3585: 3581: 3571: 3568: 3565: 3563: 3558: 3555: 3552: 3551: 3547: 3537: 3534: 3531: 3529: 3524: 3523: 3519: 3509: 3506: 3503: 3501: 3496: 3493: 3490: 3489: 3485: 3475: 3472: 3469: 3466: 3463: 3460: 3457: 3455: 3450: 3449: 3445: 3436: 3432: 3429: 3427: 3423: 3420: 3418: 3414: 3411: 3410: 3406: 3397: 3393: 3390: 3387: 3385: 3380: 3379: 3375: 3366: 3362: 3359: 3356: 3353: 3350: 3348: 3343: 3342: 3338: 3332: 3328: 3323: 3313: 3310: 3307: 3304: 3302: 3298: 3297:Morrison 2005 3295: 3294: 3290: 3283: 3281: 3274: 3272: 3261: 3258: 3255: 3252: 3249: 3247: 3242: 3241: 3237: 3227: 3224: 3221: 3219: 3214: 3211: 3208: 3207: 3203: 3194: 3190: 3187: 3185: 3181: 3178: 3175: 3173: 3168: 3167: 3163: 3157: 3153: 3148: 3138: 3136: 3131: 3129: 3125: 3122: 3120: 3116: 3113: 3112: 3108: 3098: 3097:Rescher 2009a 3095: 3092: 3089: 3088: 3084: 3075:, p. 163 3074: 3071: 3068: 3067:Rescher 2009a 3065: 3062: 3059: 3058: 3054: 3045: 3041: 3038: 3035: 3032: 3029: 3026: 3025: 3021: 3011: 3008: 3006: 3002: 2999: 2997: 2993: 2990: 2989: 2985: 2975: 2972: 2970: 2967: 2966: 2962: 2953: 2949: 2946: 2944: 2941: 2940: 2936: 2926: 2923: 2921: 2917: 2914: 2913: 2909: 2900: 2897: 2894: 2891: 2889:, p. 109 2888: 2885: 2884: 2880: 2873: 2868: 2861: 2856: 2850: 2845: 2838: 2837:Wolenski 2004 2833: 2823: 2822:Wolenski 2004 2820: 2818: 2814: 2811: 2808: 2805: 2804: 2800: 2790: 2789:Campbell 2024 2787: 2784: 2783:Wolenski 2004 2781: 2778: 2775: 2774: 2770: 2761: 2757: 2754: 2752:, p. 192 2751: 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Austin 2174: 2147: 2123:innate ideas 2096: 2060:proposed by 1993: 1960: 1933: 1870: 1851:anthropology 1848: 1841: 1807: 1799: 1794: 1790: 1643: 1615: 1600: 1594:may lead to 1573: 1566: 1544: 1535: 1507: 1477:or that all 1471:modus ponens 1456: 1445: 1388: 1365: 1358:The work of 1342: 1335: 1321: 1314: 1304: 1297: 1290: 1282: 1270: 1263: 1253: 1249: 1245: 1213: 1206:The view of 1205: 1197: 1193: 1166:inborn ideas 1159: 1147: 1092: 1088: 1077: 1046: 1035: 998: 987: 960: 929: 907: 903: 898: 889: 834: 824: 820: 818: 814:superstition 809: 805: 801: 798: 752: 734:dispositions 719: 692: 684: 660: 650: 630: 620: 601:a posteriori 600: 596: 592: 588: 582: 566:rationalists 557: 554:a posteriori 553: 509: 506:a posteriori 505: 501:A posteriori 500: 495: 492:a posteriori 491: 488: 486:personally. 461: 448: 442: 440: 415: 400: 379:mental state 375: 354: 350: 340: 336: 323:epistemology 322: 320: 308: 247: 241: 200: 196:anthropology 161: 145:Coherentists 141:rationalists 126: 76: 75: 64:Epistemology 63: 62: 58:Epidemiology 48:Epistemology 47: 19408:Objectivism 19347:Neo-Marxism 19309:Continental 19219:Meta-ethics 19199:Coherentism 19104:Hegelianism 19041:Rationalism 19001:Natural law 18981:Materialism 18907:Historicism 18877:Determinism 18768:Navya-Nyāya 18543:Sautrāntika 18538:Pudgalavada 18474:Vaisheshika 18327:Presocratic 18227:Renaissance 18166:Physicalism 18151:Materialism 18057:Normativity 18042:Objectivism 18027:Emergentism 18017:Behaviorism 17966:Metaphysics 17932:Determinism 17871:Rationalism 17594:Definitions 17458:Proposition 17428:Objectivity 17314:Reliabilism 17304:Rationalism 17249:Fallibilism 17224:Coherentism 17169:Ernest Sosa 17144:Thomas Reid 17129:James Pryor 17099:G. E. Moore 17089:David Lewis 17079:Saul Kripke 17074:Peter Klein 17054:Susan Haack 16984:Robert Audi 16758:12 December 15320:19 December 15189:2 September 14749:: 326–348. 14547:3 September 14450:12 December 13443:29 February 13220:2 September 12744:13 November 12383:Analyticity 12007:"Knowledge" 11870:"Knowledge" 11785:"Fallacies" 10629:19 December 9494:"Upanisads" 9086:(1): 1–18. 8775:: 407–442. 8566:Pappas 1998 8512:Pappas 1998 8488:Pappas 1998 8479:Beilby 2017 8473:Hamlyn 2005 8458:Hamlyn 2006 8413:Hamlyn 2006 8407:Pappas 1998 8392:Hamlyn 2005 8377:Hamlyn 2006 8338:Pappas 1998 8323:Pappas 1998 8308:Hamlyn 2006 8302:Hamlyn 2005 8284:Hamlyn 2005 8278:Pappas 1998 8260:Pappas 1998 8230:Pappas 1998 8203:Hamlyn 2005 8197:Hamlyn 2006 8164:Hamlyn 2005 8146:Hamlyn 2006 8098:Prasad 1987 8047:Hamlyn 2006 7929:, pp. 7825:Rošker 2021 7788:, p. 6 7786:Prasad 1987 7753:Prasad 1987 7726:Warder 1998 7672:Pappas 1998 7668:, p. 8 7639:Hamlyn 2006 7623:, p. 8 7615:Hamlyn 2006 7599:, p. 7 7591:Hamlyn 2005 7585:Pappas 1998 7570:Pappas 1998 7552:Pappas 1998 7546:Hamlyn 2005 7516:Tufari 2003 7482:, pp. 7455:, pp. 7356:, p. 4 7321:Chazan 2022 7297:Kaplan 2005 7266:, pp. 7252:Kaplan 2005 7198:Hansen 2023 7183:Hansen 2023 7165:Stairs 2017 7038:, p. 2 7036:Alston 2006 7024:Gerken 2018 7003:Gerken 2018 6964:Lackey 2021 6928:Segura 2009 6861:, pp. 6823:Barber 2003 6784:Rysiew 2021 6723:, pp. 6669:, pp. 6661:McNabb 2019 6586:Warren 2020 6570:, pp. 6543:, pp. 6525:, pp. 6502:Sethia 2004 6426:, pp. 6394:Dreyer 2017 6334:Sharpe 2018 6288:, pp. 6198:, pp. 6180:, p. 1 6029:Olsson 2016 6000:Olsson 2016 5898:Pappas 2023 5878:Wilson 2023 5842:Pappas 2023 5812:Stairs 2017 5805:, pp. 5785:Tramel 2008 5749:Stairs 2017 5734:Stairs 2017 5710:Stairs 2017 5653:Stairs 2017 5614:Lacey 2005a 5575:Lacey 2005a 5557:Lacey 2005a 5509:Carter 2017 5489:Fallibilism 5455:Fallibilism 5311:Levine 1999 5086:McGrew 2011 5071:McGrew 2011 4927:Harman 2013 4777:Martin 1998 4708:, p. 3 4699:, pp. 4678:, pp. 4654:, pp. 4563:Olsson 2016 4508:, p. 5 4454:, p. 3 4211:, pp. 4173:Olsson 2011 4154:, pp. 4140:Olsson 2011 4116:Olsson 2011 4091:, pp. 4076:, pp. 4074:Powell 2020 4052:, pp. 4005:Olsson 2011 3998:, pp. 3989:, pp. 3796:, pp. 3635:, pp. 3597:Popper 2014 3492:Stroll 2023 3476:, p. 4 3474:Benton 2024 3462:Stroll 2023 3431:Pavese 2022 3424:, pp. 3363:, pp. 3355:Stroll 2023 3254:Stroll 2023 3226:Stroll 2023 3191:, pp. 3135:Fallibilism 3115:Wilson 2008 3040:Stoltz 2021 3003:, pp. 2994:, pp. 2974:Walton 2005 2950:, pp. 2925:Lackey 2021 2918:, pp. 2860:Alston 2006 2839:, p. 3 2824:, p. 3 2758:, pp. 2692:, pp. 2573:Truncellito 2239:reliabilism 2217:G. E. Moore 2181:Karl Popper 2131:blank slate 2119:rationalism 1956:Dharmakirti 1928:Dharmakirti 1627:information 1547:reasoning. 1528:knowledge. 1481:are false. 1331:rationality 1265:Reliabilism 1190:Coherentism 1154:blank slate 1108:Rationalism 1065:tranquility 967:probability 936:axiological 900:Rationality 562:empiricists 514:mathematics 508:knowledge. 499:knowledge. 457:proposition 388:information 296:metaphysics 232:linguistics 137:Empiricists 133:fallibilism 19707:Amerindian 19614:Australian 19553:Vietnamese 19533:Indonesian 19082:Kantianism 19031:Positivism 19021:Pragmatism 18996:Naturalism 18976:Liberalism 18954:Subjective 18892:Empiricism 18796:Avicennism 18741:Bhedabheda 18625:East Asian 18548:Madhyamaka 18528:Abhidharma 18394:Pyrrhonism 18161:Nominalism 18156:Naturalism 18085:Skepticism 18075:Relativism 18065:Absolutism 17994:Naturalism 17904:Deontology 17876:Skepticism 17861:Naturalism 17851:Empiricism 17815:Aesthetics 17719:Philosophy 17611:Quotations 17559:Discussion 17549:Task Force 17468:Simplicity 17448:Perception 17324:Skepticism 17299:Positivism 17274:Infinitism 17239:Empiricism 17094:John Locke 17059:David Hume 17049:Anil Gupta 17044:Paul Grice 17019:John Dewey 16989:A. J. Ayer 15990:Erkenntnis 14171:. Polity. 13865:. Rodopi. 13721:2164/12705 12995:25 October 12577:28 October 12499:"Evidence" 11909:25 October 11884:25 October 10779:(4): 1–7. 10640:"Evidence" 9119:Erkenntnis 8574:, p. 8481:, p. 8346:, p. 8223:, p. 8172:, p. 8170:Evans 2018 8116:Littlejohn 8073:, p. 8010:, p. 7983:, p. 7956:, p. 7897:Littlejohn 7873:Littlejohn 7849:Littlejohn 7809:, p. 7792:Dunne 2006 7767:, p. 7765:Bhatt 1989 7734:, p. 7719:, p. 7690:Dunne 2006 7647:, p. 7527:, p. 7507:Coser 2009 7489:Barth 2002 7462:Hofer 2001 7453:Hofer 2008 7422:, p. 7413:, p. 7404:, p. 7402:Payne 2003 7348:Kelly 2004 7327:Leong 2007 7227:, p. 7206:, p. 7167:, p. 7152:, p. 7150:Clark 2009 7122:, p. 7053:, p. 6952:Beebe 2017 6936:, p. 6900:, p. 6886:Conee 1998 6847:Croce 2023 6757:Sturm 2011 6745:Sturm 2011 6730:Sturm 2011 6714:, p. 6534:, p. 6504:, p. 6453:, p. 6387:, p. 6342:, p. 6309:, p. 6280:Greco 2021 6262:Dancy 2010 6256:Lemos 2005 6250:Greco 2021 6205:Cozic 2018 6148:Foley 1983 6100:, p. 6074:Brown 1992 6023:Lyons 2016 5778:, p. 5757:, p. 5718:, p. 5679:, p. 5661:, p. 5628:, p. 5626:Hales 2009 5598:, p. 5536:Lacey 2005 5518:Luper 2004 5511:, p. 5438:Cohen 1998 5422:, p. 5362:Klein 1998 5356:Windt 2021 5313:, p. 5304:, p. 5283:, p. 5256:, p. 5254:Moser 2011 5242:Cohen 1998 5212:Kekes 2005 5188:Grimm 2011 5134:Kelly 2016 5109:, p. 5065:Kelly 2016 5005:Engel 2011 4975:Foley 2011 4921:Foley 2011 4897:Green 2022 4831:, p. 4770:, p. 4706:Smith 2023 4624:, p. 4586:Foley 1998 4506:Lynch 2011 4476:Lynch 2011 4452:Lynch 2011 4416:Lynch 2011 4218:Greco 2021 4179:Greco 2021 4152:Plato 2002 4122:Greco 2021 4034:, p. 4025:, p. 3927:Kraft 2012 3667:, p. 3665:Ayers 2019 3617:, p. 3570:Moser 2016 3536:Moser 2016 3415:, p. 3394:, p. 3329:, p. 3299:, p. 3210:Klein 1998 3182:, p. 3154:, p. 3152:Brown 2016 3126:, p. 3117:, p. 3042:, p. 2872:Sturm 2011 2815:, p. 2813:Scott 2002 2734:, p. 2665:, p. 2656:, p. 2647:, p. 2626:, p. 2624:Moser 2005 2599:, p. 2597:Moser 2005 2375:psychology 2348:gnoseology 2329:References 2201:A. J. Ayer 2135:David Hume 2127:John Locke 2031:Al-Ghazali 1936:Upanishads 1905:empiricist 1901:Epicureans 1818:Behavioral 1618:psychology 1606:metatheory 1436:many-sided 1403:Perception 1367:Postmodern 1316:Pragmatist 1215:Infinitism 1174:categories 1140:David Hume 1136:John Locke 1104:Empiricism 1028:Falliblism 1024:Skepticism 924:consistent 916:intentions 837:perception 802:reasonable 771:pragmatist 722:God exists 667:undermined 639:fake barns 411:human mind 312:psychology 256:perception 238:Definition 223:modern era 184:psychology 129:skepticism 106:perception 68:philosophy 40:Epistemics 19586:Pakistani 19548:Taiwanese 19495:Ethiopian 19468:By region 19454:By region 19269:Scientism 19264:Systemics 19124:Spinozism 19051:Socialism 18986:Modernism 18949:Objective 18857:Anarchism 18791:Averroism 18680:Christian 18632:Neotaoism 18603:Zurvanism 18593:Mithraism 18588:Mazdakism 18359:Cyrenaics 18286:Logicians 17919:Free will 17881:Solipsism 17828:Formalism 17662:Resources 17645:Textbooks 17423:Knowledge 17408:Induction 17358:knowledge 17350:knowledge 16868:158886670 16733:11 August 16708:19 August 16250:22 August 15954:19 August 15728:15 August 15463:13 August 15270:16 August 15137:171635198 15121:0011-1503 14965:22 August 14872:17 August 14847:19 August 14814:19 August 14763:1533-6077 14709:19 August 14651:19 August 14537:"Gaṅgeśa" 14245:143034920 13958:0026-4423 13898:2 October 13685:21 August 13552:19 August 13495:"Preface" 12857:2279-7343 12734:207246817 12610:15 August 12513:20 August 11859:21 August 11703:19 August 11670:19 August 11637:10 August 11544:17 August 11503:22 August 11478:20 August 11355:13 August 11287:19 August 11236:0962-8436 11168:10 August 11037:10 August 10996:13 August 10880:10 August 10841:148796695 10825:(2): 59. 10739:13 August 10687:19 August 10654:20 August 10249:15 August 10142:22 August 9813:19 August 9749:19 August 9617:21 August 9576:22 August 9446:0039-7857 9312:3 October 9110:0011-3204 9101:1956/4191 8942:19 August 8874:15 August 8680:0887-5367 8122:Shen 2006 7903:Shen 2006 7879:Shen 2006 7855:Shen 2006 7831:Shen 2006 7645:Vogt 2011 7135:Audi 2002 6532:Bird 2010 6290:31, 33–35 5647:Audi 1988 5420:Reed 2015 5370:Knowledge 5029:Choo 2016 4856:Audi 2002 4829:Audi 2006 4823:Audi 2002 4809:Knowledge 4748:Knowledge 4720:Knowledge 4701:8–10, 133 4697:Kern 2017 4446:Lowe 2005 4404:Lowe 2005 4380:Lowe 2005 3919:Knowledge 3637:ix–x, 1–2 3454:Knowledge 3384:Knowledge 3347:Knowledge 3306:Reif 2008 3280:Knowledge 3246:Knowledge 3218:Knowledge 3172:Knowledge 3073:Dika 2023 2777:Audi 2003 2690:Moss 2021 2547:Citations 2360:disputed. 2012:al-Farabi 1893:Aristotle 1826:Cognitive 1810:education 1791:knowledge 1778:reasoning 1553:evolution 1495:coherence 1407:testimony 994:certainty 912:decisions 877:gustatory 873:olfactory 853:testimony 810:supported 806:warranted 779:pluralist 748:credences 403:ignorance 372:Knowledge 366:Knowledge 337:knowledge 321:The word 264:testimony 260:inference 244:knowledge 192:education 122:testimony 72:knowledge 19788:Category 19772:Category 19727:Yugoslav 19717:Romanian 19624:Scottish 19609:American 19538:Japanese 19518:Buddhist 19500:Africana 19490:Egyptian 19332:Feminist 19254:Rawlsian 19249:Quietism 19147:Analytic 19099:Krausism 19006:Nihilism 18971:Kokugaku 18934:Absolute 18929:Idealism 18917:Humanism 18705:Occamism 18672:European 18617:Medieval 18563:Yogacara 18523:Buddhist 18516:Syādvāda 18399:Stoicism 18364:Cynicism 18352:Sophists 18347:Atomists 18342:Eleatics 18281:Legalism 18222:Medieval 18146:Idealism 18100:Ontology 18080:Nihilism 17984:Idealism 17742:Branches 17731:Branches 17544:Category 17363:Analysis 17348:A priori 17339:Concepts 17279:Innatism 17216:Theories 16872:Archived 16860:39269507 16828:(1999). 16816:2 August 16810:Archived 16785:Archived 16752:Archived 16727:Archived 16702:Archived 16625:2 August 16619:Archived 16594:Archived 16574:. Sage. 16553:Archived 16509:20010182 16475:Archived 16440:Archived 16405:Archived 16378:17 March 16372:Archived 16355:34720230 16325:Synthese 16310:2 August 16304:Archived 16279:Archived 16244:Archived 16209:Archived 16176:Archived 16147:Synthese 16136:3 August 16130:Archived 16103:3 August 16097:Archived 16064:Archived 16021:Archived 15973:Archived 15948:Archived 15915:Archived 15890:Archived 15842:Archived 15817:Archived 15772:Archived 15741:: 1–14. 15739:Episteme 15722:Archived 15679:Archived 15625:3 August 15619:Archived 15552:3 August 15546:Archived 15492:Archived 15457:Archived 15449:"Belief" 15413:Archived 15380:Archived 15347:Archived 15314:Archived 15295:2 August 15289:Archived 15243:Archived 15224:3 August 15218:Archived 15162:Archived 15129:26767766 15000:Archived 14959:Archived 14940:16 April 14934:Archived 14907:3 August 14901:Archived 14866:Archived 14841:Archived 14808:Archived 14775:Archived 14703:Archived 14676:1 August 14670:Archived 14645:Archived 14572:2 August 14566:Archived 14526:2 August 14520:Archived 14479:Archived 14444:Archived 14425:1 August 14419:Archived 14394:Archived 14351:Archived 14318:Archived 14306:. SAGE. 14283:Archived 14214:2 August 14208:Archived 14189:3 August 14183:Archived 14150:Archived 14117:Archived 14084:Archived 14065:3 August 14059:Archived 14024:Archived 13997:16 April 13991:Archived 13923:1 August 13917:Archived 13892:Archived 13842:Archived 13815:16 April 13809:Archived 13776:Archived 13740:31215105 13679:Archived 13585:18 March 13579:Archived 13546:Archived 13513:Archived 13484:26 March 13478:Archived 13437:Archived 13418:3 August 13412:Archived 13379:Archived 13314:(1971). 13200:10 March 13194:Archived 13167:3 August 13161:Archived 13126:Archived 13093:Archived 13053:2 August 13047:Archived 13022:Archived 12989:Archived 12971:(2021). 12915:Archived 12861:Archived 12824:Archived 12791:Archived 12787:38096851 12738:Archived 12714:Synthese 12699:16 April 12693:Archived 12660:Archived 12604:Archived 12571:Archived 12507:Archived 12482:Archived 12430:Archived 12365:Archived 12338:29 March 12332:Archived 12313:3 August 12307:Archived 12266:Archived 12174:Archived 12141:Archived 12106:Archived 12042:Archived 12017:Archived 11990:Archived 11942:3 August 11936:Archived 11903:Archived 11878:Archived 11853:Archived 11793:Archived 11736:3 August 11730:Archived 11697:Archived 11664:Archived 11631:Archived 11590:Archived 11565:Archived 11538:Archived 11497:Archived 11472:Archived 11447:Archived 11403:Archived 11349:Archived 11324:Archived 11281:Archived 11254:11571027 11195:Archived 11162:Archived 11064:Archived 11031:Archived 10990:Archived 10907:Archived 10874:Archived 10733:Archived 10681:Archived 10648:Archived 10623:Archived 10598:Archived 10565:Archived 10521:Archived 10463:28400962 10418:3 August 10412:Archived 10377:Archived 10344:Archived 10332:. Gale. 10311:Archived 10268:Archived 10243:Archived 10210:Archived 10175:2 August 10169:Archived 10136:Archived 10101:Archived 10039:Archived 10020:3 August 10014:Archived 9952:Archived 9940:. Sage. 9919:Archived 9892:3 August 9886:Archived 9851:Archived 9807:Archived 9743:Archived 9702:Archived 9675:3 August 9669:Archived 9636:Archived 9611:Archived 9570:Archived 9535:Archived 9502:Archived 9458:Archived 9454:40801354 9432:: 5–16. 9426:Synthese 9411:3 August 9405:Archived 9372:Archived 9345:3 August 9339:Archived 9306:Archived 9271:3 August 9265:Archived 9238:29 April 9232:Archived 9199:Archived 9166:Archived 9063:Archived 9011:Archived 8986:Archived 8967:2 August 8961:Archived 8936:Archived 8903:Archived 8868:Archived 8814:Archived 8752:Archived 8723:2 August 8717:Archived 8698:3 August 8692:Archived 8620:Archived 7268:xiii–xiv 6527:xiii–xiv 6385:Lee 2017 6200:3, 31–32 6052:Baehr, " 5874:, Note 1 3560:Baehr, " 3526:Baehr, " 3498:Baehr, " 2760:113, 115 2269:See also 2259:feminist 2170:evidence 2166:fallible 2027:theology 2023:Averroes 1961:Ancient 1830:Pedagogy 1545:a priori 1463:argument 1442:Branches 1415:Buddhist 1375:Feminist 1259:evidence 1201:holistic 971:defeater 962:Evidence 865:auditory 775:semantic 769:include 611:Analysis 597:A priori 558:a priori 510:A priori 496:a priori 453:relation 351:study of 332:ἐπιστήμη 280:evidence 19722:Russian 19691:Spanish 19686:Slovene 19676:Maltese 19671:Italian 19651:Finland 19619:British 19601:Western 19591:Turkish 19576:Islamic 19571:Iranian 19523:Chinese 19510:Eastern 19477:African 19424:more... 19109:Marxism 18939:British 18882:Dualism 18778:Islamic 18736:Advaita 18726:Vedanta 18700:Scotism 18695:Thomism 18637:Tiantai 18580:Persian 18568:Tibetan 18558:Śūnyatā 18499:Cārvāka 18489:Ājīvika 18484:Mīmāṃsā 18464:Samkhya 18379:Academy 18332:Ionians 18306:Yangism 18263:Chinese 18254:Ancient 18217:Western 18212:Ancient 18171:Realism 18128:Reality 18118:Process 17999:Realism 17979:Dualism 17974:Atomism 17856:Fideism 17479:more... 17259:Fideism 17205:more... 16878:12 June 16791:13 July 16600:24 July 16559:30 July 16481:19 July 16446:30 July 16411:19 July 16346:8549955 16285:19 July 16215:7 March 16182:12 July 16070:29 July 15921:12 July 15848:20 July 15823:12 June 15813:2678403 15778:24 July 15685:30 July 15498:13 July 15419:19 July 15386:13 July 15353:7 March 15168:24 July 15006:31 July 14781:30 July 14771:3050633 14485:24 July 14400:15 July 14324:13 July 14289:29 July 14264:13 July 14156:13 July 14123:13 July 14030:13 July 13966:2253844 13848:30 July 13782:12 July 13731:6771946 13519:30 July 13385:30 July 13132:24 July 13028:8 March 12921:19 July 12867:12 June 12830:19 July 12797:13 June 12666:24 July 12488:13 July 12436:16 July 12272:30 July 12180:24 July 12147:19 July 12112:24 July 12048:31 July 11996:30 July 11799:24 July 11596:18 July 11453:29 July 11409:17 July 11386:2025679 11341:"Truth" 11330:30 July 11245:1088519 11201:24 July 11070:19 July 10913:19 July 10725:"Truth" 10604:9 March 10571:14 July 10557:"Nyaya" 10527:13 July 10454:5376720 10383:19 July 10350:7 March 10317:30 July 10274:31 July 10216:31 July 10107:24 July 10045:29 July 9958:24 July 9925:13 July 9857:12 July 9780:2107939 9642:29 July 9541:19 July 9508:14 July 9464:30 July 9378:19 July 9205:19 July 9172:30 July 9069:5 March 9017:17 July 8909:30 July 8820:12 June 8789:2214083 8758:19 July 8688:3810237 8660:Hypatia 6808:Gontier 6572:827–828 5807:170–171 5101:Sudduth 4078:132–133 3746:Sudduth 3365:411–412 3193:162–163 2920:813–818 2756:Mi 2007 2199:, like 2073:Gaṅgeśa 1971:Mencius 1903:had an 1885:opinion 1867:History 1782:fallacy 1561:grammar 1424:Mīmāṃsā 1397:pramāṇa 920:actions 831:Sources 696:Larissa 472:lasagna 384:culture 50:(album) 19681:Polish 19661:German 19656:French 19641:Danish 19631:Canada 19581:Jewish 19543:Korean 19528:Indian 19070:People 18991:Monism 18944:German 18912:Holism 18845:Modern 18823:Jewish 18746:Dvaita 18719:Indian 18642:Huayan 18494:Ajñana 18451:Indian 18316:Greco- 18301:Taoism 18291:Mohism 18237:Modern 18204:By era 18193:By era 18108:Action 17989:Monism 17909:Virtue 17891:Ethics 17373:Belief 17269:Holism 16897:about 16866: 16858: 16848: 16777: 16694: 16673: 16586: 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