2226:
2186:
2238:
2198:
601:
582:(2013) a majority of the Court found that perpetuating prejudice or stereotyping did not form an additional requirement in the second part of the test. The majority itself split on the correct way to apply the second part of the test, leaving the present state of the law on Section 15 unclear until 2015. The current framework for analyzing an alleged violation of s 15(1) of the
624:
case to refer to personal characteristics that, when being the basis of discrimination, show the discrimination is unconstitutional under section 15. There are nine enumerated grounds explicitly mentioned in section 15, although they are not actually numbered. In practice, the enumerated grounds have
389:(2) Subsection (1) does not preclude any law, program or activity that has as its object the amelioration of conditions of disadvantaged individuals or groups including those that are disadvantaged because of race, national or ethnic origin, colour, religion, sex, age or mental or physical disability.
904:
suggests four "contextual factors" which can help guide a contextual analysis of whether the imputed distinction violates the human dignity of the claimant. None of these are determinative of discrimination, and the Court must not consider all of them in every case. This list is also not exhaustive,
474:
According to the
Supreme Court of Canada's Section 15 jurisprudence, the equality guarantees of section 15 are aimed at preventing the "violation of essential human dignity and freedom through the imposition of disadvantage, stereotyping, or political and social prejudices, and to promote a society
429:
During the drafting, the guarantee to "everyone" was dropped in favour of "every individual," with the intent that corporations could not invoke equality rights. In addition, while the original version spoke of equality before the law and equal protection of the law, the section ultimately enacted
960:
the court was sharply divided on this point. The majority said that the law that provided less social assistance to youth was connected to the ability of youth to find employment easily. However, the dissenters insisted that the evidence did not show this to be actual qualities, but were rather
542:
of
Section 15. As with any other section, the equality rights section cannot invalidate another Constitutional provision (although they can assist in interpreting them), for example, rights or privileges guaranteed by or under the Constitution of Canada in respect of denominational, separate or
953:
With correlation between grounds and reality, the claimant must show that there is a link between the grounds raise and the claimant's actual needs, circumstances, and capacities. Discrimination will be more difficult to establish if the law takes the qualities of the claimant into account. In
1008:
In
September 2006, the Conservative federal government announced that it would be "trimming the fat and refocusing spending on the priorities of Canadians." This included cutting all funding to the Court Challenges Program. In 2016, the newly elected Liberal government announced they would be
383:
15. (1) Every individual is equal before and under the law and has the right to the equal protection and equal benefit of the law without discrimination and, in particular, without discrimination based on race, national or ethnic origin, colour, religion, sex, age or mental or physical
974:
The final factor of nature and scope considers the nature and scope of the interest affected by the law. The more severe and localized the results of the law for those affected the more likely to show that the distinctions in treatment responsible are discriminatory.
446:
had said only the application, and not the outcome, of the law must be equal, thereby necessitating an explicit guarantee of equality under the law; and that legal benefits need not be equal, thereby necessitating an explicit guarantee of equal benefit of the law.
964:
The ameliorative purpose factor asks whether there is a distinction made for the purpose of aiding an even less advantaged group. If this can be shown then it is unlikely that the claimant would be able to show a violation of their dignity. However,
638:
As section 15's words "in particular" hint that the explicitly named grounds do not exhaust the scope of section 15, additional grounds can be considered if it can be shown that the group or individual's equality rights were denied in
943:
McLachlin described this factor to be the most compelling and suggestive of discrimination if proven. However, the absence of a pre-existing disadvantage does not necessarily preclude a claimant from succeeding as seen in
1872:
1000:
To overcome this barrier, the federal government expanded the Court
Challenges Program of Canada in 1985 to fund test cases challenging federal legislation in relation to the equality rights guaranteed by the
1104:
1536:
647:
to the ones enumerated in section 15 if it is "immutable" or cannot be changed or can only be changed at excessive cost (constructively immutable). Thus far, several analogous grounds have been identified:
521:
Unlike formal equality, which overlooks personal differences, substantive equality is concerned with the impact of the law on different groups of individuals. Substantive equality requires that there be an
475:
in which all persons enjoy equal recognition at law as human beings or as members of
Canadian society, equally capable and equally deserving of concern, respect and consideration." (Iacobucci J. in
588:
430:
included guarantees of equality under the law and equal benefit of the law. The reason for these additions was to encourage a generous reading of section 15. In the Bill of Rights cases
420:(1) Everyone has the right to equality before the law and to equal protection of the law without discrimination because of race, national or ethnic origin, colour, religion, age or sex.
988:
544:
404:
of 1960 had guaranteed the "right of the individual to equality before the law and the protection of the law." Equal protection of the law is a right that has been guaranteed by the
466:. The reason for this was so that provincial and federal governments would have enough time to review their legislation and make the appropriate changes to any discriminatory laws.
459:
573:(1989): (1) Does the law create a distinction based on an enumerated or analogous ground? (2) Does the distinction create a disadvantage by perpetuating prejudice or stereotyping?
578:
1005:. Some funding has been provided to challenge provincial laws under a variety of programs in the past, but its availability has varied considerably from province to province.
371:" such as corporations, contrasting other sections that use the word "everyone", where "legal persons" were meant to be included. Section 15 has been in force since 1985.
1750:
169:
567:(2008), the problems with the dignity analysis were recognized and the dignity analysis was jettisoned. The Court established a two-part test based on the one found in
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is equality in the administration of justice, where all individuals are subject to the same criminal laws in the same manner by law enforcement and the courts.
409:
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640:
425:(2) This section does not preclude any law, program or activity that has as its object the amelioration of conditions of disadvantaged persons or groups.
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1888:
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is equality in the substance of the law, where the content of the law is equal and fair to everyone so that everyone experiences the same result.
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ensure that the protections imposed by law will be proportionate so that the human dignity of every person is equally safeguarded by the law.
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that shares all of the same characteristics except for the personal characteristic at issue. A personal characteristic is considered
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Pre-existing disadvantage asks whether there was a pre-existing disadvantage or vulnerability experienced by the claimant. In
1968:
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to rule on the issue as the government had voiced its intent to legalize them anyway) to find that laws against
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298:
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For discrimination to be found it must be determined if the burden or denial of benefit harms an individual's
631:
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1931:
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1338:
946:
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1097:"The Supreme Court of Canada's Approach to the Charter's Equality Guarantee in its Pay Equity Decisions"
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341:
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1990:
1973:
1422:
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Jurisprudence has shown that each of these factors are weighed differently depending on the context.
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1405:
539:
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1985:
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correlation between the grounds of the claim and the actual needs, capacities, and circumstances
2160:
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1946:
1648:
1437:
1394:
1286:
993:
329:
37:
890:). That is, the discrimination will marginalize, ignore, or devalue an individual's sense of
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is an analogous ground for discrimination, leading all but two provincial courts to legalize
535:
360:
1208:
CanLII Section 15(1) - Equality before and under law and equal protection and benefit of law
2107:
2102:
2042:
489:
1638:
1145:"Deep Discount Justice: The Challenge of Going to Court with a Charter Claim and No Money"
625:
been given liberal and broad interpretations. For example, discrimination on the basis of
8:
2047:
1445:
1212:
1207:
971:
warned that the analysis should not be reduced to a balancing of relative disadvantages.
967:
561:(1999) the question of whether dignity was affected was key to a section 15 analysis. In
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1951:
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1221:
Equality Rights - Interpretation of
Section 15 in Supreme Court of Canada Decisions
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1072:
Charte canadienne des droits et libertés / Canadian
Charter of Rights and Freedoms
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1978:
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352:
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1963:
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1033:. 2003 Student Ed. (Scarborough, Ontario: Thomson Canada Limited, 2003), 1067.
359:, and physical disability. In its jurisprudence, it has also been a source of
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1995:
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859:? That is, was a distinction created between the groups in purpose or effect?
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678:) This finding has led provincial courts (the Supreme Court declined in
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As well, the courts have rejected several analogous grounds including:
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356:
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ameliorative purpose or effect of the law on more disadvantaged groups
538:
is always on the claimant. The
Supreme Court of Canada has endorsed a
412:
since 1868. Section 15 itself dates back to the earliest draft of the
626:
600:
416:, published in October 1980, but it was worded differently. It read,
2237:
363:. These rights are guaranteed to "every individual", that is, every
705:
669:
869:
If so, did the law in question have a purpose or effect that is
337:
1321:
843:, discrimination can be identified through a three-step test.
454:
itself came into effect on April 17, 1982, section 15 was not
1095:
Hamilton, Jonnette Watson; Koshan, Jennifer (July 12, 2018).
749:
Dartmouth/Halifax County
Regional Housing Authority v. Sparks
379:
Under the heading of "Equality Rights" this section states:
987:, is mainly enforced by the courts through litigation under
511:
ensures that benefits imposed by law will be proportionate.
1013:
million annually to restore the Court
Challenges Program.
723:
off-reserve aboriginal status/"Aboriginality-residence" (
1563:
Amendments and other constitutional documents 1867–1982
1185:"Budget 2016: Chapter 5 - An Inclusive and Fair Canada"
2145:
2070:
410:
Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution
2214:
1647:
1436:
832:
1850:
Part II – Rights of the Aboriginal peoples of Canada
909:
analysis has yet to develop any additional factors:
1213:CanLII Section 15(2) - Affirmative action programs
595:
488:recognizes four dimensions of equality, including
469:
340:with the exception of ameliorative programs (e.g.
1234:20th Anniversary of Section 15 (Dept. of Justice)
529:
2250:
1866:Part III – Equalization and regional disparities
1658:Part I – Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms
1074:(5th ed.). Markham, ON: LexisNexis Canada.
862:If so, was the differential treatment based on
1370:Report on the Affairs of British North America
1094:
1070:Mendes, Errol; Beaulac, Stéfane, eds. (2013).
675:Little Sisters Book and Art Emporium v. Canada
1271:
1069:
873:within the meaning of the equality guarantee?
534:In any challenge based on section 15(1), the
299:
16:Constitutional provision protecting equality
1364:Declaration of Independence of Lower Canada
1323:Pre-Confederation constitutional documents
1285:
1278:
1264:
813:persons committing crimes outside Canada (
735:Andrews v. Law Society of British Columbia
570:Andrews v. Law Society of British Columbia
306:
292:
2020:
629:has been ruled to be sex discrimination (
550:
458:until April 17, 1985, in accordance with
332:, the section prohibits certain forms of
599:
2259:Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms
1639:Kitchen Accord/Night of the Long Knives
1532:Fines and penalties for provincial laws
1154:, 1999. URL accessed on March 10, 2006.
321:Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms
2251:
997:. Such litigation can be very costly.
770:Reference Re Workers' Compensation Act
589:Kahkewistahaw First Nation v. Taypotat
2144:
2069:
2019:
1969:Individual ministerial responsibility
1918:
1615:
1561:
1392:
1320:
1259:
957:Gosselin v. Quebec (Attorney General)
1537:Matters of a local or private nature
691:Halpern v. Canada (Attorney General)
433:Attorney General of Canada v. Lavell
2166:Constitution Act (British Columbia)
1174:, URL accessed on December 9, 2006.
1107:from the original on April 24, 2019
786:province of prosecution/residence (
526:on the person affected by the law.
13:
2146:Provincial constitutions of Canada
2072:Interpretation of the Constitution
1248:website with video, audio and the
1241:The Charter of Rights and Freedoms
1126:Court Challenges Program of Canada
833:Past interpretations: the Law test
336:perpetrated by the governments of
200:Minority Language Education Rights
14:
2290:
2264:Anti-discrimination law in Canada
1937:Cabinet collective responsibility
1479:Peace, order, and good government
1393:
1201:
1194:, URL accessed on April 15, 2016.
983:Section 15, like the rest of the
877:
759:having a "taste for marijuana". (
620:originated in the essential 1989
2236:
2224:
2197:
2196:
2184:
1298:List of constitutional documents
1143:Arne Peltz & Betsy Gibbons,
347:Rights under section 15 include
52:Guarantee of Rights and Freedoms
1919:
1177:
618:enumerated or analogous grounds
596:Enumerated or analogous grounds
470:Meaning and purpose of equality
1616:
1406:Charlottetown Conference, 1864
1303:Amendments to the Constitution
1157:
1137:
1119:
1088:
1063:
1054:
1045:
1036:
1023:
978:
688:would be unconstitutional. In
681:Reference re Same-Sex Marriage
579:Quebec (Attorney General) v. A
530:Application of section fifteen
442:(1979), Supreme Court Justice
1:
2053:Other unsuccessful amendments
1183:Canada Department of Finance
1163:Canada Department of Finance
822:begging and extreme poverty (
779:litigants against the Crown (
641:comparison with another group
632:Brooks v. Canada Safeway Ltd.
393:
2118:Interjurisdictional immunity
1942:Disallowance and reservation
1594:Statute of Westminster, 1931
1031:Constitutional Law of Canada
929:nature and scope of interest
700:same-sex marriage in Ontario
698:used section 15 to legalize
160:Official Languages of Canada
7:
1494:Matters excepted from s. 92
947:Trociuk v. British Columbia
855:between the claimant and a
696:Court of Appeal for Ontario
686:same-sex marriage in Canada
610:same-sex marriage in Canada
515:Equal protection of the law
10:
2295:
2083:Indigenous self-government
1573:British North America Acts
1359:Constitutional Act of 1791
1349:Royal Proclamation of 1763
1344:Constitution of New France
804:new resident of province (
604:Discrimination based upon
2178:
2151:
2140:
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2065:
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2015:
1991:Parliamentary sovereignty
1932:At His Majesty's pleasure
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1527:Administration of justice
1522:Property and civil rights
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914:pre-existing disadvantage
849:law, program, or activity
367:. This wording excludes "
2279:Disability law in Canada
1428:Fathers of Confederation
1308:Quasi-constitutional law
1016:
795:membership in military (
540:purposive interpretation
509:Equal benefit of the law
2156:Constitution of Alberta
2098:Equal authenticity rule
1986:Parliamentary privilege
1423:London Conference, 1866
1411:Quebec Conference, 1864
864:enumerated or analogous
781:Rudolph Wolff v. Canada
592:(2015) at paras 19–20.
497:Equality before the law
406:Equal Protection Clause
401:Canadian Bill of Rights
374:
2161:Constitution of Quebec
2113:Implied Bill of Rights
1947:Responsible government
1649:Constitution Act, 1982
1629:Fulton–Favreau formula
1599:Newfoundland Act, 1949
1589:Saskatchewan Act, 1905
1517:Works and undertakings
1438:Constitution Act, 1867
1287:Constitution of Canada
1239:Fundamental Freedoms:
1060:Hogg, pages 1066–1067.
1042:Hogg, pages 1062–1063.
994:Constitution Act, 1982
905:although the standard
853:differential treatment
613:
551:Current interpretation
503:Equality under the law
427:
422:
391:
386:
330:Constitution of Canada
38:Constitution Act, 1982
28:of Rights and Freedoms
2022:Constitutional debate
1334:Iroquois constitution
837:As first outlined in
603:
543:dissentient schools (
423:
418:
387:
381:
361:LGBT rights in Canada
2043:Charlottetown Accord
1339:Mi'kmaq constitution
1252:in over 20 languages
717:Nova Scotia v. Walsh
490:substantive equality
324:contains guaranteed
64:Fundamental Freedoms
2048:Calgary Declaration
1446:Canadian federalism
968:Lovelace v. Ontario
768:employment status (
586:is that set out in
545:religious education
2274:LGBT law in Canada
2128:Dialogue principle
2088:Pith and substance
1957:King-in-Parliament
1882:Part VII – General
1579:Manitoba Act, 1870
1484:Trade and commerce
1416:Quebec Resolutions
1354:Quebec Act of 1774
1226:2015-09-06 at the
1190:2021-03-08 at the
1170:2006-11-28 at the
1150:2006-05-09 at the
1131:2006-04-11 at the
940:Corbiere v. Canada
762:R. v. Malmo-Levine
726:Corbiere v. Canada
653:sexual orientation
614:
606:sexual orientation
456:brought into force
318:Section 15 of the
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2011:
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2001:Royal prerogative
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1376:Act of Union 1840
1246:Charter of Rights
792:, R. v. S. (S.) )
774:Delisle v. Canada
664:Vriend v. Alberta
484:To that end, the
342:employment equity
328:. As part of the
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616:The concept of
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439:Bliss v. Canada
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