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findings are to be true.") and economical ("The greater the financial and other interests and prejudices in a scientific field, the less likely the research findings are to be true" and "The hotter a scientific field (with more scientific teams involved), the less likely the research findings are to be true.") Hence: "Most research findings are false for most research designs and for most fields" and "As shown, the majority of modern biomedical research is operating in areas with very low pre- and poststudy probability for true findings." However: "Nevertheless, most new discoveries will continue to stem from hypothesis-generating research with low or very low pre-study odds," which means that *new* discoveries will come from research that, when that research started, had low or very low odds (a low or very low chance) of succeeding. Hence, if the scientific method is used to expand the frontiers of knowledge, research into areas that are outside the mainstream will yield the newest discoveries.
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2542:, or allochthonous reasoning, typically is the formulation of a hypothesis followed by building mathematical constructs that can be tested in place of conducting physical laboratory experiments. This approach has two main factors: simplification/abstraction and secondly a set of correspondence rules. The correspondence rules lay out how the constructed model will relate back to reality-how truth is derived; and the simplifying steps taken in the abstraction of the given system are to reduce factors that do not bear relevance and thereby reduce unexpected errors. These steps can also help the researcher in understanding the important factors of the system, how far parsimony can be taken until the system becomes more and more unchangeable and thereby stable. Parsimony and related principles are further explored
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6540:, and immediately recognizes the diffraction pattern of a helical structure. But additional questions remained, requiring additional iterations of their research. For example, the number of strands in the backbone of the helix (Crick suspected 2 strands, but cautioned Watson to examine that more critically), the location of the base pairs (inside the backbone or outside the backbone), etc. One key point was that they realized that the quickest way to reach a result was not to continue a mathematical analysis, but to build a physical model. Later that evening â Watson urges Wilkins to begin model-building immediately. But Wilkins agrees to do so only after Franklin's departure.
4748:"The sociology of knowledge is concerned with "the relationship between human thought and the social context in which it arises." So, on this reading, the sociology of science may be taken to be considered with the analysis of the social context of scientific thought. But scientific thought, most sociologists concede, is distinguished from other modes of thought precisely by virtue of its immunity from social determination â insofar as it is governed by reason rather than by tradition, and insofar as it is rational it escapes determination by "non-logical" social forces." â M. D. King leading into his article on
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2825:. The one of a lab suspended in empty space is an example of a useful invariant observation. He imagined the absence of gravity and an experimenter free floating in the lab. â If now an entity pulls the lab upwards, accelerating uniformly, the experimenter would perceive the resulting force as gravity. The entity however would feel the work needed to accelerate the lab continuously. Through this experiment Einstein was able to equate gravitational and inertial mass; something unexplained by Newton's laws, and an early but "powerful argument for a generalised postulate of relativity".
927:), deriving predictions from them as logical consequences, and then carrying out experiments based on those predictions to determine whether the original conjecture was correct. However, there are difficulties in a formulaic statement of method. Though the scientific method is often presented as a fixed sequence of steps, these actions are better considered as general principles. Not all steps take place in every scientific inquiry (nor to the same degree), and they are not always done in the same order. As noted by scientist and philosopher
1717:, so that some consideration will lead the scientist to repeat an earlier part of the process. Failure to develop an interesting hypothesis may lead a scientist to re-define the subject under consideration. Failure of a hypothesis to produce interesting and testable predictions may lead to reconsideration of the hypothesis or of the definition of the subject. Failure of an experiment to produce interesting results may lead a scientist to reconsider the experimental method, the hypothesis, or the definition of the subject.
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1968:'s method of observation, which was to project the image of the Sun on a piece of paper through a pinhole aperture, instead of looking directly at the Sun. He disagreed with Brahe's conclusion that total eclipses of the Sun were impossible because, contrary to Brahe, he knew that there were historical accounts of total eclipses. Instead, he deduced that the images taken would become more accurate, the larger the apertureâthis fact is now fundamental for optical system design. Another historic example here is the
5774:"Philosophy is written in this grand book â I mean the universe â which stands continually open to our gaze, but it cannot be understood unless one first learns to comprehend the language and interpret the characters in which it is written. It is written in the language of mathematics, and its characters are triangles, circles, and other geometrical figures, without which it is humanly impossible to understand a single word of it; without these, one is wandering around in a dark labyrinth." â Galileo Galilei,
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7018:, on sabbatical from Pauling's lab and visiting Cambridge, advises Watson that the textbook form of the base pairs was incorrect for DNA base pairs; rather, the keto form of the base pairs should be used instead. This form allowed the bases' hydrogen bonds to pair 'unlike' with 'unlike', rather than to pair 'like' with 'like', as Watson was inclined to model, based on the textbook statements. On February 27, 1953, Watson was convinced enough to make cardboard models of the nucleotides in their keto form.
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also'. If it was properly shown that 'this case' fulfils the conditions, the conclusion follows. An extension of this is the assumption of a solution to an open problem. This weaker kind of deductive reasoning will get used in current research, when multiple scientists or even teams of researchers are all gradually solving specific cases in working towards proving a larger theory. This often sees hypotheses being revised again and again as new proof emerges.
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1457:, and others hypothesized that DNA had a helical structure. This implied that DNA's X-ray diffraction pattern would be 'x shaped'. This prediction followed from the work of Cochran, Crick and Vand (and independently by Stokes). The Cochran-Crick-Vand-Stokes theorem provided a mathematical explanation for the empirical observation that diffraction from helical structures produces x-shaped patterns. In their first paper, Watson and Crick also noted that the
3100:, the idea of a general and universal scientific method has been notably influential, and numerous studies (in the US) have shown that this framing of method often forms part of both studentsâ and teachersâ conception of science. This convention of traditional education has been argued against by scientists, as there is a consensus that educations' sequential elements and unified view of scientific method do not reflect how scientists actually work.
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2180:, p. 27 notes "Words and ideas are originally phonetic and mental equivalences of the experiences coinciding with them. ... Such proto-ideas are at first always too broad and insufficiently specialized. ... Once a structurally complete and closed system of opinions consisting of many details and relations has been formed, it offers enduring resistance to anything that contradicts it". Sometimes, these relations have their elements assumed
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593:(hypothetical explanations), deriving predictions from the hypotheses as logical consequences, and then carrying out experiments or empirical observations based on those predictions. A hypothesis is a conjecture based on knowledge obtained while seeking answers to the question. The hypothesis might be very specific or it might be broad. Scientists then test hypotheses by conducting experiments or studies. A scientific hypothesis must be
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test show the implications to be true, new insights will be gained. It is important to be aware that a positive test here will at best strongly imply but not definitively prove the tested hypothesis, as deductive inference (A â B) is not equivalent like that; only (ÂŹB â ÂŹA) is valid logic. Their positive outcomes however, as Hempel put it, provide "at least some support, some corroboration or confirmation for it". This is why
3880:, p. 192 recounts how Kepler used Giambattista della Porta's water-filled glass spheres to model the eye, and using an aperture to represent the entrance pupil of the eye, showed that the entire scene at the entrance pupil-focused on a single point of the rear of the glass sphere (representing the retina of the eye). This completed Kepler's investigation of the optical train, as it satisfied his application to astronomy.
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been experimentally tested and for how long, and in their acceptance in the scientific community. In general, explanations become accepted over time as evidence accumulates on a given topic, and the explanation in question proves more powerful than its alternatives at explaining the evidence. Often subsequent researchers re-formulate the explanations over time, or combined explanations to produce new explanations.
4715:...Hawking & Mlodinow on criteria for a good theory: "The above criteria are obviously subjective. Elegance, for example, is not something easily measured, but it is highly prized among scientists." The idea of 'too baroque' is connected to 'simplicity': "a theory jammed with fudge factors is not very elegant. To paraphrase Einstein, a theory should be as simple as possible, but not simpler". See also:
7727:, Quotes from p. 30, expanded on in ch. 4: Gauch gives two simplified statements on what he calls "rational-knowledge claim". It is either "I hold belief X for reasons R with level of confidence C, where inquiry into X is within the domain of competence of method M that accesses the relevant aspects of reality" (inductive reasoning) or "I hold belief X because of presuppositions P." (deductive reasoning)
4957:, p. 3: "The scientific method 'is often misrepresented as a fixed sequence of steps,' rather than being seen for what it truly is, 'a highly variable and creative process' (AAAS 2000:18). The claim here is that science has general principles that must be mastered to increase productivity and enhance perspective, not that these principles provide a simple and automated sequence of steps to follow."
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4027:"What one does not in the least doubt one should not pretend to doubt; but a man should train himself to doubt," said Peirce in a brief intellectual autobiography. Peirce held that actual, genuine doubt originates externally, usually in surprise, but also that it is to be sought and cultivated, "provided only that it be the weighty and noble metal itself, and no counterfeit nor paper substitute".
955:. Nonetheless, the cycle of formulating hypotheses, testing and analyzing the results, and formulating new hypotheses, will resemble the cycle described below.The scientific method is an iterative, cyclical process through which information is continually revised. It is generally recognized to develop advances in knowledge through the following elements, in varying combinations or contributions:
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principles, and it steers actions, directing them towards coherent and beneficial outcomes. This understanding underscores the pivotal role of reason in shaping our understanding of the world and in informing our choices and behaviours. The following section will first explore beliefs and biases, and then get to the rational reasoning most associated with the sciences.
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debate, the continuation of which can be summed up as yet more of the proverbial 'flogging a dead horse'. We beg to differ. ... We shall claim that
Feyerabend did endorse various scientific values, did accept rules of method (on a certain understanding of what these are), and did attempt to justify them using a meta methodology somewhat akin to the principle of
2850:. The Einstein example above, in the parlance of Mill would be an agreement between two values. In the context of invariance, it is a variable that remains unchanged through some kind of transformation or change in perspective. And discussion focused on symmetry would view the two perspectives as systems that share a relevant aspect and are therefore symmetrical.
4548:. Firstly: "we agree to tell the truth and we agree to be governed by rational argument from public evidence". And secondly, that ..."when the evidence is not sufficient to decide from rational argument, whether one point of view is right or another point of view is right, we agree to encourage competition and diversification". Thus echoing
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Brahe's conclusion that total eclipses of the Sun were impossible because there were historical accounts of total eclipses. Instead, he deduced that the size of the aperture controls the sharpness of the projected image (the larger the aperture, the more accurate the image â this fact is now fundamental for optical system design).
995:. On the contrary, if the astronomically massive, the feather-light, and the extremely fast are removed from Einstein's theories â all phenomena Newton could not have observed â Newton's equations are what remain. Einstein's theories are expansions and refinements of Newton's theories and, thus, increase confidence in Newton's work.
2749:, which is often taken as an attribute of a good theory. Science tries to be simple. When gathered data supports multiple explanations, the most simple explanation for phenomena or the most simple formation of a theory is recommended by the principle of parsimony. Scientists go as far as to call simple proofs of complex statements
2357:. The uncertainty is often estimated by making repeated measurements of the desired quantity. Uncertainties may also be calculated by consideration of the uncertainties of the individual underlying quantities used. Counts of things, such as the number of people in a nation at a particular time, may also have an uncertainty due to
1803:. For significant or surprising results, other scientists may also attempt to replicate the results for themselves, especially if those results would be important to their own work. Replication has become a contentious issue in social and biomedical science where treatments are administered to groups of individuals. Typically an
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intelligent species may be convincing with scientifically based speculation, no known experiment can test this hypothesis. Therefore, science itself can have little to say about the possibility. In the future, a new technique may allow for an experimental test and the speculation would then become part of accepted science.
5832:, pp. 2â3: "There is a danger that must be avoided. ... If we wish to do justice to the historical enterprise, we must take the past for what it was. And that means we must resist the temptation to scour the past for examples or precursors of modern science. ...My concern will be with the beginnings of scientific
3142:). They, too, influenced international science education, and the standards measured for have shifted since from the singular hypothesis-testing method to a broader conception of scientific methods. These scientific methods, which are rooted in scientific practices and not epistemology, are described as the 3
2519:, not a hypothesis. Following the initial question instead, a suitable "high-throughput method" of data-collection is determined, the resulting data processed and 'cleaned up', and conclusions drawn after. "This shift in focus elevates the data to the supreme role of revealing novel insights by themselves".
3437:, may be considered to be at odds with the scientific method, as some of the data may have been stripped of the parameters which might be material in alternative hypotheses for an explanation; thus the stripped data would only serve to support the null hypothesis in the predictive analytics application.
847:, accepted certain rules of method and attempted to justify those rules with a meta methodology. Staddon (2017) argues it is a mistake to try following rules in the absence of an algorithmic scientific method; in that case, "science is best understood through examples". But algorithmic methods, such as
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In chapter six, Dewey analyzed what he called a "complete act of thought." Any such act, he wrote, consisted of the following five "logically distinct" steps: "(i) a felt difficulty; (ii) its location and definition; (iii) suggestion of possible solution; (iv) development by reasoning of the bearings
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On Dewey's
Laboratory school in 1902: Cowles 2020 notes that Dewey regarded the Lab school as a collaboration between teachers and students. The five-step exposition was taken as mandatory, rather than descriptive. Dismayed by the Procrustean interpretation, Dewey attempted to tone down his five-step
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The sociology of knowledge is a concept in the discussion around scientific method, claiming the underlying method of science to be sociological. King explains that sociology distinguishes here between the system of ideas that govern the sciences through an inner logic, and the social system in which
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governing the progress of science. In essence, he said that for any specific method or norm of science, one can find a historic episode where violating it has contributed to the progress of science. He jokingly suggested that, if believers in the scientific method wish to express a single universally
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reduce to the objects of a common, putatively more basic domain of science, usually thought to be physics; as the thesis that all theories and results of the various sciences can or ought to be expressed in a common language or "universal slang"; or as the thesis that all the special sciences share a
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Sometimes ad-hoc modifications of a failing idea may also be dismissed as lacking "formal elegance". This appeal to what may be called "aesthetic" is hard to characterise, but essentially about a sort of familiarity. Though, argument based on "elegance" is contentious and over-reliance on familiarity
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with an open frame of mind and broadened his initial viewpoint even in unlikely directions. Once he had a sufficient body of ideas, he would try to simplify and thus find what worked among what did not. Specific to
Krugman here was to "question the question". He recognised that prior work had applied
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the results of future experiments. This allows scientists to gain a better understanding of the topic under study, and later to use that understanding to intervene in its causal mechanisms (such as to cure disease). The better an explanation is at making predictions, the more useful it frequently can
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Once this translation into mathematics is complete, the resulting model, in place of the corresponding system, can be analysed through purely mathematical and computational means. The results of this analysis are of course also purely mathematical in nature and get translated back to the system as it
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effectiveness to the method. It is most-associated with data-mining projects or large-scale observation projects. In both these cases, it is often not at all clear what the results of proposed experiments will be, and thus knowledge will arise after the collection of data through inductive reasoning.
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The idea of there being two opposed justifications for truth has shown up through-out the history of scientific method as analysis versus synthesis, non-ampliative/ampliative, or even confirmation and verification. (And there are other kinds of reasoning.) One to use what is observed to build towards
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Scientists assume an attitude of openness and accountability on the part of those experimenting. Detailed record-keeping is essential, to aid in recording and reporting on the experimental results, and supports the effectiveness and integrity of the procedure. They will also assist in reproducing the
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It is a whole family of different theories, each of which is a good description of observations only in some range of physical situations...But just as there is no map that is a good representation of the earth's entire surface, there is no single theory that is a good representation of observations
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of difference and agreementâmethods that would be referred back to in the context of contrast and invariance. But as tends to be the case, there is a difference between something being a basic consideration and something being given weight. Principles of invariance have only been given weight in the
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does simplicity concern the ontological commitments of a theory or its mathematical form?). Secondly, these criteria are imprecise, and so there is room for disagreement about the degree to which they hold. Thirdly, there can be disagreement about how they are to be weighted relative to one another,
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Most experimental results do not produce large changes in human understanding; improvements in theoretical scientific understanding typically result from a gradual process of development over time, sometimes across different domains of science. Scientific models vary in the extent to which they have
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The advantage the inductive method has over methods formulating a hypothesis that it is essentially free of "a researcher's preconceived notions" regarding their subject. On the other hand, inductive reasoning is always attached to a measure of certainty, as all inductively reasoned conclusions are.
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Goldhaber and Nieto published in 2010 the observation that if theoretical structures with "many closely neighboring subjects are described by connecting theoretical concepts, then the theoretical structure acquires a robustness which makes it increasingly hard – though certainly never
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Popper previously took ethical principles even further, going as far as to ascribe value to theories only if they were falsifiable. Popper used the falsifiability criterion to demarcate a scientific theory from a theory like astrology: both "explain" observations, but the scientific theory takes the
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If the predictions are not accessible by observation or experience, the hypothesis is not yet testable and so will remain to that extent unscientific in a strict sense. A new technology or theory might make the necessary experiments feasible. For example, while a hypothesis on the existence of other
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to cure this particular disease?" This stage frequently involves finding and evaluating evidence from previous experiments, personal scientific observations or assertions, as well as the work of other scientists. If the answer is already known, a different question that builds on the evidence can be
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An uncovered Petri dish sitting next to an open window became contaminated with mould spores. Fleming observed that the bacteria in proximity to the mould colonies were dying, as evidenced by the dissolving and clearing of the surrounding agar gel. He was able to isolate the mould and identified it
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v. 5, in paragraph 582, from 1898: "... inquiry of every type, fully carried out, has the vital power of self-correction and of growth. This is a property so deeply saturating its inmost nature that it may truly be said that there is but one thing needful for learning the truth, and that is a
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has yet been found. Once a counterexample, i.e. an entity contradicting/not explained by the theorem is found, we adjust the theorem, possibly extending the domain of its validity. This is a continuous way our knowledge accumulates, through the logic and process of proofs and refutations. (However,
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if new experimental observations are incompatible with what is found. That is, no theory can ever be considered final since new problematic evidence might be discovered. If such evidence is found, a new theory may be proposed, or (more commonly) it is found that modifications to the previous theory
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of this testing is what affords this method of inquiry to be reasoned deductively. The formulated hypothesis is assumed to be 'true', and from that 'true' statement implications are inferred. If the following tests show the implications to be false, it follows that the hypothesis was false also. If
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involves the evaluation of the experiment by experts, who typically give their opinions anonymously. Some journals request that the experimenter provide lists of possible peer reviewers, especially if the field is highly specialized. Peer review does not certify the correctness of the results, only
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at any stage. They might adopt the characterization and formulate their own hypothesis, or they might adopt the hypothesis and deduce their own predictions. Often the experiment is not done by the person who made the prediction, and the characterization is based on experiments done by someone else.
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between science and non-science, such as "scientist" and "pseudoscience", appearing. Throughout the 1830s and 1850s, when
Baconianism was popular, naturalists like William Whewell, John Herschel and John Stuart Mill engaged in debates over "induction" and "facts" and were focused on how to generate
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The particular points raised are statistical ("The smaller the studies conducted in a scientific field, the less likely the research findings are to be true" and "The greater the flexibility in designs, definitions, outcomes, and analytical modes in a scientific field, the less likely the research
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is an error in their method. Eventually, the researcher decides the error is too persistent and systematic to be a coincidence. The highly controlled, cautious, and curious aspects of the scientific method are thus what make it well suited for identifying such persistent systematic errors. At this
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It is the natural limitations of scientific inquiry that there is no pure observation as theory is required to interpret empirical data, and observation is therefore influenced by the observer's conceptual framework. As science is an unfinished project, this does lead to difficulties. Namely, that
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Watson and Crick then produced their model, using this information along with the previously known information about DNA's composition, especially
Chargaff's rules of base pairing. After considerable fruitless experimentation, being discouraged by their superior from continuing, and numerous false
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Invariably one came up against fundamental physical limits to the accuracy of measurement. ... The art of physical measurement seemed to be a matter of compromise, of choosing between reciprocally related uncertainties. ... Multiplying together the conjugate pairs of uncertainty limits mentioned,
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is credited with the famous saying that "Luck favours the prepared mind", but some psychologists have begun to study what it means to be 'prepared for luck' in the scientific context. Research is showing that scientists are taught various heuristics that tend to harness chance and the unexpected.
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A theory being assumed as true and subsequently built on is a common example of deductive reasoning. Theory building on
Einstein's achievement can simply state that 'we have shown that this case fulfils the conditions under which general/special relativity applies, therefore its conclusions apply
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There is a large core of people who think there is such a thing as a scientific method that can be justified, although not all agree as to what this might be. But there are also a growing number of people who think that there is no method to be justified. For some, the whole idea is yesteryear's
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perspectives. Postmodernists argue that scientific knowledge is merely a discourse, devoid of any claim to fundamental truth. In contrast, realists within the scientific community maintain that science uncovers real and fundamental truths about reality. Many books have been written by scientists
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Claims of scientific truth can be opposed in three ways: by falsifying them, by questioning their certainty, or by asserting the claim itself to be incoherent. Incoherence, here, means internal errors in logic, like stating opposites to be true; falsification is what Popper would have called the
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of Memoir 27: "Consequently, to discover is simply to expedite an event that would occur sooner or later, if we had not troubled ourselves to make the discovery. Consequently, the art of discovery is purely a question of economics. The economics of research is, so far as logic is concerned, the
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Kepler was driven to this experiment after observing the partial solar eclipse at Graz, July 10, 1600. He used Tycho Brahe's method of observation, which was to project the image of the Sun on a piece of paper through a pinhole aperture, instead of looking directly at the Sun. He disagreed with
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How the sciences make knowledge has been taught in the context of "the" scientific method (singular) since the early 20th century. Various systems of education, including but not limited to the US, have taught the method of science as a process or procedure, structured as a definitive series of
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During the course of history, one theory has succeeded another, and some have suggested further work while others have seemed content just to explain the phenomena. The reasons why one theory has replaced another are not always obvious or simple. The philosophy of science includes the question:
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Deductive reasoning is the building of knowledge based on what has been shown to be true before. It requires the assumption of fact established prior, and, given the truth of the assumptions, a valid deduction guarantees the truth of the conclusion. Inductive reasoning builds knowledge not from
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Rationality embodies the essence of sound reasoning, a cornerstone not only in philosophical discourse but also in the realms of science and practical decision-making. According to the traditional viewpoint, rationality serves a dual purpose: it governs beliefs, ensuring they align with logical
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Once predictions are made, they can be sought by experiments. If the test results contradict the predictions, the hypotheses which entailed them are called into question and become less tenable. Sometimes the experiments are conducted incorrectly or are not very well designed when compared to a
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that is implicit in science. There are basic assumptions, derived from philosophy by at least one prominent scientist, that form the base of the scientific method â namely, that reality is objective and consistent, that humans have the capacity to perceive reality accurately, and that rational
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and those who followed him. After the establishment of the HD-method, it was often put aside as something of a "fishing expedition" though. It is still valid to some degree, but today's inductive method is often far removed from the historic approachâthe scale of the data collected lending new
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is a technique for dealing with observational error. This technique uses the contrast between multiple samples, or observations, or populations, under differing conditions, to see what varies or what remains the same. We vary the conditions for the acts of measurement, to help isolate what has
4573:"At the heart of science is an essential balance between two seemingly contradictory attitudesâan openness to new ideas, no matter how bizarre or counterintuitive, and the most ruthlessly skeptical scrutiny of all ideas, old and new. This is how deep truths are winnowed from deep nonsense." â
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Scientific endeavour can be characterised as the pursuit of truths about the natural world or as the elimination of doubt about the same. The former is the direct construction of explanations from empirical data and logic, the latter the reduction of potential explanations. It was established
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A more general inference against formalised method has been found through research involving interviews with scientists regarding their conception of method. This research indicated that scientists frequently encounter difficulty in determining whether the available evidence supports their
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to other scientists who wish to replicate their original results (or parts of their original results), extending to the sharing of any experimental samples that may be difficult to obtain. To protect against bad science and fraudulent data, government research-granting agencies such as the
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Science is a social enterprise, and scientific work tends to be accepted by the scientific community when it has been confirmed. Crucially, experimental and theoretical results must be reproduced by others within the scientific community. Researchers have given their lives for this vision;
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Kuhn (1977) identified: accuracy; consistency (both internal and with other relevant currently accepted theories); scope (its consequences should extend beyond the data it is required to explain); simplicity (organizing otherwise confused and isolated phenomena); fruitfulness (for further
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Smith, A. Mark (2001a). "Alhacen's Theory of Visual
Perception: A Critical Edition, with English Translation and Commentary, of the First Three Books of Alhacen's "De aspectibus", the Medieval Latin Version of Ibn al-Haytham's "KitÄb al-ManÄáşir": Volume One: Introduction and Latin text".
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It is essential that the outcome of testing such a prediction be currently unknown. Only in this case does a successful outcome increase the probability that the hypothesis is true. If the outcome is already known, it is called a consequence and should have already been considered while
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Principles of invariance have been a theme in scientific writing, and especially physics, since at least the early 20th century. The basic idea here is that good structures to look for are those independent of perspective, an idea that has featured earlier of course for example in
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Smith, A. Mark (2001b). "Alhacen's Theory of Visual
Perception: A Critical Edition, with English Translation and Commentary, of the First Three Books of Alhacen's "De aspectibus", the Medieval Latin Version of Ibn al-Haytham's "KitÄb al-ManÄáşir": Volume Two: English translation".
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Since new theories might be more comprehensive than what preceded them, and thus be able to explain more than previous ones, successor theories might be able to meet a higher standard by explaining a larger body of observations than their predecessors. For example, the theory of
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that, in the opinion of the reviewer, the experiments themselves were sound (based on the description supplied by the experimenter). If the work passes peer review, which occasionally may require new experiments requested by the reviewers, it will be published in a peer-reviewed
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had questioned the universality of the "scientific method" and in doing so largely replaced the notion of science as a homogeneous and universal method with that of it being a heterogeneous and local practice. In particular, Paul
Feyerabend, in the 1975 first edition of his book
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the success of a hypothesis, or its service to science, lies not simply in its perceived "truth", or power to displace, subsume or reduce a predecessor idea, but perhaps more in its ability to stimulate the research that will illuminate ... bald suppositions and areas of
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has not been straightforward; scientific method has been the subject of intense and recurring debate throughout the history of science, and eminent natural philosophers and scientists have argued for the primacy of one or another approach to establishing scientific knowledge.
2019:
views framed scientific inquiry as part of a broader spectrum and as spurred, like inquiry generally, by actual doubt, not mere verbal or "hyperbolic doubt", which he held to be fruitless. This "hyperbolic doubt" Peirce argues against here is of course just another name for
1091:, and proceeding to more complicated substances. Using clues painstakingly assembled over decades, beginning with its chemical composition, it was determined that it should be possible to characterize the physical structure of DNA, and the X-ray images would be the vehicle.
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Sanches and Locke were both physicians. By his training in Rome and France, Sanches sought a method of science beyond that of the
Scholastic Aristotelian school. Botanical gardens were added to the universities in Sanches' time to aid medical training before the 1600s.
2391:, after all. More general, claims to rational knowledge, and especially statistics, have to be put into their appropriate context. Simple statements such as '9 out of 10 doctors recommend' are therefore of unknown quality because they do not justify their methodology.
4312:. But let us now mention something to prove this convincingly: the fact that light travels in straight lines is clearly observed in the lights which enter into dark rooms through holes.... he entering light will be clearly observable in the dust which fills the air.
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is a form of inductive reasoning. Conversely, assuming that a specific outcome will occur based on general trends observed across multiple experiments, as in "Most experiments have shown this pattern, so it will likely occur in this case as well," illustrates faulty
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1285:, for example. His cautionary example was the gene; the gene was much more poorly understood before Watson and Crick's pioneering discovery of the structure of DNA; it would have been counterproductive to spend much time on the definition of the gene, before them.
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When the scientific method employs statistics as a key part of its arsenal, there are mathematical and practical issues that can have a deleterious effect on the reliability of the output of scientific methods. This is described in a popular 2005 scientific paper
1996:, which holds that knowledge is created by the human intellect; later clarified by Popper to be built on prior theory. The scientific method embodies the position that reason alone cannot solve a particular scientific problem; it unequivocally refutes claims that
3365:, human bias, and randomness, the scientific method is more than resistant or tough â it actually benefits from such randomness in many ways (it is anti-fragile). Taleb believes that the more anti-fragile the system, the more it will flourish in the real world.
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Whatever might be the ultimate goals of some scientists, science, as it is currently practised, depends on multiple overlapping descriptions of the world, each of which has a domain of applicability. In some cases this domain is very large, but in others quite
4156:
Occam's razor, sometimes referred to as "ontological parsimony", is roughly stated as: Given a choice between two theories, the simplest is the best. This suggestion commonly is attributed to William of Ockham in the 14th-century, although it probably predates
1637:(JWST), entail expected costs of billions of dollars, and timeframes extending over decades. These kinds of institutions affect public policy, on a national or even international basis, and the researchers would require shared access to such machines and their
2340:
This way of presenting inductive and deductive reasoning shows part of why science is often presented as being a cycle of iteration. It is important to keep in mind that that cycle's foundations lie in reasoning, and not wholly in the following of procedure.
3192:. According to Fleck, scientists' work is based on a thought-style, that cannot be rationally reconstructed. It gets instilled through the experience of learning, and science is then advanced based on a tradition of shared assumptions held by what he called
2770:
The concept of parsimony should not be held to imply complete frugality in the pursuit of scientific truth. The general process starts at the opposite end of there being a vast number of potential explanations and general disorder. An example can be seen in
3149:
The scientific method, as a result of simplified and universal explanations, is often held to have reached a kind of mythological status; as a tool for communication or, at best, an idealisation. Education's approach was heavily influenced by John Dewey's,
1616:
These institutions thereby reduce the research function to a cost/benefit, which is expressed as money, and the time and attention of the researchers to be expended, in exchange for a report to their constituents. Current large instruments, such as CERN's
2122:
The practice of experimental control and reproducibility can have the effect of diminishing the potentially harmful effects of circumstance, and to a degree, personal bias. For example, pre-existing beliefs can alter the interpretation of results, as in
9238:
Traditionally 5, after Dewey's 1910 idea of a "complete act of thought". He held that thought-process best represented science (for education). These steps would end up being simplified and adjusted, often shortened to 4, or extended to include various
8095:
v. 4, pp. 37â38: "For it is not sufficient that a hypothesis should be a justifiable one. Any hypothesis that explains the facts is justified critically. But among justifiable hypotheses we have to select that one which is suitable for being tested by
785:, appearing in dictionaries and science textbooks, although there was little consensus over its meaning. Although there was growth through the middle of the twentieth century, by the 1960s and 1970s numerous influential philosophers of science such as
3107:
This version of the method of science has been a long-established standard in primary and secondary education, as well as the biomedical sciences. It has long been held to be an inaccurate idealisation of how some scientific inquiries are structured.
2550:
exists in reality via the previously determined correspondence rulesâiteration following review and interpretation of the findings. The way such models are reasoned will often be mathematically deductiveâbut they don't have to be. An example here are
1798:
to produce the same results, this implies that the original results might have been in error. As a result, it is common for a single experiment to be performed multiple times, especially when there are uncontrolled variables or other indications of
4736:
The fact that the standards of scientific success shift with time does not only make the philosophy of science difficult; it also raises problems for the public understanding of science. We do not have a fixed scientific method to rally around and
3023:
The fact that the standards of scientific success shift with time does not only make the philosophy of science difficult; it also raises problems for the public understanding of science. We do not have a fixed scientific method to rally around and
3157:. Van der Ploeg (2016) indicated that Dewey's views on education had long been used to further an idea of citizen education removed from "sound education", claiming that references to Dewey in such arguments were undue interpretations (of Dewey).
1172:, performed on them. The measurements might be made in a controlled setting, such as a laboratory, or made on more or less inaccessible or unmanipulatable objects such as stars or human populations. The measurements often require specialized
8685:. Like singular statements and probability statements, they are empirically testable, but their tests do not have certain, definite results, do not result in strict verification or falsification but only in temporary acceptance or rejection.
4172:, 1920: "The relativity theory of physics reduces everything to relations; that is to say, it is structure, not material, which counts." â Weinert, giving the Einstein example and quoting: "Eddington, Space, Time and Gravitation (1920), 197"
3293:, a sociological approach that seeks to explain scientific knowledge without recourse to the truth or validity of scientific theories. It examines how scientific beliefs are shaped by social factors such as power, ideology, and interests.
2394:
Lack of familiarity with statistical methodologies can result in erroneous conclusions. Foregoing the easy example, multiple probabilities interacting is where, for example medical professionals, have shown a lack of proper understanding.
4728:
already in 1913. There is however a consensus that stating this somewhat nihilistic assertion without introduction and in too unexpected a fashion is counterproductive, confusing, and can even be damaging. There may never be one, too. As
2873:". The importance of scientific theories to be falsifiable finds especial emphasis in the philosophy of Karl Popper. The broader view here is testability, since it includes the former and allows for additional practical considerations.
2732:
It also is debatable whether existing scientific theories satisfy all these criteria, which may represent goals not yet achieved. For example, explanatory power over all existing observations is satisfied by no one theory at the moment.
2575:
be, and the more likely it will continue to explain a body of evidence better than its alternatives. The most successful explanations â those that explain and make accurate predictions in a wide range of circumstances â are often called
4499:
that "theories supplied by reason should be verified by sensory data, aided by instruments, and corroborated by trustworthy witnesses" were (and still are) considered "one of the first important formulations of the scientific method on
3288:
Kuhn and Feyerabend acknowledged Hanson's pioneering work, although Feyerabend's views on methodological pluralism were more radical. Criticisms like those from Kuhn and Feyerabend prompted discussions leading to the development of the
4305:
argued the importance of forming questions and subsequently testing them: "How does light travel through transparent bodies? Light travels through transparent bodies in straight lines only... We have explained this exhaustively in our
4249:, the thought collectives within the respective fields will have to settle on common specialized terminology, publish their results and further intercommunicate with their colleagues using the common terminology, in order to progress.
1882:
The unfettered principles of science are to strive for accuracy and the creed of honesty; openness already being a matter of degrees. Openness is restricted by the general rigour of scepticism. And of course the matter of non-science.
5572:
It's probably best to get the bad news out of the way first, the so-called scientific method is a myth. ... If typical formulations were accurate, the only location true science would be taking place in would be grade-school
4018:, there are three 'reviewers': Simplicio, Sagredo, and Salviati, who serve as foil, antagonist, and protagonist. Galileo speaks for himself only briefly. But Einstein's 1905 papers were not peer-reviewed before their publication.
6990:, p. 53: The weekend (January 31 â February 1) â After seeing photo 51, Watson informed Bragg of the X-ray diffraction image of DNA in B form. Bragg permitted them to restart their research on DNA (that is, model building).
3897:
Berkeley served as foil to the materialist System of the World of Newton; Berkeley emphasizes that scientist should seek 'reduction to regularity'. Atherton (ed.) 1999 selects Locke, Berkeley, and Hume as part of the empiricist
5144:
1924:
Science has limits. Those limits are usually deemed to be answers to questions that aren't in science's domain, such as faith. Science has other limits as well, as it seeks to make true statements about reality. The nature of
8182:
5090:, p. 240: "Truth is sought for its own sake. And those who are engaged upon the quest for anything for its own sake are not interested in other things. Finding the truth is difficult, and the road to it is rough." â
2467:
test of those hypothetical consequences shows them to be false, it follows logically that the part of the theory that implied them was false also. If they show as true however, it does not prove the theory definitively.
991:, constantly developing more useful, accurate, and comprehensive models and methods. For example, when Einstein developed the Special and General Theories of Relativity, he did not in any way refute or discount Newton's
911:
is carried out. As in other areas of inquiry, science (through the scientific method) can build on previous knowledge, and can unify understanding of its topics of study over time. This model can be seen to underlie the
6582:
leading doctrine concerning the art of discovery. Consequently, the conduct of abduction, which is chiefly a question of heuretic and is the first question of heuretic, is to be governed by economical considerations."
2156:
horse are splayed at the point when none of the horse's legs touch the ground, to the point of this image being included in paintings by its supporters. However, the first stop-action pictures of a horse's gallop by
3973:
The goal shifts: after observing the x-ray diffraction pattern of DNA, and as time was of the essence, Watson and Crick realize that fastest way to discover DNA's structure was not by mathematical analysis, but by
2931:, arguing degrees of science being too fractured for a universal definition of its method to by useful. And those, who argue that the very attempt at definition is already detrimental to the free flow of ideas.
597:, implying that it is possible to identify a possible outcome of an experiment or observation that conflicts with predictions deduced from the hypothesis; otherwise, the hypothesis cannot be meaningfully tested.
3876:, p. 61, notes that Kepler's 1604 experiments produced the first correct account of vision and the eye, because he realized he could not accurately write about astronomical observation by ignoring the eye.
2934:
Additionally, there have been views on the social framework in which science is done, and the impact of the sciences social envrionment on research. Also, there is 'scientific method' as popularised by Dewey in
2459:, that are falsifiable via experiment is of central importance here, as not the hypothesis but its implications are what is tested. Basically, scientists will look at the hypothetical consequences a (potential)
11245:
9955:
4810:]. The Principia: Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy. Translated by Cohen, I. Bernard; Whitman, Anne; Budenz, Julia. Includes "A Guide to Newton's Principia" by I. Bernard Cohen, pp. 1â370. (The
6175:, pp. 49â50: January 28, 1953 â Watson read Pauling's pre-print, and realized that in Pauling's model, DNA's phosphate groups had to be un-ionized. But DNA is an acid, which contradicts Pauling's model.
5745:
8239:
Kuhn, T.S. (1977) Objectivity, Value Judgment, and Theory Choice. In: Kuhn, T.S., Ed., The Essential TensionâSelected Studies in Scientific Tradition and Change, The University of Chicago Press, Chicago,
2104:, 1878, were used to answer the question of whether all four feet of a galloping horse are ever off the ground at the same time. This demonstrates a use of photography as an experimental tool in science.
9229:
Schuster & Powers hold that sources for research questions are: attempts to explain the cause of novel observations, verifying the predictions of existing theory, literature sources, and technology.
8603: : Wigner also differentiates between geometrical invariance principles, and the "new" ones that arose in the wake of Einstein's theories of relativity that he calls dynamic invariance principles.
4424:
wrote on the matter that not all approaches can be regarded as "equally suitable and deserving of equal resources" because such positions would "sap mathematics of its sense of direction and purpose".
3651:
argued that mathematicians actually use contradiction, criticism, and revision as principles for improving their work. In like manner to science, where truth is sought, but certainty is not found, in
2213:
established truth, but from a body of observations. It requires stringent scepticism regarding observed phenomena, because cognitive assumptions can distort the interpretation of initial perceptions.
2015:
but as the struggle to move from irritating, inhibitory doubts born of surprises, disagreements, and the like, and to reach a secure belief, the belief being that on which one is prepared to act. His
1320:
but discarded. When Watson and Crick learned of Pauling's hypothesis, they understood from existing data that Pauling was wrong. and that Pauling would soon admit his difficulties with that structure.
2131:
that leads a person with a particular belief to see things as reinforcing their belief, even if another observer might disagree (in other words, people tend to observe what they expect to observe).
7062:, p. 57: Saturday, February 28, 1953 â Watson tried 'like with like' and admitted these base pairs didn't have hydrogen bonds that line up. But after trying 'unlike with unlike', and getting
2669:. This question has a long history, and many scientists, as well as philosophers, have considered it. The objective is to be able to choose one theory as preferable to another without introducing
987:
The scientific method is not a single recipe: it requires intelligence, imagination, and creativity. In this sense, it is not a mindless set of standards and procedures to follow but is rather an
4473:: light rays from the sun are doubly refracted within the raindrops in the air, back to the observer. Refraction of the colors from the sun's light then forms the spread of colors in the rainbow.
3844:
Book Seven, Chapter Two p.220: â light travels through transparent bodies, such as air, water, glass, transparent stones, in straight lines. "Indeed, this is observable by means of experiment".
4044:
who took all knowledge â even mathematical knowledge â to arise from experience through induction. The inductivist approach is still common place, though Mill's extreme views are outdated today.
1351:, and so on â to imagine possible explanations for a phenomenon under study. Albert Einstein once observed that "there is no logical bridge between phenomena and their theoretical principles."
4072:
condensed Kepler's law of for the planetary motion of Mars, Galileo's law of falling bodies, the motion of the planets of the Solar system, etc. into consequences of his three laws of motion.
1481:. It might predict the outcome of an experiment in a laboratory setting or the observation of a phenomenon in nature. The prediction can also be statistical and deal only with probabilities.
9811:
Dunbar, K., & Fugelsang, J. (2005). Causal Thinking in Science: How Scientists and Students Interpret the Unexpected. In M. E. Gorman, R.D. Tweney, D. Gooding & A. Kincannon (eds.),
1328:
is a suggested explanation of a phenomenon, or alternately a reasoned proposal suggesting a possible correlation between or among a set of phenomena. Normally, hypotheses have the form of a
6536:, p. 52: Friday, January 30, 1953. Tea time â Franklin confronts Watson and his paper â "Of course it is wrong. DNA is not a helix." However, Watson then visits Wilkins' office, sees
3502:
1956:
An example here are the experiments of Kepler and Brahe, used by Hanson to illustrate the concept. Despite observing the same sunrise the two scientists came to different conclusionsâtheir
1379:. The history of science is filled with stories of scientists claiming a "flash of inspiration", or a hunch, which then motivated them to look for evidence to support or refute their idea.
7303:
3368:
Psychologist Kevin Dunbar says the process of discovery often starts with researchers finding bugs in their experiments. These unexpected results lead researchers to try to fix what they
1886:
Smolin, in 2013, espoused ethical principles rather than giving any potentially limited definition of the rules of inquiry. His ideas stand in the context of the scale of dataâdriven and
3457:. A model can be a simulation, mathematical or chemical formula, or set of proposed steps. Science is like mathematics in that researchers in both disciplines try to distinguish what is
2796:
pull in different directions. Introducing additional elements could simplify theory formulation, whereas simplifying a theory's ontology might lead to increased syntactical complexity.
2780:
erroneous models to already present evidence, commenting that "intelligent commentary was ignored". Thus touching on the need to bridge the common bias against other circles of thought.
10310:
On the web. N.B.: the web version does not have the 3 addenda by Born, 1950, 1964, in which he notes that all knowledge is subjective. Born then proposes a solution in Appendix 3 (1964)
4315:
He demonstrated his conjecture that "light travels through transparent bodies in straight lines only" by placing a straight stick or a taut thread next to the light beam, as quoted in
4138:
For instance, extrapolating from a single scientific observation, such as "This experiment yielded these results, so it should apply broadly," exemplifies inductive wishful thinking.
5271:
4373:
paradigm, the stage of "characterization, observation, definition, ..." is more briefly summed up under the rubric of a Question. The question at some stage might be as basic as the
3821:
emission theory of vision, using logic and deduction from experiment. He showed Euclid's first postulate of Optics to be hypothetical only, and fails to account for his experiments.
7002:, p. 54: Sunday, February 8, 1953 â Maurice Wilkes gave Watson and Crick permission to work on models, as Wilkes would not be building models until Franklin left DNA research.
3340:. One of his bacteria cultures got contaminated with mould in which surroundings the bacteria had died off; thereby the method of discovery was simply knowing what to look out for.
2383:, the collection of data, or the interpretation of results, all are subject to larger amounts of scrutiny than in comfortably logical environments. Statistical models go through a
4465:
recalled having seen Alhacen's manuscript as a youth, and arranged to get al-FÄrisÄŤ a copy "from a distant country". al-FÄrisÄŤ is now remembered for his Commentary on Alhacen's
1755:
This is why the scientific method is often represented as circular â new information leads to new characterisations, and the cycle of science continues. Measurements collected
877:
The basic elements of the scientific method are illustrated by the following example (which occurred from 1944 to 1953) from the discovery of the structure of DNA (marked with
2372:
will take sample data and extrapolate more general conclusions, which has to be justified â and scrutinised. It can even be said that statistical models are only ever useful,
11884:
8032:
7193:
2491:âthe search for the most plausible explanation via logical inference. For example in biology, where general laws are few, as valid deductions rely on solid presuppositions.
1851:, have a policy that researchers must archive their data and methods so that other researchers can test the data and methods and build on the research that has gone before.
6343:
was real, but possibly an artifact of instrumentation (null hypothesis), so he went outside and disproved his null hypothesis by observing SN 1987a with the naked eye. The
1573:. If the experimental results confirm the predictions, then the hypotheses are considered more likely to be correct, but might still be wrong and continue to be subject to
1125:, but it has taken a long series of experiments and theoretical changes to establish this. While seeking the pertinent properties of the subjects, careful thought may also
6147:, p. 40: October 1951 â "That's what a helix should look like!" Crick exclaimed in delight (This is the Cochran-Crick-Vand-Stokes theory of the transform of a helix).
9907:
3078:
hypotheses. This reveals that there are no straightforward mappings between overarching methodological concepts and precise strategies to direct the conduct of research.
7818:
4069:
2119:
conditions wherever possible. This is frequently possible in certain areas, such as in the biological sciences, and more difficult in other areas, such as in astronomy.
1164:, such as alchemy, and science, such as chemistry or biology. Scientific measurements are usually tabulated, graphed, or mapped, and statistical manipulations, such as
11806:
9952:
3513:) have suggested that mathematics is the result of practitioner bias and human limitation (including cultural ones), somewhat like the post-modernist view of science.
5061:
11691:
3429:
In general, the scientific method may be difficult to apply stringently to diverse, interconnected systems and large data sets. In particular, practices used within
1992:, which holds that knowledge is created by a process involving observation; scientific theories generalize observations. This is in opposition to stringent forms of
947:
generally agree on the following classification of method components. These methodological elements and organization of procedures tend to be more characteristic of
5969:, p. 92: "To raise new questions, new possibilities, to regard old problems from a new angle, requires creative imagination and marks real advance in science."
5738:
2333:
of physics suggests that we still do not know at least some of the concepts surrounding Einstein's theory, it holds to this day and is being built on deductively.
13083:
11213:
8732:
Einstein, Albert (1936, 1956) One may say "the eternal mystery of the world is its comprehensibility." From the article "Physics and Reality" (1936), reprinted in
3269:, extensively explored the theory-laden nature of observation in science. Hanson introduced the concept in 1958, emphasizing that observation is influenced by the
1465:, writing, "It has not escaped our notice that the specific pairing we have postulated immediately suggests a possible copying mechanism for the genetic material".
12138:
3373:
point, the researcher will begin to think of theoretical explanations for the error, often seeking the help of colleagues across different domains of expertise.
2822:
600:
While the scientific method is often presented as a fixed sequence of steps, it represents rather a set of general principles. Not all steps take place in every
6765:
750:
The term "scientific method" emerged in the 19th century, as a result of significant institutional development of science, and terminologies establishing clear
1157:
posed. When applying the scientific method to research, determining a good question can be very difficult and it will affect the outcome of the investigation.
9250:
8736:(1956). 'It is one of the great realizations of Immanuel Kant that the setting up of a real external world would be senseless without this comprehensibility.'
4818:
3531:
show that the mathematical method and the scientific method differ in detail, while nevertheless resembling each other in using iterative or recursive steps.
3505:", is a very well-known account of the issue from a Nobel Prize-winning physicist. In fact, some observers (including some well-known mathematicians such as
8914:
Aikenhead, Glen S. (1987). "High-school graduates' beliefs about science-technology-society. III. Characteristics and limitations of scientific knowledge".
6937:
1654:
13889:
4607:(2004) noted the theme of invariance as a fundamental aspect of a scientific account of reality in many writings from around 1900 onward, such as works by
4420:
First rule of logic (F.R.L) Paragraph 1.136: From the first rule of logic, if we truly desire the goal of the inquiry we are not to waste our resources. â
2600:
are sufficient to explain the new evidence. The strength of a theory relates to how long it has persisted without major alteration to its core principles.
9978:': "When we are working intensively, we feel keenly the progress of our work; we are elated when our progress is rapid, we are depressed when it is slow."
7334:
2611:), which explained both the (previously unexplained) exceptions to Newton's laws and predicted and explained other observations such as the deflection of
2368:
In the case of measurement imprecision, there will simply be a 'probable deviation' expressing itself in a study's conclusions. Statistics are different.
2190:
has analyzed these elements in terms of limits to the accuracy of measurement and has related them to instrumental elements in a category of measurement.
7988:
2920:, and other theories have criticized these assumptions and given alternative accounts of the logic of science, but each has also itself been criticized.
2170:), which can result in a search for evidence that the new is true. Poorly attested beliefs can be believed and acted upon via a less rigorous heuristic.
2035:
in which the empirical data is put forward in the form of experience or other abstracted forms of knowledge as in current scientific practice the use of
6218:
3815:
1027) After anatomical investigation of the human eye, and an exhaustive study of human visual perception, Alhacen characterizes the first postulate of
1336:, stating that some particular instance of the phenomenon being studied has some characteristic and causal explanations, which have the general form of
1265:, as being well known to all." Einstein's paper then demonstrates that they (viz., absolute time and length independent of motion) were approximations.
6383:, p. 43: June 1952 â Watson had succeeded in getting X-ray pictures of TMV showing a diffraction pattern consistent with the transform of a helix.
4930:
v. 2, pp. 434â450, and elsewhere. N.B. 435.30 'living institution': Hibbert J. mis-transcribed 'living institution': ("constitution" for "institution")
2711:
The goal here is to make the choice between theories less arbitrary. Nonetheless, these criteria contain subjective elements, and should be considered
2603:
Theories can also become subsumed by other theories. For example, Newton's laws explained thousands of years of scientific observations of the planets
12163:
10425:
9283:
Specifically, the scientific method has featured in introductory science courses for biology, medicine, and psychology. Also, in education in general.
8342:
2814:
wake of Einstein's theories of relativity, which reduced everything to relations and were thereby fundamentally unchangeable, unable to be varied. As
5279:. The optics of Giovan Battista della Porta (1535â1615): A Reassessment Workshop at Technische Universität Berlin, 24â25 October 2014. Archived from
3620:
involves restating unfamiliar definitions in your own words, resorting to geometrical figures, and questioning what we know and do not know already;
1415:". Scientists often use these terms to refer to a theory that is following the known facts but is nevertheless relatively simple and easy to handle.
1269:
cautions us that when characterizing a subject, however, it can be premature to define something when it remains ill-understood. In Crick's study of
4842:
2619:. Thus, in certain cases independent, unconnected, scientific observations can be connected, unified by principles of increasing explanatory power.
13899:
13894:
9300:"Reintroducing "the" Scientific Method to Introduce Scientific Inquiry in Schools?: A Cautioning Plea Not to Throw Out the Baby with the Bathwater"
6552:, p. 167: "The instant I saw the picture my mouth fell open and my pulse began to race." Page 168 shows the X-shaped pattern of the B-form of
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619:
9931:
6574:
5513:
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4122:, in 2005, has shown that not everybody respects the principles of statistical analysis; whether they be the principles of inference or otherwise.
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2923:
There are several kinds of modern philosophical conceptualizations and attempts at definitions of the method of science. The one attempted by the
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it gives the illusion of determination; that questions necessarily lead to some kind of answers and answers are preceded by (specific) questions,
2554:. These generate empirical data "arbitrarily", and, while they may not be able to reveal universal principles, they can nevertheless be useful.
10586:
3383:
3225:) to conclude that the epistemic practices and reasonings within both scientific communities are different enough to introduce the concept of "
2387:, for which one could even say that awareness of potential biases is more important than the hard logic; errors in logic are easier to find in
11109:
6914:
4801:
4457:, which by then was some two centuries old: al-FÄrisÄŤ's project was to write an advanced optics treatise, but he could not understand optical
3313:
which take on this problem and challenge the assertions of the postmodernists while defending science as a legitimate way of deriving truth.
2004:, appeals to tradition, commonly held beliefs, common sense, or currently held theories pose the only possible means of demonstrating truth.
13076:
11046:
5280:
8519:...I have already implicitly given my four basic rules for research. Let me now state them explicitly, then explain. Here are the rules:
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memoir quoted above). Watson now felt confident enough to inform Crick. (Of course, 'unlike with unlike' increases the number of possible
4056:
used his own observations of the stars, as well as the observations by Chaldean and Babylonian astronomers to estimate Earth's precession.
3019:
Development of the idea has been troubled by accelerated advancement in technology that has opened up many new ways to look at the world.
2965:
of scientific method and subject matter. Scientific pluralists hold that science is not unified in one or more of the following ways: the
2350:
honest work of conjecture and refutation â certainty, perhaps, is where difficulties in telling truths from non-truths arise most easily.
5808:, p. xv: "The thesis of this book, as outlined in Chapter One, is that there are general principles applicable to all the sciences."
3277:
to show how preconceptions can affect both observation and description, and illustrated this with examples like the initial rejection of
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10131:
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If we have made this our task, then there is no more rational procedure than the method of trial and error--of conjecture and refutation
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is final or perfect. This means that, in non-axiomatic mathematics, we should not think that a theorem is ultimately true, only that no
2977:
and models that should be used. Some pluralists believe that pluralism is necessary due to the nature of science. Others say that since
8879:
Schickore, Jutta; Hangel, Nora (2019). ""It might be this, it should be thatâŚ" uncertainty and doubt in day-to-day research practice".
6841:
5630:, p. 72 lists ways to avoid the narrative fallacy and confirmation bias; the narrative fallacy being a substitute for explanation.
1593:
Depending on the predictions, the experiments can have different shapes. It could be a classical experiment in a laboratory setting, a
1237:
New theories are sometimes developed after realizing certain terms have not previously been sufficiently clearly defined. For example,
8957:
Osborne, Jonathan; Simon, Shirley; Collins, Sue (2003). "Attitudes towards science: A review of the literature and its implications".
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however, I found that they formed invariant products of not one but two distinct kinds. ... The first group of limits were calculable
6024:
5992:
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2043:
suggested that physics' models of reality should simply be accepted where they prove to make useful predictions. He calls the concept
1034:
While this schema outlines a typical hypothesis/testing method, many philosophers, historians, and sociologists of science, including
13216:
12827:
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3934:"no opinion, however absurd and incredible, can be imagined, which has not been maintained by some of the philosophers". âDescartes
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11434:
Smith, A. Mark (2010). "ALHACEN ON REFRACTION: A Critical Edition, with English Translation and Commentary, of Book 7 of Alhacen's
10984:
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The topics of study, as expressed in the vocabulary of its scientists, are approached by a "single unified method". The topics are
3327:
2707:
Scientists will sometimes also list the very subjective criteria of "formal elegance" which can indicate multiple different things.
4347:, was translated from Arabic into Latin for European use as early as 1270. Hockney cites Friedrich Risner's 1572 Basle edition of
3497:
Nevertheless, the connection between mathematics and reality (and so science to the extent it describes reality) remains obscure.
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as an artefact of staining technique, and the differing interpretations of the same sunrise by Tycho Brahe and Johannes Kepler.
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The feature, which suggests reality, is always some kind of invariance of a structure independent of the aspect, the projection.
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The topics of study, as expressed in the vocabulary of its scientists, are approached by a "single unified method". A topic is
1386:
11899:
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1906:"Those among us who are unwilling to expose their ideas to the hazard of refutation do not take part in the game of science."
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11701:
11492:
11468:
11356:
11302:
11255:
11156:
11082:
11056:
11000:
10977:
10956:
10925:
10840:
10749:
10727:
10691:
10670:
10636:
10572:
10548:
10525:
10495:
10451:
10385:
10367:
10330:
10290:
10250:
9681:
9605:
9260:
9216:
9009:
8778:
8708:
8622:
8176:
8149:
7946:
7787:
7473:
7441:
7104:
5872:
5721:
5609:
5554:
5434:
5228:
4826:
4561:
The machinery of the mind can only transform knowledge, but never originate it, unless it be fed with facts of observation. â
3471:(capable of disproof). In mathematics, a statement need not yet be proved; at such a stage, that statement would be called a
1160:
The systematic, careful collection of measurements or counts of relevant quantities is often the critical difference between
11640:
10697:
10336:
10256:
6082:
5878:
4005:
in the morning and evening due to atmospheric refraction even when the depression angle of the sun is 18° below the horizon.
3419:
2927:, who argue for the existence of a unified definition that is useful (or at least 'works' in every context of science). The
578:, testing it through experiments and statistical analysis, and adjusting or discarding the hypothesis based on the results.
3465:
at each stage of discovery. Models, in both science and mathematics, need to be internally consistent and also ought to be
3139:
2775:'s process, who makes explicit to "dare to be silly". He writes that in his work on new theories of international trade he
102:
10309:
13577:
13291:
12486:
12201:
12100:
12079:
12065:
11994:
Search for a Naturalistic World View: Vol. 1, Scientific Method and Epistemology, Vol. 2, Natural Science and Metaphysics
11679:
11092:
8358:
6890:
6392:
Cochran W, Crick FHC and Vand V. (1952) "The Structure of Synthetic Polypeptides. I. The Transform of Atoms on a Helix",
1100:
1038:, claim that such descriptions of scientific method have little relation to the ways that science is actually practiced.
17:
11232:
3992:
Book II to Summary p.444 for Alhazen's experiments on color; pp.343â394 for his physiological experiments on the eye
3705:, Lakatos gave several basic rules for finding proofs and counterexamples to conjectures. He thought that mathematical '
2757:
We are to admit no more causes of natural things than such as are both true and sufficient to explain their appearances.
2697:
In trying to look for such theories, scientists will, given a lack of guidance by empirical evidence, try to adhere to:
13841:
12236:
10404:
9482:
8430:
7590:
6816:
4814:
itself is on pp. 371â946). Berkeley, CA: University of California Press. 791â796 ("Rules of Reasoning in Philosophy");
4182:
3146:
of scientific and engineering practices, crosscutting concepts (interdisciplinary ideas), and disciplinary core ideas.
2715:
rather than a definitive. Also, criteria such as these do not necessarily decide between alternative theories. Quoting
1095:
The scientific method depends upon increasingly sophisticated characterizations of the subjects of investigation. (The
900:
43:
7749:
5476:
3124:
it oversimplifies science, giving the impression that following a scientific process automatically leads to knowledge,
2447:, or hypothesis-testing method, or "traditional" scientific method is, as the name implies, based on the formation of
13286:
13279:
13262:
13141:
13131:
13113:
12847:
12842:
12795:
12476:
11933:, "Masked Confusion: A trusted source of health information misleads the public by prioritizing rigor over reality",
11226:
11199:
11179:
11028:
10863:
10819:
10580:
Entstehung und Entwickelung einer wissenschaftlichen Tatsache: EinfĂźhrung in die Lehre vom Denkstil und Denkkollectiv
10111:
9837:
9728:
8662:
6757:
6687:
6658:
6132:
6076:
5672:
5138:
3166:
3135:
3051:
examined the history of science, and was led to deny that science is genuinely a methodological process. In his book
2886:
525:
11778:, vol. 15 in 'Minnesota Studies in the Philosophy of Science', University of Minnesota Press, Minneapolis, MN, 1992.
9109:
Rudolph, John L. (2005). "Epistemology for the Masses: The Origins of "The Scientific Method" in American Schools".
4232:
Entstehung und Entwicklung einer wissenschaftlichen Tatsache: EinfÇhrung in die Lehre vom Denkstil und Denkkollektiv
4139:
2369:
13513:
10643:
Additional publication information is from the collection of first editions of the Library of Congress surveyed by
10091:
9028:
McComas, William F. (1996). "Ten Myths of Science: Reexamining What We Think We Know About the Nature of Science".
8166:
7095:
6493:
4444:
9854:
3394:. Much research in metascience seeks to identify poor use of statistics and improve its use, an example being the
2723:" cannot determine scientific choice. First, which features of a theory satisfy these criteria may be disputable (
2287:
625:
The history of scientific method considers changes in the methodology of scientific inquiry, as distinct from the
13622:
12857:
12027:
11607:
9376:"Beyond Hypothesis Testing: Investigating the Diversity of Scientific Methods in Science Teachers' Understanding"
4656:
2640:
2329:. His relativistic calculations matched observation much more closely than Newtonian theory did. Though, today's
2251:
2174:
impossible – to overturn". When a narrative is constructed its elements become easier to believe.
1721:
139:
3300:
critiques of science have themselves been the subject of intense controversy. This ongoing debate, known as the
2981:
already vary in practice, there is no reason to believe this variation is wrong until a specific unification is
2426:
is used to advance fields of science where research objects have no definitive states of being. For example, in
1564:, a detailed X-ray diffraction image, which showed an X-shape and was able to confirm the structure was helical.
76:
13932:
13927:
13092:
13027:
12194:
8308:
8264:
8224:
7341:
7317:
4695:
Colyvan (2001) listed simplicity/parsimony, unificatory/explanatory power, boldness/fruitfulness, and elegance;
4636:
4242:
4198:
4094:"Lettre de M. Le Verrier à M. Faye sur la thÊorie de Mercure et sur le mouvement du pÊrihÊlie de cette planète"
3918:
3629:
2361:
limitations. Or counts may represent a sample of desired quantities, with an uncertainty that depends upon the
1894:. His thought is that science is a community effort by those who have accreditation and are working within the
107:
6951:(Transactions of the American Philosophical Society, New Series, 46, 2), Philadelphia, 1956, pp. 10â11, 32â34.
6730:
4088:
The difference is approximately 43 arc-seconds per century. And the precession of Mercury's orbit is cited in
3061:
to include all the approaches and methods used by scientists, and that there are no useful and exception-free
10538:
8205:
formally stated this need for the "norms for rational theory choice". One of his discussions is reprinted in
7745:
5196:
3337:
1419:
serves as a rule of thumb for choosing the most desirable amongst a group of equally explanatory hypotheses.
11459:
Thurs, Daniel (2011). "12. Scientific Methods". In Shank, Michael; Numbers, Ronald; Harrison, Peter (eds.).
4704:(2010): simplicity/parsimony, unificatory/explanatory power, and elegance, but did not mention fruitfulness.
4675:
in a 2009 TED talk proclaimed that "the search for hard-to-vary explanations is the origin of all progress".
2399:
is the mathematical principle lining out how standing probabilities are adjusted given new information. The
1972:, credited as being found via mathematics because previous observers didn't know what they were looking at.
998:
An iterative, pragmatic scheme of the four points above is sometimes offered as a guideline for proceeding:
13809:
13639:
13567:
13267:
13196:
12717:
12710:
12052:
11740:
10420:
10415:
10013:
8336:
6791:
6436:
4144:
3762:
3720:
3682:, as shown by PoincarĂŠ, who demonstrated the technique of transforming tautologically true forms (viz. the
3510:
2523:
This measure of certainty can reach quite high degrees, though. For example, in the determination of large
2384:
1258:
613:
51:
10759:
Goldhaber, Alfred Scharff; Nieto, Michael Martin (JanuaryâMarch 2010), "Photon and graviton mass limits",
4773:
4096:, Comptes rendus hebdomadaires des sĂŠances de l'AcadĂŠmie des sciences (Paris), vol. 49 (1859), pp.379â383.
843:, said that debates over the scientific method continue, and argued that Feyerabend, despite the title of
12569:
12544:
12529:
11482:
9696:
Feyerabend, Paul K (1960) "Patterns of Discovery" The Philosophical Review (1960) vol. 69 (2) pp. 247â252
5011:
4850:
4624:
4089:
3732:
3255:: that the perspective of the researcher fundamentally affects their work; and, too, more radical views.
3229:", in contradiction with the idea that a so-called "scientific method" is unique and a unifying concept.
2444:
1840:
1630:
1343:
Scientists are free to use whatever resources they have â their own creativity, ideas from other fields,
744:
185:
9928:
7830:
Welsby, Philip D; Weatherall, Mark (1 October 2022). "Statistics: an introduction to basic principles".
7696:
6637:, pp. 57â59: Saturday, February 28, 1953 â Watson found the base-pairing mechanism which explained
4401:... .â C. S. Peirce, ILLUSTRATIONS OF THE LOGIC OF SCIENCE, SECOND PAPER. âHOW TO MAKE OUR IDEAS CLEAR.
1560:. Franklin immediately spotted the flaws which concerned the water content. Later Watson saw Franklin's
1192:, and the progress of a scientific field is usually intimately tied to their invention and improvement.
13922:
13617:
11615:
8650:
6866:
6741:
6571:
6428:
5509:
5049:
3957:
2480:
insisted on fielded hypotheses to be falsifieable, as successful tests imply very little otherwise. As
2295:
2097:
1634:
1626:
1512:, and that the amount of bending depends in a precise way on the strength of that gravitational field.
1333:
1246:
12118:
9540:
8829:
4093:
3953:
3893:
1764:
Published results of experiments can also serve as a hypothesis predicting their own reproducibility.
13867:
13824:
13819:
13794:
13709:
13699:
13694:
12742:
12722:
12630:
12626:
12549:
12241:
8557:"Relating covariation information to causal dimensions through principles of contrast and invariance"
7553:
7549:
7174:
On 6 August 1753, the Swedish scientist Georg Wilhelm Richmann was electrocuted in St. Petersburg ...
6163:'The structure that we propose is a three-chain structure, each chain being a helix' â Linus Pauling"
5818:
3043:
2411:
is a way to measure dependence, independence, or interdependence of the information under scrutiny.
2209:
fundamental truths â and the other to derive from those fundamental truths more specific principles.
2186:, or contain some other logical or methodological flaw in the process that ultimately produced them.
2182:
1929:
and the discussion on how scientific statements relate to reality is best left to the article on the
1852:
1064:). But the mechanism of storing genetic information (i.e., genes) in DNA was unclear. Researchers in
1031:
The iterative cycle inherent in this step-by-step method goes from point 3 to 6 and back to 3 again.
747:. Formulated in the 20th century, the model has undergone significant revision since first proposed.
10583:
7066:'s approval, the base pairs turned out to be identical in shape (as Watson stated above in his 1968
3478:
Mathematical work and scientific work can inspire each other. For example, the technical concept of
2515:
Where the traditional method of inquiry does both, the inductive approach usually formulates only a
1544:
Watson and Crick showed an initial (and incorrect) proposal for the structure of DNA to a team from
13704:
13607:
13254:
13201:
12747:
12387:
12372:
12361:
12338:
11103:
9989:(3 Dec 2006) Hamilton-Perelmanâs Proof of the PoincarĂŠ Conjecture and the Geometrization Conjecture
9144:
of the suggestion; (v) further observation and experiment leading to its acceptance or rejection."
7088:
6907:
4652:
4194:
3961:
3820:
3741:
2164:
Another important human bias that plays a role is a preference for new, surprising statements (see
1815:
in 2005 pointed out that the method being used has led to many findings that cannot be replicated.
1741:
1598:
1545:
1337:
962:
Hypotheses (theoretical, hypothetical explanations of observations and measurements of the subject)
709:
357:
11070:
7460:. Historical & Cultural Astronomy. Cham: Springer International Publishing. pp. 159â183.
3666:
if axioms are given for a branch of mathematics, this creates a logical system âWittgenstein 1921
1234:
which can later be described in terms of conventional physical units when communicating the work.
13724:
13552:
13503:
12985:
12732:
12727:
12700:
12635:
12589:
12584:
12519:
12412:
12122:
10470:
8381:
7598:
7501:
4724:
There is no universally agreed upon definition of the method of science. This was expressed with
4241:, flourishing only after incubation periods. His selected question for investigation (1934) was "
3781: â Statement based on repeated empirical observations that describes some natural phenomenon
3679:
3352:, rather than sought out. This may explain why scientists so often express that they were lucky.
3087:
2905:
2687:
has explanatory power, meaning its consequences extend beyond the data it is required to explain;
2423:
2310:
2275:
2224:
2076:
2044:
1756:
1674:
1069:
944:
143:
11088:. Translated to English by Karen Jelved, Andrew D. Jackson, and Ole Knudsen, (translators 1997).
8141:
8135:
6094:
This chapter also discusses the different types of research questions and how they are produced.
13734:
13719:
13679:
13451:
13274:
12940:
12930:
12348:
12274:
12231:
10915:
10828:
10155:
8700:
Mathematical Apocrypha Redux: More Stories and Anecdotes of Mathematicians and the Mathematical
6394:
5689:
4462:
4398:
4370:
3687:
3653:
3258:
2539:
2135:
he action of thought is excited by the irritation of doubt, and ceases when belief is attained.
1827:. The specific journal that publishes the results indicates the perceived quality of the work.
1780:
1749:
1714:
1352:
1065:
567:
322:
8208:
6371:
to produce the diffraction pattern for a helix, per Crick's work on the transform of a helix."
6211:
5656:
5206:
3819:
as 'superfluous and useless' (Book I, âthereby overturning Euclid's, Ptolemy's, and Galen's
3487:
2069:
1430:
emphasizes the need for entertaining multiple alternative hypotheses, and avoiding artifacts.
676:
of the 16th and 17th centuries some of the most important developments were the furthering of
13831:
13799:
13774:
13659:
13612:
13508:
13486:
13476:
13461:
13401:
13388:
13361:
13226:
13191:
13148:
12790:
12785:
12737:
12705:
12695:
12654:
12434:
12311:
12217:
12105:
11478:
11024:
10124:
9432:
8654:
8642:
8254:
7578:
7282:
6837:
6456:
5253:
4648:
4202:
3773:
3767:
3358:
3007:. Different logical positivists construed this doctrine in several different ways, e.g. as a
2978:
2958:
2882:
2427:
1930:
1670:
1618:
1173:
913:
756:
673:
518:
433:
277:
122:
117:
9206:
8420:
5652:
2317:
that showed Newton's theory to be at least incomplete. The observed difference of Mercury's
980:(e.g., physics, chemistry, biology, and psychology). The elements above are often taught in
13746:
13689:
13592:
13572:
13530:
13446:
13441:
13416:
13341:
13108:
12770:
12765:
12640:
12524:
12429:
12402:
12284:
11621:
11526:
11322:
10780:
8966:
8923:
8556:
7395:
7147:
6368:
6295:
4764:
4252:
3712:
3683:
3658:
3625:
3434:
3423:
3345:
2952:
2843:
2608:
2373:
2326:
2036:
1969:
1895:
1873:
1645:
experimental results, likely by others. Traces of this approach can be seen in the work of
1578:
1517:
1294:
1231:
1185:
1021:
Interpret the data and draw conclusions that serve as a starting point for a new hypothesis
948:
940:
763:
was conducted as powerful scientific theories extended beyond the realm of the observable.
630:
390:
372:
307:
12144:
7456:
Lequeux, James (2021). "Urbain Jean Joseph Le Verrier: Predictions Leading to Discovery".
2818:
put it in 2009: "the search for hard-to-vary explanations is the origin of all progress".
2028:. It is a methodological route to certain knowledge by identifying what can't be doubted.
1985:
how the interpretation of empirical data is theory-laden, so neither approach is trivial.
1933:
here. More immediately topical limitations show themselves in the observation of reality.
8:
13937:
13739:
13729:
13587:
13557:
13481:
13466:
13426:
13421:
13346:
13231:
12832:
12514:
12407:
12382:
12367:
12296:
11935:
11729:
10737:
10024:"If you can't solve a problem, then there is an easier problem you can solve: find it." â
9159:
Spiece, Kelly R.; Colosi, Joseph (1 January 2000). "Redefining the "Scientific Method"".
6638:
5858:
5100:
4904:
4325:
cites Alhazen several times as the likely source for the portraiture technique using the
3921:
by its predicates, in a system of expressions. The unification process was formalized by
3691:
3411:
3091:
2896:
2788:
Occam's razor might fall under the heading of "simple elegance", but it is arguable that
2745:
of a "good" theory have been debated for centuries, going back perhaps even earlier than
2643:. In subsequent modifications, it has also subsumed aspects of many other fields such as
2607:. However, these laws were then determined to be special cases of a more general theory (
2576:
2528:
2488:
2452:
2400:
2203:
2199:
1800:
1509:
1478:
1375:
1344:
1196:
I am not accustomed to saying anything with certainty after only one or two observations.
1169:
1126:
1053:
959:
Characterizations (observations, definitions, and measurements of the subject of inquiry)
751:
641:
and the scientific method can be found throughout history, for instance with the ancient
582:
575:
302:
197:
135:
12056:
12041:
11530:
11326:
11292:
10784:
10631:. Translated by Henry Crew & Alfonso de Salvio (reprint ed.). New York: Dover.
8970:
8927:
8288:
The Scientist as Philosopher: Philosophical Consequences of Great Scientific Discoveries
7399:
7151:
6299:
3787: â Extent to which truthness or falseness of a hypothesis/declaration can be tested
2484:
put it, âsuccessful theories are those that survive elimination through falsificationâ.
939:
There are different ways of outlining the basic method used for scientific inquiry. The
827:, which concluded that the scientific method is a myth or, at best, an idealization. As
13784:
13654:
13456:
13356:
13351:
13136:
12980:
12935:
12822:
12645:
12466:
12301:
12291:
11819:
11813:
11761:
11557:
11514:
11447:
11422:
11392:
11276:
11270:
The "Commentary" That Saved the Text. The Hazardous Journey of Ibn al-Haytham's Arabic
10900:
10892:
10796:
10770:
10716:
10356:
9780:
9755:
9578:
9521:
9408:
9375:
9356:
9184:
9134:
9122:
9088:
9041:
8859:
8811:
8510:
8451:
8028:
7914:
7879:
7340:. Texas A&M University The motivation & cognition interface lab. Archived from
7247:
7218:
7165:
5836:, the methods by which they were formulated, and the uses to which they were put; ... "
5311:
5300:(Supplements to Witelo, in which the optical part of astronomy is treated) as cited in
4586:
4223:
4186:
3823:), and deduces that light must enter the eye, in order for us to see. He describes the
3816:
3706:
3524:
3453:
Science is the process of gathering, comparing, and evaluating proposed models against
3395:
3361:
calls "Anti-fragility"; while some systems of investigation are fragile in the face of
3309:
3274:
3270:
3252:
3226:
3214:
3193:
3004:
2909:
2865:
are theories that resist falsificationâa frustration that was expressed colourfully by
2847:
2635:
observed in the natural world; its most recent major modification was unification with
2592:
2551:
2415:
2318:
2232:
2220:
2158:
2116:
1759:, passed onwards and used by others. Other scientists may start their own research and
1650:
1570:
1497:
1348:
1329:
1242:
1138:
1114:
820:
626:
543:
112:
92:
11786:
Representing and Intervening, Introductory Topics in the Philosophy of Natural Science
11313:
Hoffmann, Banesh (1976), "'Because it's there': Man's struggle to understand Nature",
10316:
10273:"'More than Art': Clockwork Automata, the Extemporizing Actor, and the Brazen Head in
5601:
3443:
scientific discovery remains incomplete without considerations of the social practices
13872:
13855:
13836:
13406:
13376:
13039:
12812:
12669:
12459:
12318:
12257:
11825:
11791:
11748:
11697:
11562:
11544:
11488:
11464:
11362:
11352:
11344:
11298:
11251:
11222:
11195:
11162:
11152:
11135:
11078:
11052:
10996:
10973:
10952:
10934:
10921:
10904:
10859:
10836:
10815:
10745:
10723:
10687:
10666:
10632:
10568:
10544:
10521:
10514:
10491:
10474:
10447:
10400:
10381:
10363:
10326:
10286:
10246:
10107:
9899:
9894:
9833:
9785:
9724:
9677:
9611:
9601:
9513:
9455:
9413:
9395:
9348:
9321:
9266:
9256:
9212:
9176:
9126:
9080:
9045:
9005:
8982:
8939:
8896:
8803:
8774:
8704:
8668:
8658:
8618:
8576:
8502:
8426:
8400:
8314:
8304:
8260:
8220:
8172:
8145:
7958:
7942:
7919:
7901:
7855:
7847:
7843:
7783:
7738:"ESO Telescope Sees Star Dance Around Supermassive Black Hole, Proves Einstein Right"
7586:
7529:
Ketner, Kenneth Laine (2009). "Charles Sanders Peirce: Interdisciplinary Scientist".
7479:
7469:
7437:
7411:
7313:
7252:
7169:
6683:
6654:
6516:
6311:
6128:
6072:
5868:
5717:
5678:
5668:
5605:
5550:
5542:
5430:
5367:
5319:
5234:
5224:
5134:
4822:
4725:
4509:...an experimental approach was advocated by Galileo in 1638 with the publication of
3671:
3282:
3222:
3198:. Fleck also claims this phenomenon to be largely invisible to members of the group.
3097:
2810:
2776:
2690:
has unificatory power; as in its organizing otherwise confused and isolated phenomena
2648:
2516:
2481:
2396:
2380:
2306:
2166:
2124:
1957:
1856:
1788:
1706:
1549:
1423:
1145:
1110:
832:
721:
666:
501:
438:
362:
212:
154:
12910:
11099:
10800:
7654:'A myth is a belief given uncritical acceptance by members of a group ...' â Weiss,
7625:, p. 166 shows how the 'flying gallop' image propagated from China to the West.
6606:
6017:
5302:
Smith, A. Mark (June 2004). "What Is the History of Medieval Optics Really about?".
5254:"First general: The present state of natural philosophy and wherein it is deficient"
5012:
Physical thought from the Presocratics to the quantum physicists : an anthology
4608:
3490:
has been proved using time as a mathematical concept in which objects can flow (see
3134:
The scientific method no longer features in the standards for US education of 2013 (
2025:
1830:
Scientists typically are careful in recording their data, a requirement promoted by
693:
13789:
13764:
13664:
13525:
13520:
13301:
13010:
12965:
12945:
12481:
12471:
12454:
11979:
11910:
11875:
11865:
11810:, 1st edition 1973, revised edition, Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA, 1988.
11724:
Inference, Explanation, and Other Frustrations: Essays in the Philosophy of Science
11578:
11552:
11534:
11414:
11384:
11330:
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11063:
10884:
10788:
10658:
10615:
10601:
10351:
10190:
9889:
9775:
9767:
9570:
9505:
9447:
9403:
9387:
9311:
9168:
9118:
9072:
9037:
8974:
8931:
8888:
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8638:
8568:
8494:
8296:
8047:
7909:
7891:
7839:
7775:
7461:
7403:
7242:
7232:
7155:
6650:
6303:
5988:
5709:
5660:
5597:
5007:
4644:
4511:
4330:
4169:
4041:
3922:
3290:
3218:
3012:
2998:
2974:
2962:
2746:
2684:
is consistent, both internally and with other relevant currently accepted theories;
2314:
2187:
2031:
A strong formulation of the scientific method is not always aligned with a form of
1824:
1691:
1583:
1513:
1427:
1416:
1262:
1215:
1201:
976:
for possible mistakes. These activities do not describe all that scientists do but
511:
443:
312:
232:
173:
97:
12149:
12087:
10464:
10039:
Mathematics and Plausible Reasoning Volume I: Induction and Analogy in Mathematics
6699:
from a specification of the instrument. The second group could be calculated only
6556:, clearly indicating crucial details of its helical structure to Watson and Crick.
6452:
6440:
4759:
4757:
2227: – exaggerated in the case of Mercury, but observed in the case of
1834:(1896â1961) and others. Though not typically required, they might be requested to
1701:
which comprise it. They were guided by the bond lengths which had been deduced by
13804:
13649:
13627:
13396:
13311:
13296:
13061:
13000:
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12882:
12837:
12674:
12579:
12564:
12539:
12353:
12333:
12175:
12171:
12112:
12060:
11895:
11888:
11771:
11664:
11650:
11644:
11635:
11631:
11574:
11539:
11244:
Rozhanskaya, Mariam; Levinova, I. S. (1996). "Statics". In RushdÄŤ, RÄshid (ed.).
11129:
10761:
10681:
10662:
10624:
10597:
10590:
10534:
10505:
10320:
10280:
10272:
10240:
10197:
9959:
9935:
9477:
9473:
9339:
Brown, Ronald A.; Kumar, Alok (2013). "The Scientific Method: Reality or Myth?".
8841:
8698:
8362:
8292:
7896:
7289:
7237:
7099:
6894:
6745:
6734:
6578:
6340:
6307:
6222:
6066:
6028:
5862:
5379:
5056:
4969:
4730:
4701:
4660:
4529:
3539:
3520:
3506:
3278:
3266:
3071:
3048:
3029:
2900:
2408:
2362:
2358:
2322:
2283:
2263:
2040:
2021:
1961:
1891:
1795:
1773:
1587:
1557:
1553:
1462:
1450:
1380:
1361:
1340:, stating that every instance of the phenomenon has a particular characteristic.
1317:
1238:
1035:
1012:
928:
790:
729:
717:
713:
413:
408:
398:
287:
244:
180:
12127:
11125:
9249:
Stangor, Charles; Walinga, Jennifer; BC Open Textbook Project; BCcampus (2014).
8978:
8770:
7803:
7465:
6711:(conceptual category), whereas in the second each unit would add one additional
5589:
3516:
3074:, and researchers are to be prudent with their resources during their inquiry.
2742:
2321:
between Newtonian theory and observation was one of the things that occurred to
2242:
2039:
and reliance on abstract typologies and theories is normally accepted. In 2010,
13862:
13814:
13769:
13562:
13498:
13411:
13371:
13211:
13171:
13051:
12920:
12780:
12419:
12328:
11949:
11838:
11654:
11597:
11020:
10965:
10509:
9574:
9391:
9316:
9299:
8748:
Weinberg, (1995) âThe Methods of Science ⌠And Those By Which We Liveâ, page: 8
8498:
6707:
with the instrument. ... In the first case each unit would add one additional
5785:
5095:
4754:
4640:
4632:
4612:
4453:
4389:, and so forth. The questions of the inquirer spiral until the goal is reached.
4339:
4326:
4308:
4119:
3988:
3840:
3824:
3807:
3778:
3697:
Lakatos proposed an account of mathematical knowledge based on Polya's idea of
3662:
3603:
3415:
3387:
3238:
3202:
3189:
3053:
2917:
2870:
2866:
2854:
2716:
2670:
2596:
2571:
2419:
2330:
2302:
2250:
An example for how inductive and deductive reasoning works can be found in the
2236:
2091:
2080:
1812:
1784:
1713:
The scientific method is iterative. At any stage, it is possible to refine its
1649:(190â120 BCE), when determining a value for the precession of the Earth, while
1439:
952:
857:
796:
486:
453:
403:
163:
12181:
12157:
12132:
10792:
10593:
Edited by Thaddeus J. Trenn and Robert K. Merton. Foreword by Robert K. Merton
10052:
Mathematics and Plausible Reasoning Volume II: Patterns of Plausible Reasoning
9270:
9248:
8892:
8355:
6887:
6519:
4351:. Hockney quotes Alhazen as the first clear description of the camera obscura.
4257:
Perceptual control theory § The methodology of modeling, and PCT as model
3584:
2353:
Measurements in scientific work are usually accompanied by estimates of their
13916:
13674:
13644:
13582:
13383:
13331:
13326:
13236:
12970:
12905:
12877:
12805:
12534:
12449:
11989:
11969:
11959:
11930:
11801:
11687:
11674:
11548:
11510:
11438:. Volume One: Introduction and Latin Text. Volume Two: English Translation".
11366:
11166:
10807:
9517:
9496:
King, M. D. (1971). "Reason, Tradition, and the Progressiveness of Science".
9459:
9451:
9399:
9352:
9325:
9180:
9130:
9084:
9049:
8986:
8943:
8900:
8807:
8580:
8506:
8064:
8059:
7964:
7954:
7905:
7851:
7779:
7483:
7415:
7223:
7063:
7039:
7015:
6788:"ligo.caltech.edu (1999) Laser Interferometer Gravitational-Wave Observatory"
6432:
6332:
6328:
6283:
5979:
Crawford S, Stucki L (1990). "Peer review and the changing research record".
5682:
5116:, p. 139. (This quotation is from Alhazen's critique of Ptolemy's books
4672:
4664:
4628:
4322:
3675:
3644:
involves reconsidering and re-examining the result and the path taken to it.
3554:
3498:
3353:
3305:
3297:
3210:
2815:
2504:
2294:
was able to unify prior theory and measurements into the consequences of his
1941:
1702:
1602:
1454:
1313:
1305:
1278:
1270:
1266:
1214:
The scientific definition of a term sometimes differs substantially from its
1161:
1057:
965:
Predictions (inductive and deductive reasoning from the hypothesis or theory)
771:
The term "scientific method" came into popular use in the twentieth century;
705:
681:
367:
9615:
8672:
8572:
8318:
6812:
6021:
5539:"That the scientific method accurately reflects what scientists actually do"
5238:
4544:
Lee Smolin, in his 2013 essay "There Is No Scientific Method", espouses two
1740:, that is: "the body of the heavens is rarer than the body of air". In 1079
1152:, as in "Why is the sky blue?" but can also be open-ended, as in "How can I
13634:
13493:
13431:
13166:
13015:
12995:
12950:
12925:
12915:
12887:
12817:
12775:
12649:
12603:
12574:
12554:
12167:
11999:
11920:
11848:
11566:
11139:
11042:
10911:
10558:
9947:
9789:
9771:
9417:
8935:
8761:; Bonk, Thomas (2011). "Unity of Science and Logical Empiricism: A Reply".
8758:
7923:
7859:
7814:
7737:
7407:
7256:
7075:
6451:
yielded a set of photographs, which, when compared to photographs taken at
6315:
5485:
5323:
5130:
Ptolemy's Theory of Visual Perception: An English Translation of the Optics
3648:
3301:
3206:
3181:
3152:
3008:
2970:
2772:
2644:
2628:
2524:
2508:
2477:
2291:
2153:
2008:
1877:
1835:
1831:
1610:
1594:
1458:
1373:, instigated by the "irritation of doubt" to venture a plausible guess, as
1366:
1309:
1254:
1181:
1134:
1130:
777:
740:
720:. There was particular development aided by theoretical works by a skeptic
701:
685:
217:
190:
36:
11843:
The Essential Tension, Selected Studies in Scientific Tradition and Change
10478:
9903:
5713:
5664:
3770: â All procedures for the numerical representation of empirical facts
3486:, and timelessness was a hallmark of a mathematical topic. But today, the
3336:
A famous example of discovery being stumbled upon was Alexander Fleming's
3130:
and, it holds that scientific theories arise from observed phenomena only.
2904:
explanations exist for elements of the real world. These assumptions from
2487:
Deductive reasoning in this mode of inquiry will sometimes be replaced by
2161:
showed this to be false, and that the legs are instead gathered together.
13669:
13366:
13336:
13321:
13186:
13181:
13005:
12990:
12975:
12955:
12872:
12800:
12617:
12607:
12594:
12559:
12509:
12439:
12392:
12279:
12269:
12096:
11909:. Netherlands: Kluwer Academic Publishers. pp. 53â70. Archived from
11853:
Science in Action, How to Follow Scientists and Engineers through Society
11798:, A.J. Pomerans (trans.), Harper and Row, New York, 1971, pp. 63â64.
11781:
11719:
11265:
11209:
11175:
10872:
10847:
9988:
9561:
Harwood, Jonathan (1986). "Ludwik Fleck and the Sociology of Knowledge".
8950:
8202:
7361:
6570:
Peirce, Charles S. (1902), Carnegie application, see MS L75.329330, from
6485:
6336:
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5780:
5706:
Scientific Method: How Science Works, Fails to Work, and Pretends to Work
5640:
5472:
4668:
4562:
4421:
4290:
4037:
3784:
3756:
3750:
3467:
3391:
3362:
3262:
3185:
3062:
2982:
2966:
2858:
2500:
2388:
2379:
In statistical analysis, expected and unexpected bias is a large factor.
2354:
2140:
1993:
1965:
1887:
1819:
1733:
1521:
1177:
1165:
1153:
1149:
1076:
1011:
Test the hypothesis by performing an experiment and collecting data in a
973:
836:
805:
786:
760:
697:
689:
662:
594:
555:
342:
249:
237:
227:
168:
12186:
11669:
Chance, Cause, Reason: An Inquiry into the Nature of Scientific Evidence
11451:
11280:
9360:
9138:
8815:
8514:
7092:
6653:, "A System of Logic", University Press of the Pacific, Honolulu, 2002,
5258:
The posthumous works of Robert Hooke, M.D. S.R.S. Geom. Prof. Gresh. etc
4329:, which Hockney rediscovered with the aid of an optical suggestion from
2673:. Though different thinkers emphasize different aspects, a good theory:
931:(1794â1866), "invention, sagacity, genius" are required at every step.
891:
815:'s 2013 essay "There Is No Scientific Method", in which he espouses two
554:
since at least the 17th century. The scientific method involves careful
13602:
13597:
13542:
13206:
13176:
13158:
12892:
12621:
12612:
12599:
12343:
12306:
12106:
An Introduction to Science: Scientific Thinking and a scientific method
12091:
12009:
11900:"The Principal Elements of the Nature of Science: Dispelling the Myths"
11726:, University of California Press, Berkeley & Los Angeles, CA, 1992.
11426:
11396:
10608:
Discourses and Mathematical Demonstrations Relating to Two New Sciences
10460:
9929:
The End of Theory: The Data Deluge Makes the Scientific Method Obsolete
9858:
9525:
9188:
9092:
9063:
Wivagg, Dan (1 November 2002). "The Dogma of "The" Scientific Method".
7497:
6464:
6460:
6344:
6257:
5938:
5315:
4917:
4871:
4620:
4574:
4469:
in which he found a satisfactory explanation for the phenomenon of the
4458:
4286:
4053:
4036:
The philosophy of knowledge arising through observation is also called
3491:
3472:
3454:
3242:
2913:
2712:
2464:
2456:
2448:
2112:
2032:
2016:
1997:
1989:
1787:(1753) when attempting to replicate the 1752 kite-flying experiment of
1748:
was able to infer that Earth's atmosphere was 50 miles thick, based on
1729:
1698:
1686:
starts, Watson and Crick were able to infer the essential structure of
1646:
1533:
1470:
1383:
made such creativity the centerpiece of his discussion of methodology.
1325:
1118:
924:
920:
812:
733:
725:
677:
638:
590:
589:
is often similar. The process in the scientific method involves making
571:
559:
468:
347:
337:
327:
297:
202:
13046:
11944:
Language and Learning, The Debate between Jean Piaget and Noam Chomsky
11334:
10896:
10812:
Secret Knowledge: rediscovering the lost techniques of the old masters
10516:
The Evolution of Physics: from early concepts to relativity and quanta
10444:
The Scientific Achievement of the Middle Ages (The Middle Ages Series)
9582:
7160:
7135:
6888:(12 Nov 2021) James Webb Space Telescope Deployment Sequence (Nominal)
2463:
holds and prove or disprove those instead of the theory itself. If an
2344:
2301:
Another common example of inductive reasoning is the observation of a
1226:
overlap in meaning in common discourse, but have distinct meanings in
481:
13779:
13246:
13221:
13100:
12659:
12252:
9975:
8864:
8794:
McGill, V. J. (1937). "Logical Positivism and the Unity of Science".
7533:. By Peirce, Charles S. Bisanz, Elize (ed.). Berlin: Akademie Verlag.
7187:"Reconstruction of Galileo Galilei's experiment â the inclined plane"
5298:
Ad Vitellionem paralipomena, quibus astronomiae pars opticae traditur
5221:
The Forgotten Genius : The biography of Robert Hooke (1635â1703)
5133:. Translated by A. Mark Smith. American Philosophical Society. 1996.
4903:
3735: â Idea that knowledge comes only/mainly from sensory experience
3698:
3528:
3503:
The Unreasonable Effectiveness of Mathematics in the Natural Sciences
2986:
2624:
2563:
2228:
2128:
1902:
risk of making predictions that decide whether it is right or wrong:
1501:
1500:
makes several specific predictions about the observable structure of
1474:
1356:
1282:
1274:
1227:
1189:
981:
658:
604:(nor to the same degree), and they are not always in the same order.
547:
458:
222:
11713:
Robert Grosseteste and the Origins of Experimental Science 1100â1700
11626:
Beyond Objectivism and Relativism: Science, Hermeneutics, and Praxis
11418:
11388:
10833:
The Principles of Science: A Treatise on Logic and Scientific Method
10397:
The Scientific Method: An Evolution of Thinking from Darwin to Dewey
10308:, also published by Dover, 1964. From the Waynflete Lectures, 1948.
9709:
Higher Superstition: The Academic Left and Its Quarrels with Science
9509:
9172:
9076:
8300:
8286:
7312: ed.). Routledge/Taylor & Francis Group. pp. 18, 280.
6435:
of the sun would afford favorable conditions for testing Einstein's
5925:
1975:
1936:
1590:
is one technique for discovering the important factor in an effect.
755:
knowledge. In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, a debate over
12679:
12397:
11637:
Science: Men, Methods, Goals: A Reader: Methods of Physical Science
10888:
10299:
9538:
7823:
7047:
6727:
6537:
6448:
6352:
6348:
5118:
4616:
4002:
3709:' are a valid way to discover mathematical conjectures and proofs.
3628:, involves free and heuristic construction of plausible arguments,
3569:
3430:
3217:
has conducted a comparative study of two scientific fields (namely
3111:
The taught presentation of science had to defend demerits such as:
2834:
2636:
1945:
1720:
This manner of iteration can span decades and sometimes centuries.
1561:
1408:
1080:
654:
646:
463:
352:
254:
207:
32:
12074:
11870:
The Comprehensibility of the Universe: A New Conception of Science
10970:
The Transforming Principle: Discovering that genes are made of DNA
10875:(1961), "The Function of Measurement in Modern Physical Science",
10775:
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Discorsi e Dimonstrazioni Matematiche, intorno a due nuoue scienze
8703:. MAA spectrum. Mathematical Association of America. p. 194.
8617:(15th ed.). New York: Crown Publishers, Inc. pp. 75â79.
5999:
5059:, J. Baarmann (editor and translator from Arabic to German, 1882)
1890:, which has seen increased importance of honesty and consequently
13123:
12377:
11768:, Frederick G. Lawrence (trans.), MIT Press, Cambridge, MA, 1981.
9734:
A House Built on Sand: Exposing Postmodernist Myths About Science
7666:
7664:
7043:
7035:
7031:
5091:
4470:
4448:
4302:
3716:
3483:
2632:
2616:
2255:
1725:
1694:
1370:
1084:
908:
852:
801:
650:
551:
292:
63:
11294:
Physical Thought from the Presocratics to the Quantum Physicists
10742:
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10090:
documents the development, by generations of mathematicians, of
9715:
Fashionable Nonsense: Postmodern Intellectuals' Abuse of Science
6787:
5864:
Theory and Reality: An Introduction to the Philosophy of Science
3410:
Science applied to complex systems can involve elements such as
2985:
proven. Finally, some hold that pluralism should be allowed for
27:
Interplay between observation, experiment, and theory in science
13756:
12444:
12145:
Using the scientific method for designing science fair projects
11192:
Conjectures and Refutations: The Growth of Scientific Knowledge
10611:
10584:
English translation by Thaddeus J. Trenn and Fred Bradley, 1979
9424:
8418:
7576:
7510:
7356:
This lecture by Popper was first published as part of the book
6444:
6065:
Schuster, Daniel P.; Powers, William J., eds. (2005). "Ch. 1".
5171:
4278:
4265:
4190:
3637:
3599:
2460:
2267:
1412:
1250:
1223:
1122:
642:
11683:. Queensland University Press and Open University Press, 1976.
11583:, New York: Atheneum, Library of Congress card number 68-16217
9855:"Antifragility â or â The Property Of Disorder-Loving Systems"
8858:
Tao, Terence (13 February 2007). "What is good mathematics?".
7770:
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7628:
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6105:
Epistola, Rationem, Modumque Propinandi Radicis Chynae Decocti
5427:
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5335:
5333:
4922:
with added notes. Reprinted with previously unpublished part,
3908:
scheme by re-naming the steps to phases. The edit was ignored.
3304:, is the result of conflicting values and assumptions between
3070:'. As has been argued before him however, this is uneconomic;
2837:, âPhysical Realityâ (1953), 149 â as quoted by Weinert (2004)
743:
the distance to clarify his ideas, gradually resulting in the
10125:"Charles A. Weibel (ca. 1995) History of Homological Algebra"
8846:
Against Method, Outline of an Anarchistic Theory of Knowledge
8405:
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8386:
The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Summer 2011 Edition)
7544:
Peirce, Charles S. (October 1905). "Issues of Pragmaticism".
7071:
6862:
6618:... in order to learn, one must desire to learn ...
4479:
4319:, p. 136 to prove that light travels in a straight line.
2612:
2472:
2286:(and others) were then able to build their early theories by
2279:
2271:
2259:
2011:
characterized inquiry in general not as the pursuit of truth
2001:
1953:
false conclusions are drawn, because of limited information.
1926:
1606:
1505:
1073:
1060:, and that DNA contained genetic information (Oswald Avery's
1056:
had a mathematical description, starting with the studies of
332:
282:
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Ethics and corporate social responsibility: Why giants fall.
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Anderson, Carl D. (15 March 1933). "The Positive Electron".
7093:(1079) Treatise On Twilight and the Height of the Atmosphere
7050:
pair held together by at least two hydrogen bonds. ..."
6738:
5384:
4750:
Reason, tradition, and the progressiveness of science (1971)
4165:
4163:
2216:
1855:
can be done at several national archives in the U.S. or the
1332:. Sometimes, but not always, they can also be formulated as
12323:
11862:, Oxford University Press, Oxford, 1972. 2nd edition, 1980.
11628:, University of Pennsylvania Press, Philadelphia, PA, 1983.
8907:
6459:
showed that the deviation of light was measured to be 1.69
5330:
5048:), translated into English from German by M. Schwarz, from
4819:
PhilosophiĂŚ Naturalis Principia Mathematica#Rules of Reason
4105:...simplified and (post-modern) philosophy notwithstanding.
3479:
2503:
to deriving scientific truth first rose to prominence with
1622:
1407:
In general, scientists tend to look for theories that are "
1219:
1088:
272:
11807:
Thematic Origins of Scientific Thought: Kepler to Einstein
11463:. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. pp. 307â336.
10718:
The Mass-Extinction Debates: How Science Works in a Crisis
9023:
9021:
8215:(2nd ed.). University of Chicago Press. pp. 208
8117:
8115:
7604:
7379:
7367:
5022:
5020:
4277:
Twenty-three hundred years ago, Aristotle proposed that a
4213:; 'predicted but not yet observed'; 'corroborates', etc.).
3670:
5.13; Lakatos claimed that proofs from such a system were
2943:(1892), as used in fairly uncritical manner in education.
2631:, how species adapt to their environments, and many other
1586:
can then help us figure out what the important factor is.
704:
and those who followed him. Experiments were advocated by
11925:
Truth and the End of Inquiry, A Peircean Account of Truth
11693:
What Mad Pursuit: A Personal View of Scientific Discovery
11661:, 2nd edition, Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs, NJ, 1989.
11602:
Scientific Literacy and the Myth of the Scientific Method
11010:
Moulton, Forest Ray; Schifferes, Justus J., eds. (1960),
9756:"Alexander Fleming (1881â1955): Discoverer of penicillin"
9747:
9676:. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press. p. 113.
9002:
Scientific Literacy and the Myth of the Scientific Method
8213:
The Road since Structure: Philosophical Essays, 1970â1993
7720:
7718:
7716:
7449:
6553:
5368:(Fall 2021) George Berkeley, 3.2.3 Scientific explanation
4763:
Stillwell's review (p. 381) of PoincarĂŠ's efforts on the
4374:
4160:
3719:, once replied "durch planmässiges Tattonieren" (through
3657:, what Lakatos tried to establish was that no theorem of
3118:
it suggests a singular methodology of deriving knowledge,
1948:, 2 August 1932; interpretable only through prior theory.
1919:
1737:
1687:
1230:. Scientific quantities are often characterized by their
317:
11872:, Oxford University Press, Oxford, 1998. Paperback 2003.
9056:
7676:
6107:(1546), p. 141. Quoted and translated in C.D. O'Malley,
4965:
4963:
4040:. A radical proponent of this approach to knowledge was
3104:
steps: observation, hypothesis, prediction, experiment.
2846:
in physics is often had in the more specific context of
1867:
1461:
structure they proposed provided a simple mechanism for
12160:(one minute, three seconds), from the Cornell Lectures.
11986:, University of Minnesota Press, Minneapolis, MN, 1990.
9941:
9828:
Oliver, J. E. (1991). "Ch. 2: Strategy for Discovery".
9018:
8555:
van Overwalle, Frank J.; Heylighen, Francis P. (1995).
8112:
6471:, as quoted by Samuel Rapport and Helen Wright (1965),
5981:
Journal of the American Society for Information Science
5910:; these cycles can occur at high levels of abstraction.
5583:
5581:
5159:
5062:
Zeitschrift der Deutschen Morgenländischen Gesellschaft
5017:
4877:(3rd ed.). Oxford: Oxford University Press. 2014.
4698:
Weinert (2004) noted the recurring theme of invariance;
4281:
did not exist in nature; thirteen hundred years later,
3802:
3800:
3746:
Pages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets
3737:
Pages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets
2254:. It took thousands of years of measurements, from the
12128:
The scientific method from a philosophical perspective
11860:
A Historical Introduction to the Philosophy of Science
11824:. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press.
10215:
10203:
9200:
9198:
8872:
8848:, 1st published, 1975. Reprinted, Verso, London, 1978.
8554:
8091:
Peirce, Charles S., Carnegie application (L75, 1902),
7713:
6959:
6957:
6046:
6034:
5106:
Actes X Congrès internationale d'histoire des sciences
4585:
The scientific method requires testing and validation
3544:
2152:
A historical example is the belief that the legs of a
896:
12182:"How Do We Know What Is True?" (animated video; 2:52)
10069:
10057:
9823:
9821:
9815:. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. pp. 57â79.
9367:
8728:
8726:
8466:
8070:
7112:, No. 2 (21.VII.1977), pp. 97-118 (22 pages) JSTOR. (
7030:, pp. 194â197: "Suddenly I became aware that an
6264:
6243:
5223:. San Francisco: MacAdam/Cage Pub. pp. 112â116.
4960:
4205:
to the validity of a predicated expression (that is,
50:
For notable practitioners in previous centuries, see
11347:(1988) , Limbrick, Elaine; Thomson, Douglas (eds.),
9154:
9152:
8536:
8011:
8009:
8007:
8005:
8003:
8001:
7999:
7997:
7961:
right. Book, including the assertion, introduced in
7695:
Hepburn, Brian; Andersen, Hanne (13 November 2015).
7124:, but attributed to Alhazen rather than Ibn Mu'adh.)
6908:"James Crutchfield (2003) "Complex Systems Theory?""
6813:"NIF (2021) What Is the National Ignition Facility?"
6463:, as compared to Einstein's desk prediction of 1.75
5594:
Advances in Experimental Social Psychology Volume 18
5578:
5405:
5403:
5401:
5399:
4933:
3835:
3833:
3797:
3589:
3232:
2374:
but never a complete representation of circumstances
2193:
1426:
that results from entertaining a single hypothesis,
972:
Each element of the scientific method is subject to
808:, and Gauch 2003, disagree with Feyerabend's claim.
800:, argued against there being any universal rules of
11821:
Epistemic cultures: how the sciences make knowledge
11604:, University of Illinois Press, Champaign, IL, 1992
11243:
9598:
Epistemic cultures: how the sciences make knowledge
9539:O'Connor, J. J.; Robertson, E. F. (November 1999).
9347:(4). National Science Teachers Association: 10â11.
9242:
9195:
8956:
8765:. Dordrecht: Springer Netherlands. pp. 15â30.
8751:
8285:Weinert, Friedel (2004). "Invariance and reality".
7301:
6954:
6592:
6590:
6588:
6512:
6510:
5623:
5621:
5345:
5177:
5083:
5081:
5079:
4905:"A Neglected Argument for the Reality of God"
3390:, which is considered foundational to the field of
3115:
it pays no regard to the social context of science,
3057:he argued that no description of scientific method
3003:Unificationism, in science, was a central tenet of
2764:
PhilosophiĂŚ Naturalis Principia Mathematica (1723 )
2586:
2345:
Certainty, probabilities, and statistical inference
2305:to current theory inducing the need for new ideas.
1988:The ubiquitous element in the scientific method is
1520:supported General Relativity rather than Newtonian
13091:
12006:, Princeton University Press, Princeton, NJ, 1992.
11976:, Princeton University Press, Princeton, NJ, 1979.
11939:, vol. 329, no. 4 (November 2023), pp. 90â91.
11515:"Perspective: Dimensions of the scientific method"
11440:Transactions of the American Philosophical Society
11407:Transactions of the American Philosophical Society
11377:Transactions of the American Philosophical Society
11075:Selected Scientific Works of Hans Christian Ărsted
10715:
10513:
10355:
10114:, Chapter IX "PoincarĂŠ's proof of Euler's formula"
9818:
9554:
8832:ACM Computing Surveys, Vol. 21, No. 1, March 1989
8723:
8681:, which are contradicted by the basic statements,
7548:. Vol. XV, no. 4. pp. 481â499, see
6880:
6431:announced that on May 29, 1919, the occasion of a
6205:
6189:. New York: Philosophical Library. pp. 24â28.
5839:
5425:Achinstein, Peter (2004). "General Introduction".
4870:
4684:Differing accounts of which elements constitute a
4599:
4597:
4540:
4538:
3632:, and devising a plan for constructing the proof;
3180:A perhaps accessible lead into what is claimed is
2455:. A hypothesis stating implications, often called
2403:is a common example. In knowledge representation,
2278:astronomers, to fully record the motion of planet
1944:photograph is the first observational evidence of
1433:
766:
11845:, University of Chicago Press, Chicago, IL, 1977.
11671:, University of Chicago Press, Chicago, IL, 1977.
11009:
9433:"Dewey versus 'Dewey' on democracy and education"
9149:
8744:
8742:
8649:(1st English ed.). Cambridge, UK; New York:
7994:
7458:Neptune: From Grand Discovery to a World Revealed
6897:highlights the predictions from launch to day+29,
6673:
6671:
6669:
6667:
6475:, New York: Washington Square Press, pp. 294â295.
6358:
6011:
5647:. Philosophy and science. Vol. 2. MontrĂŠal:
5396:
5304:Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society
4555:
4125:
3943:"A leap is involved in all thinking" âJohn Dewey
3830:
3640:exposition of step-by-step details of the proof;
1976:Empiricism, rationalism, and more pragmatic views
895:The scientific method is often represented as an
13914:
11966:, Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA, 1992.
11946:, Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA, 1980.
11855:, Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA, 1987.
11796:Physics and Beyond, Encounters and Conversations
10993:Watson & DNA: Making a scientific revolution
10424:. Vol. LXVII, no. 11. pp. 48â50.
9373:
9211:. Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. p. 4.
9208:Translational and Experimental Clinical Research
8280:
8278:
8276:
8164:
8133:
8087:
8085:
7930:
7880:"Why Most Published Research Findings Are False"
7829:
7219:"Why most published research findings are false"
6585:
6507:
6374:
6068:Translational and Experimental Clinical Research
5957:hearty and active desire to learn what is true."
5924:
5618:
5429:. Johns Hopkins University Press. pp. 1â5.
5076:
4222:Comparing 'epistemic cultures' with Fleck 1935,
4064:
4062:
3967:
3560:Characterization from experience and observation
3448:
2989:reasons, even if unity were possible in theory.
1898:. He also warns against overzealous parsimony.
934:
620:Timeline of the history of the scientific method
10623:
10596:
10282:The Automaton in English Renaissance Literature
9846:
9721:The Sokal Hoax: The Sham That Shook the Academy
9332:
9104:
9102:
8878:
8398:
7989:(2006) Pattern Recognition and Machine Learning
7694:
6543:
6367:, pp. 137â138: "Watson did enough work on
5770:
5768:
5697:
5339:
5032:
4996:
4594:
4535:
3376:
2908:form a basis on which science may be grounded.
2438:
1574:
1137:and/or counting can take the form of expansive
988:
11996:, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1993.
11788:, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1983.
10758:
10504:
10242:A Concise History of Afghanistan in 25 Volumes
10097:
9807:
9805:
9803:
9600:. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press.
9204:
8993:
8739:
8615:Relativity: The Special and the General Theory
8592:
8590:
8449:
8140:(4th ed.). Jones & Bartlett. p.
7873:
7871:
7869:
7670:
7640:
7634:
7427:
7425:
6664:
6447:, and Eddington's expedition to the island of
6386:
6335:, illustrates how to avoid confirmation bias:
6064:
5978:
5966:
5799:
5645:Theories of Scientific Method: An Introduction
5549:, Harvard University Press, pp. 210â218,
5503:
5501:
5467:
5465:
4847:Oxford Dictionaries: British and World English
4392:
4175:
4082:
3952:From the hypothesis, deduce valid forms using
3937:
3894:(1689) An Essay Concerning Human Understanding
3384:Why Most Published Research Findings Are False
3321:
2957:Scientific pluralism is a position within the
2667:What criteria are satisfied by a 'good' theory
1664:
907:The scientific method is the process by which
13077:
12202:
12139:Lecture on Scientific Method by Greg Anderson
11247:Encyclopedia of the History of Arabic Science
11041:
10736:
9541:"Kamal al-Din Abu'l Hasan Muhammad Al-Farisi"
9430:
9293:
9291:
9289:
8606:
8548:
8273:
8206:
8082:
7991:pp. 21, 30, 55, 152, 161, 277, 360, 448, 580
7763:
7585:. Random House Digital, Inc. pp. 51â52.
7516:
6347:experiment, in Japan, independently observed
5897:
5895:
5857:
5390:
4808:Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy
4059:
4047:
3867:
3865:
3863:
3405:
3011:thesis, that the objects investigated by the
1518:observations made during a 1919 solar eclipse
739:A sea voyage from America to Europe afforded
519:
11954:Unended Quest, An Intellectual Autobiography
11817:
11461:Wrestling with Nature: From Omens to Science
11134:(2nd ed.), Princeton University Press,
11048:Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica
10564:Genesis and Development of a Scientific Fact
9953:Genesis and Development of a Scientific Fact
9830:The Incomplete Guide to the Art of Discovery
9753:
9595:
9489:
9158:
9099:
8787:
8757:
8252:
8021:
7808:
7081:
6900:
6630:
6628:
6626:
5823:
5765:
5547:Newton's Apple and Other Myths about Science
5532:
5530:
5043:
4950:
4948:
4709:
4532:can stand to be called a 'universal method'.
4365:
4363:
4361:
4359:
4266:Notes: Problem-solving via scientific method
4246:
4243:HOW, THEN, DID THIS EMPIRICAL FACT ORIGINATE
4238:
3995:
3037:
2895:of the scientific method, at what separates
2562:Scientific inquiry generally aims to obtain
1807:gets the treatment, such as a drug, and the
1613:hypotheses used for constructing the plane.
1027:Retest (frequently done by other scientists)
825:Newton's Apple and Other Myths about Science
12051:
12014:Real Science: what it is, and what it means
11891:, Paragon House, St. Paul, Minnesota, 2017.
11019:
10846:. 1877, 1879. Reprinted with a foreword by
10722:, Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press,
10399:, Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press,
10375:
9800:
8822:
8587:
8379:
8259:. Oxford University Press. pp. 78â79.
8248:
8246:
8165:Cracraft, J.; Donoghue, M.J., eds. (2005).
8158:
8134:Hall, B.K.; HallgrĂmsson, B., eds. (2008).
8053:
7866:
7622:
7572:
7570:
7568:
7422:
6978:, p. 220 Book Seven covers refraction.
6112:
5918:
5916:
5760:science is best understood through examples
5498:
5462:
4803:PhilosophiĂŚ Naturalis Principia Mathematica
4795:
4793:
4493:
3911:
3901:
3574:
2876:
2288:generalizing the collected data inductively
1486:
1148:can refer to the explanation of a specific
899:. This diagram represents one variant, and
13084:
13070:
12209:
12195:
11907:The Nature of Science in Science Education
10485:
10378:Oxford Dictionary of Scientific Quotations
10185:(4), pp. 378â383, on Jeremy Gray's (2013)
10172:
9711:, The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1997
9338:
9286:
8959:International Journal of Science Education
8881:European Journal for Philosophy of Science
8419:Stephen Hawking; Leonard Mlodinow (2010).
8330:
8328:
8209:"Chapter 9: Rationality and Theory Choice"
7936:
7796:
7577:Stephen Hawking; Leonard Mlodinow (2010).
7562:v. 5, paragraphs 438â463, see 443 and 451.
6969:
6726:National Science Foundation (NSF) (2021)
6682:. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. pp. 1â4.
6605:. v. 1. paragraphs 135â140. Archived from
6529:
6527:
5892:
5793:
5739:"Whatever Happened to History of Science?"
5639:
5424:
4480:Notes: Philosophical expressions of method
4411:
3860:
3058:
2604:
2111:Scientific methodology often directs that
1862:
1680:
1539:
1445:
1300:
1133:; these observations often demand careful
1047:
1005:Gather information and resources (observe)
878:
869:, which still stand as scientific method.
550:that has characterized the development of
526:
512:
12865:
12828:Relationship between religion and science
12216:
11556:
11538:
11351:, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press,
11349:That Nothing is Known (Quod nihil scitur)
11287:
10920:, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press,
10914:(1976), John Worrall; Elie Zahar (eds.),
10814:(expanded ed.), Penguin Publishing,
10774:
10012:George Lakoff and Rafael E. Núùez (2000)
9893:
9779:
9440:Education, Citizenship and Social Justice
9407:
9315:
8913:
8863:
8375:
8373:
8371:
8211:. In James Conant, John Haugeland (ed.).
7913:
7895:
7877:
7246:
7236:
7216:
7159:
6623:
6339:, in Chile, was initially skeptical that
5527:
5452:
5450:
5448:
5446:
5113:
5070:
4945:
4771:iterations for PoincarĂŠ to arrive at the
4503:
4436:
4434:
4356:
4316:
3928:
3883:
3590:Deduction: prediction from the hypothesis
3160:
2892:
2534:
2405:Bayesian estimation of mutual information
2075:Flying gallop as shown by this painting (
1913:The Logic of Scientific Discovery (2002 )
1724:can be built upon. For example: By 1027,
1312:. This hypothesis was also considered by
1288:
849:disproof of existing theory by experiment
570:. Scientific inquiry includes creating a
12016:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
11927:, Oxford University Press, Oxford, 1991.
11739:
11736:, Oxford University Press, Oxford, 1980.
11312:
11098:
10990:
10933:
10652:
10238:
10160:Comptes rendusde lâAcademie des Sciences
9974:, p. 131 in the section on 'Modern
9871:
9374:Ioannidou, Olga; Erduran, Sibel (2021).
9255:. : BCcampus, BC Open Textbook Project.
8851:
8612:
8478:
8425:. Random House Digital, Inc. p. 8.
8411:
8401:"§4.1 Methodological Incommensurability"
8243:
8171:. Oxford University Press. p. 592.
7724:
7610:
7565:
7385:
7373:
7326:
7295:
7059:
7011:
6999:
6987:
6949:A Survey of Islamic Astronomical Tables,
6945:translation from Arabic to Latin in 1116
6838:"ISS (2021) International Space Station"
6634:
6533:
6411:
6380:
6184:
6172:
6144:
6052:
5913:
5867:. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
5829:
5811:
5357:
5165:
4790:
4283:Alhazen disproved Aristotle's hypothesis
4124:For broader coverage of this topic, see
4106:
3331:
3328:Role of chance in scientific discoveries
3205:in an academic scientific laboratory by
2591:Scientific knowledge is closely tied to
2543:
2241:
2215:
1935:
890:
31:For broader coverage of this topic, see
11894:
11745:What Science Knows: And How It Knows It
11710:
11500:
11343:
10964:
10910:
10806:
10533:
10488:The Investigation of the Physical World
10209:
10166:
10087:
10018:
9832:. New York: Columbia University Press.
9673:The Structure of Scientific Revolutions
9560:
9108:
9027:
8830:Unification: A Multidisciplinary Survey
8601:. Indiana University Press. p. 15.
8484:
8443:
8341:. TED talk. Event occurs at 15:05min.
8334:
8325:
8284:
8127:
7769:
7688:
7682:
7455:
7332:
6566:
6564:
6562:
6524:
6322:
6286:(16 October 1964). "Strong Inference".
6040:
5736:
5703:
5420:
5418:
5351:
5087:
4579:
3873:
3854:
2821:An example here can be found in one of
1273:, he actually found it easier to study
977:
968:Experiments (tests of all of the above)
828:
823:Daniel Thurs' chapter in the 2015 book
724:, by idealists as well as empiricists
601:
14:
13915:
12135:by Paul Newall at The Galilean Library
11984:Four Decades of Scientific Explanation
11573:
11403:
11373:
11250:. Psychology Press. pp. 274â298.
11208:
11189:
11174:
11069:
10946:
10853:
10827:
10653:Gauch Jr, Hugh G. (12 December 2002).
10413:
10394:
10304:Natural Philosophy of Cause and Chance
10270:
10221:
10187:Henri PoincarĂŠ: A Scientific Biography
9827:
9062:
8793:
8696:
8596:
8368:
8107:How to Think Straight About Psychology
8027:
7962:
7878:Ioannidis, John P.A. (1 August 2005).
7543:
7528:
7431:
7335:"Science: Conjectures and refutations"
7136:"Benjamin Franklin and lightning rods"
7133:
7027:
6963:
6677:
6599:"F.R.L. [First Rule of Logic]"
6596:
6549:
6364:
6241:
6237:
6235:
6233:
6231:
6156:
5922:
5587:
5507:
5456:
5443:
5218:
5202:
4939:
4901:
4799:
4549:
4461:using his best resources. His mentor,
4431:
4417:
4271:
4245:AND IN WHAT DOES IT CONSIST?". But by
3559:
3175:
2659:
2365:used and the number of samples taken.
2309:in 1859 pointed out problems with the
1920:Theory's interactions with observation
872:
839:and Howard Sankey, in their 2007 book
700:, brought to particular prominence by
566:can distort the interpretation of the
13065:
12190:
12158:Richard Feynman on the Key to Science
12119:Introduction to the scientific method
11686:
11659:Readings in the Philosophy of Science
11503:Johannes Kepler and the New Astronomy
11477:
11458:
11433:
11264:
11144:
11124:
10679:
10644:
10629:Dialogues concerning two new sciences
10557:
10459:
10441:
10350:
10325:, Berlin; New York: Springer Verlag,
10314:
10178:John Stillwell, reviewer (Apr 2014).
10075:
10063:
10025:
10006:
9971:
9795:as a member of the Penicillium genus.
9723:, University of Nebraska Press, 2000
9657:
9645:
9633:
9629:
9297:
9205:Schuster, D.P.; Powers, W.J. (2005).
8999:
8763:Otto Neurath and the Unity of Science
8690:
8637:
8561:European Journal of Social Psychology
8542:
8493:(2). Sage Publications, Inc.: 25â31.
8472:
8392:
8196:
8121:
8076:
7981:
7965:"Do doctors understand test results?"
7496:
7269:
7217:Ioannidis, John P. A. (August 2005).
7105:Archive for History of Exact Sciences
6975:
6855:
6780:
6282:
6276:
6199:
6071:. Lippincott Williams & Wilkins.
6005:
5946:
5901:
5845:
5805:
5627:
5536:
5409:
5301:
5251:
5026:
4954:
4440:
4234:
4092:: U. Le Verrier (1859), (in French),
3877:
3438:
3344:Somewhere between 33% and 50% of all
2693:and is fruitful for further research.
2557:
2433:
2177:
2059:
1868:Honesty, openness, and falsifiability
978:apply mostly to experimental sciences
831:are beliefs, they are subject to the
772:
629:itself. The development of rules for
12153:an online book by Richard D. Jarrard
11942:Piattelli-Palmarini, Massimo (ed.),
11509:
11066:and Anne Whitman's 1999 translation.
10871:
10710:
10446:, University of Pennsylvania Press,
10298:
10245:. Vol. 1. Trafford Publishing.
9669:
9495:
8643:"From falsifiability to testability"
8485:Krugman, Paul (1993). "How I Work".
8015:
6830:
6805:
6559:
6270:
5415:
4983:
4897:
4895:
4545:
4001:The Sun's rays are still visible at
2704:and look for invariant observations.
2370:Inductive statistical generalisation
1638:
1369:) described the incipient stages of
1041:
919:The overall process involves making
816:
13578:Digital media use and mental health
13292:Sociology of the history of science
12101:Indiana Philosophy Ontology Project
12080:Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy
12066:Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
11974:Philosophy and the Mirror of Nature
11612:The Art of Scientific Investigation
11108:, London: Walter Scott Publishing,
11093:Charles Sanders Peirce bibliography
10949:Dictionary of Scientific Quotations
9754:Tan, Sy; Tatsumura, Y (July 2015).
9431:van der Ploeg, Piet (8 June 2016).
9341:Journal of College Science Teaching
8857:
8256:The Indispensability of Mathematics
8109:. Boston: Pearson Education. p. 123
7701:Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
6750:
6720:
6680:Information, Mechanism, and Meaning
6245:"How to Make Our Ideas Clear"
6228:
5906:
5790:Discoveries and Opinions of Galileo
5737:Staddon, John (16 September 2020).
5365:Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
5044:
4524:Popper, in his 1963 publication of
4126:§ Relationship with statistics
3975:
3853:The full title translation is from
3759: â Scientific study of science
3721:systematic palpable experimentation
3715:, when asked how he came about his
3523:, the construction of mathematical
3316:
2494:
1728:, based on his measurements of the
1253:. These ideas were skipped over by
24:
11680:What Is This Thing Called Science?
11590:
11221:, Taylor & Francis e-Library,
11051:, University of California Press,
11030:Science and Civilisation in China
10482:Public domain in the US. 236 pages
9483:The Social Construction of Reality
9123:10.1111/j.1748-5959.2005.tb00039.x
9042:10.1111/j.1949-8594.1996.tb10205.x
8399:Bird, Alexander (11 August 2011).
8050:â experiments with childbed fever.
7937:Gigerenzer, Gerd (31 March 2015).
7134:Krider, E. Philip (January 2006).
6886:James Webb Space Telescope (JWST)
6863:"JWST (2021) WEBB Space Telescope"
5596:. Vol. 18. pp. 247â305.
5484:. pp. 312â365. Archived from
3575:Hypothesis: a proposed explanation
3442:
3251:sociologists built the concept of
3121:it overemphasises experimentation,
2861:. The opposite of something being
1960:leading to differing conclusions.
1843:, and science journals, including
1732:of light, was able to deduce that
1496:For example, Einstein's theory of
1469:Any useful hypothesis will enable
835:as Taleb points out. Philosophers
581:Although procedures vary from one
44:Scientific method (disambiguation)
25:
13949:
13287:Sociology of scientific ignorance
13132:History and philosophy of science
13114:Economics of scientific knowledge
12848:Sociology of scientific knowledge
12843:Sociology of scientific ignorance
12796:History and philosophy of science
12164:Lectures on the Scientific Method
12021:
11956:, Open Court, La Salle, IL, 1982.
11881:Understanding Scientific Progress
11215:The Logic of Scientific Discovery
11181:The Logic of Scientific Discovery
10939:The Beginnings of Western Science
10376:Bynum, W.F.; Porter, Roy (2005),
9993:revised from H.D.Cao and X.P.Zhu
9852:
9813:Scientific and Technical Thinking
9446:(2). SAGE Publications: 145â159.
8207:Thomas S Kuhn (1 November 2002).
7305:The logic of scientific discovery
6703:from a specification of what was
6115:, p. 597: "Andreas Vesalius"
5819:(Dec 2007) Unification Algorithms
5704:Staddon, John (1 December 2017).
5178:Rozhanskaya & Levinova (1996)
4892:
4345:Opticae Thesaurus, Alhazen Arabis
4289:, thus deducing the existence of
3753: â Study of research methods
3233:Situated cognition and relativism
3167:Sociology of scientific knowledge
2992:
2887:Sociology of scientific knowledge
2567:
2194:Deductive and inductive reasoning
13880:
13879:
13854:
13045:
13033:
10985:AveryâMacLeodâMcCarty experiment
10983:. Memoir of a researcher in the
10854:Judson, Horace Freeland (1979),
10520:, New York: Simon and Schuster,
10148:
10117:
10081:
10044:
10031:
9981:
9965:
9921:
9895:10.1097/00000542-198405000-00026
9865:
9699:
9690:
9663:
9651:
9639:
9622:
9589:
9532:
9466:
9277:
9232:
9004:. University of Illinois Press.
8835:
8631:
8380:Baker, Alan (25 February 2010).
8338:A new way to explain explanation
8233:
8099:
7844:10.1136/postgradmedj-2020-139446
7730:
7616:
7537:
7531:The Logic of Interdisciplinarity
7522:
7490:
7308:(Reprint of translation of 1935
7275:
7210:
7179:
7127:
7053:
7021:
7005:
6993:
6981:
6931:
6242:Peirce, Charles Sanders (1877).
5923:Peirce, Charles Sanders (1877).
4902:Peirce, Charles Sanders (1908).
4742:
4718:
4678:
4567:
4237:, p. xxvii recognizes that
4216:
4150:
4132:
4112:
4099:
4030:
4021:
4008:
3981:
3608:
2973:of scientific knowledge, or the
2701:parsimony in causal explanations
2587:Properties of scientific inquiry
2325:as a possible early test of his
2090:
2068:
1609:is an experiment that tests the
811:Later stances include physicist
495:
480:
75:
11112:from the original on 2007-09-29
10744:, University of Chicago Press,
10700:from the original on 2023-11-29
10486:di Francia, G. Toraldo (1981),
10428:from the original on 2020-06-24
10414:Riskin, Jessica (2 July 2020).
10339:from the original on 2023-11-29
10285:, Farnham: Ashgate Publishing,
10259:from the original on 2023-11-29
10137:from the original on 2021-09-06
9910:from the original on 2021-08-29
9736:, Oxford University Press, 2000
8345:from the original on 2018-11-04
8335:Deutsch, David (October 2009).
8185:from the original on 2023-11-29
7963:Kremer, William (6 July 2014).
7941:. New York, New York: Penguin.
7802:Brad Snowder's Astronomy Pages
7752:from the original on 2020-05-15
7199:from the original on 2014-04-29
6920:from the original on 2021-04-18
6869:from the original on 2012-01-04
6844:from the original on 2005-09-07
6819:from the original on 2017-07-31
6794:from the original on 2021-09-01
6768:from the original on 2020-04-25
6644:
6496:from the original on 2017-08-31
6478:
6467:. â Antonina Vallentin (1954),
6421:
6405:
6193:
6178:
6166:
6150:
6138:
6118:
6111:, (1964), p. 116. As quoted by
6097:
6085:from the original on 2023-11-29
6058:
5972:
5960:
5881:from the original on 2023-11-29
5851:
5751:from the original on 2021-08-27
5730:
5649:McGillâQueen's University Press
5633:
5563:from the original on 2023-11-29
5516:from the original on 2016-08-07
5510:"There is No Scientific Method"
5372:
5290:
5264:
5245:
5212:
5183:
5147:from the original on 2023-11-29
4978:Philosophy of Inductive Science
4881:from the original on 2023-11-29
4518:
4485:
4447:came by his manuscript copy of
4399:Never fail to recognize an idea
4296:
3946:
3847:
3271:observer's conceptual framework
3138:) that replaced those of 1996 (
3067:
2891:Philosophy of science looks at
2728:especially when they conflict."
2252:history of gravitational theory
1767:
1760:
1434:Predictions from the hypothesis
782:
767:Modern use and critical thought
637:Different early expressions of
618:For a chronological guide, see
13093:Science and technology studies
12237:Analyticâsynthetic distinction
10951:, London: IOP Publishing Ltd,
10686:, Cambridge University Press,
10657:. Cambridge University Press.
10610:] (in Italian and Latin),
10490:, Cambridge University Press,
10416:"Just Use Your Thinking Pump!"
10239:Alikuzai, Hamid Wahed (2013).
9987:Huai-Dong Cao and Xi-Ping Zhu
9117:(3). : 341â376, quote on 366.
9111:History of Education Quarterly
9030:School Science and Mathematics
8802:(4). Guilford Press: 550â561.
7774:. DE GRUYTER. pp. 33â52.
7436:, Cambridge University Press,
6520:(2021) Photograph 51 explained
6022:Discourse on the Method/Part 2
5926:"The Fixation of Belief"
5545:; Kampourakis, Kostas (eds.),
4863:
4835:
3960:. Avoid invalid forms such as
3827:as part of this investigation.
3668:Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus
3630:working backward from the goal
3285:led to different conclusions.
3059:could possibly be broad enough
2961:that rejects various proposed
2823:Einstein's thought experiments
2050:
1527:
1249:and the means for determining
1008:Form an explanatory hypothesis
13:
1:
11747:, New York: Encounter Books,
11618:, Melbourne, Australia, 1950.
10947:Mackay, Alan L., ed. (1991),
10941:, University of Chicago Press
10683:Scientific Method in Practice
10655:Scientific Method in Practice
10540:The Character of Physical Law
10322:The Philosophy Behind Physics
10165:(1892), 633â636. as cited by
10092:Euler's formula for polyhedra
9872:Schaefer, Carl F (May 1984).
8647:The philosophy of Karl Popper
8034:Philosophy Of Natural Science
7746:European Southern Observatory
7087:Goldstein, Bernard R. (1977)
6947:, as cited by E. S. Kennedy,
6762:lhc-commissioning.web.cern.ch
5602:10.1016/S0065-2601(08)60146-X
5590:"When Belief Creates Reality"
5378:Margaret Atherton (ed.) 1999
5006:(عساŮŘŠ Ů٠اŮŘśŮŘĄ) as cited in
4783:
3744: â Pragmatic methodology
3449:Relationship with mathematics
2803:
2654:
2641:modern evolutionary synthesis
2246:Inductive Deductive Reasoning
1982:
1709:'s X-ray diffraction images.
1308:proposed that DNA might be a
1209:
1113:conjectured, correctly, that
935:Factors of scientific inquiry
861:, and Galileo (1638) and his
841:Theories of Scientific Method
13640:Normalization process theory
13197:Philosophy of social science
12075:"Confirmation and Induction"
11818:Knorr Cetina, Karin (1999).
11766:Reason in the Age of Science
11540:10.1371/journal.pcbi.1007279
11151:. Ishi Press International.
11119:– via The Mead Project
11037:, Cambridge University Press
11012:The Autobiography of Science
10991:McElheny, Victor K. (2004),
10663:10.1017/cbo9780511815034.011
10578:. (written in German, 1935,
10421:The New York Review of Books
10275:Friar Bacon and Friar Bungay
10271:Borlik, Todd Andrew (2011),
10014:Where Mathematics Comes From
9161:The American Biology Teacher
9065:The American Biology Teacher
8597:Wigner, Eugene Paul (1967).
8403:. In Edward N. Zalta (ed.).
8384:. In Edward N. Zalta (ed.).
8105:Stanovich, Keith E. (2007).
7953:leads: (n=1000) only 21% of
7897:10.1371/journal.pmed.0020124
7832:Postgraduate Medical Journal
7671:Goldhaber & Nieto (2010)
7635:Goldhaber & Nieto (2010)
7302:Karl Raimund Popper (2002).
7238:10.1371/journal.pmed.0020124
7042:was identical in shape to a
6437:General theory of relativity
6308:10.1126/science.146.3642.347
6109:Andreas Vesalius of Brussels
5967:Einstein & Infeld (1938)
5256:. In Waller, Richard (ed.).
4974:History of Inductive Science
4605:The Scientist as Philosopher
4282:
3763:Outline of scientific method
3686:) into or out of forms from
3377:Relationship with statistics
3081:
2946:
2853:Related principles here are
2736:
2439:Hypothetico-deductive method
2422:, the concept together with
1658:
1653:can be seen in the works of
984:as "the scientific method".
614:History of scientific method
586:
52:History of scientific method
7:
12570:Hypothetico-deductive model
12545:Deductive-nomological model
12530:Constructivist epistemology
12178:(archived 21 January 2013).
11776:Cognitive Models of Science
10680:Gauch, Hugh G. Jr. (2003),
10543:, Cambridge: M.I.T. Press,
10319:; Peter E. Hodgson (eds.),
9543:. University of St. Andrews
8979:10.1080/0950069032000032199
8771:10.1007/978-94-007-0143-4_2
8452:"Epistemological pluralism"
8168:Assembling the tree of life
8093:New Elements of Mathematics
8046:Hempel illustrates this at
7957:got an example question on
7804:( Precession of the Equinox
7466:10.1007/978-3-030-54218-4_5
7358:Conjectures and Refutations
7116:was printed by F Risner in
6641:using his cardboard models.
6597:Peirce, Charles S. (1899).
5904:, p. 10 calls this an
5478:Conjectures and Refutations
5050:"Abhandlung Ăźber das Licht"
4991:Epicurus' Scientific Method
4625:Olivier Costa de Beauregard
4526:Conjectures and Refutations
4145:deductive probability logic
4090:Tests of general relativity
3733:Empirical limits in science
3726:
3690:, or more abstractly, from
3348:are estimated to have been
3322:Role of chance in discovery
2969:of its subject matter, the
2939:(1910) and Karl Pearson in
2783:
2570:that scientists can use to
2445:hypothetico-deductive model
2414:Beyond commonly associated
2145:How to Make Our Ideas Clear
1841:National Science Foundation
1794:If an experiment cannot be
1665:Communication and iteration
1631:International Space Station
1601:. Even taking a plane from
1597:study or an archaeological
1401:The Mass-Extinction Debates
1052:In 1950, it was known that
886:
745:hypothetico-deductive model
585:to another, the underlying
10:
13954:
13263:construction of technology
11519:PLOS Computational Biology
11501:Voelkel, James R. (2001),
10856:The Eighth Day of Creation
10442:Dales, Richard C. (1973),
10231:
9575:10.1177/030631286016001009
9392:10.1007/s11191-020-00185-9
9317:10.1007/s11191-021-00235-w
9252:Introduction to psychology
8683:are not strictly refutable
8651:Cambridge University Press
8599:Symmetries and reflections
8499:10.1177/056943459303700204
7819:On the System of the World
7038:pair held together by two
6678:MacKay, Donald M. (1969).
6429:Royal Astronomical Society
6126:The Astonishing Hypothesis
5792:pp. 237â238, as quoted by
5784:, 1623), as translated by
5112:Ithaca 1962, as quoted in
5104:, translated by S. Pines,
4993:. Cornell University Press
4591:before ideas are accepted.
4250:
4201:might take, then serve as
4140:Statistical generalisation
4123:
4070:On the System of the World
3647:Building on PĂłlya's work,
3441:, pp. 38â50 notes "a
3406:Science of complex systems
3325:
3236:
3201:Comparably, following the
3164:
3085:
3066:valid rule, it should be '
3041:
3016:common scientific method.
2996:
2950:
2880:
2629:diversity of life on Earth
2595:and can remain subject to
2197:
1871:
1771:
1668:
1635:James Webb Space Telescope
1627:National Ignition Facility
1531:
1487:formulating the hypothesis
1437:
1292:
617:
611:
607:
303:Interdisciplinary sciences
49:
29:
13850:
13795:Politicization of science
13755:
13541:
13310:
13245:
13157:
13122:
13099:
13024:
12856:
12758:
12688:
12631:Semantic view of theories
12550:Epistemological anarchism
12502:
12487:dependent and independent
12224:
12115:by Steven D. Schafersman.
12042:Resources in your library
11696:, New York: Basic Books,
11505:, Oxford University Press
11034:Introductory Orientations
11014:(2nd ed.), Doubleday
10972:, New York: W.W. Norton,
10793:10.1103/RevModPhys.82.939
10395:Cowles, Henry M. (2020),
10315:Brody, Thomas A. (1993),
9874:"Regarding the Misuse of
9760:Singapore Medical Journal
9596:Knorr-Cetina, K. (1999).
9563:Social Studies of Science
8893:10.1007/s13194-019-0253-9
8613:Einstein, Albert (1961).
7623:Needham & Wang (1954)
6185:Einstein, Albert (1949).
6113:Bynum & Porter (2005)
5643:; Sankey, Howard (2007).
5537:Thurs, Daniel P. (2015),
4926:v. 6, paragraphs 452â85,
4873:Oxford English Dictionary
4383:who else might know this?
4074:See Motte's translation (
3676:internally logically true
3624:, which PĂłlya takes from
3595:
3580:
3565:
3550:
3543:
3538:
3273:. He used the concept of
3044:Epistemological anarchism
3038:Epistemological anarchism
2906:methodological naturalism
2000:, political or religious
1853:Scientific data archiving
1440:Prediction § Science
13202:Philosophy of technology
12373:Intertheoretic reduction
12362:Ignoramus et ignorabimus
12339:Functional contextualism
12141:(archived 28 April 2006)
11190:Popper, Karl R. (1963),
10358:The Landmarks of Science
9670:Kuhn, Thomas S. (2009).
9452:10.1177/1746197916648283
9000:Bauer, Henry H. (1992).
8137:Strickberger's Evolution
7780:10.1515/9783110325867.33
7432:Hanson, Norwood (1958),
7272:, pp. xxviiâxxviii.
7074:, if this scheme were a
6758:"LHC long term schedule"
6486:"The Secret of Photo 51"
6212:Aristotle (trans. 1853)
5508:Smolin, Lee (May 2013).
5296:Kepler, Johannes (1604)
5219:Inwood, Stephen (2003).
4774:PoincarĂŠ homology sphere
4653:Alistair Cameron Crombie
3976:building physical models
3962:affirming the consequent
3791:
3742:Evidence-based practices
2897:science from non-science
2877:Philosophy and discourse
1355:, borrowing a page from
710:Giambattista della Porta
358:Research and development
12858:Philosophers of science
12636:Scientific essentialism
12585:Model-dependent realism
12520:Constructive empiricism
12413:Evidence-based practice
12123:University of Rochester
11634:and Capaldi, Nicholas,
11608:Beveridge, William I.B.
10829:Jevons, William Stanley
10471:D. C. Heath and Company
9927:Anderson, Chris (2008)
9742:, Economist Books, 2003
9740:Intellectual Impostures
9380:Science & Education
9304:Science & Education
8573:10.1002/ejsp.2420250407
8450:E Brian Davies (2006).
8361:8 November 2022 at the
8295:. pp. 62â74 (72).
7646:Ronald R. Sims (2003).
7599:model-dependent realism
7503:The Demon-Haunted World
7283:NIH Data Sharing Policy
6250:Popular Science Monthly
6124:Crick, Francis (1994),
5931:Popular Science Monthly
5708:. New York: Routledge.
4989:Elizabeth Asmis (1985)
4888:– via OED Online.
4800:Newton, Isaac (1999) .
4403:Popular Science Monthly
4371:inquiry-based education
4343:, at that time denoted
4285:, using experiments on
3338:discovery of penicillin
3247:On the idea of Fleck's
3088:Philosophy of education
2800:will breed stagnation.
2552:Monte-Carlo simulations
2424:probabilistic reasoning
2098:Muybridge's photographs
2045:model-dependent realism
1863:Foundational principles
1675:Scholarly communication
1281:, rather than to study
1257:with, "I do not define
945:philosophers of science
13275:Sociology of knowledge
12941:Alfred North Whitehead
12931:Charles Sanders Peirce
12004:Conceptual Revolutions
11711:Crombie, A.C. (1953),
11479:Taleb, Nassim Nicholas
11145:PĂłlya, George (2009).
11105:Science and Hypothesis
11071:Ărsted, Hans Christian
11062:, Third edition. From
10917:Proofs and Refutations
10858:, Simon and Schuster,
10835:, Dover Publications,
10154:Henri PoincarĂŠ, Sur lâ
10103:H.S.M. Coxeter (1973)
9938:. Wired Magazine 16.07
9772:10.11622/smedj.2015105
9298:Emden, Markus (2021).
8936:10.1002/sce.3730710402
8522:Listen to the Gentiles
8487:The American Economist
7987:Christopher M. Bishop
7772:Reason and Rationality
7408:10.1103/PhysRev.43.491
6256:: 286â302 – via
5690:reflective equilibrium
5340:Galileo Galilei (1638)
5252:Hooke, Robert (1705).
4849:, 2016, archived from
4739:
4733:described it in 1995:
4494:
4491:His assertions in the
4463:Qutb al-Din al-Shirazi
4445:KamÄl al-DÄŤn al-FÄrisÄŤ
3703:Proofs and Refutations
3654:Proofs and Refutations
3346:scientific discoveries
3341:
3259:Norwood Russell Hanson
3161:Sociology of knowledge
3035:
2979:scientific disciplines
2893:the underpinning logic
2840:
2768:
2730:
2540:Mathematical modelling
2535:Mathematical modelling
2507:and particularly with
2451:and their testing via
2385:process for validation
2247:
2239:
2150:
1949:
1917:
1781:Georg Wilhelm Richmann
1750:atmospheric refraction
1715:accuracy and precision
1711:
1695:of the physical shapes
1651:controlled experiments
1639:adjunct infrastructure
1566:
1467:
1405:
1353:Charles Sanders Peirce
1334:existential statements
1322:
1289:Hypothesis development
1207:
1174:scientific instruments
1093:
1062:transforming principle
982:the educational system
904:
692:approach described by
558:coupled with rigorous
265:Extrascientific fields
13933:Philosophy of science
13928:Scientific Revolution
13842:Transition management
13832:Technology assessment
13800:Regulation of science
13775:Evidence-based policy
13660:Sociotechnical system
13509:Traditional knowledge
13389:Psychology of science
13362:Mapping controversies
13268:shaping of technology
13227:Social constructivism
13192:Philosophy of science
13149:History of technology
13040:Philosophy portal
12791:Hard and soft science
12786:Faith and rationality
12655:Scientific skepticism
12435:Scientific Revolution
12218:Philosophy of science
12166:by Nick Josh Karean,
11647:, W.A. Benjamin, 1968
11622:Bernstein, Richard J.
11513:(12 September 2019).
10622:English translation:
10050:George PĂłlya (1954),
10037:George PĂłlya (1954),
8796:Science & Society
8734:Out of My Later Years
8697:Krantz, S.G. (2005).
8525:Question the question
8253:Mark Colyvan (2001).
7434:Patterns of Discovery
6457:Greenwich Observatory
6439:. One expedition, to
6187:The World as I See It
5714:10.4324/9781315100708
5665:10.4324/9781315711959
5588:Snyder, Mark (1984).
4916:: 90â112 – via
4734:
4408:, January 1878, p.286
4337:, which is Alhazen's
4197:. The values which a
3774:Research transparency
3768:Quantitative research
3509:, and others such as
3359:Nassim Nicholas Taleb
3335:
3021:
2959:philosophy of science
2883:Philosophy of science
2827:
2755:
2721:
2679:(the trivial element)
2568:testable explanations
2428:statistical mechanics
2245:
2219:
2133:
1939:
1931:philosophy of science
1904:
1678:
1671:Scientific literature
1619:Large Hadron Collider
1546:King's College London
1537:
1443:
1438:Further information:
1391:
1298:
1194:
1186:particle accelerators
1129:some definitions and
1045:
949:experimental sciences
914:scientific revolution
901:there are many others
894:
851:have been used since
674:scientific revolution
564:cognitive assumptions
546:method for acquiring
502:Philosophy portal
434:Science communication
278:Communication studies
13747:Women in engineering
13593:Financial technology
13573:Digital anthropology
13342:Criticism of science
13255:Actorânetwork theory
13217:Religion and science
13109:Economics of science
12766:Criticism of science
12641:Scientific formalism
12525:Constructive realism
12430:Scientific pluralism
12403:Problem of induction
11734:The Scientific Image
11730:Fraassen, Bas C. van
10738:Godfrey-Smith, Peter
10567:, Univ. of Chicago,
10001:(2) (2006), 165â492.
8828:Kevin Knight (1989)
8679:universal statements
8354:Also available from
8291:. Berlin; New York:
7517:Godfrey-Smith (2003)
7122:Liber de crepusculis
7114:Treatise On Twilight
6369:Tobacco mosaic virus
6008:, esp. chapters 5â8.
5952:Peirce, Charles S.,
5859:Godfrey-Smith, Peter
5391:Godfrey-Smith (2003)
5124:Planetary Hypotheses
4928:The Essential Peirce
4765:Euler characteristic
4379:is this answer true?
4253:Cognitive revolution
4239:facts have lifetimes
4068:Isaac Newton (1727)
3684:Euler characteristic
3659:informal mathematics
3445:that condition it".
3435:predictive analytics
3424:scientific modelling
3063:methodological rules
2953:Scientific pluralism
2527:, which are used in
2501:inductivist approach
2327:theory of relativity
2037:scientific modelling
1970:discovery of Neptune
1874:Scientific integrity
1746:Treatise On Twilight
1736:was less dense than
1579:experimental control
1338:universal statements
1295:Hypothesis formation
1218:usage. For example,
1079:pictures of various
1070:Cambridge University
941:scientific community
821:historian of science
631:scientific reasoning
391:Scientific integrity
373:Vocational education
308:Knowledge management
198:Behavioural sciences
42:For other uses, see
13588:Engineering studies
13558:Cyborg anthropology
13347:Demarcation problem
13232:Social epistemology
12833:Rhetoric of science
12771:Descriptive science
12515:Confirmation holism
12408:Scientific evidence
12368:Inductive reasoning
12297:Demarcation problem
12057:"Scientific Method"
11964:Renewing Philosophy
11936:Scientific American
11896:McComas, William F.
11762:Gadamer, Hans-Georg
11715:, Oxford: Clarendon
11531:2019PLSCB..15E7279V
11327:1976PhT....29b..51S
11091:Peirce, C.S. â see
10785:2010RvMP...82..939G
10647:, pp. 261â264.
10180:Notices of the AMS.
9486:(London, 1967), 16.
8971:2003IJSEd..25.1049O
8928:1987SciEd..71..459A
8842:Feyerabend, Paul K.
8029:Hempel, Carl Gustav
7697:"Scientific Method"
7400:1933PhRv...43..491A
7310:Logik der Forschung
7152:2006PhT....59a..42K
6840:. 12 January 2015.
6427:In March 1917, the
6300:1964Sci...146..347P
5937:: 1â15 – via
5101:Critique of Ptolemy
4843:"scientific method"
4767:notes that it took
4603:Friedel Weinert in
4528:argued that merely
4224:Thought collectives
4189:, which describe a
3707:thought experiments
3692:homological algebra
3609:Test and experiment
3540:Mathematical method
3488:PoincarĂŠ conjecture
3412:transdisciplinarity
3249:thought collectives
3219:high energy physics
3195:thought collectives
3184:thought, echoed in
3176:Thought collectives
3172:those ideas arise.
3092:Scientific literacy
2777:reviewed prior work
2660:Confirmation theory
2577:scientific theories
2529:encryption software
2489:abductive reasoning
2453:deductive reasoning
2401:boy or girl paradox
2204:Inductive reasoning
2200:Deductive reasoning
2102:The Horse in Motion
1752:of the sun's rays.
1510:gravitational field
1479:deductive reasoning
1376:abductive reasoning
1345:inductive reasoning
1261:, space, place and
1245:begins by defining
1146:scientific question
1099:can also be called
1054:genetic inheritance
873:Elements of inquiry
708:, and performed by
576:inductive reasoning
18:Scientific analysis
13868:History of science
13785:Funding of science
13655:Skunkworks project
13352:Double hermeneutic
13137:History of science
13052:Science portal
12981:Carl Gustav Hempel
12936:Wilhelm Windelband
12823:Questionable cause
12646:Scientific realism
12467:Underdetermination
12302:Empirical evidence
12292:Creative synthesis
12151:Scientific Methods
12111:2018-01-01 at the
12055:; Hepburn, Brian.
11887:2018-02-20 at the
11814:Karin Knorr Cetina
11792:Heisenberg, Werner
11655:Grandy, Richard E.
11643:2023-04-13 at the
11345:Sanches, Francisco
11184:(English ed.)
10935:Lindberg, David C.
10589:2023-04-06 at the
10196:2021-07-04 at the
9958:2021-08-26 at the
9934:2021-05-02 at the
9498:History and Theory
9472:Here, King quotes
8677:Consequently, the
8531:Simplify, simplify
8438:in all situations.
7579:"What is reality?"
7288:2012-05-13 at the
7098:2022-09-21 at the
6893:2021-12-23 at the
6744:2021-08-20 at the
6733:2021-08-17 at the
6577:2011-05-24 at the
6221:2021-09-10 at the
6103:Andreas Vesalius,
6027:2021-09-01 at the
5817:Maribel FernĂĄndez
5543:Numbers, Ronald L.
5055:2019-12-30 at the
4546:ethical principles
3396:misuse of p-values
3342:
3253:situated cognition
3227:epistemic cultures
3215:Karin Knorr Cetina
3005:logical positivism
2941:Grammar of Science
2910:Logical positivist
2842:The discussion on
2593:empirical findings
2558:Scientific inquiry
2434:Methods of inquiry
2416:survey methodology
2381:Research questions
2248:
2240:
2233:apsidal precession
2159:Eadweard Muybridge
2077:ThĂŠodore GĂŠricault
2060:Beliefs and biases
1950:
1825:scientific journal
1805:experimental group
1801:experimental error
1571:crucial experiment
1498:general relativity
1349:Bayesian inference
1330:mathematical model
1241:'s first paper on
1139:empirical research
905:
817:ethical principles
783:popular guidelines
627:history of science
602:scientific inquiry
487:Science portal
13923:Scientific method
13910:
13909:
13837:Technology policy
13568:Dematerialization
13377:black swan events
13059:
13058:
12901:
12900:
12813:Normative science
12670:Uniformitarianism
12425:Scientific method
12319:Explanatory power
12097:Scientific method
12088:Scientific method
12033:Scientific method
12028:Library resources
11980:Salmon, Wesley C.
11876:Maxwell, Nicholas
11866:Maxwell, Nicholas
11831:978-0-674-25894-5
11754:978-1-59403-207-3
11703:978-0-465-09137-9
11511:Voit, Eberhard O.
11494:978-1-4000-6351-2
11470:978-0-226-31783-0
11370:Critical edition.
11358:978-0-521-35077-8
11335:10.1063/1.3023315
11304:978-0-87663-712-8
11289:Sambursky, Shmuel
11257:978-0-415-12411-9
11158:978-4-87187-830-2
11084:978-0-691-04334-0
11058:978-0-520-08817-7
11002:978-0-7382-0866-4
10979:978-0-393-30450-3
10958:978-0-7503-0106-0
10943:2nd edition 2007.
10927:978-0-521-29038-8
10850:, New York, 1958.
10842:978-1-4304-8775-3
10751:978-0-226-30063-4
10729:978-0-8047-2285-8
10693:978-0-521-01708-4
10672:978-0-521-81689-2
10638:978-0-486-60099-4
10574:978-0-226-25325-1
10550:978-0-262-56003-0
10527:978-0-671-20156-2
10497:978-0-521-29925-1
10453:978-0-8122-1057-6
10387:978-0-19-858409-4
10369:978-0-8160-2137-6
10362:, Facts on File,
10352:Bruno, Leonard C.
10332:978-0-387-55914-8
10292:978-0-7546-6865-7
10252:978-1-4907-1446-2
10105:Regular Polytopes
9853:Taleb, Nassim N.
9683:978-1-4432-5544-8
9607:978-0-674-25893-8
9262:978-1-77420-005-6
9218:978-0-7817-5565-8
9011:978-0-252-06436-4
8916:Science Education
8780:978-94-007-0142-7
8710:978-0-88385-554-6
8624:978-0-517-88441-6
8178:978-0-19-517234-8
8151:978-0-7637-0066-9
8124:, pp. 44â45.
7948:978-0-14-312710-9
7838:(1164): 793â798.
7789:978-3-11-032514-0
7748:. 16 April 2020.
7613:, pp. 29â31.
7519:, pp. 19â74.
7475:978-3-030-54217-7
7443:978-0-521-05197-2
7161:10.1063/1.2180176
7118:Opticae Thesaurus
6942:De Motu Stellarum
6651:Mill, John Stuart
6517:Cynthia Wolberger
6395:Acta Crystallogr.
6355:at the same time.
6273:, pp. 37â38.
5874:978-0-226-30062-7
5794:di Francia (1981)
5723:978-1-315-10070-8
5611:978-0-12-015218-6
5556:978-0-674-91547-3
5436:978-0-8018-7943-2
5230:978-1-931561-56-3
5040:Treatise on Light
5004:Treatise on Light
5002:Alhacen (c.1035)
4828:978-0-520-08817-7
4657:Margaret Morrison
4619:(1949 and 1953),
4349:Opticae Thesaurus
3616:In PĂłlya's view,
3614:
3613:
3545:Scientific method
3283:Intersubjectivity
3223:molecular biology
3098:science education
2649:molecular biology
2517:research question
2167:Appeal to novelty
2125:confirmation bias
1958:intersubjectivity
1857:World Data Center
1789:Benjamin Franklin
1761:enter the process
1707:Rosalind Franklin
1657:(853â929 CE) and
1550:Rosalind Franklin
1424:confirmation bias
1111:Benjamin Franklin
1102:unsolved problems
1042:Characterizations
1002:Define a question
833:narrative fallacy
773:Dewey's 1910 book
722:Francisco Sanches
667:William of Ockham
540:scientific method
536:
535:
449:Scientific method
439:Science education
380:
379:
363:Strategic studies
155:Scientific fields
16:(Redirected from
13945:
13883:
13882:
13858:
13810:Right to science
13790:Horizon scanning
13765:Academic freedom
13665:Technical change
13526:Women in science
13521:Unity of science
13302:Strong programme
13086:
13079:
13072:
13063:
13062:
13050:
13049:
13038:
13037:
13036:
13011:Bas van Fraassen
12966:Hans Reichenbach
12946:Bertrand Russell
12863:
12862:
12689:Philosophy of...
12472:Unity of science
12265:Commensurability
12211:
12204:
12197:
12188:
12187:
12133:Theory-ladenness
12084:
12070:
12061:Zalta, Edward N.
11921:Misak, Cheryl J.
11917:
11915:
11904:
11835:
11772:Giere, Ronald N.
11757:
11716:
11706:
11665:Burks, Arthur W.
11651:Brody, Baruch A.
11632:Brody, Baruch A.
11584:
11580:The Double Helix
11575:Watson, James D.
11570:
11560:
11542:
11506:
11497:
11487:, Random House,
11474:
11455:
11430:
11400:
11369:
11337:
11307:
11283:
11261:
11239:
11237:
11231:, archived from
11220:
11204:
11185:
11170:
11142:
11120:
11118:
11117:
11087:
11064:I. Bernard Cohen
11061:
11038:
11015:
11005:
10982:
10961:
10942:
10930:
10907:
10868:
10845:
10824:
10803:
10778:
10754:
10732:
10721:
10707:
10706:
10705:
10676:
10642:
10618:
10616:House of Elzevir
10577:
10553:
10535:Feynman, Richard
10530:
10519:
10506:Einstein, Albert
10500:
10481:
10456:
10436:
10434:
10433:
10409:
10390:
10372:
10361:
10346:
10345:
10344:
10307:
10295:
10267:
10265:
10264:
10225:
10219:
10213:
10207:
10201:
10176:
10170:
10152:
10146:
10145:
10143:
10142:
10136:
10129:
10121:
10115:
10101:
10095:
10085:
10079:
10073:
10067:
10061:
10055:
10048:
10042:
10035:
10029:
10022:
10016:
10010:
10004:
9985:
9979:
9969:
9963:
9945:
9939:
9925:
9919:
9918:
9916:
9915:
9897:
9869:
9863:
9862:
9857:. Archived from
9850:
9844:
9843:
9825:
9816:
9809:
9798:
9797:
9783:
9751:
9745:
9703:
9697:
9694:
9688:
9687:
9667:
9661:
9655:
9649:
9648:, p. xxviii
9643:
9637:
9636:, pp. 38â50
9626:
9620:
9619:
9593:
9587:
9586:
9558:
9552:
9551:
9549:
9548:
9536:
9530:
9529:
9493:
9487:
9470:
9464:
9463:
9437:
9428:
9422:
9421:
9411:
9371:
9365:
9364:
9336:
9330:
9329:
9319:
9310:(5): 1037â1039.
9295:
9284:
9281:
9275:
9274:
9246:
9240:
9236:
9230:
9228:
9226:
9225:
9202:
9193:
9192:
9156:
9147:
9146:
9106:
9097:
9096:
9060:
9054:
9053:
9025:
9016:
9015:
8997:
8991:
8990:
8965:(9): 1049â1079.
8954:
8948:
8947:
8911:
8905:
8904:
8876:
8870:
8869:
8867:
8855:
8849:
8839:
8833:
8826:
8820:
8819:
8791:
8785:
8784:
8755:
8749:
8746:
8737:
8730:
8721:
8720:
8718:
8717:
8694:
8688:
8687:
8635:
8629:
8628:
8610:
8604:
8602:
8594:
8585:
8584:
8552:
8546:
8540:
8534:
8528:Dare to be silly
8518:
8482:
8476:
8470:
8464:
8463:
8447:
8441:
8440:
8422:The Grand Design
8415:
8409:
8408:
8396:
8390:
8389:
8377:
8366:
8353:
8351:
8350:
8332:
8323:
8322:
8282:
8271:
8270:
8250:
8241:
8237:
8231:
8230:
8200:
8194:
8193:
8191:
8190:
8162:
8156:
8155:
8131:
8125:
8119:
8110:
8103:
8097:
8089:
8080:
8074:
8068:
8057:
8051:
8045:
8043:
8042:
8025:
8019:
8013:
7992:
7985:
7979:
7978:
7976:
7975:
7952:
7934:
7928:
7927:
7917:
7899:
7875:
7864:
7863:
7827:
7821:
7812:
7806:
7800:
7794:
7793:
7767:
7761:
7760:
7758:
7757:
7734:
7728:
7722:
7711:
7710:
7708:
7707:
7692:
7686:
7685:, pp. 1â19.
7680:
7674:
7668:
7659:
7653:
7644:
7638:
7632:
7626:
7620:
7614:
7608:
7602:
7596:
7583:The Grand Design
7574:
7563:
7560:Collected Papers
7557:
7541:
7535:
7534:
7526:
7520:
7514:
7508:
7507:
7494:
7488:
7487:
7453:
7447:
7446:
7429:
7420:
7419:
7383:
7377:
7371:
7365:
7355:
7353:
7352:
7346:
7339:
7330:
7324:
7323:
7299:
7293:
7279:
7273:
7267:
7261:
7260:
7250:
7240:
7214:
7208:
7207:
7205:
7204:
7198:
7191:
7183:
7177:
7176:
7163:
7131:
7125:
7085:
7079:
7057:
7051:
7025:
7019:
7009:
7003:
6997:
6991:
6985:
6979:
6973:
6967:
6961:
6952:
6935:
6929:
6928:
6926:
6925:
6919:
6912:
6904:
6898:
6884:
6878:
6877:
6875:
6874:
6859:
6853:
6852:
6850:
6849:
6834:
6828:
6827:
6825:
6824:
6809:
6803:
6802:
6800:
6799:
6784:
6778:
6776:
6774:
6773:
6754:
6748:
6724:
6718:
6717:
6675:
6662:
6648:
6642:
6639:Chargaff's rules
6632:
6621:
6620:
6615:
6614:
6603:Collected Papers
6594:
6583:
6568:
6557:
6547:
6541:
6531:
6522:
6514:
6505:
6504:
6502:
6501:
6482:
6476:
6425:
6419:
6409:
6403:
6390:
6384:
6378:
6372:
6362:
6356:
6326:
6320:
6319:
6280:
6274:
6268:
6262:
6261:
6247:
6239:
6226:
6209:
6203:
6197:
6191:
6190:
6182:
6176:
6170:
6164:
6162:
6154:
6148:
6142:
6136:
6122:
6116:
6101:
6095:
6093:
6091:
6090:
6062:
6056:
6050:
6044:
6038:
6032:
6015:
6009:
6003:
5997:
5996:
5976:
5970:
5964:
5958:
5954:Collected Papers
5950:
5944:
5942:
5928:
5920:
5911:
5899:
5890:
5889:
5887:
5886:
5855:
5849:
5843:
5837:
5827:
5821:
5815:
5809:
5803:
5797:
5772:
5763:
5762:
5757:
5756:
5750:
5743:
5734:
5728:
5727:
5701:
5695:
5694:
5637:
5631:
5625:
5616:
5615:
5585:
5576:
5575:
5569:
5568:
5534:
5525:
5524:
5522:
5521:
5505:
5496:
5495:
5490:
5483:
5469:
5460:
5454:
5441:
5440:
5422:
5413:
5407:
5394:
5388:
5382:
5376:
5370:
5361:
5355:
5349:
5343:
5337:
5328:
5327:
5294:
5288:
5287:
5285:
5278:
5268:
5262:
5261:
5249:
5243:
5242:
5216:
5210:
5200:
5194:
5187:
5181:
5175:
5169:
5163:
5157:
5155:
5153:
5152:
5114:Sambursky (1975)
5085:
5074:
5071:Sambursky (1975)
5047:
5046:
5036:
5030:
5024:
5015:
5008:Shmuel Sambursky
5000:
4994:
4987:
4981:
4967:
4958:
4952:
4943:
4937:
4931:
4924:Collected Papers
4921:
4907:
4899:
4890:
4889:
4887:
4886:
4876:
4867:
4861:
4860:
4859:
4858:
4839:
4833:
4832:
4797:
4778:
4761:
4752:
4746:
4740:
4722:
4716:
4713:
4707:
4682:
4676:
4645:Nicholas Maxwell
4637:Michael Friedman
4601:
4592:
4583:
4577:
4571:
4565:
4559:
4553:
4542:
4533:
4522:
4516:
4512:Two New Sciences
4507:
4501:
4497:
4489:
4474:
4438:
4425:
4415:
4409:
4396:
4390:
4367:
4354:
4335:Kitab al-Manazir
4331:Charles M. Falco
4317:Sambursky (1975)
4300:
4294:
4275:
4260:
4247:Fleck 1979, p.27
4220:
4214:
4193:of mathematical
4179:
4173:
4170:Arthur Eddington
4167:
4158:
4154:
4148:
4136:
4130:
4116:
4110:
4103:
4097:
4086:
4080:
4066:
4057:
4051:
4045:
4042:John Stuart Mill
4034:
4028:
4025:
4019:
4016:Two New Sciences
4012:
4006:
3999:
3993:
3985:
3979:
3971:
3965:
3950:
3944:
3941:
3935:
3932:
3926:
3923:Jacques Herbrand
3915:
3909:
3905:
3899:
3887:
3881:
3869:
3858:
3851:
3845:
3837:
3828:
3804:
3747:
3738:
3534:
3533:
3511:Lakoff and Núùez
3317:Limits of method
3291:strong programme
3033:
3013:special sciences
2999:Unity of science
2975:research methods
2918:falsificationist
2838:
2766:
2605:almost perfectly
2495:Inductive method
2409:random variables
2188:Donald M. MacKay
2148:
2094:
2072:
2024:associated with
1915:
1836:supply this data
1811:gets a placebo.
1722:Published papers
1684:
1683:
1575:further testing.
1543:
1542:
1514:Arthur Eddington
1449:
1448:
1428:strong inference
1422:To minimize the
1403:
1304:
1303:
1232:units of measure
1216:natural language
1205:
1202:Andreas Vesalius
1109:.) For example,
1083:, starting with
1051:
1050:
1018:Analyze the data
882:
881:
863:Two New Sciences
583:field of inquiry
528:
521:
514:
500:
499:
498:
485:
484:
444:Research funding
313:Language studies
245:Applied sciences
181:Natural sciences
151:
150:
79:
59:
58:
47:
40:
21:
13953:
13952:
13948:
13947:
13946:
13944:
13943:
13942:
13913:
13912:
13911:
13906:
13846:
13805:Research ethics
13751:
13650:Reverse salient
13544:
13537:
13313:
13306:
13297:Sociotechnology
13241:
13153:
13118:
13095:
13090:
13060:
13055:
13044:
13034:
13032:
13020:
13001:Paul Feyerabend
12961:Michael Polanyi
12897:
12883:Galileo Galilei
12852:
12838:Science studies
12754:
12684:
12675:Verificationism
12580:Instrumentalism
12565:Foundationalism
12540:Conventionalism
12498:
12334:Feminist method
12220:
12215:
12176:Richard Dawkins
12172:Michael Shermer
12113:Wayback Machine
12073:
12053:Andersen, Hanne
12048:
12047:
12046:
12036:
12035:
12031:
12024:
12019:
11950:Popper, Karl R.
11913:
11902:
11889:Wayback Machine
11839:Kuhn, Thomas S.
11832:
11755:
11741:Franklin, James
11704:
11645:Wayback Machine
11598:Bauer, Henry H.
11593:
11591:Further reading
11588:
11525:(9): e1007279.
11495:
11471:
11419:10.2307/3657357
11389:10.2307/3657358
11359:
11305:
11258:
11235:
11229:
11218:
11210:Popper, Karl R.
11202:
11176:Popper, Karl R.
11159:
11131:How to Solve It
11115:
11113:
11100:PoincarĂŠ, Henri
11085:
11059:
11025:Wang, Ling (çç˛)
11021:Needham, Joseph
11003:
10995:, Basic Books,
10980:
10966:McCarty, Maclyn
10959:
10928:
10873:Kuhn, Thomas S.
10866:
10843:
10822:
10762:Rev. Mod. Phys.
10752:
10730:
10703:
10701:
10694:
10673:
10639:
10625:Galileo Galilei
10598:Galileo Galilei
10591:Wayback Machine
10575:
10551:
10528:
10510:Infeld, Leopold
10498:
10454:
10431:
10429:
10407:
10388:
10370:
10342:
10340:
10333:
10317:Luis de la PeĂąa
10293:
10262:
10260:
10253:
10234:
10229:
10228:
10220:
10216:
10208:
10204:
10198:Wayback Machine
10177:
10173:
10153:
10149:
10140:
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10134:
10127:
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10118:
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10098:
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10082:
10074:
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10058:
10049:
10045:
10036:
10032:
10023:
10019:
10011:
10007:
9986:
9982:
9970:
9966:
9960:Wayback Machine
9946:
9942:
9936:Wayback Machine
9926:
9922:
9913:
9911:
9870:
9866:
9851:
9847:
9840:
9826:
9819:
9810:
9801:
9752:
9748:
9717:, Picador. 1999
9704:
9700:
9695:
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9684:
9668:
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9640:
9627:
9623:
9608:
9594:
9590:
9559:
9555:
9546:
9544:
9537:
9533:
9510:10.2307/2504396
9494:
9490:
9474:Peter L. Berger
9471:
9467:
9435:
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9372:
9368:
9337:
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9282:
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9173:10.2307/4450823
9157:
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9077:10.2307/4451400
9061:
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8607:
8595:
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8553:
8549:
8541:
8537:
8483:
8479:
8471:
8467:
8456:PhilSci Archive
8448:
8444:
8433:
8416:
8412:
8397:
8393:
8378:
8369:
8363:Wayback Machine
8348:
8346:
8333:
8326:
8311:
8301:10.1007/b138529
8293:Springer-Verlag
8283:
8274:
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8201:
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7828:
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7809:
7801:
7797:
7790:
7768:
7764:
7755:
7753:
7742:Science Release
7736:
7735:
7731:
7725:Gauch Jr (2002)
7723:
7714:
7705:
7703:
7693:
7689:
7681:
7677:
7669:
7662:
7656:Business Ethics
7651:
7645:
7641:
7633:
7629:
7621:
7617:
7611:Gauch Jr (2002)
7609:
7605:
7593:
7575:
7566:
7542:
7538:
7527:
7523:
7515:
7511:
7495:
7491:
7476:
7454:
7450:
7444:
7430:
7423:
7388:Physical Review
7384:
7380:
7374:Gauch Jr (2002)
7372:
7368:
7350:
7348:
7344:
7337:
7331:
7327:
7320:
7300:
7296:
7290:Wayback Machine
7280:
7276:
7268:
7264:
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7211:
7202:
7200:
7196:
7189:
7185:
7184:
7180:
7132:
7128:
7100:Wayback Machine
7086:
7082:
7060:McElheny (2004)
7058:
7054:
7026:
7022:
7012:McElheny (2004)
7010:
7006:
7000:McElheny (2004)
6998:
6994:
6988:McElheny (2004)
6986:
6982:
6974:
6970:
6962:
6955:
6936:
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6923:
6921:
6917:
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6895:Wayback Machine
6885:
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6806:
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6756:
6755:
6751:
6746:Wayback Machine
6735:Wayback Machine
6725:
6721:
6690:
6676:
6665:
6649:
6645:
6635:McElheny (2004)
6633:
6624:
6612:
6610:
6595:
6586:
6579:Wayback Machine
6569:
6560:
6548:
6544:
6534:McElheny (2004)
6532:
6525:
6515:
6508:
6499:
6497:
6484:
6483:
6479:
6426:
6422:
6418:April 25, 1953.
6412:McElheny (2004)
6410:
6406:
6391:
6387:
6381:McElheny (2004)
6379:
6375:
6363:
6359:
6341:supernova 1987a
6331:, for teaching
6327:
6323:
6281:
6277:
6269:
6265:
6240:
6229:
6223:Wayback Machine
6214:Prior Analytics
6210:
6206:
6198:
6194:
6183:
6179:
6173:McElheny (2004)
6171:
6167:
6160:
6159:, p. 157.
6155:
6151:
6145:McElheny (2004)
6143:
6139:
6123:
6119:
6102:
6098:
6088:
6086:
6079:
6063:
6059:
6053:McElheny (2004)
6051:
6047:
6039:
6035:
6029:Wayback Machine
6016:
6012:
6004:
6000:
5977:
5973:
5965:
5961:
5951:
5947:
5921:
5914:
5907:epistemic cycle
5900:
5893:
5884:
5882:
5875:
5856:
5852:
5844:
5840:
5830:Lindberg (2007)
5828:
5824:
5816:
5812:
5804:
5800:
5773:
5766:
5754:
5752:
5748:
5741:
5735:
5731:
5724:
5702:
5698:
5675:
5638:
5634:
5626:
5619:
5612:
5586:
5579:
5566:
5564:
5557:
5535:
5528:
5519:
5517:
5506:
5499:
5491:on 2017-10-13.
5488:
5481:
5471:
5470:
5463:
5455:
5444:
5437:
5423:
5416:
5408:
5397:
5389:
5385:
5380:The Empiricists
5377:
5373:
5362:
5358:
5350:
5346:
5338:
5331:
5295:
5291:
5283:
5276:
5270:
5269:
5265:
5250:
5246:
5231:
5217:
5213:
5201:
5197:
5188:
5184:
5176:
5172:
5166:Alikuzai (2013)
5164:
5160:
5150:
5148:
5141:
5127:
5098:965 â c. 1040)
5086:
5077:
5057:Wayback Machine
5037:
5033:
5025:
5018:
5001:
4997:
4988:
4984:
4976:(1837), and in
4970:William Whewell
4968:
4961:
4953:
4946:
4938:
4934:
4910:Hibbert Journal
4900:
4893:
4884:
4882:
4869:
4868:
4864:
4856:
4854:
4841:
4840:
4836:
4829:
4798:
4791:
4786:
4781:
4762:
4755:
4747:
4743:
4723:
4719:
4714:
4710:
4683:
4679:
4661:Richard Feynman
4602:
4595:
4584:
4580:
4572:
4568:
4560:
4556:
4543:
4536:
4530:Trial and Error
4523:
4519:
4508:
4504:
4490:
4486:
4482:
4477:
4439:
4432:
4428:
4416:
4412:
4397:
4393:
4387:can I ask them?
4368:
4357:
4301:
4297:
4276:
4272:
4268:
4263:
4259:
4228:denkkollektiven
4221:
4217:
4180:
4176:
4168:
4161:
4155:
4151:
4137:
4133:
4129:
4117:
4113:
4107:Gauch Jr (2002)
4104:
4100:
4087:
4083:
4067:
4060:
4052:
4048:
4035:
4031:
4026:
4022:
4013:
4009:
4000:
3996:
3986:
3982:
3972:
3968:
3951:
3947:
3942:
3938:
3933:
3929:
3916:
3912:
3906:
3902:
3888:
3884:
3870:
3861:
3852:
3848:
3838:
3831:
3817:Euclid's Optics
3805:
3798:
3794:
3745:
3736:
3729:
3680:rewriting forms
3521:problem solving
3507:Gregory Chaitin
3451:
3408:
3379:
3330:
3324:
3319:
3267:Paul Feyerabend
3245:
3235:
3178:
3169:
3163:
3094:
3084:
3072:problem solvers
3049:Paul Feyerabend
3046:
3040:
3034:
3030:Steven Weinberg
3028:
3001:
2995:
2955:
2949:
2925:unificationists
2889:
2879:
2869:as them being "
2839:
2833:
2806:
2786:
2767:
2761:
2739:
2662:
2657:
2589:
2566:in the form of
2560:
2537:
2497:
2441:
2436:
2363:sampling method
2359:data collection
2347:
2206:
2198:Main articles:
2196:
2149:
2139:
2109:
2108:
2107:
2106:
2105:
2095:
2086:
2085:
2084:
2073:
2062:
2053:
2022:Cartesian doubt
1978:
1962:Johannes Kepler
1922:
1916:
1910:
1892:reproducibility
1880:
1870:
1865:
1818:The process of
1776:
1774:Reproducibility
1770:
1757:can be archived
1681:
1677:
1667:
1661:(965â1039 CE).
1588:Factor analysis
1558:Raymond Gosling
1554:Maurice Wilkins
1540:
1536:
1530:
1504:, such as that
1463:DNA replication
1451:James D. Watson
1446:
1442:
1436:
1404:
1398:
1381:Michael Polanyi
1362:Prior Analytics
1318:James D. Watson
1301:
1297:
1291:
1239:Albert Einstein
1212:
1206:
1200:
1162:pseudo-sciences
1115:St. Elmo's fire
1048:
1044:
1036:Paul Feyerabend
1024:Publish results
953:social sciences
937:
929:William Whewell
897:ongoing process
889:
883:and indented).
879:
875:
855:(1027) and his
791:Paul Feyerabend
769:
730:George Berkeley
718:Galileo Galilei
714:Johannes Kepler
623:
616:
610:
532:
496:
494:
479:
474:
473:
429:
428:
419:
418:
414:Research ethics
409:Logical fallacy
399:Reproducibility
394:
393:
382:
381:
218:Anthropological
164:Formal sciences
148:
147:
127:
103:Article indexes
84:
83:
82:
81:
80:
55:
48:
41:
30:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
13951:
13941:
13940:
13935:
13930:
13925:
13908:
13907:
13905:
13904:
13903:
13902:
13897:
13892:
13877:
13876:
13875:
13870:
13865:
13851:
13848:
13847:
13845:
13844:
13839:
13834:
13829:
13828:
13827:
13822:
13815:Science policy
13812:
13807:
13802:
13797:
13792:
13787:
13782:
13777:
13772:
13770:Digital divide
13767:
13761:
13759:
13753:
13752:
13750:
13749:
13744:
13743:
13742:
13737:
13732:
13727:
13722:
13714:
13713:
13712:
13707:
13702:
13697:
13692:
13686:Technological
13684:
13683:
13682:
13672:
13667:
13662:
13657:
13652:
13647:
13642:
13637:
13632:
13631:
13630:
13625:
13620:
13615:
13610:
13600:
13595:
13590:
13585:
13580:
13575:
13570:
13565:
13563:Design studies
13560:
13555:
13549:
13547:
13539:
13538:
13536:
13535:
13534:
13533:
13523:
13518:
13517:
13516:
13506:
13501:
13499:Scientometrics
13496:
13491:
13490:
13489:
13484:
13479:
13474:
13469:
13464:
13459:
13454:
13449:
13444:
13436:
13435:
13434:
13429:
13424:
13419:
13414:
13409:
13404:
13399:
13391:
13386:
13381:
13380:
13379:
13372:Paradigm shift
13369:
13364:
13359:
13354:
13349:
13344:
13339:
13334:
13329:
13324:
13318:
13316:
13308:
13307:
13305:
13304:
13299:
13294:
13289:
13284:
13283:
13282:
13272:
13271:
13270:
13265:
13257:
13251:
13249:
13243:
13242:
13240:
13239:
13234:
13229:
13224:
13219:
13214:
13212:Postpositivism
13209:
13204:
13199:
13194:
13189:
13184:
13179:
13174:
13172:Antipositivism
13169:
13163:
13161:
13155:
13154:
13152:
13151:
13146:
13145:
13144:
13142:and technology
13134:
13128:
13126:
13120:
13119:
13117:
13116:
13111:
13105:
13103:
13097:
13096:
13089:
13088:
13081:
13074:
13066:
13057:
13056:
13054:
13042:
13030:
13025:
13022:
13021:
13019:
13018:
13013:
13008:
13003:
12998:
12993:
12988:
12986:W. V. O. Quine
12983:
12978:
12973:
12968:
12963:
12958:
12953:
12948:
12943:
12938:
12933:
12928:
12923:
12921:Rudolf Steiner
12918:
12913:
12911:Henri PoincarĂŠ
12908:
12902:
12899:
12898:
12896:
12895:
12890:
12885:
12880:
12875:
12869:
12867:
12860:
12854:
12853:
12851:
12850:
12845:
12840:
12835:
12830:
12825:
12820:
12815:
12810:
12809:
12808:
12798:
12793:
12788:
12783:
12781:Exact sciences
12778:
12773:
12768:
12762:
12760:
12759:Related topics
12756:
12755:
12753:
12752:
12751:
12750:
12745:
12740:
12735:
12730:
12725:
12718:Social science
12715:
12714:
12713:
12711:Space and time
12703:
12698:
12692:
12690:
12686:
12685:
12683:
12682:
12677:
12672:
12667:
12662:
12657:
12652:
12643:
12638:
12633:
12624:
12615:
12610:
12597:
12592:
12587:
12582:
12577:
12572:
12567:
12562:
12557:
12552:
12547:
12542:
12537:
12532:
12527:
12522:
12517:
12512:
12506:
12504:
12500:
12499:
12497:
12496:
12491:
12490:
12489:
12484:
12474:
12469:
12464:
12463:
12462:
12457:
12452:
12442:
12437:
12432:
12427:
12422:
12420:Scientific law
12417:
12416:
12415:
12405:
12400:
12395:
12390:
12385:
12380:
12375:
12370:
12365:
12358:
12357:
12356:
12351:
12341:
12336:
12331:
12329:Falsifiability
12326:
12321:
12316:
12315:
12314:
12304:
12299:
12294:
12289:
12288:
12287:
12277:
12272:
12267:
12262:
12261:
12260:
12258:Mill's Methods
12250:
12239:
12234:
12228:
12226:
12222:
12221:
12214:
12213:
12206:
12199:
12191:
12185:
12184:
12179:
12161:
12155:
12147:
12142:
12136:
12130:
12125:
12116:
12103:
12094:
12085:
12071:
12045:
12044:
12038:
12037:
12026:
12025:
12023:
12022:External links
12020:
12018:
12017:
12007:
11997:
11990:Shimony, Abner
11987:
11977:
11970:Rorty, Richard
11967:
11960:Putnam, Hilary
11957:
11947:
11940:
11931:Oreskes, Naomi
11928:
11918:
11916:on 2014-07-01.
11898:, ed. (1998).
11892:
11873:
11863:
11856:
11846:
11836:
11830:
11811:
11802:Holton, Gerald
11799:
11789:
11779:
11769:
11759:
11753:
11737:
11727:
11717:
11708:
11702:
11688:Crick, Francis
11684:
11675:Chalmers, Alan
11672:
11662:
11648:
11629:
11619:
11605:
11594:
11592:
11589:
11587:
11586:
11571:
11507:
11498:
11493:
11484:The Black Swan
11475:
11469:
11456:
11431:
11413:(5): 339â819.
11401:
11371:
11357:
11341:
11340:
11339:
11303:
11297:, Pica Press,
11291:, ed. (1975),
11285:
11262:
11256:
11241:
11227:
11206:
11200:
11187:
11172:
11157:
11122:
11096:
11089:
11083:
11067:
11057:
11039:
11017:
11007:
11001:
10988:
10978:
10962:
10957:
10944:
10931:
10926:
10908:
10889:10.1086/349468
10883:(2): 161â193,
10869:
10864:
10851:
10841:
10825:
10820:
10808:Hockney, David
10804:
10769:(1): 939â979,
10756:
10750:
10734:
10728:
10714:, ed. (1994),
10708:
10692:
10677:
10671:
10650:
10649:
10648:
10637:
10594:
10573:
10555:
10549:
10531:
10526:
10502:
10496:
10483:
10457:
10452:
10439:
10438:
10437:
10406:978-0674976191
10405:
10392:
10386:
10373:
10368:
10348:
10331:
10312:
10296:
10291:
10268:
10251:
10235:
10233:
10230:
10227:
10226:
10224:, p. 100.
10214:
10210:Lakatos (1976)
10202:
10171:
10167:Lakatos (1976)
10156:analysis situs
10147:
10116:
10096:
10088:Lakatos (1976)
10080:
10078:, p. 144.
10068:
10066:, p. 142.
10056:
10043:
10030:
10017:
10005:
10003:
10002:
9995:Asian J. Math.
9980:
9964:
9940:
9920:
9882:Anesthesiology
9864:
9861:on 2013-05-07.
9845:
9838:
9817:
9799:
9766:(7): 366â367.
9746:
9744:
9743:
9737:
9731:
9718:
9712:
9698:
9689:
9682:
9662:
9650:
9638:
9632:, p. 27,
9621:
9606:
9588:
9569:(1): 173â187.
9553:
9531:
9488:
9478:Thomas Luckman
9465:
9423:
9386:(2): 345â364.
9366:
9331:
9285:
9276:
9261:
9241:
9231:
9217:
9194:
9148:
9098:
9071:(9): 645â646.
9055:
9017:
9010:
8992:
8949:
8922:(4): 459â487.
8906:
8871:
8850:
8834:
8821:
8786:
8779:
8759:Neurathâ , Otto
8750:
8738:
8722:
8709:
8689:
8663:
8639:Keuth, Herbert
8630:
8623:
8605:
8586:
8567:(4): 435â455.
8547:
8535:
8533:
8532:
8529:
8526:
8523:
8477:
8475:, p. 269.
8465:
8442:
8432:978-0553907070
8431:
8410:
8391:
8367:
8324:
8309:
8272:
8265:
8242:
8232:
8225:
8195:
8177:
8157:
8150:
8126:
8111:
8098:
8081:
8079:, p. 159.
8069:
8052:
8020:
7993:
7980:
7959:Bayes' theorem
7955:gynaecologists
7947:
7929:
7865:
7822:
7807:
7795:
7788:
7762:
7729:
7712:
7687:
7683:Lakatos (1976)
7675:
7673:, p. 942.
7660:
7639:
7637:, p. 940.
7627:
7615:
7603:
7592:978-0553907070
7591:
7564:
7536:
7521:
7509:
7489:
7474:
7448:
7442:
7421:
7394:(6): 491â494.
7378:
7366:
7360:and is linked
7325:
7318:
7294:
7274:
7262:
7209:
7178:
7126:
7080:
7052:
7040:hydrogen bonds
7020:
7014:, p. 56:
7004:
6992:
6980:
6968:
6953:
6930:
6899:
6879:
6854:
6829:
6804:
6779:
6749:
6719:
6688:
6663:
6643:
6622:
6584:
6558:
6542:
6523:
6506:
6477:
6420:
6414:, p. 68:
6404:
6385:
6373:
6357:
6321:
6294:(3642): 347â.
6284:Platt, John R.
6275:
6263:
6227:
6225:via Wikisource
6204:
6192:
6177:
6165:
6149:
6137:
6117:
6096:
6077:
6057:
6045:
6043:, p. 252.
6041:McCarty (1985)
6033:
6018:RenĂŠ Descartes
6010:
5998:
5987:(3): 223â228.
5971:
5959:
5945:
5912:
5891:
5873:
5850:
5838:
5822:
5810:
5798:
5786:Stillman Drake
5764:
5729:
5722:
5696:
5673:
5632:
5617:
5610:
5577:
5555:
5526:
5497:
5461:
5442:
5435:
5414:
5395:
5393:, p. 236.
5383:
5371:
5363:Lisa Downing,
5356:
5352:Sanches (1988)
5344:
5329:
5310:(2): 180â194.
5289:
5286:on 2018-05-27.
5273:various papers
5263:
5244:
5229:
5211:
5195:
5182:
5170:
5168:, p. 154.
5158:
5139:
5096:Ibn Al-Haytham
5088:Hockney (2006)
5075:
5073:, p. 136.
5045:عساŮŘŠ Ů٠اŮŘśŮŘĄ
5031:
5029:Book 7, p.270
5016:
4995:
4982:
4959:
4944:
4942:, p. 273.
4932:
4891:
4862:
4834:
4827:
4788:
4787:
4785:
4782:
4780:
4779:
4753:
4741:
4726:Neurath's boat
4717:
4708:
4706:
4705:
4699:
4696:
4693:
4677:
4641:John D. Norton
4633:Lawrence Sklar
4613:Ernst Cassirer
4609:Henri PoincarĂŠ
4593:
4578:
4566:
4554:
4552:, p. viii
4534:
4517:
4502:
4483:
4481:
4478:
4476:
4475:
4467:Book of Optics
4454:Book of Optics
4429:
4427:
4426:
4410:
4391:
4355:
4353:
4352:
4340:Book of Optics
4327:camera obscura
4320:
4309:Book of Optics
4295:
4269:
4267:
4264:
4262:
4261:
4215:
4174:
4159:
4149:
4131:
4120:John Ioannidis
4111:
4098:
4081:
4058:
4046:
4029:
4020:
4007:
3994:
3989:Book of Optics
3980:
3966:
3945:
3936:
3927:
3910:
3900:
3882:
3874:Voelkel (2001)
3859:
3855:Voelkel (2001)
3846:
3841:Book of Optics
3829:
3825:camera obscura
3808:Book of Optics
3795:
3793:
3790:
3789:
3788:
3782:
3779:Scientific law
3776:
3771:
3765:
3760:
3754:
3748:
3739:
3728:
3725:
3663:counterexample
3636:is the strict
3612:
3611:
3606:
3597:
3593:
3592:
3587:
3582:
3578:
3577:
3572:
3567:
3563:
3562:
3557:
3552:
3548:
3547:
3542:
3537:
3450:
3447:
3420:control theory
3416:systems theory
3407:
3404:
3388:John Ioannidis
3378:
3375:
3326:Main article:
3323:
3320:
3318:
3315:
3239:Postpositivism
3234:
3231:
3203:field research
3190:normal science
3177:
3174:
3165:Main article:
3162:
3159:
3132:
3131:
3128:
3125:
3122:
3119:
3116:
3083:
3080:
3054:Against Method
3042:Main article:
3039:
3036:
3026:
2997:Main article:
2994:
2993:Unificationism
2991:
2951:Main article:
2948:
2945:
2878:
2875:
2871:not even wrong
2867:Wolfgang Pauli
2855:falsifiability
2831:
2811:Mill's Methods
2805:
2802:
2785:
2782:
2762:Isaac Newton,
2759:
2738:
2735:
2709:
2708:
2705:
2702:
2695:
2694:
2691:
2688:
2685:
2682:
2671:cognitive bias
2661:
2658:
2656:
2653:
2588:
2585:
2559:
2556:
2536:
2533:
2496:
2493:
2440:
2437:
2435:
2432:
2420:field research
2397:Bayes' theorem
2346:
2343:
2331:Standard Model
2303:counterexample
2296:laws of motion
2237:Sagittarius A*
2195:
2192:
2137:
2096:
2089:
2088:
2087:
2074:
2067:
2066:
2065:
2064:
2063:
2061:
2058:
2052:
2049:
2026:RenĂŠ Descartes
1977:
1974:
1921:
1918:
1908:
1869:
1866:
1864:
1861:
1813:John Ioannidis
1785:ball lightning
1783:was killed by
1772:Main article:
1769:
1766:
1666:
1663:
1633:(ISS), or the
1629:(NIF), or the
1532:Main article:
1529:
1526:
1435:
1432:
1399:William Glen,
1396:
1389:observes that
1293:Main article:
1290:
1287:
1211:
1208:
1198:
1068:laboratory at
1043:
1040:
1029:
1028:
1025:
1022:
1019:
1016:
1009:
1006:
1003:
970:
969:
966:
963:
960:
936:
933:
888:
885:
874:
871:
858:Book of Optics
845:Against Method
797:Against Method
768:
765:
694:RenĂŠ Descartes
612:Main article:
609:
606:
534:
533:
531:
530:
523:
516:
508:
505:
504:
476:
475:
472:
471:
466:
461:
456:
454:Science policy
451:
446:
441:
436:
430:
426:
425:
424:
421:
420:
417:
416:
411:
406:
404:Cognitive bias
401:
395:
389:
388:
387:
384:
383:
378:
377:
376:
375:
370:
365:
360:
355:
350:
345:
340:
335:
330:
325:
320:
315:
310:
305:
300:
295:
290:
285:
280:
275:
267:
266:
262:
261:
260:
259:
258:
257:
252:
242:
241:
240:
235:
230:
228:Criminological
225:
220:
215:
210:
205:
195:
194:
193:
188:
178:
177:
176:
171:
158:
157:
149:
134:
133:
132:
129:
128:
126:
125:
120:
115:
110:
105:
100:
95:
89:
86:
85:
74:
73:
72:
71:
70:
67:
66:
26:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
13950:
13939:
13936:
13934:
13931:
13929:
13926:
13924:
13921:
13920:
13918:
13901:
13898:
13896:
13893:
13891:
13888:
13887:
13886:
13878:
13874:
13871:
13869:
13866:
13864:
13861:
13860:
13857:
13853:
13852:
13849:
13843:
13840:
13838:
13835:
13833:
13830:
13826:
13823:
13821:
13818:
13817:
13816:
13813:
13811:
13808:
13806:
13803:
13801:
13798:
13796:
13793:
13791:
13788:
13786:
13783:
13781:
13778:
13776:
13773:
13771:
13768:
13766:
13763:
13762:
13760:
13758:
13754:
13748:
13745:
13741:
13738:
13736:
13733:
13731:
13728:
13726:
13723:
13721:
13718:
13717:
13715:
13711:
13708:
13706:
13703:
13701:
13698:
13696:
13693:
13691:
13688:
13687:
13685:
13681:
13678:
13677:
13676:
13675:Technoscience
13673:
13671:
13668:
13666:
13663:
13661:
13658:
13656:
13653:
13651:
13648:
13646:
13645:Media studies
13643:
13641:
13638:
13636:
13633:
13629:
13626:
13624:
13621:
13619:
13616:
13614:
13611:
13609:
13606:
13605:
13604:
13601:
13599:
13596:
13594:
13591:
13589:
13586:
13584:
13583:Early adopter
13581:
13579:
13576:
13574:
13571:
13569:
13566:
13564:
13561:
13559:
13556:
13554:
13553:Co-production
13551:
13550:
13548:
13546:
13540:
13532:
13529:
13528:
13527:
13524:
13522:
13519:
13515:
13512:
13511:
13510:
13507:
13505:
13502:
13500:
13497:
13495:
13492:
13488:
13485:
13483:
13480:
13478:
13475:
13473:
13470:
13468:
13465:
13463:
13460:
13458:
13455:
13453:
13450:
13448:
13445:
13443:
13440:
13439:
13437:
13433:
13430:
13428:
13425:
13423:
13420:
13418:
13415:
13413:
13410:
13408:
13405:
13403:
13402:communication
13400:
13398:
13395:
13394:
13392:
13390:
13387:
13385:
13384:Pseudoscience
13382:
13378:
13375:
13374:
13373:
13370:
13368:
13365:
13363:
13360:
13358:
13355:
13353:
13350:
13348:
13345:
13343:
13340:
13338:
13335:
13333:
13332:Boundary-work
13330:
13328:
13327:Bibliometrics
13325:
13323:
13320:
13319:
13317:
13315:
13309:
13303:
13300:
13298:
13295:
13293:
13290:
13288:
13285:
13281:
13278:
13277:
13276:
13273:
13269:
13266:
13264:
13261:
13260:
13258:
13256:
13253:
13252:
13250:
13248:
13244:
13238:
13237:Transhumanism
13235:
13233:
13230:
13228:
13225:
13223:
13220:
13218:
13215:
13213:
13210:
13208:
13205:
13203:
13200:
13198:
13195:
13193:
13190:
13188:
13185:
13183:
13180:
13178:
13175:
13173:
13170:
13168:
13165:
13164:
13162:
13160:
13156:
13150:
13147:
13143:
13140:
13139:
13138:
13135:
13133:
13130:
13129:
13127:
13125:
13121:
13115:
13112:
13110:
13107:
13106:
13104:
13102:
13098:
13094:
13087:
13082:
13080:
13075:
13073:
13068:
13067:
13064:
13053:
13048:
13043:
13041:
13031:
13029:
13026:
13023:
13017:
13014:
13012:
13009:
13007:
13004:
13002:
12999:
12997:
12994:
12992:
12989:
12987:
12984:
12982:
12979:
12977:
12974:
12972:
12971:Rudolf Carnap
12969:
12967:
12964:
12962:
12959:
12957:
12954:
12952:
12949:
12947:
12944:
12942:
12939:
12937:
12934:
12932:
12929:
12927:
12924:
12922:
12919:
12917:
12914:
12912:
12909:
12907:
12906:Auguste Comte
12904:
12903:
12894:
12891:
12889:
12886:
12884:
12881:
12879:
12878:Francis Bacon
12876:
12874:
12871:
12870:
12868:
12864:
12861:
12859:
12855:
12849:
12846:
12844:
12841:
12839:
12836:
12834:
12831:
12829:
12826:
12824:
12821:
12819:
12816:
12814:
12811:
12807:
12806:Pseudoscience
12804:
12803:
12802:
12799:
12797:
12794:
12792:
12789:
12787:
12784:
12782:
12779:
12777:
12774:
12772:
12769:
12767:
12764:
12763:
12761:
12757:
12749:
12746:
12744:
12741:
12739:
12736:
12734:
12731:
12729:
12726:
12724:
12721:
12720:
12719:
12716:
12712:
12709:
12708:
12707:
12704:
12702:
12699:
12697:
12694:
12693:
12691:
12687:
12681:
12678:
12676:
12673:
12671:
12668:
12666:
12665:Structuralism
12663:
12661:
12658:
12656:
12653:
12651:
12647:
12644:
12642:
12639:
12637:
12634:
12632:
12628:
12627:Received view
12625:
12623:
12619:
12616:
12614:
12611:
12609:
12605:
12601:
12598:
12596:
12593:
12591:
12588:
12586:
12583:
12581:
12578:
12576:
12573:
12571:
12568:
12566:
12563:
12561:
12558:
12556:
12553:
12551:
12548:
12546:
12543:
12541:
12538:
12536:
12535:Contextualism
12533:
12531:
12528:
12526:
12523:
12521:
12518:
12516:
12513:
12511:
12508:
12507:
12505:
12501:
12495:
12492:
12488:
12485:
12483:
12480:
12479:
12478:
12475:
12473:
12470:
12468:
12465:
12461:
12458:
12456:
12453:
12451:
12448:
12447:
12446:
12443:
12441:
12438:
12436:
12433:
12431:
12428:
12426:
12423:
12421:
12418:
12414:
12411:
12410:
12409:
12406:
12404:
12401:
12399:
12396:
12394:
12391:
12389:
12386:
12384:
12381:
12379:
12376:
12374:
12371:
12369:
12366:
12364:
12363:
12359:
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12350:
12347:
12346:
12345:
12342:
12340:
12337:
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12332:
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12325:
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12230:
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12219:
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12140:
12137:
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12098:
12095:
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12081:
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12072:
12068:
12067:
12062:
12058:
12054:
12050:
12049:
12043:
12040:
12039:
12034:
12029:
12015:
12011:
12008:
12005:
12001:
12000:Thagard, Paul
11998:
11995:
11991:
11988:
11985:
11981:
11978:
11975:
11971:
11968:
11965:
11961:
11958:
11955:
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11941:
11938:
11937:
11932:
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11926:
11922:
11919:
11912:
11908:
11901:
11897:
11893:
11890:
11886:
11883:
11882:
11877:
11874:
11871:
11867:
11864:
11861:
11858:Losee, John,
11857:
11854:
11850:
11849:Latour, Bruno
11847:
11844:
11840:
11837:
11833:
11827:
11823:
11822:
11815:
11812:
11809:
11808:
11803:
11800:
11797:
11793:
11790:
11787:
11783:
11780:
11777:
11773:
11770:
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11763:
11760:
11756:
11750:
11746:
11742:
11738:
11735:
11731:
11728:
11725:
11721:
11718:
11714:
11709:
11705:
11699:
11695:
11694:
11689:
11685:
11682:
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11676:
11673:
11670:
11666:
11663:
11660:
11656:
11652:
11649:
11646:
11642:
11639:
11638:
11633:
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11627:
11623:
11620:
11617:
11613:
11609:
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11599:
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11595:
11582:
11581:
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11572:
11568:
11564:
11559:
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11550:
11546:
11541:
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11532:
11528:
11524:
11520:
11516:
11512:
11508:
11504:
11499:
11496:
11490:
11486:
11485:
11480:
11476:
11472:
11466:
11462:
11457:
11453:
11449:
11445:
11441:
11437:
11436:De Aspectibus
11432:
11428:
11424:
11420:
11416:
11412:
11408:
11402:
11398:
11394:
11390:
11386:
11382:
11378:
11372:
11368:
11364:
11360:
11354:
11350:
11346:
11342:
11336:
11332:
11328:
11324:
11320:
11316:
11315:Physics Today
11310:
11309:
11306:
11300:
11296:
11295:
11290:
11286:
11282:
11278:
11274:
11271:
11267:
11263:
11259:
11253:
11249:
11248:
11242:
11238:on 2013-07-22
11234:
11230:
11228:0-203-99462-0
11224:
11217:
11216:
11211:
11207:
11203:
11201:0-415-28594-1
11197:
11194:, Routledge,
11193:
11188:
11183:
11182:
11177:
11173:
11168:
11164:
11160:
11154:
11150:
11147:
11141:
11137:
11133:
11132:
11127:
11126:PĂłlya, George
11123:
11111:
11107:
11106:
11101:
11097:
11094:
11090:
11086:
11080:
11077:, Princeton,
11076:
11072:
11068:
11065:
11060:
11054:
11050:
11049:
11044:
11043:Newton, Isaac
11040:
11036:
11035:
11031:
11026:
11022:
11018:
11013:
11008:
11004:
10998:
10994:
10989:
10986:
10981:
10975:
10971:
10967:
10963:
10960:
10954:
10950:
10945:
10940:
10936:
10932:
10929:
10923:
10919:
10918:
10913:
10912:Lakatos, Imre
10909:
10906:
10902:
10898:
10894:
10890:
10886:
10882:
10878:
10874:
10870:
10867:
10865:0-671-22540-5
10861:
10857:
10852:
10849:
10844:
10838:
10834:
10830:
10826:
10823:
10821:0-14-200512-6
10817:
10813:
10809:
10805:
10802:
10798:
10794:
10790:
10786:
10782:
10777:
10772:
10768:
10764:
10763:
10757:
10753:
10747:
10743:
10739:
10735:
10731:
10725:
10720:
10719:
10713:
10712:Glen, William
10709:
10699:
10695:
10689:
10685:
10684:
10678:
10674:
10668:
10664:
10660:
10656:
10651:
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10640:
10634:
10630:
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10620:
10617:
10613:
10609:
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10604:
10599:
10595:
10592:
10588:
10585:
10581:
10576:
10570:
10566:
10565:
10560:
10559:Fleck, Ludwik
10556:
10552:
10546:
10542:
10541:
10536:
10532:
10529:
10523:
10518:
10517:
10511:
10507:
10503:
10499:
10493:
10489:
10484:
10480:
10476:
10472:
10468:
10467:
10462:
10458:
10455:
10449:
10445:
10440:
10427:
10423:
10422:
10417:
10412:Reviewed in:
10411:
10410:
10408:
10402:
10398:
10393:
10389:
10383:
10379:
10374:
10371:
10365:
10360:
10359:
10353:
10349:
10338:
10334:
10328:
10324:
10323:
10318:
10313:
10311:
10306:, Peter Smith
10305:
10301:
10297:
10294:
10288:
10284:
10283:
10278:
10276:
10269:
10258:
10254:
10248:
10244:
10243:
10237:
10236:
10223:
10222:Mackay (1991)
10218:
10212:, p. 55.
10211:
10206:
10199:
10195:
10192:
10188:
10184:
10181:
10175:
10169:, p. 162
10168:
10164:
10161:
10157:
10151:
10133:
10126:
10120:
10113:
10112:9780486614809
10109:
10106:
10100:
10093:
10089:
10084:
10077:
10072:
10065:
10060:
10053:
10047:
10040:
10034:
10028:, p. 114
10027:
10021:
10015:
10009:
10000:
9996:
9992:
9991:
9990:
9984:
9977:
9973:
9968:
9962:
9961:
9957:
9954:
9949:
9944:
9937:
9933:
9930:
9924:
9909:
9905:
9901:
9896:
9891:
9887:
9883:
9879:
9877:
9868:
9860:
9856:
9849:
9841:
9839:9780231076203
9835:
9831:
9824:
9822:
9814:
9808:
9806:
9804:
9796:
9791:
9787:
9782:
9777:
9773:
9769:
9765:
9761:
9757:
9750:
9741:
9738:
9735:
9732:
9730:
9729:0-8032-7995-7
9726:
9722:
9719:
9716:
9713:
9710:
9707:
9706:
9705:For example:
9702:
9693:
9685:
9679:
9675:
9674:
9666:
9659:
9654:
9647:
9642:
9635:
9631:
9625:
9617:
9613:
9609:
9603:
9599:
9592:
9584:
9580:
9576:
9572:
9568:
9564:
9557:
9542:
9535:
9527:
9523:
9519:
9515:
9511:
9507:
9504:(1). : 3â32.
9503:
9499:
9492:
9485:
9484:
9479:
9475:
9469:
9461:
9457:
9453:
9449:
9445:
9441:
9434:
9427:
9419:
9415:
9410:
9405:
9401:
9397:
9393:
9389:
9385:
9381:
9377:
9370:
9362:
9358:
9354:
9350:
9346:
9342:
9335:
9327:
9323:
9318:
9313:
9309:
9305:
9301:
9294:
9292:
9290:
9280:
9272:
9268:
9264:
9258:
9254:
9253:
9245:
9235:
9220:
9214:
9210:
9209:
9201:
9199:
9190:
9186:
9182:
9178:
9174:
9170:
9166:
9162:
9155:
9153:
9145:
9140:
9136:
9132:
9128:
9124:
9120:
9116:
9112:
9105:
9103:
9094:
9090:
9086:
9082:
9078:
9074:
9070:
9066:
9059:
9051:
9047:
9043:
9039:
9035:
9031:
9024:
9022:
9013:
9007:
9003:
8996:
8988:
8984:
8980:
8976:
8972:
8968:
8964:
8960:
8953:
8945:
8941:
8937:
8933:
8929:
8925:
8921:
8917:
8910:
8902:
8898:
8894:
8890:
8886:
8882:
8875:
8866:
8861:
8854:
8847:
8843:
8838:
8831:
8825:
8817:
8813:
8809:
8805:
8801:
8797:
8790:
8782:
8776:
8772:
8768:
8764:
8760:
8754:
8745:
8743:
8735:
8729:
8727:
8712:
8706:
8702:
8701:
8693:
8686:
8684:
8680:
8674:
8670:
8666:
8664:9780521548304
8660:
8656:
8652:
8648:
8644:
8640:
8634:
8626:
8620:
8616:
8609:
8600:
8593:
8591:
8582:
8578:
8574:
8570:
8566:
8562:
8558:
8551:
8545:, p. 27.
8544:
8539:
8530:
8527:
8524:
8521:
8520:
8516:
8512:
8508:
8504:
8500:
8496:
8492:
8488:
8481:
8474:
8469:
8462:
8458:. p. 4.
8457:
8453:
8446:
8439:
8434:
8428:
8424:
8423:
8414:
8406:
8402:
8395:
8387:
8383:
8376:
8374:
8372:
8364:
8360:
8357:
8344:
8340:
8339:
8331:
8329:
8320:
8316:
8312:
8306:
8302:
8298:
8294:
8290:
8289:
8281:
8279:
8277:
8268:
8262:
8258:
8257:
8249:
8247:
8236:
8228:
8222:
8218:
8214:
8210:
8204:
8199:
8184:
8180:
8174:
8170:
8169:
8161:
8153:
8147:
8143:
8139:
8138:
8130:
8123:
8118:
8116:
8108:
8102:
8094:
8088:
8086:
8078:
8073:
8067:
8066:
8065:Novum Organum
8061:
8060:Francis Bacon
8056:
8049:
8036:
8035:
8030:
8024:
8017:
8012:
8010:
8008:
8006:
8004:
8002:
8000:
7998:
7990:
7984:
7970:
7966:
7960:
7956:
7950:
7944:
7940:
7933:
7925:
7921:
7916:
7911:
7907:
7903:
7898:
7893:
7889:
7885:
7884:PLOS Medicine
7881:
7874:
7872:
7870:
7861:
7857:
7853:
7849:
7845:
7841:
7837:
7833:
7826:
7820:
7816:
7811:
7805:
7799:
7791:
7785:
7781:
7777:
7773:
7766:
7751:
7747:
7743:
7739:
7733:
7726:
7721:
7719:
7717:
7702:
7698:
7691:
7684:
7679:
7672:
7667:
7665:
7657:
7649:
7643:
7636:
7631:
7624:
7619:
7612:
7607:
7600:
7594:
7588:
7584:
7580:
7573:
7571:
7569:
7561:
7558:Reprinted in
7555:
7551:
7547:
7540:
7532:
7525:
7518:
7513:
7505:
7504:
7499:
7493:
7485:
7481:
7477:
7471:
7467:
7463:
7459:
7452:
7445:
7439:
7435:
7428:
7426:
7417:
7413:
7409:
7405:
7401:
7397:
7393:
7389:
7382:
7375:
7370:
7363:
7359:
7347:on 2013-09-09
7343:
7336:
7333:Karl Popper.
7329:
7321:
7315:
7311:
7307:
7306:
7298:
7291:
7287:
7284:
7278:
7271:
7266:
7258:
7254:
7249:
7244:
7239:
7234:
7230:
7226:
7225:
7224:PLOS Medicine
7220:
7213:
7195:
7188:
7182:
7175:
7171:
7167:
7162:
7157:
7153:
7149:
7145:
7141:
7140:Physics Today
7137:
7130:
7123:
7119:
7115:
7111:
7107:
7106:
7101:
7097:
7094:
7090:
7084:
7077:
7073:
7069:
7065:
7064:Jerry Donohue
7061:
7056:
7049:
7045:
7041:
7037:
7033:
7029:
7028:Watson (1968)
7024:
7017:
7016:Jerry Donohue
7013:
7008:
7001:
6996:
6989:
6984:
6977:
6972:
6965:
6964:Smith (2001b)
6960:
6958:
6950:
6946:
6943:
6939:
6934:
6916:
6909:
6903:
6896:
6892:
6889:
6883:
6868:
6864:
6858:
6843:
6839:
6833:
6818:
6814:
6808:
6793:
6789:
6783:
6767:
6763:
6759:
6753:
6747:
6743:
6740:
6736:
6732:
6729:
6723:
6716:
6714:
6710:
6706:
6702:
6698:
6691:
6689:0-262-63032-X
6685:
6681:
6674:
6672:
6670:
6668:
6660:
6659:1-4102-0252-6
6656:
6652:
6647:
6640:
6636:
6631:
6629:
6627:
6619:
6609:on 2012-01-06
6608:
6604:
6600:
6593:
6591:
6589:
6580:
6576:
6573:
6567:
6565:
6563:
6555:
6551:
6550:Watson (1968)
6546:
6539:
6535:
6530:
6528:
6521:
6518:
6513:
6511:
6495:
6491:
6487:
6481:
6474:
6470:
6466:
6462:
6458:
6454:
6450:
6446:
6442:
6441:Sobral, CearĂĄ
6438:
6434:
6433:total eclipse
6430:
6424:
6417:
6413:
6408:
6401:
6397:
6396:
6389:
6382:
6377:
6370:
6366:
6365:Judson (1979)
6361:
6354:
6350:
6346:
6342:
6338:
6334:
6333:physics first
6330:
6329:Leon Lederman
6325:
6317:
6313:
6309:
6305:
6301:
6297:
6293:
6289:
6285:
6279:
6272:
6267:
6259:
6255:
6251:
6246:
6238:
6236:
6234:
6232:
6224:
6220:
6217:
6215:
6208:
6201:
6196:
6188:
6181:
6174:
6169:
6158:
6157:Judson (1979)
6153:
6146:
6141:
6134:
6133:0-684-19431-7
6130:
6127:
6121:
6114:
6110:
6106:
6100:
6084:
6080:
6078:9780781755658
6074:
6070:
6069:
6061:
6055:, p. 34.
6054:
6049:
6042:
6037:
6030:
6026:
6023:
6019:
6014:
6007:
6002:
5994:
5990:
5986:
5982:
5975:
5968:
5963:
5955:
5949:
5940:
5936:
5932:
5927:
5919:
5917:
5909:
5908:
5903:
5898:
5896:
5880:
5876:
5870:
5866:
5865:
5860:
5854:
5847:
5842:
5835:
5831:
5826:
5820:
5814:
5807:
5802:
5796:, p. 10.
5795:
5791:
5787:
5783:
5782:
5777:
5776:Il Saggiatore
5771:
5769:
5761:
5747:
5740:
5733:
5725:
5719:
5715:
5711:
5707:
5700:
5693:
5691:
5684:
5680:
5676:
5674:9780773533448
5670:
5666:
5662:
5658:
5654:
5650:
5646:
5642:
5636:
5629:
5624:
5622:
5613:
5607:
5603:
5599:
5595:
5591:
5584:
5582:
5574:
5562:
5558:
5552:
5548:
5544:
5540:
5533:
5531:
5515:
5511:
5504:
5502:
5494:
5487:
5480:
5479:
5474:
5468:
5466:
5459:, p. 264
5458:
5457:Cowles (2020)
5453:
5451:
5449:
5447:
5438:
5432:
5428:
5421:
5419:
5411:
5406:
5404:
5402:
5400:
5392:
5387:
5381:
5375:
5369:
5366:
5360:
5353:
5348:
5341:
5336:
5334:
5325:
5321:
5317:
5313:
5309:
5305:
5299:
5293:
5282:
5275:
5274:
5267:
5259:
5255:
5248:
5240:
5236:
5232:
5226:
5222:
5215:
5208:
5204:
5203:Borlik (2011)
5199:
5193:, Bk.&VI.
5192:
5186:
5179:
5174:
5167:
5162:
5146:
5142:
5140:9780871698629
5136:
5132:
5131:
5125:
5121:
5120:
5115:
5111:
5107:
5103:
5102:
5097:
5093:
5089:
5084:
5082:
5080:
5072:
5069:as quoted in
5068:
5064:
5063:
5058:
5054:
5051:
5041:
5035:
5028:
5023:
5021:
5013:
5010:, ed. (1975)
5009:
5005:
4999:
4992:
4986:
4979:
4975:
4971:
4966:
4964:
4956:
4951:
4949:
4941:
4940:Popper (1959)
4936:
4929:
4925:
4919:
4915:
4911:
4906:
4898:
4896:
4880:
4875:
4874:
4866:
4853:on 2016-06-20
4852:
4848:
4844:
4838:
4830:
4824:
4820:
4817:
4813:
4809:
4805:
4804:
4796:
4794:
4789:
4776:
4775:
4770:
4766:
4760:
4758:
4751:
4745:
4738:
4732:
4727:
4721:
4712:
4703:
4700:
4697:
4694:
4690:
4689:
4687:
4681:
4674:
4670:
4666:
4665:Robert Nozick
4662:
4658:
4654:
4650:
4646:
4642:
4638:
4634:
4630:
4629:Eugene Wigner
4626:
4622:
4618:
4614:
4610:
4606:
4600:
4598:
4590:
4589:
4582:
4576:
4570:
4564:
4558:
4551:
4550:Popper (1963)
4547:
4541:
4539:
4531:
4527:
4521:
4514:
4513:
4506:
4498:
4496:
4488:
4484:
4472:
4468:
4464:
4460:
4456:
4455:
4450:
4446:
4443:recounts how
4442:
4437:
4435:
4430:
4423:
4419:
4418:Peirce (1899)
4414:
4407:
4404:
4400:
4395:
4388:
4384:
4380:
4376:
4372:
4366:
4364:
4362:
4360:
4350:
4346:
4342:
4341:
4336:
4332:
4328:
4324:
4323:David Hockney
4321:
4318:
4314:
4313:
4311:
4310:
4304:
4299:
4292:
4288:
4284:
4280:
4274:
4270:
4258:
4254:
4248:
4244:
4240:
4236:
4233:
4229:
4225:
4219:
4212:
4208:
4204:
4200:
4196:
4192:
4188:
4184:
4178:
4171:
4166:
4164:
4153:
4146:
4141:
4135:
4127:
4121:
4115:
4108:
4102:
4095:
4091:
4085:
4079:
4077:
4071:
4065:
4063:
4055:
4050:
4043:
4039:
4033:
4024:
4017:
4011:
4004:
3998:
3991:
3990:
3984:
3977:
3970:
3963:
3959:
3958:modus tollens
3955:
3949:
3940:
3931:
3924:
3920:
3914:
3904:
3896:
3895:
3886:
3879:
3875:
3868:
3866:
3864:
3857:, p. 60.
3856:
3850:
3843:
3842:
3836:
3834:
3826:
3822:
3818:
3814:
3810:
3809:
3803:
3801:
3796:
3786:
3783:
3780:
3777:
3775:
3772:
3769:
3766:
3764:
3761:
3758:
3755:
3752:
3749:
3743:
3740:
3734:
3731:
3730:
3724:
3722:
3718:
3714:
3710:
3708:
3704:
3700:
3695:
3693:
3689:
3685:
3681:
3677:
3673:
3669:
3664:
3660:
3656:
3655:
3650:
3645:
3643:
3639:
3635:
3631:
3627:
3623:
3619:
3618:understanding
3610:
3607:
3605:
3601:
3598:
3594:
3591:
3588:
3586:
3583:
3579:
3576:
3573:
3571:
3568:
3564:
3561:
3558:
3556:
3555:Understanding
3553:
3549:
3546:
3541:
3536:
3535:
3532:
3530:
3526:
3522:
3518:
3514:
3512:
3508:
3504:
3500:
3499:Eugene Wigner
3495:
3493:
3489:
3485:
3481:
3476:
3474:
3470:
3469:
3464:
3461:from what is
3460:
3456:
3446:
3444:
3440:
3436:
3432:
3427:
3425:
3421:
3417:
3413:
3403:
3399:
3397:
3393:
3389:
3385:
3374:
3371:
3366:
3364:
3360:
3357:This is what
3355:
3354:Louis Pasteur
3351:
3350:stumbled upon
3347:
3339:
3334:
3329:
3314:
3311:
3307:
3306:postmodernist
3303:
3299:
3298:postmodernist
3294:
3292:
3286:
3284:
3280:
3276:
3272:
3268:
3264:
3260:
3256:
3254:
3250:
3244:
3240:
3230:
3228:
3224:
3220:
3216:
3212:
3208:
3204:
3199:
3197:
3196:
3191:
3187:
3183:
3173:
3168:
3158:
3156:
3154:
3147:
3145:
3141:
3137:
3129:
3126:
3123:
3120:
3117:
3114:
3113:
3112:
3109:
3105:
3101:
3099:
3093:
3089:
3079:
3075:
3073:
3069:
3068:anything goes
3064:
3060:
3056:
3055:
3050:
3045:
3031:
3025:
3020:
3017:
3014:
3010:
3006:
3000:
2990:
2988:
2984:
2980:
2976:
2972:
2968:
2964:
2960:
2954:
2944:
2942:
2938:
2932:
2930:
2926:
2921:
2919:
2915:
2911:
2907:
2902:
2898:
2894:
2888:
2884:
2874:
2872:
2868:
2864:
2860:
2856:
2851:
2849:
2845:
2836:
2830:
2826:
2824:
2819:
2817:
2816:David Deutsch
2812:
2801:
2797:
2795:
2791:
2781:
2778:
2774:
2765:
2758:
2754:
2752:
2748:
2747:Occam's razor
2744:
2734:
2729:
2726:
2720:
2718:
2714:
2706:
2703:
2700:
2699:
2698:
2692:
2689:
2686:
2683:
2680:
2676:
2675:
2674:
2672:
2668:
2652:
2650:
2646:
2642:
2638:
2634:
2630:
2627:explains the
2626:
2620:
2618:
2614:
2610:
2606:
2601:
2598:
2597:falsification
2594:
2584:
2580:
2578:
2573:
2569:
2565:
2555:
2553:
2547:
2545:
2541:
2532:
2530:
2526:
2520:
2518:
2513:
2510:
2506:
2505:Francis Bacon
2502:
2492:
2490:
2485:
2483:
2479:
2474:
2469:
2466:
2462:
2458:
2454:
2450:
2446:
2431:
2429:
2425:
2421:
2417:
2412:
2410:
2406:
2402:
2398:
2392:
2390:
2386:
2382:
2377:
2375:
2371:
2366:
2364:
2360:
2356:
2351:
2342:
2338:
2334:
2332:
2328:
2324:
2320:
2316:
2312:
2308:
2304:
2299:
2297:
2293:
2289:
2285:
2281:
2277:
2273:
2269:
2265:
2261:
2257:
2253:
2244:
2238:
2234:
2230:
2226:
2222:
2218:
2214:
2210:
2205:
2201:
2191:
2189:
2185:
2184:
2179:
2175:
2171:
2169:
2168:
2162:
2160:
2155:
2146:
2142:
2136:
2132:
2130:
2126:
2120:
2118:
2115:be tested in
2114:
2103:
2099:
2093:
2082:
2078:
2071:
2057:
2048:
2046:
2042:
2038:
2034:
2029:
2027:
2023:
2018:
2014:
2010:
2005:
2003:
1999:
1995:
1991:
1986:
1984:
1973:
1971:
1967:
1963:
1959:
1954:
1947:
1943:
1942:cloud chamber
1938:
1934:
1932:
1928:
1914:
1911:Karl Popper,
1907:
1903:
1899:
1897:
1893:
1889:
1884:
1879:
1875:
1860:
1858:
1854:
1850:
1846:
1842:
1837:
1833:
1828:
1826:
1821:
1816:
1814:
1810:
1809:control group
1806:
1802:
1797:
1792:
1790:
1786:
1782:
1775:
1765:
1762:
1758:
1753:
1751:
1747:
1743:
1739:
1735:
1731:
1727:
1723:
1718:
1716:
1710:
1708:
1704:
1703:Linus Pauling
1700:
1696:
1693:
1689:
1676:
1672:
1662:
1660:
1656:
1652:
1648:
1642:
1640:
1636:
1632:
1628:
1624:
1620:
1614:
1612:
1611:aerodynamical
1608:
1604:
1600:
1596:
1591:
1589:
1585:
1584:Mill's canons
1580:
1576:
1572:
1565:
1563:
1559:
1555:
1551:
1547:
1535:
1525:
1523:
1519:
1515:
1511:
1507:
1503:
1499:
1494:
1490:
1488:
1482:
1480:
1476:
1472:
1466:
1464:
1460:
1456:
1455:Francis Crick
1452:
1441:
1431:
1429:
1425:
1420:
1418:
1417:Occam's Razor
1414:
1410:
1402:
1395:
1390:
1388:
1384:
1382:
1378:
1377:
1372:
1368:
1364:
1363:
1358:
1354:
1350:
1346:
1341:
1339:
1335:
1331:
1327:
1321:
1319:
1315:
1314:Francis Crick
1311:
1307:
1306:Linus Pauling
1296:
1286:
1284:
1280:
1279:visual system
1276:
1272:
1271:consciousness
1268:
1267:Francis Crick
1264:
1260:
1256:
1252:
1248:
1244:
1240:
1235:
1233:
1229:
1225:
1221:
1217:
1203:
1197:
1193:
1191:
1187:
1183:
1182:spectroscopes
1179:
1175:
1171:
1167:
1163:
1158:
1155:
1154:design a drug
1151:
1147:
1142:
1140:
1136:
1132:
1128:
1124:
1120:
1116:
1112:
1108:
1104:
1103:
1098:
1092:
1090:
1086:
1082:
1078:
1075:
1071:
1067:
1063:
1059:
1058:Gregor Mendel
1055:
1039:
1037:
1032:
1026:
1023:
1020:
1017:
1014:
1010:
1007:
1004:
1001:
1000:
999:
996:
994:
990:
989:ongoing cycle
985:
983:
979:
975:
967:
964:
961:
958:
957:
956:
954:
950:
946:
942:
932:
930:
926:
922:
917:
915:
910:
902:
898:
893:
884:
870:
868:
864:
860:
859:
854:
850:
846:
842:
838:
834:
830:
826:
822:
818:
814:
809:
807:
803:
799:
798:
792:
788:
784:
780:
779:
774:
764:
762:
758:
753:
748:
746:
742:
737:
735:
731:
727:
723:
719:
715:
711:
707:
706:Francis Bacon
703:
699:
695:
691:
687:
683:
682:Francis Bacon
679:
675:
670:
668:
664:
660:
656:
652:
648:
644:
640:
635:
632:
628:
621:
615:
605:
603:
598:
596:
592:
588:
584:
579:
577:
573:
569:
565:
561:
557:
553:
549:
545:
541:
529:
524:
522:
517:
515:
510:
509:
507:
506:
503:
492:
488:
483:
478:
477:
470:
467:
465:
462:
460:
457:
455:
452:
450:
447:
445:
442:
440:
437:
435:
432:
431:
423:
422:
415:
412:
410:
407:
405:
402:
400:
397:
396:
392:
386:
385:
374:
371:
369:
368:Urban studies
366:
364:
361:
359:
356:
354:
351:
349:
346:
344:
341:
339:
336:
334:
331:
329:
326:
324:
321:
319:
316:
314:
311:
309:
306:
304:
301:
299:
296:
294:
291:
289:
286:
284:
281:
279:
276:
274:
271:
270:
269:
268:
264:
263:
256:
253:
251:
248:
247:
246:
243:
239:
236:
234:
231:
229:
226:
224:
221:
219:
216:
214:
211:
209:
206:
204:
203:Psychological
201:
200:
199:
196:
192:
191:Life sciences
189:
187:
184:
183:
182:
179:
175:
172:
170:
167:
166:
165:
162:
161:
160:
159:
156:
153:
152:
145:
141:
137:
131:
130:
124:
121:
119:
116:
114:
111:
109:
106:
104:
101:
99:
96:
94:
91:
90:
88:
87:
78:
69:
68:
65:
61:
60:
57:
53:
45:
38:
34:
19:
13890:Associations
13725:criticism of
13635:Leapfrogging
13618:linear model
13504:Team science
13494:Scientocracy
13471:
13417:Neo-colonial
13167:Anthropocene
13016:Larry Laudan
12996:Imre Lakatos
12951:Otto Neurath
12926:Karl Pearson
12916:Pierre Duhem
12888:Isaac Newton
12818:Protoscience
12776:Epistemology
12650:Anti-realism
12648: /
12629: /
12620: /
12606: /
12604:Reductionism
12602: /
12575:Inductionism
12555:Evolutionism
12424:
12360:
12247:a posteriori
12246:
12242:
12168:Kevin Padian
12150:
12078:
12064:
12032:
12013:
12003:
11993:
11983:
11973:
11963:
11953:
11943:
11934:
11924:
11911:the original
11906:
11880:
11869:
11859:
11852:
11842:
11820:
11805:
11795:
11785:
11782:Hacking, Ian
11775:
11765:
11744:
11733:
11723:
11720:Earman, John
11712:
11692:
11678:
11668:
11658:
11636:
11625:
11611:
11601:
11579:
11522:
11518:
11502:
11483:
11460:
11443:
11439:
11435:
11410:
11406:
11383:(4): 1â337.
11380:
11376:
11348:
11321:(2): 51â53,
11318:
11314:
11311:Reviewed in
11293:
11273:
11269:
11266:Sabra, A. I.
11246:
11233:the original
11214:
11191:
11180:
11149:
11146:
11130:
11114:, retrieved
11104:
11074:
11047:
11033:
11029:
11011:
10992:
10969:
10948:
10938:
10916:
10880:
10876:
10855:
10832:
10811:
10766:
10760:
10741:
10717:
10702:, retrieved
10682:
10654:
10645:Bruno (1989)
10628:
10607:
10602:
10579:
10562:
10539:
10515:
10487:
10466:How we think
10465:
10443:
10430:. Retrieved
10419:
10396:
10377:
10357:
10341:, retrieved
10321:
10303:
10281:
10274:
10261:. Retrieved
10241:
10217:
10205:
10186:
10182:
10179:
10174:
10162:
10159:
10150:
10139:. Retrieved
10119:
10104:
10099:
10083:
10076:PĂłlya (1957)
10071:
10064:PĂłlya (1957)
10059:
10051:
10046:
10038:
10033:
10026:PĂłlya (1957)
10020:
10008:
9998:
9994:
9983:
9972:PĂłlya (1957)
9967:
9951:
9948:Ludwik Fleck
9943:
9923:
9912:. Retrieved
9885:
9881:
9875:
9867:
9859:the original
9848:
9829:
9812:
9793:
9763:
9759:
9749:
9739:
9733:
9720:
9714:
9708:
9701:
9692:
9672:
9665:
9660:, p. 27
9658:Fleck (1979)
9653:
9646:Fleck (1979)
9641:
9634:Fleck (1979)
9630:Fleck (1979)
9628:As cited in
9624:
9597:
9591:
9566:
9562:
9556:
9545:. Retrieved
9534:
9501:
9497:
9491:
9481:
9468:
9443:
9439:
9426:
9383:
9379:
9369:
9344:
9340:
9334:
9307:
9303:
9279:
9251:
9244:
9234:
9222:. Retrieved
9207:
9167:(1): 32â40.
9164:
9160:
9142:
9114:
9110:
9068:
9064:
9058:
9036:(1): 10â16.
9033:
9029:
9001:
8995:
8962:
8958:
8952:
8919:
8915:
8909:
8884:
8880:
8874:
8865:math/0702396
8853:
8845:
8837:
8824:
8799:
8795:
8789:
8762:
8753:
8733:
8714:. Retrieved
8699:
8692:
8682:
8678:
8676:
8646:
8633:
8614:
8608:
8598:
8564:
8560:
8550:
8543:Fleck (1979)
8538:
8490:
8486:
8480:
8473:Gauch (2003)
8468:
8459:
8455:
8445:
8436:
8421:
8413:
8404:
8394:
8385:
8382:"Simplicity"
8347:. Retrieved
8337:
8287:
8255:
8235:
8216:
8212:
8198:
8187:. Retrieved
8167:
8160:
8136:
8129:
8122:Brody (1993)
8106:
8101:
8096:experiment."
8092:
8077:Gauch (2003)
8072:
8063:
8055:
8039:. Retrieved
8033:
8023:
7983:
7972:. Retrieved
7968:
7938:
7932:
7887:
7883:
7835:
7831:
7825:
7815:Isaac Newton
7810:
7798:
7771:
7765:
7754:. Retrieved
7741:
7732:
7704:. Retrieved
7700:
7690:
7678:
7655:
7647:
7642:
7630:
7618:
7606:
7582:
7559:
7545:
7539:
7530:
7524:
7512:
7502:
7492:
7457:
7451:
7433:
7391:
7387:
7381:
7369:
7357:
7349:. Retrieved
7342:the original
7328:
7309:
7304:
7297:
7277:
7270:Fleck (1979)
7265:
7228:
7222:
7212:
7201:. Retrieved
7181:
7173:
7143:
7139:
7129:
7121:
7117:
7113:
7109:
7103:
7083:
7076:genetic code
7068:Double Helix
7067:
7055:
7023:
7007:
6995:
6983:
6976:Smith (2010)
6971:
6948:
6941:
6933:
6922:. Retrieved
6902:
6882:
6871:. Retrieved
6857:
6846:. Retrieved
6832:
6821:. Retrieved
6807:
6796:. Retrieved
6782:
6770:. Retrieved
6761:
6752:
6722:
6712:
6708:
6704:
6701:a posteriori
6700:
6696:
6693:
6679:
6646:
6617:
6611:. Retrieved
6607:the original
6602:
6545:
6498:. Retrieved
6489:
6480:
6472:
6468:
6423:
6415:
6407:
6399:
6393:
6388:
6376:
6360:
6324:
6291:
6287:
6278:
6266:
6253:
6249:
6213:
6207:
6202:, p. 26
6200:Dewey (1910)
6195:
6186:
6180:
6168:
6152:
6140:
6125:
6120:
6108:
6104:
6099:
6087:. Retrieved
6067:
6060:
6048:
6036:
6013:
6006:Gauch (2003)
6001:
5984:
5980:
5974:
5962:
5953:
5948:
5934:
5930:
5905:
5902:Brody (1993)
5883:. Retrieved
5863:
5853:
5848:, p. 3.
5846:Gauch (2003)
5841:
5833:
5825:
5813:
5806:Gauch (2003)
5801:
5789:
5779:
5775:
5759:
5753:. Retrieved
5732:
5705:
5699:
5686:
5644:
5641:Nola, Robert
5635:
5628:Taleb (2007)
5593:
5571:
5565:, retrieved
5546:
5518:. Retrieved
5492:
5486:the original
5477:
5426:
5410:Thurs (2011)
5386:
5374:
5364:
5359:
5347:
5307:
5303:
5297:
5292:
5281:the original
5272:
5266:
5257:
5247:
5220:
5214:
5198:
5190:
5185:
5173:
5161:
5149:. Retrieved
5129:
5123:
5117:
5109:
5105:
5099:
5066:
5060:
5039:
5034:
5027:Smith (2010)
5003:
4998:
4990:
4985:
4977:
4973:
4955:Gauch (2003)
4935:
4927:
4923:
4913:
4909:
4883:. Retrieved
4872:
4865:
4855:, retrieved
4851:the original
4846:
4837:
4815:
4811:
4807:
4802:
4772:
4768:
4749:
4744:
4735:
4720:
4711:
4685:
4680:
4667:(2001), and
4604:
4588:a posteriori
4587:
4581:
4569:
4557:
4525:
4520:
4510:
4505:
4492:
4487:
4466:
4452:
4441:Sabra (2007)
4413:
4405:
4402:
4394:
4386:
4382:
4378:
4348:
4344:
4338:
4334:
4307:
4298:
4273:
4235:Fleck (1979)
4231:
4227:
4218:
4210:
4206:
4177:
4152:
4134:
4114:
4109:, p. 33
4101:
4084:
4073:
4049:
4032:
4023:
4015:
4010:
3997:
3987:
3983:
3969:
3954:modus ponens
3948:
3939:
3930:
3913:
3903:
3891:
3885:
3878:Smith (2004)
3849:
3839:
3812:
3806:
3711:
3702:
3696:
3672:tautological
3667:
3652:
3649:Imre Lakatos
3646:
3641:
3633:
3621:
3617:
3615:
3517:George PĂłlya
3515:
3496:
3477:
3466:
3462:
3458:
3452:
3439:Fleck (1979)
3428:
3409:
3400:
3380:
3369:
3367:
3349:
3343:
3302:science wars
3295:
3287:
3279:Golgi bodies
3261:, alongside
3257:
3248:
3246:
3200:
3194:
3179:
3170:
3153:How We Think
3151:
3148:
3143:
3133:
3110:
3106:
3102:
3095:
3076:
3052:
3047:
3022:
3018:
3009:reductionist
3002:
2971:epistemology
2956:
2940:
2937:How We Think
2936:
2933:
2928:
2924:
2922:
2890:
2863:hard-to-vary
2862:
2852:
2841:
2828:
2820:
2807:
2798:
2793:
2789:
2787:
2773:Paul Krugman
2769:
2763:
2756:
2750:
2740:
2731:
2724:
2722:
2710:
2696:
2678:
2677:is accurate
2666:
2663:
2645:biochemistry
2639:to form the
2621:
2602:
2590:
2581:
2561:
2548:
2538:
2521:
2514:
2509:Isaac Newton
2498:
2486:
2470:
2465:experimental
2442:
2413:
2393:
2378:
2367:
2352:
2348:
2339:
2335:
2300:
2249:
2211:
2207:
2181:
2178:Fleck (1979)
2176:
2172:
2165:
2163:
2151:
2144:
2134:
2127:; this is a
2121:
2110:
2101:
2083:; see below.
2054:
2030:
2012:
2009:C. S. Peirce
2006:
1987:
1979:
1955:
1951:
1923:
1912:
1905:
1900:
1885:
1881:
1878:Open science
1848:
1844:
1832:Ludwik Fleck
1829:
1817:
1808:
1804:
1793:
1777:
1768:Confirmation
1754:
1745:
1719:
1712:
1690:by concrete
1679:
1643:
1615:
1595:double-blind
1592:
1567:
1538:
1495:
1491:
1483:
1468:
1459:double helix
1444:
1421:
1406:
1400:
1392:
1387:William Glen
1385:
1374:
1360:
1342:
1323:
1310:triple helix
1299:
1255:Isaac Newton
1247:simultaneity
1236:
1213:
1195:
1178:thermometers
1159:
1143:
1135:measurements
1131:observations
1106:
1101:
1096:
1094:
1061:
1046:
1033:
1030:
1013:reproducible
997:
992:
986:
971:
938:
918:
906:
876:
866:
862:
856:
848:
844:
840:
824:
810:
795:
778:How We Think
776:
770:
749:
741:C. S. Peirce
738:
702:Isaac Newton
686:Robert Hooke
671:
636:
624:
599:
580:
539:
537:
490:
448:
323:Liberal arts
223:Sociological
169:Mathematical
56:
37:Epistemology
13735:theories of
13720:and society
13716:Technology
13710:transitions
13700:determinism
13695:convergence
13670:Technocracy
13452:controversy
13438:Scientific
13422:post-normal
13367:Metascience
13337:Consilience
13322:Antiscience
13187:Neo-Luddism
13182:Fuzzy logic
13006:Ian Hacking
12991:Thomas Kuhn
12976:Karl Popper
12956:C. D. Broad
12873:Roger Bacon
12801:Non-science
12743:Linguistics
12723:Archaeology
12618:Rationalism
12608:Determinism
12595:Physicalism
12560:Fallibilism
12510:Coherentism
12440:Testability
12393:Observation
12388:Objectivity
12349:alternative
12280:Correlation
12270:Consilience
12010:Ziman, John
10848:Ernst Nagel
10461:Dewey, John
8653:. pp.
8203:Thomas Kuhn
8048:Semmelweiss
8037:. p. 7
7890:(8): e124.
7498:Sagan, Carl
7231:(8): e124.
6728:NSF Reports
6713:atomic fact
6465:arc-seconds
6461:arc-seconds
6337:Ian Shelton
6271:Glen (1994)
5781:The Assayer
5651:. pp.
5573:classrooms.
4686:good theory
4669:Tim Maudlin
4563:C.S. Peirce
4422:Terence Tao
4291:outer space
4195:expressions
4038:inductivism
3956:, or using
3785:Testability
3757:Metascience
3751:Methodology
3519:'s work on
3501:'s paper, "
3468:falsifiable
3455:observables
3392:metascience
3363:human error
3263:Thomas Kuhn
3188:concept of
2983:empirically
2967:metaphysics
2859:testability
2457:predictions
2389:peer review
2355:uncertainty
2141:C.S. Peirce
2079:, 1821) is
2051:Rationality
1994:rationalism
1966:Tycho Brahe
1888:big science
1820:peer review
1734:outer space
1699:nucleotides
1528:Experiments
1522:gravitation
1508:bends in a
1471:predictions
1166:correlation
1150:observation
1077:diffraction
974:peer review
921:conjectures
867:The Assayer
837:Robert Nola
806:Karl Popper
787:Thomas Kuhn
781:, inspired
761:antirealism
698:inductivism
690:rationalist
663:Roger Bacon
595:falsifiable
591:conjectures
568:observation
556:observation
427:Instruments
348:Professions
343:War studies
250:Engineering
13938:Empiricism
13917:Categories
13873:Technology
13825:science of
13820:history of
13705:revolution
13613:disruptive
13603:Innovation
13598:Hype cycle
13543:Technology
13514:ecological
13487:skepticism
13477:misconduct
13462:enterprise
13280:scientific
13207:Positivism
13177:Empiricism
13159:Philosophy
12893:David Hume
12866:Precursors
12748:Psychology
12728:Economicsâ
12622:Empiricism
12613:Pragmatism
12600:Positivism
12590:Naturalism
12460:scientific
12344:Hypothesis
12307:Experiment
12092:PhilPapers
11116:2007-08-01
10704:2020-05-09
10469:, Boston:
10432:2020-06-24
10380:, Oxford,
10343:2020-05-09
10263:2023-06-03
10141:2021-08-28
9914:2021-08-29
9888:(5): 505.
9547:2007-06-07
9271:1014457300
9239:practices.
9224:2024-05-20
8716:2024-08-29
8349:2018-09-16
8310:3540205802
8266:0195166612
8226:0226457990
8189:2020-10-20
8041:2024-04-30
7974:2024-04-24
7939:Risk Savvy
7756:2020-04-17
7706:2024-04-21
7597:See also:
7546:The Monist
7351:2013-01-22
7319:0415278430
7203:2014-04-28
7120:(1572) as
7089:Ibn Mu'adh
6938:al-Battani
6924:2018-05-27
6873:2021-08-22
6848:2021-08-22
6823:2021-08-22
6798:2021-08-30
6772:2021-08-22
6613:2012-01-06
6500:2017-09-11
6402:, 581â586.
6345:Kamiokande
6258:Wikisource
6089:2021-11-27
5939:Wikisource
5885:2020-05-09
5755:2021-08-27
5567:2020-10-20
5520:2016-06-07
5205:, p.
5191:Opus Majus
5151:2021-11-27
4918:Wikisource
4885:2018-05-31
4857:2016-05-28
4784:References
4692:research);
4671:(2002). â
4621:Paul Dirac
4575:Carl Sagan
4495:Opus Majus
4459:refraction
4287:refraction
4251:See also:
4187:predicates
4054:Hipparchus
3892:See Locke
3699:heuristics
3492:Ricci flow
3473:conjecture
3433:, such as
3243:Relativism
3237:See also:
3144:dimensions
3086:See also:
2929:pluralists
2914:empiricist
2899:, and the
2881:See also:
2844:invariance
2804:Invariance
2743:desiderata
2713:heuristics
2655:Heuristics
2609:relativity
2449:hypotheses
2319:precession
2311:perihelion
2307:Le Verrier
2298:in 1727.
2225:perihelion
2221:Precession
2117:controlled
2113:hypotheses
2033:empiricism
1998:revelation
1990:empiricism
1872:See also:
1742:Ibn Mu'adh
1730:refraction
1669:See also:
1655:al-Battani
1647:Hipparchus
1621:(LHC), or
1599:excavation
1534:Experiment
1477:including
1394:vagueness.
1326:hypothesis
1243:relativity
1210:Definition
1190:voltmeters
1170:regression
1119:electrical
925:hypotheses
813:Lee Smolin
752:boundaries
734:David Hume
726:John Locke
678:empiricism
639:empiricism
572:hypothesis
562:, because
560:scepticism
469:Technology
338:Philosophy
328:Literature
298:Humanities
288:Futurology
238:Linguistic
123:Philosophy
118:Literature
108:Glossaries
13780:Factor 10
13608:diffusion
13447:consensus
13442:community
13407:education
13247:Sociology
13222:Scientism
13101:Economics
12733:Geography
12701:Chemistry
12660:Scientism
12455:ladenness
12275:Construct
12253:Causality
11616:Heinemann
11549:1553-7358
11367:462156333
11212:(2005) ,
11178:(1959) ,
11167:706968824
11045:(1999) ,
10905:144294881
10776:0809.1003
10627:(2003) .
10300:Born, Max
9976:heuristic
9518:1468-2303
9460:1746-1979
9400:0926-7220
9353:0047-231X
9326:0926-7220
9181:0002-7685
9131:0018-2680
9085:0002-7685
9050:0036-6803
8987:0950-0693
8944:0036-8326
8901:1879-4912
8808:0036-8237
8641:(2004) .
8581:0046-2772
8507:0569-4345
8016:Voit 2019
7906:1549-1277
7852:0032-5473
7484:2509-310X
7416:0031-899X
7170:110623159
7146:(1): 42.
6709:dimension
6349:neutrinos
5683:144602109
5038:Alhazen,
4812:Principia
4649:Alan Cook
4406:Volume 12
4199:predicate
3638:Euclidean
3634:synthesis
3585:Synthesis
3529:heuristic
3482:arose in
3082:Education
2987:normative
2947:Pluralism
2790:parsimony
2751:beautiful
2737:Parsimony
2625:evolution
2564:knowledge
2154:galloping
2129:heuristic
2081:falsified
2017:pragmatic
2007:In 1877,
1946:positrons
1896:community
1625:, or the
1582:changed.
1502:spacetime
1475:reasoning
1413:beautiful
1357:Aristotle
1283:free will
1275:awareness
1228:mechanics
1081:molecules
993:Principia
659:Al-Biruni
548:knowledge
544:empirical
459:Scientist
213:Political
13900:Scholars
13895:Journals
13885:Category
13859:Portals
13740:transfer
13730:dynamics
13680:feminist
13482:priority
13467:literacy
13427:rhetoric
13393:Science
13357:Logology
13028:Category
12680:Vitalism
12503:Theories
12477:Variable
12398:Paradigm
12285:function
12243:A priori
12232:Analysis
12225:Concepts
12109:Archived
12012:(2000).
11885:Archived
11743:(2009),
11690:(1988),
11641:Archived
11577:(1968),
11567:31513575
11481:(2007),
11452:20787647
11281:20617660
11268:(2007),
11128:(1957),
11110:archived
11102:(1905),
11073:(1997),
11027:(1954),
10968:(1985),
10937:(2007),
10831:(1874),
10810:(2006),
10801:14395472
10740:(2003),
10698:archived
10600:(1638),
10587:Archived
10561:(1979),
10537:(1965),
10512:(1938),
10463:(1910),
10426:Archived
10354:(1989),
10337:archived
10302:(1949),
10257:Archived
10194:Archived
10132:Archived
9956:Archived
9932:Archived
9908:Archived
9790:26243971
9616:39539508
9418:34720429
9361:43631913
9139:20461985
8816:40399117
8673:54503549
8515:25603965
8359:Archived
8343:Archived
8319:53434974
8240:320-339.
8183:Archived
8031:(1966).
7969:BBC News
7924:16060722
7860:34039698
7750:Archived
7500:(1995).
7376:, ch. 1.
7286:Archived
7257:16060722
7194:Archived
7096:Archived
7048:cytosine
6915:Archived
6891:Archived
6867:Archived
6842:Archived
6817:Archived
6792:Archived
6766:Archived
6742:Archived
6731:Archived
6697:a priori
6575:Archived
6538:photo 51
6494:Archived
6469:Einstein
6449:Principe
6353:SN 1987a
6316:17739513
6219:Archived
6083:Archived
6025:Archived
5879:Archived
5861:(2009).
5834:theories
5788:(1957),
5746:Archived
5561:archived
5514:Archived
5475:(1963).
5324:15338543
5239:53006741
5145:Archived
5119:Almagest
5053:Archived
4879:Archived
4816:see also
4731:Weinberg
4663:(1997),
4659:(1995),
4655:(1994),
4651:(1994),
4647:(1993),
4643:(1992),
4639:(1983),
4635:(1974),
4631:(1967),
4627:(1966),
4623:(1958),
4617:Max Born
4615:(1920),
4611:(1902),
4500:record".
4118:... and
4003:twilight
3925:in 1930.
3727:See also
3717:theorems
3688:homology
3622:analysis
3570:Analysis
3431:Big data
3027:â
2848:symmetry
2835:Max Born
2832:â
2794:elegance
2784:Elegance
2760:â
2637:genetics
2633:patterns
2407:between
2323:Einstein
2276:European
2256:Chaldean
2183:a priori
2138:â
1909:â
1796:repeated
1692:modeling
1603:New York
1562:photo 51
1397:â
1199:â
1176:such as
1107:unknowns
1097:subjects
1085:crystals
887:Overview
655:Avicenna
647:Epicurus
574:through
464:Research
353:Religion
255:Medicine
233:Military
208:Economic
186:Physical
174:Computer
98:Category
64:Sciences
33:Research
13863:Science
13545:studies
13457:dissent
13397:citizen
13314:studies
13312:Science
13259:Social
13124:History
12738:History
12706:Physics
12696:Biology
12494:more...
12482:control
12378:Inquiry
12121:at the
12099:at the
12063:(ed.).
11774:(ed.),
11722:(ed.),
11558:6742218
11527:Bibcode
11427:3657357
11397:3657358
11323:Bibcode
11148:Reprint
11140:4140462
11032:Vol. 1:
10781:Bibcode
10232:Sources
9950:(1979)
9904:6711862
9781:4520913
9526:2504396
9409:8550242
9189:4450823
9093:4451400
8967:Bibcode
8924:Bibcode
8356:YouTube
7915:1182327
7817:(1727)
7658:p. 15."
7650:p. 21:
7396:Bibcode
7248:1182327
7148:Bibcode
7044:guanine
7036:thymine
7032:adenine
6572:Draft D
6492:. PBS.
6473:Physics
6455:and at
6296:Bibcode
6288:Science
6031:Part II
6020:(1637)
5316:1558283
5189:Bacon,
5092:Alhazen
5014:, p.137
4737:defend.
4702:Hawking
4673:Deutsch
4471:rainbow
4449:Alhacen
4369:In the
4303:Alhazen
4203:witness
4185:by its
4183:unified
3919:unified
3898:school.
3674:, i.e.
3484:science
3463:unknown
3310:realist
3275:gestalt
3211:Woolgar
3182:Fleck's
3024:defend.
2963:unities
2617:gravity
2572:predict
2482:Gillies
2315:Mercury
2284:Kepler
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