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concretely established, with 60–70,000 killed by ANC operations to suppress the Kwilu
Rebellion alone. In the next few years, small outbursts of violence continued around the Kwilu region, although without the planning and coordination of the rebellion itself. In 1968, president Mobutu lured Mulele out of exile with the promise of amnesty. However, when Mulele returned expecting safety, he was publicly tortured and executed. After the provincial government was restored on 18 January 1966, the Kwilu province was merged with the Kwango District and Mai-Ndombe District to create Bandundu Province, as part of a national effort to reduce political and ethnic tensions. The wider Congo crisis during which the Kwilu rebellion occurred is considered a significant event in Congo's recent history. It is viewed as a representation of Western influence and power in Africa. Of the numerous struggles faced by Congo in the years after its independence, the Kwilu rebellion was particularly impactful, as political conflict penetrated deeply in the villages and rural areas for the first time. The Kwilu rebellion coincided with a wide escalation of the Cold War amid the Gulf of Tonkin incident, and many believe that a "full-scale American military intervention could have occurred" as in Vietnam if the rebellion was not swiftly defeated. And in August 2024, four missionary priests martyred on 28th November 1964, were beatified by Pope Francis.
222:
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109:
595:, many of his forces were not. Largely tribal farmers and workers, they were often difficult to control. Many of the people that Mulele recruited were not only very militant in favoring civil disobedience, but also radical in their attitude toward Belgian colonial authority and the Congolese government. The rebels also used witchcraft extensively to demoralize their opponents. The rebels are reported to have used machetes, poisoned arrows, homemade bombs, and guns as weapons. However, they were limited as to the effectiveness of their weapons. They lacked weaponry, and that which they possessed was often in disrepair.
188:
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Christian mission, killing three pastors. From this point onwards, religious, government, and industrial agencies were key targets for rebels. On 5 February, the chief of staff of the ANC was ambushed and killed. In the first weeks of the rebellion, hundreds of police and government workers were killed by Kwilu rebels, often in public executions. As violence increased and attacks became more frequent, it sparked similar uprisings throughout the country, triggering the Simba rebellion. The rebels began to expand their territory and rapidly advance northwards, capturing Port-Émpain,
126:
141:
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154:
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post-independence development leading to a significant differential in access to material rewards. Those who were able to move into the former
Belgian-occupied roles in society, and those unable to achieve such opportunities for status mobility received a vastly different quality of life. The political instability within the country acted as a catalyst to turn discontent into revolt. Many of the would-be revolutionaries were young men, who felt disenfranchised and unsupported by
234:
173:
45:
606:. He taught them basic politics and military tactics, alongside the help of deserters from the Congolese army. The training included physical preparation, guerilla tactics, espionage, alongside ideological indoctrination. Prior to the start of the rebellion in 1964, a number of rebels were sent to various villages within the Kwilu district to indoctrinate, intimidate, and coerce villagers into supporting the cause.
534:’s government. The attitude of many in the Congo during this period has been described as 'fighting against foreign imperialists and their Congolese lackeys'. By late 1963, the value of the Congolese franc had plummeted, schools were overcrowded, and unemployment was high in the Kwilu region. Many Congolese people viewed themselves as worse off than they were prior to independence in 1960.
583:. This helped to inform the rebellion's ideology, with the majority of fighters claiming Maoist inspiration. The majority of rebels recruited were of the Mbunda or Pende ethnic groups, many of which had been targets of government oppression. These two ethnic groups comprised over half of the province's population, and played a major role in the victory over the
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retrieve fleeing missionaries. Rescue operations continued throughout the middle of 1964, and resulted in the successful recovery of over 100 missionaries. In some cases, the revolt was aided by villagers, who resented the presence of
Congolese troops. Certain cities in the Kwilu region were evacuated, with the help of UN forces.
541:"Before Independence, we dreamed that it would bring us masses of marvelous things. All of that was to descend upon us from the sky ... Deliverance and salvation ... But here it is more than two years that we have been waiting, and nothing has come ... On the contrary, our life is more difficult, we are more poor than before."
706:
Competing ethnic tensions were seen by many as a return to tribalism. By the beginning of 1965, the majority of captured areas were retaken, and the rebellion was starting to be put down. During this time, hunger and disease began to spread throughout the province, and remaining support for the rebellion began to wane.
696:
After the rebellion's early successes, the
Congolese government called for international aid in dealing with Mulele and his troops. Squads of foreign mercenaries, and 350 Belgian paratroopers were flown into the Congo. These trained forces began to quickly retake areas captured by the rebels. Foreign
676:
During the early months of the rebellion, attacks were generally planned and systematic. The people, villages, and institutions attacked were determined by the
Mulelist value system. Government, administrative, and wealthy individuals were targeted first. However, as the rebellion continued it became
705:
After a number of successes for the rebels, issues began to arise when trying to sustain control over captured territory. Corruption, administrative inefficiency, and ethnic favoritism turned out to be liabilities for the rebel leaders as much as they had been for previous provincial administrators.
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assembled a small force of peacekeepers and dispatched them to the Kwilu region to retrieve fleeing missionaries. Acting with the support of
Congolese forces, ONUC forces engaged rebels in Kwilu on multiple occasions before landing helicopters to evacuate missionaries and Western aid workers. Rescue
717:
After the defeat of the Kwilu rebellion, rebel remnants continued to be active in certain parts of the country. These had little impact on the government, however, and were confined to rural areas. The rebellion had significant casualties. Those killed in ANC "pacification" operations have not been
677:
more destructive, and less subject to the ideals, influence, and standards of
Mulelism, as well as its leaders. Murder, pillaging, and attacking women became more prevalent as time passed. This became particularly apparent after Europeans were evacuated from Kwilu, and the Congolese army arrived.
637:
The people of the villages must fight against the government, soldiers, and police, to overthrow the government and establish a new regime in which all must work in order to eat; in which foreigners cannot come to take the wealth of the country; and in which one cannot steal the wealth of another
590:
Mulele employed tactics reminiscent of
Chinese revolutions, and made his fighters adhere to a strict moral code, emphasising respect for civilians and self-discipline. The rebellion was backed by China, however, there is no evidence of physical support such as weapons, personnel, or ammunition.
672:
As they advanced, the rebels committed numerous massacres in the captured territory in order to remove political opposition and terrorise the population. A number of
Western missionaries were forced to retreat and flee the country. A small force of peacekeepers was sent to the Kwilu region to
655:
was thrown into the home of a professor, and two policemen were killed. Rebels attacked the
Portuguese palm oil refinery of Lutshima-Madail, and burned five of the company trucks, believed to have been used to transport soldiers of the National Congolese Army. On 23 January, rebels attacked a
614:
The political and ideological doctrine of Pierre Mulele acted as a backbone of the rebellion, and was followed by many of his troops. It offered a doctrine as to the problems facing the Congo, and an idyllic vision of what was to be done about them. The main tenets of the doctrine include:
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between July and August. As they advanced, the rebels began to gain a psychological edge over the ANC troops. This was largely due to the claims of magic possessed by Mulele and the rebels; that they were invulnerable, and that bullets would turn to water upon impact with rebel soldiers.
529:
Referred to as the ‘Second Independence’, the rebellion has been viewed as a revolutionary attempt to correct the injustices felt by many in the Congo after the first independence of 1960. Following independence in 1960, a period of social stratification occurred. This refers to the swift
701:
policy in order to isolate Kwilu rebels. They razed villages and destroyed harvests, often committing massacres of civilians. Notably, in Kikwit over 3,000 civilians were killed in a day, during an event nicknamed 'the National Butchery of Kikwit' by Colonel Joseph Monzimba.
522:’s government. When Lumumba was assassinated in early 1961, Mulele became a prominent and vocal advocate for his government and beliefs. In 1962, Mulele joined a group of fellow rebels and ex-politicians named the National Committee of Liberation. Headed by
502:. Based around the struggle for independence, the rebellion was encouraged by economic, social, and cultural grievances. Supported by communist China, rebels used mainly guerrilla warfare against government forces. The rebellion was concurrent with the
1713:
1783:
684:(ONUC), a peacekeeping operation, was in the process of withdrawing when the Kwilu rebellion started and had only 5,500 personnel, most whom were deployed in the eastern part of the country and stranded by the subsequent
506:
occurring in other areas of the Congo during this time. While the rebellion was suppressed in the early months of 1965, it had lasting political impacts, leading to the dissolution of Kwilu as an official province.
1706:
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1192:
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operations continued throughout March and April and resulted in the successful recovery of over 100 missionaries. Apart from these actions ONUC played no other role in suppressing the rebellion.
1236:
Fox, R., De Craemer, W., & Ribeaucourt, J. (1965). "The Second Independence": A Case Study of the Kwilu Rebellion in the Congo. Comparative Studies in Society and History, 8(1), 78–109.
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there. Straggling Western missionaries from Kwilu retreated through the bush to their respective embassies, which in turn requested UN assistance. In late January 1964 ONUC Chief of Staff
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The rebellion began in August 1963, though its initial actions were limited in scope. The conflict escalated on 16 January 1964, as rebels rose up in the cities of Idiofa and Gungu in
1699:
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Remarks made in 1962 by persons attending a meeting of the Savoir-Vivre movement in the village of Laba near Idiofa in the Kwilu reflect the discontent of many in Kwilu at the time.
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2009:
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The people are divided into two classes: (1) the rich, the capitalists, who profit from the work of others. (2) Workers and peasants: the poor, or the "popular masses".
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This social discontent, alongside political infighting and hostility towards President Joseph Kasavubu, resulted in the struggle for power and resulting Congo crisis.
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1239:
Lanotte, O. "Chronology of the Democratic Republic of Congo/Zaire (1960–1997)". Mass Violence and Resistance – Research Network. Paris Institute of Political Studies.
1995:
1988:
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Martens, Ludo. The people's uprising in the Congo (Kinshasa) 1964–1968: The way of Patrice Lumumba and Pierre Mulele. Labour Party of Belgium. ASIN B0007B9CMY
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Weigert S.L. (1996) Congo/Zaire: The Kwilu Rebellion, 1963–68. In: Traditional Religion and Guerrilla Warfare in Modern Africa. Palgrave Macmillan, London
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Siddiqui, A. (1992). FAILED INSURRECTIONS AND ETHNIC CLEAVAGES: A COMPARATIVE STUDY OF ZAIRE AND SRI LANKA. Peace Research, 24(1), 37–56. Retrieved from
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1212:(1966). Political Protest in the Congo—The Parti Solidaire Africain During the Independence Struggle. Oxford University Press, 11(1), pp. 94–95.
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Traugott, M. (1979). The Economic Origins of the Kwilu Rebellion. Comparative Studies in Society and History, 21(3), 459–479. Retrieved from
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The two classes are in a constant struggle. Either a struggle to diminish suffering, or a struggle to reform and reorganize the country.
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The government of the Congo is poor, protecting their own and keeping wealth to themselves, treating the common people as 'slaves'.
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Pierre Mulele fled into exile after the defeat of the rebellion, and would remain there for a number of years until his death.
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Mwakikagile, Godfrey (2014). Statecraft and Nation Building in Africa: A Post-colonial Study. Dar es Salaam: New Africa Press.
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Wagoner, Fred E. (2003). Dragon Rouge: The Rescue of Hostages in the Congo. Honolulu: University Press of the Pacific.
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1981:
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Gendebien, Paul-Henry (1967). L'Intervention Des Nations Unies Au Congo. 1960–1964. Berlin: Walter de Gruyter.
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in 1960. However, they only held 12 seats in the provincial government, which lead to significant discontent.
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https://www.nytimes.com/1964/01/17/archives/insurgents-terrorize-kwilu-province-in-congo.html
518:, rebel leader of the Kwilu rebellion, had previously served as minister of education within
420:
113:
78:
575:
Prior to leading the Kwilu rebellion, Pierre Mulele had undergone military training in the
526:, a former Deputy Premier, the group's aim was to "free the Congo of foreign oppression".
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Large civilian casualties, including 200 foreigners and at minimum 60,000–70,000 Congolese
8:
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2139:
2116:
372:
353:
336:
1465:
1369:
1296:
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478:(1963–1965) was a civil uprising which took place in the West of what is the modern-day
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Welch, C. (1980). Anatomy of Rebellion (1st ed.). Albany: State University of New York.
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New York Times. (1964). Insurgents Terrorize Kwilu Province in Congo. Retrieved from
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1939:
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379:
125:
74:
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2125:
1907:
1507:
1374:
Mulele et la révolution populaire au Kwilu (République démocratique du Congo)
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Cold War in the Congo: The Confrontation of Cuban Military Forces, 1960–1967
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498:, a faction of rebel Maoists staged a revolt against the government in the
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32:
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1822:
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Province. A series of incidents began to occur, carried out by rebels. A
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All men, no matter what their status and work, were once village people.
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Le mouvement Savoir-Vivr Experience de developpement communautaire rural
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36:
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Understanding Civil War: Evidence and Analysis, Volume 1. Africa.
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20th-century mass murder in the Democratic Republic of the Congo
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Warrior Chiefs: Perspectives on Senior Canadian Military Leaders
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Mulele began in 1963 by recruiting young men in the regions of
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193:
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The laws of a country are to protect the well-being of all.
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All the wealth in the country is controlled by foreigners.
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1005:
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Fox, R., De Craemer, W., & Ribeaucourt, J. (1965).
1002:
Fox, R., De Craemer, W., & Ribeaucourt, J. (1965).
993:
Fox, R., De Craemer, W., & Ribeaucourt, J. (1965).
966:
Fox, R., De Craemer, W., & Ribeaucourt, J. (1965).
930:
918:
482:. The rebellion took place in the wider context of the
984:
Fox, R., De Craemer, W., & Ribeaucourt, J. (1965).
546:
Jacques Meert, "Une semaine dans les villages Laba",
906:
2347:Civil wars in the Democratic Republic of the Congo
2367:Massacres in the Democratic Republic of the Congo
712:
2352:1963 in the Republic of the Congo (Léopoldville)
2328:
1216:Horn, Bernd; Harris, Stephen John, eds. (2001).
1262:
1059:
1406:
271:
2362:1965 in the Democratic Republic of the Congo
2357:1964 in the Democratic Republic of the Congo
1420:
1301:"Les rébellions populaires au Congo en 1964"
1173:. Oxford; New York City: Osprey Publishing.
1170:Modern African Wars (4): The Congo 1960–2002
558:
697:mercenaries alongside ANC troops enacted a
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1023:
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278:
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43:
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1581:Armée Populaire de Libération ("Simbas")
1187:Collier, P., & Sambanis, N. (2005).
562:
1707:White Legion (Compagnie Internationale)
1152:Collier, P., & Sambanis, N. (2005).
1125:Collier, P., & Sambanis, N. (2005).
951:
567:Mulele (third from the right) with the
2329:
1337:. Abingdon; New York City: Routledge.
1166:
912:
494:, a follower of ousted prime minister
2276:Dissolution of the Lumumba Government
1599:United Nations Operation in the Congo
1394:
682:United Nations Operation in the Congo
451:Dissolution of the Lumumba Government
259:
1285:http://www.jstor.org/stable/23607636
885:Fox, de Craemer, Ribeaucourt (1965).
2308:Belgian general strike of 1960–1961
1266:The Congo-Zaire Experience, 1960–98
903:Fox, de Craemer, Ribeaucourt (1965)
894:Fox, de Craemer, Ribeaucourt (1965)
53:(red) and Kwilu rebellions (yellow)
13:
1362:
1291:http://www.jstor.org/stable/178542
1269:(illustrated ed.). Springer.
14:
2403:
1222:(illustrated ed.). Dundurn.
1191:The World Bank: Washington, DC. (
1700:6th Commando Battalion (Belgium)
1693:4th Commando Battalion (Belgium)
1686:2nd Commando Battalion (Belgium)
1549:Armée Nationale Congolaise (ANC)
480:Democratic Republic of the Congo
285:
232:
220:
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186:
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114:Democratic Republic of the Congo
107:
79:Democratic Republic of the Congo
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816:
591:While Mulele was strict in his
2283:Torture and killing of Lumumba
807:
798:
789:
780:
771:
762:
753:
744:
735:
713:Aftermath and political impact
456:Torture and killing of Lumumba
1:
723:
510:
1116:Mwakikagile, Godfrey (2014).
804:Gendebien, Paul-Henry (1967)
728:
7:
1305:Cahiers d'Études africaines
609:
10:
2408:
1331:Villafana, Frank (2017) .
1263:O'Ballance, Edgar (1999).
1159:
858:Verhaegen, Benoît (1967).
49:Approximate extent of the
2299:
2290:Death of Dag Hammarskjöld
2267:
2055:
2019:
1924:
1878:
1846:
1807:
1800:
1668:
1650:
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822:Verhaegen, Benoît (1967).
559:Kwilu forces and ideology
461:Death of Dag Hammarskjöld
295:
249:
244:
202:
97:
57:
42:
30:
25:
2315:Decolonisation of Africa
1968:Hubert Fauntleroy Julian
1641:Ghana, Nigeria and Egypt
840:Verhaegen, Benoît (1967)
643:Rebel activity 1963–1965
585:Parti Solidaire Africain
65:August 1963 – early 1965
2066:Force Publique mutinies
2035:William "Rip" Robertson
1791:Cuban Exile Naval Force
1445:Egide Bocheley-Davidson
300:Force Publique mutinies
16:Civil uprising in Congo
2392:Insurgencies in Africa
2377:Massacres in the 1960s
2181:Port Francqui incident
1376:. Paris: L'Harmattan.
1167:Abbott, Peter (2014).
1048:Horn & Harris 2001
1036:Horn & Harris 2001
1024:Horn & Harris 2001
1012:Horn & Harris 2001
795:Gérard-Libois, (1966).
572:
553:
385:Port Francqui incident
203:Commanders and leaders
2258:Stanleyville mutinies
1887:Jean-Marie Crèvecoeur
1784:211th Makasi Squadron
1567:Katangese Gendarmerie
1317:10.3406/cea.1967.3100
1107:Martens, Ludo. 1979.
741:O. Lanotte(1960–1997)
566:
539:
245:Casualties and losses
2382:Rebellions in Africa
2337:Communist rebellions
2239:Violettes Imperiales
1862:Joseph-Désiré Mobutu
1816:Conor Cruise O'Brien
1714:5 Mechanised Brigade
1501:Joseph-Désiré Mobutu
759:Abbott, Peter (2014)
429:Violettes Imperiales
89:Rebellion suppressed
2387:Cold War rebellions
1915:Frédéric Vandewalle
1038:, pp. 313–315.
786:Martens, Ludo. 1973
750:Martens, Ludo. 1973
2268:Other major events
2101:Congo-Stanleyville
1574:South Kasai forces
1143:A. Siddiqui, 1992)
948:Welch, C. (1980).
573:
569:Lumumba Government
445:Other major events
325:Congo-Stanleyville
2324:
2323:
2056:Main operations /
2051:
2050:
1679:White mercenaries
1541:government forces
1459:Christophe Gbenye
1430:Political leaders
1370:Verhaegen, Benoît
1344:978-1-4128-4766-7
1297:Verhaegen, Benoît
1251:978-9987-16-039-6
1210:Gérard-Libois, J.
1204:978-3-11-113787-2
1180:978-1-78200-076-1
867:Welch, C. (1980).
831:A. Siddiqui, 1992
777:A. Siddiqui, 1992
524:Christophe Gbenye
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304:Secession crisis
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2133:Battle of Kabalo
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2080:
2073:
2072:Secession crisis
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1982:Siegfried Müller
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1894:Jules Crèvecoeur
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1515:Gaston Soumialot
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1480:Joseph Kasa-Vubu
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1466:Dag Hammarskjöld
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1080:Lanotte, O. 1966
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739:
690:Jacques Dextraze
653:Molotov cocktail
551:
349:Battle of Kabalo
290:
280:
273:
266:
257:
256:
237:
236:
235:
225:
224:
223:
216:Joseph Kasa-Vubu
214:
213:
212:
192:
190:
189:
176:
175:
174:
158:
156:
155:
145:
143:
142:
135:
129:
128:
112:
111:
110:
59:
58:
47:
23:
22:
2407:
2406:
2402:
2401:
2400:
2398:
2397:
2396:
2327:
2326:
2325:
2320:
2313:
2306:
2295:
2288:
2281:
2274:
2263:
2256:
2245:
2236:
2227:
2218:
2209:
2204:Simba rebellion
2202:
2197:Kwilu rebellion
2195:
2190:Kanyarwanda War
2188:
2179:
2172:
2163:
2154:
2145:
2138:
2131:
2124:
2115:
2110:UN intervention
2108:
2099:
2090:
2083:
2076:
2071:
2064:
2057:
2047:
2040:
2033:
2026:
2015:
2008:
2003:Roger Trinquier
2001:
1994:
1987:
1980:
1973:
1966:
1959:
1952:
1947:Charles Gardien
1945:
1938:
1931:
1920:
1913:
1906:
1899:
1892:
1885:
1874:
1867:
1860:
1853:
1842:
1835:
1828:
1821:
1814:
1796:
1789:
1782:
1775:
1768:
1761:
1754:
1747:
1740:
1733:
1726:
1719:
1712:
1705:
1698:
1691:
1684:
1677:
1671:mercenary units
1670:
1664:
1657:
1646:
1639:
1632:
1625:
1618:
1611:
1604:
1597:
1586:
1579:
1572:
1565:
1554:
1547:
1540:
1534:
1527:
1520:
1513:
1506:
1499:
1494:Patrice Lumumba
1492:
1485:
1478:
1471:
1464:
1457:
1450:
1443:
1436:
1425:
1419:
1384:
1365:
1363:Further reading
1360:
1345:
1321:
1319:
1311:(26): 345–359.
1277:
1230:
1181:
1162:
1157:
1156:
1151:
1147:
1142:
1138:
1133:
1129:
1124:
1120:
1115:
1111:
1106:
1102:
1097:
1093:
1088:
1084:
1079:
1075:
1071:Wagoner, (2003)
1070:
1066:
1060:O'Ballance 1999
1058:
1054:
1046:
1042:
1034:
1030:
1022:
1018:
1010:
1006:
1001:
997:
992:
988:
983:
979:
974:
970:
965:
961:
956:
952:
947:
943:
935:
931:
923:
919:
911:
907:
902:
898:
893:
889:
884:
880:
875:
871:
866:
862:
857:
853:
848:
844:
839:
835:
830:
826:
821:
817:
813:Traugott (1979)
812:
808:
803:
799:
794:
790:
785:
781:
776:
772:
767:
763:
758:
754:
749:
745:
740:
736:
731:
726:
715:
686:Simba rebellion
645:
612:
561:
552:
545:
520:Patrice Lumumba
513:
504:Simba rebellion
500:Kwilu District
496:Patrice Lumumba
476:Kwilu rebellion
472:
471:
470:
465:
402:Simba rebellion
397:Kwilu rebellion
392:Kanyarwanda War
332:UN intervention
291:
286:
284:
233:
231:
221:
219:
218:
210:
208:
198:
187:
185:
172:
170:
164:
153:
151:
140:
138:
133:
123:
108:
106:
81:
48:
26:Kwilu rebellion
17:
12:
11:
5:
2405:
2395:
2394:
2389:
2384:
2379:
2374:
2369:
2364:
2359:
2354:
2349:
2344:
2339:
2322:
2321:
2319:
2318:
2311:
2303:
2301:
2297:
2296:
2294:
2293:
2286:
2279:
2271:
2269:
2265:
2264:
2262:
2261:
2254:
2253:
2252:
2243:
2234:
2225:
2216:
2200:
2193:
2186:
2185:
2184:
2177:
2174:Kindu atrocity
2170:
2161:
2160:
2159:
2143:
2136:
2129:
2122:
2106:
2105:
2104:
2097:
2096:
2095:
2081:
2069:
2061:
2059:
2053:
2052:
2049:
2048:
2046:
2045:
2038:
2031:
2023:
2021:
2017:
2016:
2014:
2013:
2010:Hugh van Oppen
2006:
1999:
1992:
1985:
1978:
1971:
1964:
1957:
1950:
1943:
1940:Roger Faulques
1936:
1928:
1926:
1922:
1921:
1919:
1918:
1911:
1904:
1897:
1890:
1882:
1880:
1876:
1875:
1873:
1872:
1865:
1858:
1850:
1848:
1844:
1843:
1841:
1840:
1833:
1826:
1819:
1811:
1809:
1808:United Nations
1802:
1798:
1797:
1795:
1794:
1787:
1780:
1773:
1766:
1759:
1752:
1745:
1738:
1731:
1724:
1717:
1710:
1703:
1696:
1689:
1682:
1674:
1672:
1666:
1665:
1663:
1662:
1654:
1652:
1651:Other entities
1648:
1647:
1645:
1644:
1637:
1630:
1623:
1616:
1609:
1602:
1594:
1592:
1588:
1587:
1585:
1584:
1577:
1570:
1562:
1560:
1556:
1555:
1553:
1552:
1544:
1542:
1536:
1535:
1533:
1532:
1525:
1518:
1511:
1504:
1497:
1490:
1483:
1476:
1473:Albert Kalonji
1469:
1462:
1455:
1452:Gaston Eyskens
1448:
1441:
1438:Cyrille Adoula
1433:
1431:
1427:
1426:
1418:
1417:
1410:
1403:
1395:
1389:
1388:
1382:
1364:
1361:
1359:
1358:
1355:
1352:
1349:
1343:
1328:
1293:
1287:
1281:
1275:
1260:
1254:
1243:
1240:
1237:
1234:
1228:
1213:
1207:
1196:
1185:
1179:
1163:
1161:
1158:
1155:
1154:
1145:
1136:
1134:Welch, A. 1980
1127:
1118:
1109:
1100:
1091:
1089:Welch, C. 1980
1082:
1073:
1064:
1052:
1050:, p. 316.
1040:
1028:
1026:, p. 312.
1016:
1014:, p. 310.
1004:
995:
986:
977:
975:Welch, A. 1980
968:
959:
950:
941:
929:
917:
905:
896:
887:
878:
869:
860:
851:
849:Weigert (1996)
842:
833:
824:
815:
806:
797:
788:
779:
770:
761:
752:
743:
733:
732:
730:
727:
725:
722:
714:
711:
699:scorched earth
644:
641:
640:
639:
635:
632:
629:
626:
623:
620:
611:
608:
560:
557:
543:
512:
509:
467:
466:
464:
463:
458:
453:
442:
441:
440:
439:
432:
425:
418:
411:
399:
394:
389:
388:
387:
382:
380:Kindu atrocity
377:
370:
369:
368:
356:
351:
346:
341:
329:
328:
327:
322:
321:
320:
310:
302:
296:
293:
292:
283:
282:
275:
268:
260:
252:
251:
247:
246:
242:
241:
229:
205:
204:
200:
199:
197:
196:
183:
178:
167:
165:
163:
162:
149:
136:
121:
116:
103:
100:
99:
95:
94:
91:
90:
87:
83:
82:
75:Kwilu Province
73:
71:
67:
66:
63:
55:
54:
40:
39:
28:
27:
21:
20:
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
2404:
2393:
2390:
2388:
2385:
2383:
2380:
2378:
2375:
2373:
2370:
2368:
2365:
2363:
2360:
2358:
2355:
2353:
2350:
2348:
2345:
2343:
2340:
2338:
2335:
2334:
2332:
2316:
2312:
2309:
2305:
2304:
2302:
2298:
2291:
2287:
2284:
2280:
2277:
2273:
2272:
2270:
2266:
2259:
2255:
2250:
2249:
2244:
2241:
2240:
2235:
2232:
2231:
2226:
2223:
2222:
2217:
2214:
2213:
2208:
2207:
2205:
2201:
2198:
2194:
2191:
2187:
2182:
2178:
2175:
2171:
2168:
2167:
2162:
2157:
2153:
2152:
2150:
2149:
2144:
2141:
2137:
2134:
2130:
2127:
2126:Niemba ambush
2123:
2120:
2119:
2114:
2113:
2111:
2107:
2102:
2098:
2093:
2089:
2088:
2086:
2082:
2079:
2075:
2074:
2070:
2067:
2063:
2062:
2060:
2054:
2043:
2039:
2036:
2032:
2029:
2025:
2024:
2022:
2018:
2011:
2007:
2004:
2000:
1997:
1993:
1990:
1986:
1983:
1979:
1976:
1972:
1969:
1965:
1962:
1958:
1955:
1951:
1948:
1944:
1941:
1937:
1934:
1930:
1929:
1927:
1923:
1916:
1912:
1909:
1908:Jean Schramme
1905:
1902:
1898:
1895:
1891:
1888:
1884:
1883:
1881:
1877:
1870:
1866:
1863:
1859:
1856:
1852:
1851:
1849:
1845:
1838:
1834:
1831:
1827:
1824:
1820:
1817:
1813:
1812:
1810:
1806:
1803:
1799:
1792:
1788:
1785:
1781:
1778:
1774:
1771:
1767:
1764:
1760:
1757:
1753:
1750:
1746:
1743:
1739:
1736:
1732:
1729:
1725:
1722:
1718:
1715:
1711:
1708:
1704:
1701:
1697:
1694:
1690:
1687:
1683:
1680:
1676:
1675:
1673:
1667:
1660:
1656:
1655:
1653:
1649:
1642:
1638:
1635:
1631:
1628:
1624:
1621:
1617:
1614:
1610:
1607:
1603:
1600:
1596:
1595:
1593:
1591:UN contingent
1589:
1582:
1578:
1575:
1571:
1568:
1564:
1563:
1561:
1557:
1550:
1546:
1545:
1543:
1537:
1530:
1529:Moïse Tshombe
1526:
1523:
1519:
1516:
1512:
1509:
1508:Pierre Mulele
1505:
1502:
1498:
1495:
1491:
1488:
1484:
1481:
1477:
1474:
1470:
1467:
1463:
1460:
1456:
1453:
1449:
1446:
1442:
1439:
1435:
1434:
1432:
1428:
1423:
1416:
1411:
1409:
1404:
1402:
1397:
1396:
1393:
1385:
1383:9782296026629
1379:
1375:
1371:
1367:
1366:
1356:
1353:
1350:
1346:
1340:
1336:
1335:
1329:
1318:
1314:
1310:
1306:
1302:
1298:
1294:
1292:
1288:
1286:
1282:
1278:
1276:9780230286481
1272:
1268:
1267:
1261:
1259:
1255:
1252:
1248:
1244:
1241:
1238:
1235:
1231:
1229:9781550023510
1225:
1221:
1220:
1214:
1211:
1208:
1205:
1201:
1197:
1194:
1190:
1186:
1182:
1176:
1172:
1171:
1165:
1164:
1149:
1140:
1131:
1122:
1113:
1104:
1095:
1086:
1077:
1068:
1062:, p. 75.
1061:
1056:
1049:
1044:
1037:
1032:
1025:
1020:
1013:
1008:
999:
990:
981:
972:
963:
957:Lanotte, 1966
954:
945:
939:, p. 69.
938:
933:
927:, p. 72.
926:
921:
915:, p. 15.
914:
913:Abbott (2014)
909:
900:
891:
882:
873:
864:
855:
846:
837:
828:
819:
810:
801:
792:
783:
774:
768:NYTimes, 1964
765:
756:
747:
738:
734:
721:
719:
710:
707:
703:
700:
694:
691:
687:
683:
678:
674:
670:
667:
663:
659:
654:
650:
636:
633:
630:
627:
624:
621:
618:
617:
616:
607:
605:
601:
596:
594:
588:
586:
582:
578:
570:
565:
556:
549:
542:
538:
535:
533:
532:Moïse Tshombe
527:
525:
521:
517:
516:Pierre Mulele
508:
505:
501:
497:
493:
492:Pierre Mulele
489:
485:
481:
477:
462:
459:
457:
454:
452:
449:
448:
447:
446:
438:
437:
433:
431:
430:
426:
424:
423:
419:
417:
416:
412:
410:
409:
405:
404:
403:
400:
398:
395:
393:
390:
386:
383:
381:
378:
376:
375:
371:
367:
364:
363:
362:
361:
357:
355:
352:
350:
347:
345:
344:Niemba ambush
342:
340:
339:
335:
334:
333:
330:
326:
323:
319:
316:
315:
314:
311:
309:
306:
305:
303:
301:
298:
297:
294:
289:
281:
276:
274:
269:
267:
262:
261:
258:
248:
243:
240:
239:Pierre Mulele
230:
228:
227:Moïse Tshombe
217:
207:
206:
201:
195:
184:
182:
181:Supported by:
179:
169:
168:
166:
161:
160:United States
150:
148:
137:
132:
127:
122:
120:
119:Supported by:
117:
115:
105:
104:
102:
101:
96:
88:
85:
84:
80:
76:
72:
69:
68:
64:
61:
60:
56:
52:
46:
41:
38:
34:
29:
24:
19:
2342:Congo Crisis
2247:
2238:
2229:
2220:
2212:Dragon Rouge
2211:
2196:
2165:
2156:Camp Massart
2147:
2117:
2028:Larry Devlin
1975:Jack Malloch
1954:Hans Germani
1901:Marc Goosens
1869:Norbert Moke
1855:Louis Bobozo
1559:Rebel forces
1487:Théo Lefèvre
1422:Congo Crisis
1373:
1333:
1320:. Retrieved
1308:
1304:
1265:
1218:
1169:
1148:
1139:
1130:
1121:
1112:
1103:
1094:
1085:
1076:
1067:
1055:
1043:
1031:
1019:
1007:
998:
989:
980:
971:
962:
953:
944:
932:
920:
908:
899:
890:
881:
876:Weigert 1996
872:
863:
854:
845:
836:
827:
818:
809:
800:
791:
782:
773:
764:
755:
746:
737:
720:
716:
708:
704:
695:
679:
675:
671:
658:Stanleyville
646:
613:
597:
589:
577:Eastern Bloc
574:
554:
547:
540:
536:
528:
514:
488:Congo Crisis
475:
473:
444:
443:
435:
428:
421:
414:
408:Dragon Rouge
407:
396:
373:
366:Camp Massart
359:
337:
288:Congo Crisis
180:
177:Kwilu rebels
118:
98:Belligerents
33:Congo Crisis
31:Part of the
18:
2230:White Giant
2221:Dragon Noir
2085:South Kasai
2042:Che Guevara
1996:Jerry Puren
1989:John Peters
1837:Pat Quinlan
1823:K.A.S. Raja
1777:15 Commando
1770:14 Commando
1763:13 Commando
1756:12 Commando
1749:11 Commando
1424:(1960–1965)
422:White Giant
415:Dragon Noir
313:South Kasai
2331:Categories
2140:Jadotville
1961:Mike Hoare
1933:Bob Denard
1801:Commanders
1742:9 Commando
1735:6 Commando
1728:5 Commando
1721:4 Commando
1322:5 November
724:References
511:Background
354:Jadotville
2166:Grandslam
2118:Rum Punch
1925:Mercenary
1847:Congolese
1669:Belgian /
1539:Congolese
729:Citations
490:. Led by
374:Grandslam
338:Rum Punch
2092:Invasion
1634:Ethiopia
1372:(2006).
1299:(1967).
610:Mulelism
593:ideology
544:—
486:and the
484:Cold War
318:Invasion
70:Location
37:Cold War
35:and the
2300:Related
2078:Katanga
2058:battles
1879:Belgian
1613:Ireland
1522:U Thant
1193:Archive
1160:Sources
638:person.
308:Katanga
147:Belgium
2148:UNOKAT
1620:Sweden
1606:Canada
1380:
1341:
1273:
1249:
1226:
1202:
1177:
666:Lisala
662:Paulis
604:Idiofa
571:, 1960
550:(1962)
360:UNOKAT
191:
157:
144:
134:(1964)
86:Result
2248:South
2020:Other
1627:India
649:Kwilu
600:Gungu
581:China
436:South
194:China
51:Simba
1378:ISBN
1339:ISBN
1324:2020
1271:ISBN
1247:ISBN
1224:ISBN
1200:ISBN
1175:ISBN
680:The
664:and
602:and
579:and
474:The
131:ONUC
62:Date
1659:CIA
1313:doi
2333::
1307:.
1303:.
660:,
77:,
1414:e
1407:t
1400:v
1386:.
1347:.
1326:.
1315::
1309:7
1279:.
1253:.
1232:.
1206:.
1195:)
1183:.
279:e
272:t
265:v
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.
