978:
34:
1504:
1797:
1730:
290:
197:
1473:
1580:, the addition of stratospheric sulfur required to avoid 4 °C (7.2 °F) relative to now (and 5 °C (9.0 °F) relative to the preindustrial) would be effectively offset by the future controls on tropospheric sulfate pollution, and the amount required would be even less for less drastic warming scenarios. This spurred a detailed look at its costs and benefits, but even with hundreds of studies into the subject completed by the early 2020s, some notable uncertainties remain.
1519:
1389:
578:
1597:
47:
1293:
602:
1268:
1315:
56:
1338:
1381:, from 1970 to 2005, total emissions of the six principal air pollutants, including sulfates, dropped by 53% in the US. By 2010, this reduction in sulfate pollution led to estimated healthcare cost savings valued at $ 50 billion annually. Similar measures were taken in Europe, such as the 1985 Helsinki Protocol on the Reduction of Sulfur Emissions under the
1300:
Subsequent research estimated an average reduction in sunlight striking the terrestrial surface of around 4–5% per decade over the late 1950s–1980s, and 2–3% per decade when 1990s were included. Notably, solar radiation at the top of the atmosphere did not vary by more than 0.1-0.3% in all that time,
693:
of the atoms. The discrepancy between the S−O bond length in the sulfate ion and the S−OH bond length in sulfuric acid is explained by donation of p-orbital electrons from the terminal S=O bonds in sulfuric acid into the antibonding S−OH orbitals, weakening them resulting in the longer bond length of
1442:
project decreases in particulates and this includes the scenarios where 1.5 °C (2.7 °F) and 2 °C (3.6 °F) targets are met: their specific emission reduction targets assume the need to make up for lower dimming. Since models estimate that the cooling caused by sulfates is largely
3656:
Bellouin, N.; Quaas, J.; Gryspeerdt, E.; Kinne, S.; Stier, P.; Watson-Parris, D.; Boucher, O.; Carslaw, K. S.; Christensen, M.; Daniau, A.-L.; Dufresne, J.-L.; Feingold, G.; Fiedler, S.; Forster, P.; Gettelman, A.; Haywood, J. M.; Lohmann, U.; Malavelle, F.; Mauritsen, T.; McCoy, D. T.; Myhre, G.;
3983:
Quaas, Johannes; Jia, Hailing; Smith, Chris; Albright, Anna Lea; Aas, Wenche; Bellouin, Nicolas; Boucher, Olivier; Doutriaux-Boucher, Marie; Forster, Piers M.; Grosvenor, Daniel; Jenkins, Stuart; Klimont, Zbigniew; Loeb, Norman G.; Ma, Xiaoyan; Naik, Vaishali; Paulot, Fabien; Stier, Philip; Wild,
1495:
formation: air laden with sand and mineral particles moves over the
Atlantic Ocean, where they block some of the sunlight from reaching the water surface, slightly cooling it and dampening the development of hurricanes. Likewise, it has been suggested since the early 2000s that since aerosols
1415:
due to air pollution had initially experienced cooling, in contradiction to the overall warming trend. The eastern United States was a prominent example: the temperatures there declined by 0.7 °C (1.3 °F) between 1970 and 1980, and by up to 1 °C (1.8 °F) in the
1453:
driving much of the recent growth, while air pollution is getting cleaned up aggressively. These trends are some of the main reasons why 1.5 °C (2.7 °F) warming is now expected around 2030, as opposed to the mid-2010s estimates where it would not occur until
682:) confirms a clear positive charge on sulfur (theoretically +2.45) and a low 3d occupancy. Therefore, the representation with four single bonds is the optimal Lewis structure rather than the one with two double bonds (thus the Lewis model, not the Pauling model).
1576:'s detailed 2006 proposal. Deploying in the stratosphere ensures that the aerosols are at their most effective, and that the progress of clean air measures would not be reversed: more recent research estimated that even under the highest-emission scenario
1296:
The observed trends of global dimming and brightening in four major geographic regions. The dimming was greater on the average cloud-free days (red line) than on the average of all days (purple line), strongly suggesting that sulfate aerosols were the
1538:
As the real world had shown the importance of sulfate aerosol concentrations to the global climate, research into the subject accelerated. Formation of the aerosols and their effects on the atmosphere can be studied in the lab, with methods like
1567:
was published in 2007. Many scientists also see the other side of this research, which is learning how to cause the same effect artificially. While discussed around the 1990s, if not earlier, stratospheric aerosol injection as a
1104:, some anaerobic microorganisms, such as those living in sediment or near deep sea thermal vents, use the reduction of sulfates coupled with the oxidation of organic compounds or hydrogen as an energy source for chemosynthesis.
697:
However, Pauling's representation for sulfate and other main group compounds with oxygen is still a common way of representing the bonding in many textbooks. The apparent contradiction can be clarified if one realizes that the
2918:
Stanhill, G.; Cohen, S. (2001). "Global dimming: a review of the evidence for a widespread and significant reduction in global radiation with discussion of its probable causes and possible agricultural consequences".
1430:
Since changes in aerosol concentrations already have an impact on the global climate, they would necessarily influence future projections as well. In fact, it is impossible to fully estimate the warming impact of all
4043:
Xie, Xiaoning; Myhre, Gunnar; Shindell, Drew; Faluvegi, Gregory; Takemura, Toshihiko; Voulgarakis, Apostolos; Shi, Zhengguo; Li, Xinzhou; Xie, Xiaoxun; Liu, Heng; Liu, Xiaodong; Liu, Yangang (27 December 2022).
1318:
Sulfur dioxide in the world on April 15, 2017. Note that sulfur dioxide moves through the atmosphere with prevailing winds and thus local sulfur dioxide distributions vary day to day with weather patterns and
2351:
Lewis assigned to sulfur a negative charge of two, starting from six own valence electrons and ending up with eight electrons shared with the oxygen atoms. In fact, sulfur donates two electrons to the oxygen
3412:
Henneman, Lucas R.F.; Liu, Cong; Mulholland, James A.; Russell, Armistead G. (7 October 2016). "Evaluating the effectiveness of air quality regulations: A review of accountability studies and frameworks".
4644:
Trisos, Christopher H.; Geden, Oliver; Seneviratne, Sonia I.; Sugiyama, Masahiro; van Aalst, Maarten; Bala, Govindasamy; Mach, Katharine J.; Ginzburg, Veronika; de
Coninck, Heleen; Patt, Anthony (2021).
1309:
part of the spectrum. Further, the dimming had occurred even when the skies were clear, and it was in fact stronger than during the cloudy days, proving that it was not caused by changes in cloud cover
4308:
Palumbo, P.; A. Rotundi; V. Della Corte; A. Ciucci; L. Colangeli; F. Esposito; E. Mazzotta
Epifani; V. Mennella; J.R. Brucato; F.J.M. Rietmeijer; G. J. Flynn; J.-B. Renard; J.R. Stephens; E. Zona.
3861:
Lan X, Basu S, Schwietzke S, Bruhwiler LM, Dlugokencky EJ, Michel SE, Sherwood OA, Tans PP, Thoning K, Etiope G, Zhuang Q, Liu L, Oh Y, Miller JB, Pétron G, Vaughn BH, Crippa M (8 May 2021).
912:, to a solution containing sulfate ions, barium sulfate will precipitate out of solution as a whitish powder. This is a common laboratory test to determine if sulfate anions are present.
3657:
Mülmenstädt, J.; Neubauer, D.; Possner, A.; Rugenstein, M.; Sato, Y.; Schulz, M.; Schwartz, S. E.; Sourdeval, O.; Storelvmo, T.; Toll, V.; Winker, D.; Stevens, B. (1 November 2019).
1507:
In the United States, aerosols generally reduce both mean and extreme precipitation across all four seasons, which has cancelled out the increases caused by greenhouse gas warming
678:). However, in this description, despite there being some π character to the S−O bonds, the bond has significant ionic character. For sulfuric acid, computational analysis (with
5789:
702:
double bonds in the Lewis structure actually represent bonds that are strongly polarized by more than 90% towards the oxygen atom. On the other hand, in the structure with a
5476:
4391:
Zhang, Jie; Furtado, Kalli; Turnock, Steven T.; Mulcahy, Jane P.; Wilcox, Laura J.; Booth, Ben B.; Sexton, David; Wu, Tongwen; Zhang, Fang; Liu, Qianxia (22 December 2021).
5445:
1532:
5465:
6385:
6172:
6140:
6085:
5712:
5700:
3053:
6350:
6010:
6338:
6326:
6257:
6124:
6101:
5858:
5678:
5492:
4654:
Climate Change 2021: The
Physical Science Basis. Contribution of Working Group I to the Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change
3711:
Climate Change 2021: The
Physical Science Basis. Contribution of Working Group I to the Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change
655:) in causing the shortening of the S−O bond. The outcome was a broad consensus that d orbitals play a role, but are not as significant as Pauling had believed.
6288:
6220:
6188:
6156:
5909:
5773:
3560:
3448:
Gulyurtlu, I.; Pinto, F.; Abelha, P.; Lopes, H.; Crujeira, A.T. (2013). "Pollutant emissions and their control in fluidised bed combustion and gasification".
6366:
6273:
6204:
5766:
5739:
5300:
5277:
1447:(and since methane is a relatively short-lived greenhouse gas), it is believed that simultaneous reductions in both would effectively cancel each other out.
804:
Although written with simple anhydrous formulas, these conversions generally are conducted in the presence of water. Consequently the product sulfates are
5754:
5732:
1382:
2427:
5812:
3111:
Wild, Martin; Wacker, Stephan; Yang, Su; Sanchez-Lorenzo, Arturo (1 February 2021). "Evidence for Clear-Sky
Dimming and Brightening in Central Europe".
5881:
4612:
5578:
479:
473:
4101:
Pan, Bowen; Wang, Yuan; Hu, Jiaxi; Lin, Yun; Hsieh, Jen-Shan; Logan, Timothy; Feng, Xidan; Jiang, Jonathan H.; Yung, Yuk L.; Zhang, Renyi (2018).
1449:
Yet, in the recent years, methane concentrations had been increasing at rates exceeding their previous period of peak growth in the 1980s, with
3347:
Lin, Cheng-Kuan; Lin, Ro-Ting; Chen, Pi-Cheng; Wang, Pu; De
Marcellis-Warin, Nathalie; Zigler, Corwin; Christiani, David C. (8 February 2018).
613:
in his groundbreaking paper of 1916 where he described the bonding in terms of electron octets around each atom, that is no double bonds and a
4722:
4696:
3490:
1407:
At the peak of global dimming, it was able to counteract the warming trend completely. By 1975, the continually increasing concentrations of
1353:
After 1990, the global dimming trend had clearly switched to global brightening. This followed measures taken to combat air pollution by the
1559:, as the necessity of accounting for aerosol cooling to truly understand the rate and evolution of warming had long been apparent, with the
3732:
1836:
339:
2361:
The prefix "bi" in "bisulfate" comes from an outdated naming system and is based on the observation that there is twice as much sulfate (
637:
3586:
2611:
Stefan, Thorsten; Janoschek, Rudolf (Feb 2000). "How relevant are S=O and P=O Double Bonds for the
Description of the Acid Molecules H
1997:
456:. Salts, acid derivatives, and peroxides of sulfate are widely used in industry. Sulfates occur widely in everyday life. Sulfates are
4194:
Risser, Mark D.; Collins, William D.; Wehner, Michael F.; O'Brien, Travis A.; Huang, Huanping; Ullrich, Paul A. (22 February 2024).
3759:"Air quality improvements are projected to weaken the Atlantic meridional overturning circulation through radiative forcing effects"
2726:"Saving a fragile legacy. Biotechnology and microbiology are increasingly used to preserve and restore the worlds cultural heritage"
4309:
4135:
4562:
Visioni, Daniele; Slessarev, Eric; MacMartin, Douglas G; Mahowald, Natalie M; Goodale, Christine L; Xia, Lili (1 September 2020).
4165:
3002:
Eddy, John A.; Gilliland, Ronald L.; Hoyt, Douglas V. (23 December 1982). "Changes in the solar constant and climatic effects".
1476:
Sulfate aerosols have decreased precipitation over most of Asia (red), but increased it over some parts of
Central Asia (blue).
4046:"Anthropogenic sulfate aerosol pollution in South and East Asia induces increased summer precipitation over arid Central Asia"
3486:
134:
3515:
3465:
2693:
6429:
4169:
1577:
1563:
being the first to include an estimate of their impact on climate, and every major model able to simulate them by the time
1500:
over the ocean and hence reduce evaporation from it, they would be "spinning down the hydrological cycle of the planet."
3164:
3063:
2921:
4756:
1667:
19:
This article is about the inorganic ion. For sulfate esters (commonly used in shampoo and personal care products), see
3546:
1811:
304:
3564:
1279:. The negative component identified as "sulfate" is associated with the aerosol emissions blamed for global dimming.
659:
4646:
1921:
417:
4393:"The role of anthropogenic aerosols in the anomalous cooling from 1960 to 1990 in the CMIP6 Earth system models"
4360:
4335:
3038:
Spacecraft measurements have established that the total radiative output of the Sun varies at the 0.1−0.3% level
2873:
3926:"Tropical methane emissions explain large fraction of recent changes in global atmospheric methane growth rate"
2332:
2327:
915:
The sulfate ion can act as a ligand attaching either by one oxygen (monodentate) or by two oxygens as either a
644:
of 157 pm for S−OH. The double bonding was taken by
Pauling to account for the shortness of the S−O bond.
562:
2031:. In dilute solutions the hydrogensulfate ions also dissociate, forming more hydronium ions and sulfate ions (
5334:
1564:
1560:
1465:
1374:
1276:
982:
506:
arrangement. The symmetry of the isolated anion is the same as that of methane. The sulfur atom is in the +6
1400:. Such smoke is full of black carbon, which contributes to dimming trends but has an overall warming effect.
662:. In this model, fully occupied p orbitals on oxygen overlap with empty sulfur d orbitals (principally the d
4619:
3706:
2965:
2874:"Means and trends of shortwave irradiance at the surface estimated from global energy balance archive data"
1954:
1725:
636:
involving d orbitals. His reasoning was that the charge on sulfur was thus reduced, in accordance with his
247:
192:
4255:"Development of a novel particle mass spectrometer for online measurements of refractory sulfate aerosols"
1411:
have overcome the masking effect and dominated ever since. Even then, regions with high concentrations of
1775:
1301:
strongly suggesting that the reasons for the dimming were on Earth. Additionally, only visible light and
268:
1373:. In the United States, sulfate aerosols have declined significantly since 1970 with the passage of the
4334:
Myhre, Gunnar; Stordal, Frode; Berglen, Tore F.; Sundet, Jostein K.; Isaksen, Ivar S. A. (2004-03-01).
3058:
6454:
6053:
5388:
3349:"A Global Perspective on Sulfur Oxide Controls in Coal-Fired Power Plants and Cardiovascular Disease"
2958:"Observed Reductions in Surface Solar Radiation in the United States and Worldwide from 1961 to 1990"
1450:
1240:
1101:
587:
204:
4523:"Albedo Enhancement by Stratospheric Sulfur Injections: A Contribution to Resolve a Policy Dilemma?"
3086:
1972:). Sulfuric acid is classified as a strong acid; in aqueous solutions it ionizes completely to form
5659:
4957:
4139:
1792:
1370:
1358:
977:
805:
652:
285:
4713:
4687:
4988:
4734:
4450:
4102:
1439:
4432:
3251:
Pinker; Zhang, B; Dutton, EG (2005). "Do Satellites Detect Trends in Surface Solar Radiation?".
6236:
6069:
4749:
1251:
1051:
2778:"Disentangling Aerosol and Cloud Effects on Dimming and Brightening in Observations and CMIP6"
6449:
5520:
5433:
5239:
5223:
5193:
5104:
5052:
4973:
4200:
3930:
2957:
2685:
1609:
1229:
1046:
964:
ligand. The metal–oxygen bonds in sulfate complexes can have significant covalent character.
629:
74:
2827:
Stanhill, G.; Moreshet, S. (6 November 2004). "Global radiation climate changes in Israel".
658:
A widely accepted description involving pπ – dπ bonding was initially proposed by
6117:
5916:
5893:
5504:
5216:
5186:
4661:
4575:
4534:
4485:
4404:
4347:
4266:
4209:
4057:
3997:
3939:
3878:
3770:
3620:
3360:
3262:
3209:
3120:
3013:
2974:
2930:
2890:
2838:
2789:
2521:
1707:
1643:
1569:
1533:
Stratospheric aerosol injection § Pollution controls and the discovery of radiative effects
905:
679:
256:
110:
3329:
174:
8:
6303:
6026:
5847:
5839:
5555:
5144:
4564:"What goes up must come down: impacts of deposition in a sulfate geoengineering scenario"
3713:. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, USA, pp. 3–32,
2005:
1633:
1444:
1362:
1116:, glassy, were so-called because they were some of the first transparent crystals known.
625:
510:
while the four oxygen atoms are each in the −2 state. The sulfate ion carries an overall
100:
4665:
4579:
4538:
4489:
4408:
4351:
4270:
4230:
4213:
4195:
4143:
4061:
4001:
3943:
3882:
3774:
3624:
3364:
3266:
3213:
3124:
3017:
2978:
2934:
2894:
2842:
2793:
2525:
1796:
1729:
1687:
1330:
289:
196:
154:
6041:
5828:
5539:
5316:
5293:
5270:
4373:
4290:
4078:
4045:
4025:
3960:
3925:
3924:
Feng, Liang; Palmer, Paul I.; Zhu, Sihong; Parker, Robert J.; Liu, Yi (16 March 2022).
3901:
3862:
3788:
3683:
3658:
3389:
3348:
3286:
3233:
3146:
3029:
2881:
2854:
2750:
2725:
2652:
2590:
2537:
2448:
1540:
1503:
1285:
1237:
1029:, a common form of iron in mineral supplements for humans, animals, and soil for plants
1015:
948:
824:
4173:
3195:
2942:
2776:
Julsrud, I. R.; Storelvmo, T.; Schulz, M.; Moseid, K. O.; Wild, M. (20 October 2022).
6444:
5624:
5407:
5323:
5254:
5133:
5071:
5037:
5029:
4940:
4903:
4835:
4742:
4593:
4503:
4392:
4365:
4294:
4282:
4235:
4083:
4029:
3985:
3965:
3906:
3839:
3834:
3792:
3688:
3638:
3608:
3461:
3430:
3394:
3376:
3278:
3253:
3225:
3200:
3150:
2858:
2755:
2689:
2492:
2432:
2078:
1544:
1354:
1032:
881:
690:
442:
4377:
4310:"The DUSTER experiment: collection and analysis of aerosol in the high stratosphere"
3290:
3237:
3196:"From Dimming to Brightening: Decadal Changes in Solar Radiation at Earth's Surface"
2656:
2452:
5874:
5805:
5590:
5395:
5372:
5247:
5162:
5123:
5021:
5000:
4980:
4923:
4669:
4583:
4542:
4493:
4412:
4355:
4274:
4225:
4217:
4114:
4073:
4065:
4015:
4005:
3955:
3947:
3896:
3886:
3778:
3714:
3678:
3670:
3628:
3494:
3453:
3422:
3384:
3368:
3270:
3217:
3136:
3128:
3033:
3021:
3004:
2982:
2938:
2898:
2846:
2807:
2797:
2745:
2737:
2677:
2644:
2586:
2565:
2541:
2529:
2512:
2484:
2440:
2423:
2374:
2021:
1859:
1042:
1026:
885:
610:
554:
511:
457:
362:
4278:
3733:"Explainer: Will global warming 'stop' as soon as net-zero emissions are reached?"
3523:
3426:
1763:
722:
are prepared by treating metal oxides, metal carbonates, or the metal itself with
5648:
5571:
5547:
5417:
5350:
5208:
5178:
5152:
5115:
5093:
4910:
4821:
2829:
2140:
1738:
1497:
1412:
997:
925:
909:
897:
877:
839:
507:
483:
402:
236:
4254:
3986:"Robust evidence for reversal of the trend in aerosol effective climate forcing"
3457:
2903:
1472:
6314:
5939:
5667:
5635:
5609:
5528:
5010:
4868:
4588:
4563:
4221:
4069:
4020:
3951:
3783:
3758:
3633:
3372:
3172:
3141:
2385:
1915:
1903:
1891:
1432:
1408:
1346:
1007:
901:
893:
889:
515:
438:
411:
397:
4673:
4547:
4522:
4417:
4010:
3835:"Scientists raise alarm over 'dangerously fast' growth in atmospheric methane"
3718:
1484:, in a manner similar to some natural processes. One example is the impact of
6438:
4879:
4845:
4796:
4597:
4369:
4286:
4119:
3450:
Fluidized Bed Technologies for Near-Zero Emission Combustion and Gasification
3380:
3304:
2741:
2476:
2471:
2467:
2308:
2212:
2001:
1958:
1896:
1718:
1556:
1272:
1267:
1256:
1244:
1157:
1117:
723:
719:
699:
641:
621:
614:
550:
546:
461:
185:
20:
4637:
3607:
Xu, Yangyang; Ramanathan, Veerabhadran; Victor, David G. (5 December 2018).
3274:
3221:
1388:
904:
is the most insoluble sulfate known. The barium derivative is useful in the
647:
Pauling's use of d orbitals provoked a debate on the relative importance of
33:
5342:
4555:
4507:
4498:
4473:
4239:
4087:
3969:
3910:
3736:
3692:
3642:
3434:
3398:
3282:
3229:
2759:
2555:
Mitchell, K. A. R. (1969). "Use of outer d orbitals in bonding".
2496:
1573:
1548:
1366:
1137:
809:
703:
566:
4514:
4196:"Anthropogenic aerosols mask increases in US rainfall by greenhouse gases"
1112:
Some sulfates were known to alchemists. The vitriol salts, from the Latin
1004:. About 100 million tonnes per year are used by the construction industry.
4861:
3891:
3674:
3545:
Moses, Elizabeth; Cardenas, Beatriz; Seddon, Jessica (25 February 2020).
3132:
2987:
2802:
2777:
2488:
2400:
2284:
2260:
2164:
1481:
1393:
1345:
around the world steadily declined (red line) since the 1991 eruption of
1306:
1221:
1217:
1036:
640:. The S−O bond length of 149 pm is shorter than the bond lengths in
577:
503:
4307:
3806:
3602:
3600:
2569:
2444:
868:
There are numerous examples of ionic sulfates, many of which are highly
3863:"Improved Constraints on Global Methane Emissions and Sinks Using δC-CH
2850:
2812:
2648:
2557:
2236:
2188:
1881:
1698:
1397:
1292:
1089:
1061:
869:
686:
601:
595:
384:
205:
165:
4451:"Stratospheric Injections Could Help Cool Earth, Computer Model Shows"
3710:
2533:
908:
of sulfate: if one adds a solution of most barium salts, for instance
3597:
3025:
2322:
1973:
1552:
1518:
1492:
1233:
1181:
1177:
1055:
1011:
961:
707:
1914:
Except where otherwise noted, data are given for materials in their
1314:
410:
Except where otherwise noted, data are given for materials in their
4327:
1596:
1523:
1421:
1417:
1342:
1302:
940:
55:
16:
Oxyanion with a central atom of sulfur surrounded by 4 oxygen atoms
4764:
1666:
1438:
Regardless of the current strength of aerosol cooling, all future
1337:
133:
4610:
4561:
3561:"Crichton's Thriller State of Fear: Separating Fact from Fiction"
2510:
Coulson, C. A. (1969). "d Electrons and Molecular Bonding".
2116:
1750:
1435:
without accounting for the counteracting cooling from aerosols.
1225:
1001:
916:
857:
648:
633:
223:
46:
4474:"Global and Arctic climate engineering: numerical model studies"
4336:"Uncertainties in the Radiative Forcing Due to Sulfate Aerosols"
3547:"The Most Successful Air Pollution Treaty You've Never Heard Of"
989:
Sulfates are widely used industrially. Major compounds include:
3330:"Global 'Sunscreen' Has Likely Thinned, Report NASA Scientists"
1485:
1141:
993:
921:
499:
495:
4715:
Nomenclature of Inorganic Chemistry IUPAC Recommendations 2005
4689:
Nomenclature of Inorganic Chemistry IUPAC Recommendations 2005
4643:
4193:
3757:
Hassan, Taufiq; Allen, Robert J.; et al. (27 June 2022).
3659:"Bounding Global Aerosol Radiative Forcing of Climate Change"
3110:
2771:
2769:
1678:
1656:
873:
558:
145:
123:
3984:
Martin; Myhre, Gunnar; Schulz, Michael (21 September 2022).
3655:
3411:
2775:
1780:
1392:
Satellite photo showing a thick pall of smoke and haze from
1377:, which was strengthened in 1977 and 1990. According to the
609:
The first description of the bonding in modern terms was by
273:
4647:"Cross-Working Group Box SRM: Solar Radiation Modification"
4613:"Costs and benefits of geo-engineering in the Stratosphere"
4436:
4361:
10.1175/1520-0469(2004)061<0485:UITRFD>2.0.CO;2
4253:
Kobayashi, Yuya; Ide, Yu; Takegawa, Nobuyuki (2021-04-03).
4166:"Could Reducing Global Dimming Mean a Hotter, Dryer World?"
3811:
3699:
3649:
3590:
3587:""Warming Hole" Over the Eastern U.S. Due to Air Pollution"
3333:
2911:
2820:
1488:
1480:
On regional and global scale, air pollution can affect the
1173:
1121:
4390:
3860:
2949:
2766:
1555:
were also used for observation. This data is fed into the
4471:
4333:
4187:
4103:"Sahara dust may make you cough, but it's a storm killer"
3750:
3519:
3447:
3244:
3157:
3048:
3046:
2865:
1378:
4042:
3976:
3508:
3487:"Air Emissions Trends – Continued Progress Through 2005"
3054:"Aerosol pollution has caused decades of global dimming"
3322:
3187:
2995:
1996:) ions. In other words, the sulfuric acid behaves as a
1208:, figured in the development of the chemical industry.
4036:
3043:
1547:
Samples of actual particles can be recovered from the
981:
Knapsack sprayer used to apply sulfate to vegetables.
3982:
3724:
3481:
3479:
3477:
3415:
Journal of the Air & Waste Management Association
689:
and the charge distribution is in agreement with the
617:
of +2 on the sulfur atom and -1 on each oxygen atom.
4252:
4163:
1383:
Convention on Long-Range Transboundary Air Pollution
1045:, produced on both plates during the discharge of a
4136:"Aerosol Pollution Could Drain Earth's Water Cycle"
3923:
3544:
2004:to form hydrogensulfate ion. Hydrogensulfate has a
1323:
1271:This figure shows the level of agreement between a
3606:
3474:
4433:"Aerosols and Incoming Sunlight (Direct Effects)"
3609:"Global warming will happen faster than we think"
3579:
3250:
3001:
2676:
474:American and British English spelling differences
6436:
2871:
2826:
2328:Sulfation and desulfation of lead–acid batteries
1762:
235:
6430:Current global map of aerosol optical thickness
2610:
2585:
1642:
109:
3346:
2723:
1584:
1466:Global dimming § Relationship with water cycle
4750:
2917:
1228:combustion. They increase the acidity of the
4133:
4100:
2782:Journal of Geophysical Research: Atmospheres
2345:
3756:
3305:"Global Dimming may have a brighter future"
2672:
2670:
2668:
2666:
1820:InChI=1S/H2O4S/c1-5(2,3)4/h(H2,1,2,3,4)/p-1
1023:) is used for galvanic cells as electrolyte
482:, but "sulphate" was traditionally used in
313:InChI=1S/H2O4S/c1-5(2,3)4/h(H2,1,2,3,4)/p-2
4757:
4743:
3730:
2008:of 1. An example of a salt containing the
1795:
1728:
1706:
1262:
972:
323:InChI=1/H2O4S/c1-5(2,3)4/h(H2,1,2,3,4)/p-2
288:
195:
173:
4611:Andrew Charlton-Perez; Eleanor Highwood.
4587:
4546:
4497:
4416:
4359:
4229:
4118:
4077:
4019:
4009:
3959:
3900:
3890:
3832:
3782:
3682:
3632:
3452:. Woodhead Publishing. pp. 435–480.
3388:
3140:
2986:
2902:
2872:Gilgen, H.; Wild, M.; Ohmura, A. (1998).
2811:
2801:
2749:
2046:
1216:Sulfates occur as microscopic particles (
534:, which is in turn the conjugate base of
478:"Sulfate" is the spelling recommended by
255:
4164:Kostel, Ken; Oh, Clare (14 April 2006).
2663:
2606:
2604:
2581:
2579:
2554:
1517:
1502:
1471:
1387:
1336:
1313:
1291:
1266:
1211:
976:
860:can be oxidized to give metal sulfates.
600:
576:
494:The sulfate anion consists of a central
4520:
3193:
2955:
2509:
2466:
1791:
1551:using balloons or aircraft, and remote
1513:
1305:radiation were dimmed, rather than the
1096:
996:, the natural mineral form of hydrated
919:or a bridge. An example is the complex
685:In this model, the structure obeys the
284:
6437:
4810:
4050:Communications Earth & Environment
3763:Communications Earth & Environment
2708:
1719:
967:
565:of the sulfate ion is as predicted by
464:and many are prepared from that acid.
186:
5999:
4738:
3516:"Effects of Acid Rain – Human Health"
3169:Pacific Northwest National Laboratory
2601:
2576:
2422:
1823:Key: QAOWNCQODCNURD-UHFFFAOYSA-M
1686:
1458:
960:where the sulfate ion is acting as a
628:to propose that the most significant
316:Key: QAOWNCQODCNURD-UHFFFAOYSA-L
153:
4472:Launder B.; J.M.T. Thompson (1996).
3491:U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
3084:
2597:(2nd ed.). New York, NY: Wiley.
1522:Proposed tethered balloon to inject
1443:equivalent to the warming caused by
4340:Journal of the Atmospheric Sciences
2922:Agricultural and Forest Meteorology
2711:Inorganic and Theoretical Chemistry
1753:
1349:, according to satellite estimates.
498:atom surrounded by four equivalent
326:Key: QAOWNCQODCNURD-NUQVWONBAM
226:
13:
3731:Hausfather, Zeke (29 April 2021).
3062:. 18 February 2021. Archived from
2713:(6th ed.). William Heinemann.
1385:, and with similar improvements.
54:
45:
14:
6466:
6423:
4453:. ScienceDaily. 15 September 2006
4397:Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics
3990:Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics
4170:Lamont–Doherty Earth Observatory
4134:Cat Lazaroff (7 December 2001).
3085:Adam, David (18 December 2003).
1595:
1531:This section is an excerpt from
1464:This section is an excerpt from
1329:This section is an excerpt from
1324:Reversal and accelerated warming
1284:This section is an excerpt from
1259:that often tarnishes buildings.
660:Durward William John Cruickshank
32:
4728:from the original on 2017-05-18
4706:
4702:from the original on 2017-05-18
4680:
4604:
4465:
4443:
4425:
4384:
4301:
4246:
4157:
4127:
4094:
3917:
3854:
3833:Tollefson J (8 February 2022).
3826:
3807:"Trends in Atmospheric Methane"
3799:
3553:
3538:
3441:
3405:
3340:
3297:
3104:
3078:
2717:
2399:) and other sulfates. See also
2355:
1918:(at 25 °C , 100 kPa).
1572:method is best associated with
1275:driven by five factors and the
706:, the charge is localized as a
414:(at 25 °C , 100 kPa).
4568:Environmental Research Letters
4259:Aerosol Science and Technology
2702:
2548:
2503:
2472:"The modern theory of valency"
2460:
2416:
2333:Sulfate-reducing microorganism
1160:is zinc sulfate heptahydrate,
713:
638:principle of electroneutrality
581:Two models of the sulfate ion.
563:tetrahedral molecular geometry
1:
4279:10.1080/02786826.2020.1852168
3522:. 2 June 2006. Archived from
3493:. 8 July 2014. Archived from
3427:10.1080/10962247.2016.1242518
2956:Liepert, B. G. (2 May 2002).
2943:10.1016/S0168-1923(00)00241-0
2410:
2384:) and other bisulfates as in
1565:IPCC Fourth Assessment Report
1561:IPCC Second Assessment Report
1277:historical temperature record
983:Valencian Museum of Ethnology
938:or the neutral metal complex
863:
557:, are covalent compounds and
4314:Societa Astronomica Italiana
3871:Global Biogeochemical Cycles
3113:Geophysical Research Letters
2966:Geophysical Research Letters
2709:Taylor, F. Sherwood (1942).
2595:Advanced Inorganic Chemistry
1039:), used in therapeutic baths
900:, which are poorly soluble.
489:
7:
3458:10.1533/9780857098801.2.435
2904:10.1175/1520-0442-11.8.2042
2724:Andrea Rinaldi (Nov 2006).
2428:"The Atom and the Molecule"
2316:
1585:Hydrogensulfate (bisulfate)
1144:(II) sulfate pentahydrate,
1124:(II) sulfate heptahydrate,
467:
41:
10:
6471:
6001:
4222:10.1038/s41467-024-45504-8
4070:10.1038/s43247-022-00660-x
3952:10.1038/s41467-022-28989-z
3784:10.1038/s43247-022-00476-9
3634:10.1038/d41586-018-07586-5
3373:10.1038/s41598-018-20404-2
3059:American Geophysical Union
1886:97.071 g/mol
1530:
1463:
1328:
1283:
1107:
572:
522:(or hydrogensulfate) ion,
471:
18:
4812:
4788:
4765:Compounds containing the
4674:10.1017/9781009157896.007
4548:10.1007/s10584-006-9101-y
4418:10.5194/acp-21-18609-2021
4011:10.5194/acp-22-12221-2022
3719:10.1017/9781009157896.001
2682:Chemistry of the Elements
2680:; Earnshaw, Alan (1997).
1912:
1852:
1832:
1807:
1626:
1618:
1608:
1603:
1594:
1451:wetland methane emissions
1331:Global dimming § Reversal
1241:sulfate-reducing bacteria
1102:Sulfate-reducing bacteria
408:
355:
335:
300:
93:
83:
73:
68:
40:
31:
4589:10.1088/1748-9326/ab94eb
4140:Environment News Service
4120:10.1175/JCLI-D-16-0776.1
3707:Summary for Policymakers
2742:10.1038/sj.embor.7400844
2338:
1440:climate change scenarios
1371:fluidized bed combustion
1359:flue-gas desulfurization
1286:Global dimming § History
1014:, the more stable form (
653:electrostatic attraction
4521:Crutzen, P. J. (2006).
3275:10.1126/science.1103159
3261:(6 May 2005): 850–854.
3222:10.1126/science.1103215
3208:(2005–05–06): 847–850.
1984:) and hydrogensulfate (
1263:Main effects on climate
1058:in shampoo formulations
973:Commercial applications
4721:, IUPAC, p. 129,
4695:, IUPAC, p. 129,
4499:10.1098/rsta.2008.0132
4478:Phil. Trans. R. Soc. A
2047:Other sulfur oxyanions
1527:
1526:into the stratosphere.
1508:
1477:
1401:
1350:
1320:
1298:
1280:
1176:, a double sulfate of
1052:Sodium laureth sulfate
986:
606:
598:
561:of sulfuric acid. The
59:
50:
4201:Nature Communications
3931:Nature Communications
3663:Reviews of Geophysics
2788:(21): e2021JD035476.
2686:Butterworth-Heinemann
2678:Greenwood, Norman N.
1521:
1506:
1475:
1391:
1340:
1317:
1295:
1270:
1255:can remove the black
1212:Environmental effects
1000:, is used to produce
980:
876:. Exceptions include
680:natural bond orbitals
604:
580:
472:Further information:
88:Tetraoxidosulfate(VI)
58:
49:
4172:News. Archived from
3892:10.1029/2021GB007000
3877:(6): e2021GB007000.
3675:10.1029/2019RG000660
3669:(1): e2019RG000660.
3175:on 16 September 2012
3133:10.1029/2020GL092216
2988:10.1029/2002GL014910
2803:10.1029/2021JD035476
2489:10.1039/JR9480001461
1570:solar geoengineering
1514:Solar geoengineering
1363:thermal power plants
1357:, typically through
1097:Occurrence in nature
1054:, or SLES, a common
906:gravimetric analysis
630:resonance canonicals
514:of −2 and it is the
4666:2021AGUFM.U13B..05K
4580:2020ERL....15i4063V
4539:2006ClCh...77..211C
4490:2008RSPTA.366.4039C
4409:2021ACP....2118609Z
4352:2004JAtS...61..485M
4271:2021AerST..55..371K
4214:2024NatCo..15.1318R
4062:2022ComEE...3..328X
4021:20.500.11850/572791
4002:2022ACP....2212221Q
3996:(18): 12221–12239.
3944:2022NatCo..13.1378F
3883:2021GBioC..3507000L
3775:2022ComEE...3..149H
3625:2018Natur.564...30X
3365:2018NatSR...8.2611L
3267:2005Sci...308..850P
3214:2005Sci...308..847W
3165:"Earth lightens up"
3142:20.500.11850/477374
3125:2021GeoRL..4892216W
3018:1982Natur.300..689E
2979:2002GeoRL..29.1421L
2935:2001AgFM..107..255S
2895:1998JCli...11.2042G
2843:1992ClCh...22..121S
2794:2022JGRD..12735476J
2591:Wilkinson, Geoffrey
2570:10.1021/cr60258a001
2526:1969Natur.221.1106C
2445:10.1021/ja02261a002
2053:
1998:Brønsted–Lowry acid
1949:), also called the
1591:
1445:atmospheric methane
1035:(commonly known as
968:Uses and occurrence
808:, corresponding to
651:and bond polarity (
626:valence bond theory
392: g·mol
86:Tetraoxosulfate(VI)
28:
4625:on 14 January 2017
4439:. 2 November 2010.
4403:(4): 18609–18627.
4107:Journal of Climate
3526:on 18 January 2008
3353:Scientific Reports
3087:"Goodbye sunshine"
2882:Journal of Climate
2851:10.1007/BF00142962
2649:10.1007/PL00010730
2635:, respectively?".
2057:Molecular formula
2051:
1922:Infobox references
1589:
1541:ion-chromatography
1528:
1509:
1478:
1459:Hydrological cycle
1402:
1351:
1321:
1299:
1281:
987:
825:copper(II) sulfate
607:
599:
418:Infobox references
60:
51:
26:
6420:
6419:
6414:
6413:
4484:(1882): 4039–56.
4113:(18): 7621–7644.
3467:978-0-85709-541-1
3012:(5894): 689–693.
2973:(12): 61–1–61–4.
2736:(11): 1075–1079.
2695:978-0-08-037941-8
2587:Cotton, F. Albert
2534:10.1038/2211106a0
2433:J. Am. Chem. Soc.
2424:Lewis, Gilbert N.
2314:
2313:
2079:Peroxomonosulfate
2052:Sulfur oxyanions
1930:Chemical compound
1928:
1927:
1776:CompTox Dashboard
1668:Interactive image
1545:mass spectrometry
1361:installations at
1355:developed nations
1220:) resulting from
1184:with the formula
1047:lead–acid battery
1033:Magnesium sulfate
882:strontium sulfate
691:electronegativity
443:empirical formula
426:Chemical compound
424:
423:
269:CompTox Dashboard
135:Interactive image
64:
63:
6462:
6455:Sulfur oxyanions
5091:
5089:
5088:
5085:
4971:
4954:
4937:
4901:
4890:
4888:
4887:
4884:
4859:
4841:
4831:
4806:
4792:
4791:
4782:
4781:
4780:
4779:
4776:
4759:
4752:
4745:
4736:
4735:
4730:
4729:
4727:
4720:
4710:
4704:
4703:
4701:
4694:
4684:
4678:
4677:
4651:
4641:
4635:
4634:
4632:
4630:
4624:
4618:. Archived from
4617:
4608:
4602:
4601:
4591:
4559:
4553:
4552:
4550:
4533:(3–4): 211–220.
4518:
4512:
4511:
4501:
4469:
4463:
4462:
4460:
4458:
4447:
4441:
4440:
4429:
4423:
4422:
4420:
4388:
4382:
4381:
4363:
4331:
4325:
4324:
4322:
4320:
4305:
4299:
4298:
4250:
4244:
4243:
4233:
4191:
4185:
4184:
4182:
4181:
4161:
4155:
4154:
4152:
4151:
4142:. Archived from
4131:
4125:
4124:
4122:
4098:
4092:
4091:
4081:
4040:
4034:
4033:
4023:
4013:
3980:
3974:
3973:
3963:
3921:
3915:
3914:
3904:
3894:
3858:
3852:
3851:
3849:
3847:
3830:
3824:
3823:
3821:
3819:
3803:
3797:
3796:
3786:
3754:
3748:
3747:
3745:
3743:
3728:
3722:
3703:
3697:
3696:
3686:
3653:
3647:
3646:
3636:
3604:
3595:
3594:
3583:
3577:
3576:
3574:
3572:
3563:. Archived from
3557:
3551:
3550:
3542:
3536:
3535:
3533:
3531:
3512:
3506:
3505:
3503:
3502:
3483:
3472:
3471:
3445:
3439:
3438:
3409:
3403:
3402:
3392:
3344:
3338:
3337:
3336:. 15 March 2007.
3326:
3320:
3319:
3317:
3316:
3301:
3295:
3294:
3248:
3242:
3241:
3194:Wild, M (2005).
3191:
3185:
3184:
3182:
3180:
3171:. Archived from
3161:
3155:
3154:
3144:
3108:
3102:
3101:
3099:
3097:
3082:
3076:
3075:
3073:
3071:
3066:on 27 March 2023
3050:
3041:
3040:
3026:10.1038/300689a0
2999:
2993:
2992:
2990:
2962:
2953:
2947:
2946:
2915:
2909:
2908:
2906:
2889:(8): 2042–2061.
2878:
2869:
2863:
2862:
2824:
2818:
2817:
2815:
2805:
2773:
2764:
2763:
2753:
2721:
2715:
2714:
2706:
2700:
2699:
2684:(2nd ed.).
2674:
2661:
2660:
2637:J. Mol. Modeling
2608:
2599:
2598:
2583:
2574:
2573:
2552:
2546:
2545:
2507:
2501:
2500:
2464:
2458:
2456:
2420:
2404:
2398:
2383:
2375:sodium bisulfate
2372:
2371:
2370:
2367:
2359:
2353:
2349:
2305:
2304:
2303:
2300:
2281:
2280:
2279:
2276:
2257:
2256:
2255:
2252:
2233:
2232:
2231:
2228:
2209:
2208:
2207:
2204:
2185:
2184:
2183:
2180:
2161:
2160:
2159:
2156:
2137:
2136:
2135:
2132:
2113:
2112:
2111:
2108:
2095:
2094:
2093:
2090:
2075:
2074:
2073:
2070:
2054:
2050:
2042:
2041:
2040:
2037:
2030:
2022:sodium bisulfate
2019:
2018:
2017:
2014:
1995:
1994:
1993:
1990:
1983:
1971:
1948:
1947:
1946:
1943:
1875:
1874:
1873:
1870:
1860:Chemical formula
1800:
1799:
1784:
1782:
1766:
1755:
1739:Gmelin Reference
1732:
1721:
1710:
1690:
1670:
1646:
1599:
1592:
1590:Hydrogensulfate
1588:
1433:greenhouse gases
1413:sulfate aerosols
1409:greenhouse gases
1207:
1171:
1155:
1135:
1087:
1043:Lead(II) sulfate
1027:Iron(II) sulfate
1021:
959:
937:
886:lead(II) sulfate
852:
837:
822:
800:
772:
747:
555:dimethyl sulfate
544:
533:
532:
531:
528:
455:
454:
453:
450:
439:polyatomic anion
391:
378:
377:
376:
373:
363:Chemical formula
293:
292:
277:
275:
259:
239:
228:
207:
199:
188:
177:
157:
137:
113:
42:
36:
29:
25:
6470:
6469:
6465:
6464:
6463:
6461:
6460:
6459:
6435:
6434:
6426:
6421:
6416:
6415:
6397:
6393:
6389:
6378:
6374:
6370:
6362:
6358:
6354:
6346:
6342:
6334:
6330:
6322:
6318:
6313:
6311:
6307:
6302:
6300:
6296:
6292:
6281:
6277:
6269:
6265:
6261:
6248:
6244:
6240:
6232:
6228:
6224:
6216:
6212:
6208:
6200:
6196:
6192:
6184:
6180:
6176:
6168:
6164:
6160:
6152:
6148:
6144:
6136:
6132:
6128:
6123:
6121:
6113:
6109:
6105:
6097:
6093:
6089:
6081:
6077:
6073:
6065:
6061:
6057:
6049:
6045:
6040:
6038:
6034:
6030:
6022:
6018:
6014:
5943:
5924:
5920:
5915:
5913:
5905:
5901:
5897:
5889:
5885:
5880:
5878:
5870:
5866:
5862:
5857:
5855:
5851:
5843:
5838:
5836:
5832:
5824:
5820:
5816:
5811:
5809:
5801:
5797:
5793:
5785:
5781:
5777:
5772:
5770:
5762:
5758:
5753:
5751:
5747:
5743:
5738:
5736:
5728:
5724:
5720:
5716:
5708:
5704:
5690:
5686:
5682:
5671:
5663:
5658:
5656:
5652:
5639:
5634:
5632:
5628:
5623:
5621:
5617:
5613:
5602:
5598:
5594:
5586:
5582:
5577:
5575:
5567:
5563:
5559:
5551:
5543:
5538:
5536:
5532:
5524:
5516:
5512:
5508:
5500:
5496:
5484:
5480:
5475:
5473:
5469:
5461:
5457:
5453:
5449:
5441:
5437:
5429:
5425:
5421:
5411:
5403:
5399:
5394:
5392:
5376:
5362:
5358:
5354:
5346:
5338:
5333:
5331:
5327:
5322:
5320:
5312:
5308:
5304:
5299:
5297:
5289:
5285:
5281:
5276:
5274:
5266:
5262:
5258:
5253:
5251:
5243:
5235:
5231:
5227:
5222:
5220:
5212:
5207:
5205:
5201:
5197:
5192:
5190:
5182:
5174:
5170:
5166:
5156:
5148:
5143:
5141:
5137:
5119:
5114:
5112:
5108:
5103:
5101:
5097:
5092:
5086:
5083:
5082:
5079:
5075:
5064:
5060:
5056:
5051:
5049:
5045:
5041:
5033:
5025:
5020:
5018:
5014:
4996:
4992:
4984:
4979:
4977:
4972:
4969:
4965:
4961:
4956:
4955:
4952:
4948:
4944:
4939:
4938:
4935:
4931:
4927:
4922:
4918:
4914:
4909:
4907:
4902:
4900:
4896:
4892:
4891:
4885:
4882:
4881:
4878:
4877:
4872:
4867:
4865:
4860:
4857:
4853:
4849:
4844:
4839:
4834:
4829:
4825:
4820:
4804:
4800:
4795:
4784:
4777:
4774:
4773:
4771:
4770:
4763:
4733:
4725:
4718:
4712:
4711:
4707:
4699:
4692:
4686:
4685:
4681:
4649:
4642:
4638:
4628:
4626:
4622:
4615:
4609:
4605:
4560:
4556:
4527:Climatic Change
4519:
4515:
4470:
4466:
4456:
4454:
4449:
4448:
4444:
4431:
4430:
4426:
4389:
4385:
4332:
4328:
4318:
4316:
4306:
4302:
4251:
4247:
4192:
4188:
4179:
4177:
4162:
4158:
4149:
4147:
4132:
4128:
4099:
4095:
4041:
4037:
3981:
3977:
3922:
3918:
3866:
3859:
3855:
3845:
3843:
3831:
3827:
3817:
3815:
3805:
3804:
3800:
3755:
3751:
3741:
3739:
3729:
3725:
3704:
3700:
3654:
3650:
3619:(7734): 30–32.
3605:
3598:
3585:
3584:
3580:
3570:
3568:
3559:
3558:
3554:
3543:
3539:
3529:
3527:
3514:
3513:
3509:
3500:
3498:
3485:
3484:
3475:
3468:
3446:
3442:
3410:
3406:
3345:
3341:
3328:
3327:
3323:
3314:
3312:
3303:
3302:
3298:
3249:
3245:
3192:
3188:
3178:
3176:
3163:
3162:
3158:
3109:
3105:
3095:
3093:
3083:
3079:
3069:
3067:
3052:
3051:
3044:
3000:
2996:
2960:
2954:
2950:
2916:
2912:
2876:
2870:
2866:
2830:Climatic Change
2825:
2821:
2774:
2767:
2722:
2718:
2707:
2703:
2696:
2675:
2664:
2634:
2630:
2626:
2622:
2618:
2614:
2609:
2602:
2584:
2577:
2553:
2549:
2508:
2504:
2465:
2461:
2457:(See page 778.)
2421:
2417:
2413:
2408:
2407:
2397:
2393:
2389:
2382:
2378:
2368:
2365:
2364:
2362:
2360:
2356:
2350:
2346:
2341:
2319:
2301:
2298:
2297:
2295:
2291:
2277:
2274:
2273:
2271:
2267:
2253:
2250:
2249:
2247:
2243:
2229:
2226:
2225:
2223:
2219:
2205:
2202:
2201:
2199:
2195:
2181:
2178:
2177:
2175:
2171:
2157:
2154:
2153:
2151:
2147:
2141:Peroxydisulfate
2133:
2130:
2129:
2127:
2123:
2109:
2106:
2105:
2103:
2091:
2088:
2087:
2085:
2071:
2068:
2067:
2065:
2049:
2038:
2035:
2034:
2032:
2029:
2025:
2015:
2012:
2011:
2009:
1991:
1988:
1987:
1985:
1981:
1977:
1970:
1966:
1962:
1944:
1941:
1940:
1938:
1935:hydrogensulfate
1931:
1924:
1919:
1871:
1868:
1867:
1865:
1862:
1848:
1845:
1840:
1839:
1828:
1825:
1824:
1821:
1815:
1814:
1803:
1785:
1778:
1769:
1756:
1741:
1713:
1693:
1673:
1660:
1649:
1636:
1622:
1614:
1613:Hydrogensulfate
1587:
1582:
1581:
1536:
1516:
1511:
1510:
1498:solar radiation
1469:
1461:
1456:
1455:
1426:
1425:
1404:
1403:
1334:
1326:
1312:
1311:
1289:
1265:
1214:
1205:
1201:
1197:
1193:
1189:
1185:
1169:
1165:
1161:
1153:
1149:
1145:
1133:
1129:
1125:
1110:
1099:
1085:
1081:
1077:
1073:
1069:
1065:
1020:
1016:
998:calcium sulfate
975:
970:
957:
952:
946:
939:
935:
931:
920:
910:barium chloride
898:mercury sulfate
878:calcium sulfate
866:
850:
846:
842:
840:cadmium sulfate
835:
831:
827:
820:
816:
812:
799:
795:
791:
787:
783:
779:
775:
770:
766:
762:
758:
754:
750:
746:
742:
738:
734:
730:
716:
710:on the oxygen.
677:
667:
582:
575:
543:
539:
535:
529:
526:
525:
523:
508:oxidation state
492:
484:British English
476:
470:
451:
448:
447:
445:
427:
420:
415:
403:Hydrogensulfate
389:
374:
371:
370:
368:
365:
351:
348:
343:
342:
331:
328:
327:
324:
318:
317:
314:
308:
307:
296:
278:
271:
262:
242:
229:
217:
180:
160:
140:
127:
116:
103:
89:
87:
79:
24:
17:
12:
11:
5:
6468:
6458:
6457:
6452:
6447:
6433:
6432:
6425:
6424:External links
6422:
6418:
6417:
6412:
6411:
6408:
6405:
6402:
6399:
6395:
6391:
6387:
6383:
6380:
6376:
6372:
6368:
6364:
6360:
6356:
6352:
6348:
6344:
6340:
6336:
6332:
6328:
6324:
6320:
6316:
6309:
6305:
6298:
6294:
6290:
6286:
6283:
6279:
6275:
6271:
6267:
6263:
6259:
6255:
6251:
6250:
6246:
6242:
6238:
6234:
6230:
6226:
6222:
6218:
6214:
6210:
6206:
6202:
6198:
6194:
6190:
6186:
6182:
6178:
6174:
6170:
6166:
6162:
6158:
6154:
6150:
6146:
6142:
6138:
6134:
6130:
6126:
6119:
6115:
6111:
6107:
6103:
6099:
6095:
6091:
6087:
6083:
6079:
6075:
6071:
6067:
6063:
6059:
6055:
6051:
6047:
6043:
6036:
6032:
6028:
6024:
6020:
6016:
6012:
6008:
6004:
6003:
6000:
5997:
5996:
5993:
5990:
5987:
5984:
5981:
5978:
5975:
5972:
5969:
5966:
5963:
5960:
5957:
5954:
5951:
5948:
5945:
5941:
5937:
5933:
5932:
5929:
5926:
5922:
5918:
5911:
5907:
5903:
5899:
5895:
5891:
5887:
5883:
5876:
5872:
5868:
5864:
5860:
5853:
5849:
5845:
5841:
5834:
5830:
5826:
5822:
5818:
5814:
5807:
5803:
5799:
5795:
5791:
5787:
5783:
5779:
5775:
5768:
5764:
5760:
5756:
5749:
5745:
5741:
5734:
5730:
5726:
5722:
5718:
5714:
5710:
5706:
5702:
5698:
5695:
5692:
5688:
5684:
5680:
5676:
5673:
5669:
5665:
5661:
5654:
5650:
5645:
5644:
5641:
5637:
5630:
5626:
5619:
5615:
5611:
5607:
5604:
5600:
5596:
5592:
5588:
5584:
5580:
5573:
5569:
5565:
5561:
5557:
5553:
5549:
5545:
5541:
5534:
5530:
5526:
5522:
5518:
5514:
5510:
5506:
5502:
5498:
5494:
5490:
5487:
5482:
5478:
5471:
5467:
5463:
5459:
5455:
5451:
5447:
5443:
5439:
5435:
5431:
5427:
5423:
5419:
5415:
5413:
5409:
5405:
5401:
5397:
5390:
5385:
5384:
5381:
5378:
5374:
5370:
5367:
5364:
5360:
5356:
5352:
5348:
5344:
5340:
5336:
5329:
5325:
5318:
5314:
5310:
5306:
5302:
5295:
5291:
5287:
5283:
5279:
5272:
5268:
5264:
5260:
5256:
5249:
5245:
5241:
5237:
5233:
5229:
5225:
5218:
5214:
5210:
5203:
5199:
5195:
5188:
5184:
5180:
5176:
5172:
5168:
5164:
5160:
5158:
5154:
5150:
5146:
5139:
5135:
5130:
5129:
5126:
5121:
5117:
5110:
5106:
5099:
5095:
5077:
5073:
5069:
5066:
5062:
5058:
5054:
5047:
5043:
5039:
5035:
5031:
5027:
5023:
5016:
5012:
5007:
5006:
5003:
4998:
4994:
4990:
4986:
4982:
4975:
4967:
4963:
4959:
4950:
4946:
4942:
4933:
4929:
4925:
4920:
4916:
4912:
4905:
4898:
4894:
4874:
4870:
4863:
4855:
4851:
4847:
4842:
4837:
4832:
4827:
4823:
4817:
4816:
4813:
4811:
4809:
4807:
4802:
4798:
4790:
4789:
4786:
4785:
4762:
4761:
4754:
4747:
4739:
4732:
4731:
4705:
4679:
4636:
4603:
4554:
4513:
4464:
4442:
4424:
4383:
4346:(5): 485–498.
4326:
4300:
4265:(4): 371–386.
4245:
4186:
4156:
4126:
4093:
4035:
3975:
3916:
3864:
3853:
3825:
3798:
3749:
3723:
3698:
3648:
3596:
3593:. 18 May 2012.
3578:
3552:
3537:
3507:
3473:
3466:
3440:
3421:(2): 144–172.
3404:
3339:
3321:
3296:
3243:
3186:
3156:
3103:
3077:
3042:
2994:
2948:
2929:(4): 255–278.
2910:
2864:
2837:(2): 121–138.
2819:
2765:
2716:
2701:
2694:
2662:
2643:(2): 282–288.
2632:
2628:
2624:
2620:
2616:
2612:
2600:
2575:
2547:
2520:(5186): 1106.
2502:
2468:Pauling, Linus
2459:
2439:(4): 762–785.
2414:
2412:
2409:
2406:
2405:
2395:
2391:
2386:sodium sulfate
2380:
2354:
2343:
2342:
2340:
2337:
2336:
2335:
2330:
2325:
2318:
2315:
2312:
2311:
2306:
2293:
2288:
2287:
2282:
2269:
2264:
2263:
2258:
2245:
2240:
2239:
2234:
2221:
2216:
2215:
2210:
2197:
2192:
2191:
2186:
2173:
2168:
2167:
2162:
2149:
2144:
2143:
2138:
2125:
2120:
2119:
2114:
2100:
2099:
2096:
2082:
2081:
2076:
2062:
2061:
2058:
2048:
2045:
2027:
1979:
1968:
1964:
1955:conjugate base
1929:
1926:
1925:
1920:
1916:standard state
1913:
1910:
1909:
1906:
1904:Conjugate base
1900:
1899:
1894:
1892:Conjugate acid
1888:
1887:
1884:
1878:
1877:
1863:
1858:
1855:
1854:
1850:
1849:
1847:
1846:
1843:
1835:
1834:
1833:
1830:
1829:
1827:
1826:
1822:
1819:
1818:
1810:
1809:
1808:
1805:
1804:
1802:
1801:
1788:
1786:
1774:
1771:
1770:
1768:
1767:
1759:
1757:
1749:
1746:
1745:
1742:
1737:
1734:
1733:
1723:
1715:
1714:
1712:
1711:
1703:
1701:
1695:
1694:
1692:
1691:
1683:
1681:
1675:
1674:
1672:
1671:
1663:
1661:
1654:
1651:
1650:
1648:
1647:
1639:
1637:
1632:
1629:
1628:
1624:
1623:
1620:
1616:
1615:
1612:
1606:
1605:
1601:
1600:
1586:
1583:
1557:climate models
1537:
1529:
1515:
1512:
1470:
1462:
1460:
1457:
1428:
1427:
1406:
1405:
1347:Mount Pinatubo
1335:
1327:
1325:
1322:
1290:
1282:
1264:
1261:
1213:
1210:
1203:
1199:
1195:
1191:
1187:
1167:
1163:
1151:
1147:
1131:
1127:
1109:
1106:
1098:
1095:
1094:
1093:
1083:
1079:
1075:
1071:
1067:
1059:
1049:
1040:
1030:
1024:
1018:
1008:Copper sulfate
1005:
974:
971:
969:
966:
955:
950:
944:
933:
929:
902:Radium sulfate
894:silver sulfate
890:barium sulfate
865:
862:
848:
844:
833:
829:
818:
814:
802:
801:
797:
793:
789:
785:
781:
777:
773:
768:
764:
760:
756:
752:
748:
744:
740:
736:
732:
720:metal sulfates
715:
712:
669:
663:
605:Six resonances
588:polar covalent
574:
571:
551:sulfate esters
541:
537:
516:conjugate base
491:
488:
469:
466:
425:
422:
421:
416:
412:standard state
409:
406:
405:
400:
398:Conjugate acid
394:
393:
387:
381:
380:
366:
361:
358:
357:
353:
352:
350:
349:
346:
338:
337:
336:
333:
332:
330:
329:
325:
322:
321:
319:
315:
312:
311:
303:
302:
301:
298:
297:
295:
294:
281:
279:
267:
264:
263:
261:
260:
252:
250:
244:
243:
241:
240:
232:
230:
222:
219:
218:
216:
215:
211:
209:
201:
200:
190:
182:
181:
179:
178:
170:
168:
162:
161:
159:
158:
150:
148:
142:
141:
139:
138:
130:
128:
121:
118:
117:
115:
114:
106:
104:
99:
96:
95:
91:
90:
85:
81:
80:
77:
71:
70:
66:
65:
62:
61:
52:
38:
37:
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
6467:
6456:
6453:
6451:
6448:
6446:
6443:
6442:
6440:
6431:
6428:
6427:
6409:
6406:
6403:
6400:
6398:
6384:
6381:
6379:
6365:
6363:
6349:
6347:
6337:
6335:
6325:
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4574:(9): 094063.
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4176:on 2016-03-03
4175:
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4146:on 2016-06-03
4145:
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3610:
3603:
3601:
3592:
3588:
3582:
3567:on 2006-06-14
3566:
3562:
3556:
3548:
3541:
3525:
3521:
3517:
3511:
3497:on 2007-03-17
3496:
3492:
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3469:
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3311:. 15 May 2005
3310:
3306:
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3256:
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2527:
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2519:
2515:
2514:
2506:
2498:
2494:
2490:
2486:
2483:: 1461–1467.
2482:
2479:
2478:
2477:J. Chem. Soc.
2473:
2469:
2463:
2454:
2450:
2446:
2442:
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2435:
2434:
2429:
2425:
2419:
2415:
2402:
2387:
2376:
2358:
2348:
2344:
2334:
2331:
2329:
2326:
2324:
2321:
2320:
2310:
2309:Tetrathionate
2307:
2290:
2289:
2286:
2283:
2266:
2265:
2262:
2259:
2242:
2241:
2238:
2235:
2218:
2217:
2214:
2213:Metabisulfite
2211:
2194:
2193:
2190:
2187:
2170:
2169:
2166:
2163:
2146:
2145:
2142:
2139:
2122:
2121:
2118:
2115:
2102:
2101:
2097:
2084:
2083:
2080:
2077:
2064:
2063:
2059:
2056:
2055:
2044:
2023:
2007:
2003:
1999:
1975:
1960:
1959:sulfuric acid
1956:
1952:
1936:
1923:
1917:
1911:
1907:
1905:
1902:
1901:
1898:
1897:Sulfuric acid
1895:
1893:
1890:
1889:
1885:
1883:
1880:
1879:
1864:
1861:
1857:
1856:
1851:
1842:
1841:
1838:
1831:
1817:
1816:
1813:
1806:
1798:
1794:
1793:DTXSID3042425
1790:
1789:
1787:
1777:
1773:
1772:
1765:
1761:
1760:
1758:
1752:
1748:
1747:
1743:
1740:
1736:
1735:
1731:
1727:
1724:
1722:
1720:ECHA InfoCard
1717:
1716:
1709:
1705:
1704:
1702:
1700:
1697:
1696:
1689:
1685:
1684:
1682:
1680:
1677:
1676:
1669:
1665:
1664:
1662:
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1653:
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1645:
1641:
1640:
1638:
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1625:
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1611:
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1598:
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1467:
1452:
1448:
1446:
1441:
1436:
1434:
1423:
1419:
1414:
1410:
1399:
1398:Eastern China
1395:
1390:
1386:
1384:
1380:
1376:
1375:Clean Air Act
1372:
1368:
1367:wet scrubbers
1364:
1360:
1356:
1348:
1344:
1341:Sun-blocking
1339:
1332:
1316:
1308:
1304:
1294:
1287:
1278:
1274:
1273:climate model
1269:
1260:
1258:
1257:sulfate crust
1254:
1253:
1248:
1247:desulfuricans
1246:
1245:Desulfovibrio
1242:
1239:
1235:
1231:
1227:
1223:
1219:
1209:
1183:
1179:
1175:
1159:
1158:white vitriol
1143:
1139:
1123:
1119:
1118:Green vitriol
1115:
1105:
1103:
1091:
1063:
1060:
1057:
1053:
1050:
1048:
1044:
1041:
1038:
1034:
1031:
1028:
1025:
1022:
1013:
1009:
1006:
1003:
999:
995:
992:
991:
990:
984:
979:
965:
963:
953:
942:
927:
923:
918:
913:
911:
907:
903:
899:
895:
891:
887:
883:
879:
875:
871:
861:
859:
854:
841:
826:
811:
807:
774:
749:
729:
728:
727:
725:
724:sulfuric acid
721:
711:
709:
705:
701:
695:
692:
688:
683:
681:
676:
672:
666:
661:
656:
654:
650:
645:
643:
642:sulfuric acid
639:
635:
631:
627:
623:
622:Linus Pauling
618:
616:
615:formal charge
612:
611:Gilbert Lewis
603:
597:
593:
589:
585:
579:
570:
568:
564:
560:
556:
552:
548:
547:sulfuric acid
521:
517:
513:
509:
505:
501:
497:
487:
485:
481:
475:
465:
463:
462:sulfuric acid
459:
444:
440:
436:
432:
419:
413:
407:
404:
401:
399:
396:
395:
388:
386:
383:
382:
367:
364:
360:
359:
354:
345:
344:
341:
334:
320:
310:
309:
306:
299:
291:
287:
286:DTXSID3042425
283:
282:
280:
270:
266:
265:
258:
254:
253:
251:
249:
246:
245:
238:
234:
233:
231:
225:
221:
220:
213:
212:
210:
208:
203:
202:
198:
194:
191:
189:
187:ECHA InfoCard
184:
183:
176:
172:
171:
169:
167:
164:
163:
156:
152:
151:
149:
147:
144:
143:
136:
132:
131:
129:
125:
120:
119:
112:
108:
107:
105:
102:
98:
97:
92:
82:
76:
72:
67:
57:
53:
48:
44:
43:
39:
35:
30:
22:
21:Organosulfate
6450:Particulates
5080:
4766:
4714:
4708:
4688:
4682:
4657:
4653:
4639:
4627:. Retrieved
4620:the original
4606:
4571:
4567:
4557:
4530:
4526:
4516:
4481:
4477:
4467:
4455:. Retrieved
4445:
4427:
4400:
4396:
4386:
4343:
4339:
4329:
4317:. Retrieved
4313:
4303:
4262:
4258:
4248:
4205:
4199:
4189:
4178:. Retrieved
4174:the original
4159:
4148:. Retrieved
4144:the original
4129:
4110:
4106:
4096:
4053:
4049:
4038:
3993:
3989:
3978:
3935:
3929:
3919:
3874:
3870:
3856:
3844:. Retrieved
3838:
3828:
3816:. Retrieved
3810:
3801:
3766:
3762:
3752:
3740:. Retrieved
3737:Carbon Brief
3726:
3705:IPCC, 2021:
3701:
3666:
3662:
3651:
3616:
3612:
3581:
3569:. Retrieved
3565:the original
3555:
3540:
3528:. Retrieved
3524:the original
3510:
3499:. Retrieved
3495:the original
3449:
3443:
3418:
3414:
3407:
3356:
3352:
3342:
3324:
3313:. Retrieved
3308:
3299:
3258:
3252:
3246:
3205:
3199:
3189:
3177:. Retrieved
3173:the original
3168:
3159:
3116:
3112:
3106:
3094:. Retrieved
3091:The Guardian
3090:
3080:
3068:. Retrieved
3064:the original
3057:
3037:
3009:
3003:
2997:
2970:
2964:
2951:
2926:
2920:
2913:
2886:
2880:
2867:
2834:
2828:
2822:
2785:
2781:
2733:
2730:EMBO Reports
2729:
2719:
2710:
2704:
2681:
2640:
2636:
2594:
2561:
2556:
2550:
2517:
2511:
2505:
2480:
2475:
2462:
2436:
2431:
2418:
2357:
2347:
2002:deprotonated
1953:ion, is the
1950:
1934:
1932:
1627:Identifiers
1619:Other names
1574:Paul Crutzen
1549:stratosphere
1479:
1437:
1429:
1394:forest fires
1352:
1319:seasonality.
1250:
1243:
1215:
1138:blue vitriol
1113:
1111:
1100:
988:
914:
867:
855:
810:zinc sulfate
803:
717:
704:dipolar bond
696:
694:the latter.
684:
674:
670:
664:
657:
646:
619:
608:
591:
590:bonds only;
583:
567:VSEPR theory
519:
493:
477:
434:
430:
428:
94:Identifiers
84:Other names
4629:17 February
4457:19 February
4319:19 February
4208:(1): 1318.
3938:(1): 1378.
3530:2 September
3359:(1): 2611.
3309:RealClimate
3070:18 December
2813:10852/97300
2401:bicarbonate
2285:Trithionate
2261:Thiosulfate
2165:Pyrosulfate
1853:Properties
1726:100.108.048
1688:CHEBI:45696
1482:water cycle
1307:ultraviolet
1252:D. vulgaris
1222:fossil fuel
1037:Epsom salts
1010:, a common
856:Some metal
714:Preparation
504:tetrahedral
502:atoms in a
356:Properties
347:S(=O)(=O)()
193:100.108.048
155:CHEBI:16189
6439:Categories
4180:2006-06-12
4150:2007-03-24
4056:(1): 328.
3846:14 October
3818:14 October
3769:(3): 149.
3501:2007-03-17
3315:2006-06-12
2564:(2): 157.
2558:Chem. Rev.
2411:References
2237:Dithionite
2189:Dithionate
1882:Molar mass
1699:ChemSpider
1655:3D model (
1644:14996-02-2
1634:CAS Number
1610:IUPAC name
1553:satellites
1365:, such as
1230:atmosphere
1090:fertiliser
1088:, used as
1062:Polyhalite
864:Properties
718:Typically
687:octet rule
649:pi bonding
596:ionic bond
553:, such as
549:. Organic
385:Molar mass
257:7IS9N8KPMG
166:ChemSpider
122:3D model (
111:14808-79-8
101:CAS Number
75:IUPAC name
4598:1748-9326
4370:0022-4928
4295:229506768
4287:0278-6826
4030:252446168
3793:250077615
3381:2045-2322
3151:233645438
3096:26 August
2859:154006620
2323:Sulfonate
1974:hydronium
1951:bisulfate
1844:O(=O)(=O)
1621:Bisulfate
1496:decrease
1493:hurricane
1238:anaerobic
1234:acid rain
1232:and form
1202:·24H
1182:aluminium
1178:potassium
1114:vitreolum
1056:detergent
1012:algaecide
962:bidentate
708:lone pair
520:bisulfate
490:Structure
441:with the
437:ion is a
214:233-334-2
206:EC Number
6445:Sulfates
4723:archived
4697:archived
4660:: 1238.
4508:18757275
4378:55623817
4240:38388495
4231:10884021
4088:36588543
3970:35297408
3911:34219915
3693:32734279
3643:30518902
3435:27715473
3399:29422539
3291:10644227
3283:15879215
3238:13124021
3230:15879214
2760:17077862
2657:96291857
2593:(1966).
2497:18893624
2470:(1948).
2453:95865413
2426:(1916).
2317:See also
2098:Sulfate
1908:Sulfate
1524:aerosols
1422:Missouri
1418:Arkansas
1343:aerosols
1303:infrared
1218:aerosols
1166:·7H
1150:·5H
1130:·7H
1082:·2H
858:sulfides
832:·5H
817:·7H
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468:Spelling
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6002:
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