3429:), closed with their complete exile from the country in a larger sense. In July 1198, Philip Augustus, "contrary to the general expectation and despite his own edict, recalled the Jews to Paris and made the churches of God suffer great persecutions" (Rigord). The king adopted this measure from no good will toward the Jews, for he had shown his true sentiments a short time before in the Bray affair. But since then he had learned that the Jews could be an excellent source of income from a fiscal point of view, especially as money-lenders. Not only did he recall them to his estates, but he gave state sanction by his ordinances to their operations in banking and pawnbroking. He placed their business under control, determined the legal rate of interest, and obliged them to have seals affixed to all their deeds. Naturally, this trade was taxed, and the affixing of the royal seal was paid for by the Jews. Henceforward there was in the treasury a special account called "Produit des Juifs", and the receipts from this source increased continually. At the same time, it was in the interest of the treasury to secure possession of the Jews, considered a fiscal resource. The Jews were therefore made serfs of the king in the royal domain, just at a time when the charters, becoming wider and wider, tended to bring about the disappearance of serfdom. In certain respects their position became even harder than that of serfs, for the latter could in certain cases appeal to custom and were often protected by the Church; but there was no custom to which the Jews might appeal, and the Church laid them under its ban. The kings and the lords said "my Jews" just as they said "my lands", and they disposed in like manner of the one and of the other. The lords imitated the king: "they endeavored to have the Jews considered an inalienable dependence of their fiefs, and to establish the usage that if a Jew domiciled in one barony passed into another, the lord of his former domicil should have the right to seize his possessions." This agreement was made in 1198 between the king and the Count of Champagne in a treaty, the terms of which provided that neither should retain in his domains the Jews of the other without the latter's consent and furthermore that the Jews should not make loans or receive pledges without the express permission of the king and the count. Other lords made similar conventions with the king. Thenceforth they too had a revenue known as the
5508:
percent, 29.9 percent cited anti-Semitism. Another 24.4 cited their desire to "preserve their
Judaism," while 12.4 percent said they were attracted by other countries. "Economic considerations" was cited by 7.5 percent of the respondents. By June 2014, it was estimated by the end of 2014 a full 1 percent of the French Jewish community would have made aliyah to Israel, the largest in a single year. Many Jewish leaders stated that emigration is being driven by a combination of factors, including the cultural gravitation towards Israel and France's economic woes, especially for the younger generation drawn by the possibility of other socioeconomic opportunities in the more vibrant Israeli economy. Others point out that in 2014, many dramatic incidents of antisemitism took place, especially during Operation Protective Edge, and that France took an unusual pro-Palestine stance by recognizing the State of Palestine in Parliament and by undertaking to adopt a resolution in the United Nations Security Council which would unilaterally impose an end of the Israel-Arab conflict on Israel. At the end of 2014, a record 7,000 French Jews are reported to have made Aliyah. Some wealthy French Jewish families are choosing to immigrate to the United States instead, with "less red tape" for business than Israel.
4069:
4796:." The Second Ordinance was published on 18 October 1940, proscribing various business activities for Jews. On 31 August 1941 German forces confiscated all radios belonging to Jews, followed by their telephones, their bicycles, and disconnecting all phones to Jews. They were forbidden to use public telephones. Jews were forbidden to change their address, and next were forbidden to leave their homes between 8 pm and 5 am. All public places, parks, theatres and certain shops were soon closed to Jews. German forces issued new restrictions, prohibitions and decrees by the week. Jews were barred from public swimming pools, restaurants, cafes, cinemas, concerts, music halls, etc. On the metro, they were allowed to ride only in the last carriage. Antisemitic articles were frequently published in newspapers since the Occupation. The Germans organized antisemitic exhibitions to spread their propaganda. The music of Jewish composers was banned, as were works of art by Jewish artists. On 2 October 1941,
4181:, and others, caused the decision to be again postponed. Only the Portuguese and the Avignonese Jews, who had hitherto enjoyed all civil rights as naturalized Frenchmen, were declared full citizens by a majority of 150 on 28 January 1790. This partial victory infused new hope into the Jews of the German districts, who made still greater efforts in the struggle for freedom. They won over the eloquent advocate Godard, whose influence in revolutionary circles was considerable. Through his exertions the National Guards and the diverse sections pronounced themselves in favor of the Jews, and the abbé Malot was sent by the General Assembly of the Commune to plead their cause before the National Assembly. The grave affairs which absorbed the Assembly, the prolonged agitations in Alsace, and the passions of the clerical party kept in check the advocates of Jewish emancipation. A few days before the dissolution of the National Assembly (27 September 1791) a member of the
3821:
4056:), who were then working toward the intellectual emancipation of the Jews. In a pamphlet, "Sur Moses Mendelssohn, sur la Réforme Politique des Juifs" (London, 1787), Mirabeau refuted the arguments of the German antisemites like Michaelis and claimed for the Jews the full rights of citizenship. This pamphlet naturally provoked many writings for and against the Jews, and the French public became interested in the question. On the proposition of Roederer the Royal Society of Science and Arts of Metz offered a prize for the best essay in answer to the question: "What are the best means to make the Jews happier and more useful in France?" Nine essays, of which only two were unfavorable to the Jews, were submitted to the judgment of the learned assembly. Of the challenge, there were three winners: Abbé Gregoire, Claude-Antoine Thiery, and
4769:
5577:, in her popular neighborhood home of Belleville in Paris, around the corner from a mosque reputed for its radicalism, and as police standing in the staircase heard the murderer yelling "Allahu akbar" repeatedly for minutes, and did not intervene in spite of the screams and the beating, has raised questions again. As it took several months for the French justice to qualify this murder as an antisemitic act, concern about an institutional covering of antisemitism increased. It was further feared as Roger Pinto was mugged with his family during a burglary at his Livry-Gargan home on 8 September 2017. Pinto soon witnessed that, as for Ilan Halimi's murder, he was told, "You are Jewish so you must have money;" this attack has neither been qualified as an anti-semitic act.
4262:
4470:
breaking away from rabbinical law and rabbinical authority decreased. For example, some Jews were marrying outside of their religion and their children were growing up in homes where they were not being introduced to traditional beliefs and losing connection with their roots. Also, fewer and fewer Jews in these new urbanized Jewish homes were following the strict rules of Kosher laws. Many Jews were so preoccupied with assimilating and prospering in their new lives that they formed a new type of
Judaism that would fit with the times. The Reform Movement came about to let Jews stay connected to their roots while also living their lives without so many restrictions.
3124:(972â1031), King of France (987â1031), called "the Pious", are described in a Hebrew pamphlet, which also states that the King of France conspired with his vassals to destroy all the Jews on their lands who would not accept baptism, and many were put to death or killed themselves. Robert is credited with advocating forced conversions of local Jewry, as well as mob violence against Jews who refused. Among the dead was the learned Rabbi Senior. Robert the Pious is well known for his lack of religious tolerance and for the hatred which he bore toward heretics; it was Robert who reinstated the Roman imperial custom of burning heretics at the stake. In Normandy under
3858:
the loans which they had made since then, or in general with regard to anything which had happened in the past. Their synagogues and their cemeteries were to be restored to them on condition that they would refund their value; or, if these could not be restored, the king would give them the necessary sites at a reasonable price. The books of the Law that had not yet been returned to them were also to be restored, with the exception of the Talmud. After the period of twelve years granted to them, the king might not expel the Jews again without giving them a year's time in which to dispose of their property and carry away their goods. They were not to lend on
5377:
5476:, an increase compared to the previous decade (1990â1999 : 10,443) that was in the continuity of a similar increase since the 1970s. A peak was reached during this period, in 2005 (2005: 2,951 Olim) but a significant proportion (between 20 and 30%) eventually came back to France. Some immigrants cited antisemitism and the growing Arab population as reasons for leaving. One couple who moved to Israel claimed that rising antisemitism by French Muslims and the anti-Israel bias of the French government was making life for Jews increasingly uncomfortable for them. At a welcoming ceremony for French Jews in the summer of 2004, then
3934:, in one of his first acts as king in 1498, issued a general expulsion order for the Jews of Provence. Though not enforced at the time, the order was renewed in 1500 and again in 1501. On this occasion, it was definitively implemented. The Jews of Provence were given the option of conversion to Christianity and a number chose that option. However, after a short whileâif only to compensate partially for the loss of revenues caused by the departure of the Jewsâthe king imposed a special tax, referred to as "the tax of the neophytes." These converts and their descendants soon became the objects of social discrimination and slander.
4243:
3843:, the popular poet of the time, says in fact that the Jews were gentle in comparison with the Christians who had taken their place, and who had flayed their debtors alive; if the Jews had remained, the country would have been happier; for there were no longer any moneylenders at all. The king probably had the interests of his treasury also in view. The profits of the former confiscations had gone into the treasury, and by recalling the Jews for only twelve years he would have an opportunity for ransoming them at the end of this period. It appears that they gave the sum of 122,500
95:
4382:
3952:
4873:"These black hours will stain our history for ever and are an injury to our past and our traditions. Yes, the criminal madness of the occupant was assisted ('secondée') by the French, by the French state. Fifty-three years ago, on 16 July 1942, 450 policemen and gendarmes, French, under the authority of their leaders, obeyed the demands of the Nazis. That day, in the capital and the Paris region, nearly 10,000 Jewish men, women and children were arrested at home, in the early hours of the morning, and assembled at police stations... France, home of the
3327:, all of whom continued his work. The school's Talmudic commentaries and interpretations are the basis and starting point for the Ashkenazic tradition of how to interpret and understand the Talmud's explanation of Biblical laws. In many cases, these interpretations differ substantially from those of the Sephardim, which results in differences between how Ashkenazim and Sephardim hold what constitutes the practical application of the law. In his Biblical commentaries, he availed himself of the works of his contemporaries. Among them must be cited
4452:
3883:, the king signed this decree at the insistence of the queen ("Chron. de Charles VI." ii. 119). The decree was not immediately enforced, a respite being granted to the Jews in order that they might sell their property and pay their debts. Those indebted to them were enjoined to redeem their obligations within a set time; otherwise, their pledges held in pawns were to be sold by the Jews. The provost was to escort the Jews to the frontier of the kingdom. Subsequently, the king released the Christians from their debts.
3376:
3536:
4518:. After spending years of research, he synthesized three major strands of antisemitism. The first strand was traditional Catholic attitudes toward the "Christ killers" augmented by vehement antipathy toward the French Revolution. The second strand was hostility to capitalism, of the sort promoted by the Socialist movement. The third strand was scientific racism, based on the argument that races have fixed characteristics, and the Jews have highly negative characteristics.
3229:, Jewish culture flourished in the South and North of France. The initial interest included poetry, which was at times purely liturgical, but which more often was a simple scholastic exercise without aspiration, destined rather to amuse and instruct than to move. Following this came Biblical exegesis, the simple interpretation of the text, with neither daring nor depth, reflecting a complete faith in traditional interpretation, and based by preference on the
4947:
3718:
declare. Furthermore, three months before the sale of the property of the Jews the king took measures to ensure that this event should be coincident with the prohibition of clipped money, in order that those who purchased the goods should have to pay in undebased coin. Finally, fearing that the Jews might have hidden some of their treasures, he declared that one-fifth of any amount found should be paid to the discoverer. It was on 22 July, the day after
3400:
Immovable property, however, such as houses, fields, vines, barns, and wine presses, he confiscated. The Jews attempted to win over the nobles to their side but in vain. In July they were compelled to leave the royal domains of France (and not the whole kingdom); their synagogues were converted into churches. These successive measures were simply expedients to fill the royal coffers. The goods confiscated by the king were at once converted into cash.
5457:, there is no evidence of any specific antisemitism in France, which, according to this poll, appears to be one of the least antisemitic countries in Europe, though France has the world's third largest Jewish population. France is the country that had the most favourable views of Jews in Europe (82%), next to the Netherlands, and the country with the third-fewest unfavourable views (16%) next to the United Kingdom and the Netherlands.
2889:
13231:
13219:
3528:, did not, since he had an agreement with the Jews that guaranteed their safety in return for extra income through taxation. Champagne's capital at Troyes was where Rashi had lived a century before, and Champagne continued to have a prosperous Jewish population. Theobald IV would become a major opposition force to Capetian dominance, and his hostility was manifest during the reign of Louis VIII. For example, during the
4501:. Toussenel's antisemitism was rooted in a revolutionary-nationalist interpretation reading of French history. He was innovative and using zoology as a vehicle for social criticism, and his natural history books, as much as his political writings, were infused with antisemitic and anti-English sentiments. For Toussenel, the English and the Jews represented external and internal threats to French national identity.
3113:
2650:, which was taken by Germany in 1871 and recovered by France in 1918 following World War I. In addition, numerous Jewish refugees and immigrants came from Russia and eastern and central Europe in the early 20th century, changing the character of French Judaism in the 1920s and 1930s. These new arrivals were much less interested in assimilation into French culture. Some supported such new causes as
4527:
4352:. Encouraged by these prominent men, the minister of education, on 13 November 1830, offered a motion to place Judaism upon an equal footing with Catholicism and Protestantism as regards support for the synagogues and for the rabbis from the public treasury. The motion was accompanied by flattering compliments to the French Jews, "who", said the minister, "since the removal of their
2934:, on a footing of equality with their fellow citizens. Their association with fellow citizens was generally amicable, even after the establishment of Christianity in Gaul. The Christian clergy participated in some Jewish feasts; intermarriage between Jews and Christians sometimes occurred; and the Jews made proselytes. Worried about Christians adopting Jewish religious customs, the
9356:
4750:, who wrote, "I feel myself very friendly to Hitler, and to all Germans, whom I feel to be my brothers.... Our real enemies are Jews and Masons", and "Yids are like bedbugs". By 1937, even mainstream French conservatives and socialists, not previously associated with antisemitism, denounced the alleged Jewish influence pushing the country into a "Jewish war" against
3289:, which was the product of colossal labor, and which eclipsed the similar works of all his predecessors, by its clarity and soundness made the study of that vast compilation easy, and soon became its indispensable complement. Every edition of the Talmud that was ever published has this commentary printed on the same page of the Talmud itself. His commentary on the
2938:(539) warned the faithful against Jewish "superstitions", and ordered them to abstain from traveling on Sunday and from adorning their persons or dwellings on that day. In the 6th century, a Jewish community thrived in Paris. They built a synagogue on the Ăle de la CitĂ©, but it was later torn down by Christians, who erected a church on the site.
3637:, Louis decided on 13 September 1268 to arrest Jews and seize their property. But an order which followed close upon this last (1269) shows that on this occasion also Louis reconsidered the matter. Nevertheless, at the request of Paul Christian (Pablo Christiani), he compelled the Jews, under penalty of a fine, to wear at all times the
4816:. Roundups continued, collecting French nationals, including lawyers and other professionals. On 12 December 1941, the most distinguished members of the Paris Jewish community, including doctors, academics, scientists and writers, were rounded up. On 29 May 1942, the Eighth Ordinance was published, which ordered Jews to wear the
4559:
justice where the press and public opinion played a central role. The issue was blatant antisemitism as practiced by the Army and defended by traditionalists (especially
Catholics) against secular and republican forces, including most Jews. In the end, the latter triumphed, albeit at a very high personal cost to Dreyfus himself.
5286:(Judaism as per the Sephardic ritual, according to Dan Michman's definition of such Jews), have since had a significant influence on the nature of French Jewish culture. These Jews from French North Africa have generally enjoyed a successful social and economic integration and helped reinvigorate the country's Jewish community.
3285:(1040â1105). He personified the genius of northern French Judaism: its devoted attachment to tradition; its untroubled faith; its piety, ardent but free from mysticism. His works are distinguished by their clarity, directness, and are written in a simple, concise, unaffected style, suited to his subject. His commentary on the
3866:
connection with goods belonging to the Jews that had been sold before the expulsion for less than half of what was regarded as a fair price. The king finally declared that he took the Jews under his special protection and that he desired to have their persons and property protected from all violence, injury, and oppression.
3362:
and hatred spread by the pope encouraging violence led to the persecution of Jews in France. Many Jews fled to
Narbonne, a city on the southwest coast of the country, which had long been a safe haven and center for Jewish life. The southern coast was more tolerant of Jewish life than the northern half of the country.
4824:, which required detailed planning and the use of the full resources of French police forces. This roundup took place on 16 and 17 July 1942; it collected nearly 13,000 Jews, 7,000 of whom, including more than 4,000 children, were interned and locked into the VĂ©lodrome d'Hiver, without adequate food or sanitation.
3654:
5469:
more than the whole of 2008, 474), in 2010, 466 and, in 2011, 389. In 2011, there were 260 threats (100 graffitis, 46 flyers or mails, 114 insults) and 129 crimes (57 assaults, 7 arsons or attempted arsons, 65 deteriorations and acts of vandalism but no murder, attempted murder or terrorist attack) recorded.
4915:, actually represented the French State. Macron on the other hand, made it clear that the government during the War was indeed that of France. "It is convenient to see the Vichy regime as born of nothingness, returned to nothingness. Yes, it's convenient, but it is false. We cannot build pride upon a lie."
5551:
Theatre in Paris. Although its long time Jewish owners (who regularly set Jewish events there, including some in support of Israel) had sold the theatre shortly before the massacre, speculation arose about an antisemitic motive behind the attack, but this was not a popular theory in the French media.
5535:
strongly urged the French Jewish community to move to Israel and made it a national priority for Israel to welcome the French Jewish community with open arms. Immigration from France is on the rise: in the first half of 2015, approximately 5,100 French Jews made aliyah to Israel marking 25% more than
5468:
in late
December 2008 and its end in January 2009, an estimated hundred antisemitic acts were recorded in France. This compares with a total of 250 antisemitic acts in the whole of 2007. In 2009, 832 acts of antisemitism were recorded in France (with, in the first half of 2009, an estimated 631 acts,
4343:
Of the faiths recognized by the state, only
Judaism had to support its ministers, while those of the Catholic and Protestant churches were supported by the government. This legal inferiority was removed in 1831, thanks to the intervention of the Duke of Orléans, lieutenant-general of the kingdom, and
4286:
and establishing relative equality for them. The net effect of his policies significantly changed the position of the Jews in Europe. Starting in 1806, Napoleon passed a number of measures supporting the position of the Jews in the French Empire, including assembling a representative group elected by
4227:
Meanwhile, the French Jews gave proofs of their patriotism and of their gratitude to the land that had emancipated them. Many of them died in battle as part of the Army of the
Republic while fighting the forces of Europe in coalition. To contribute to the war fund, candelabra of synagogues were sold,
3685:
formulated the following rules: relapsed Jews, as well as
Christians who abjured their faith in favor of "the Jewish superstition", were to be treated by the Inquisitors as heretics. The instigators of such apostasies, as those who received or defended the guilty ones, were to be punished in the same
3575:
In 1234, Louis freed his subjects from a third of their registered debts to Jews (including those who had already paid their debts), but debtors had to pay the remaining two-thirds within a specified time. It was also forbidden to imprison
Christians or to sell their real estate to recover debts owed
3361:
Jews did not have an active role in the
Crusades, like Muslims and Christians did. Instead, Jews feared for their lives, as expulsions and anti-Jewish sentiment was on the rise in Western Europe. In 1256, around 3000 Jews were murdered in the French cities of Bretagne, Anjou, and Poitou. The violence
5507:
of Israel continued to encourage French aliyah through aliyah fairs, Hebrew-language courses, sessions that assist potential olim to find jobs in Israel, and immigrant absorption in Israel. A May 2014 survey revealed that 74 percent of French Jews considered leaving France for Israel where of the 74
5406:
issued a ruling recognising the state's responsibility in the deportation of tens of thousands of Jews during World War II. The report cited "mistakes" in the Vichy regime that had not been forced by the occupiers, stating that the state "allowed or facilitated the deportation from France of victims
4558:
was a major political scandal that convulsed France from 1894 until its resolution in 1906, and which reverberated for decades longer. The affair is often seen as a modern and universal symbol of injustice for reasons of state and remains one of the most striking examples of a complex miscarriage of
4447:
People of Jewish faith in France were becoming assimilated into their lives. After their Emancipation in 1791, Jews in France had new freedoms. For example, Jews were allowed to attend schools that were once delegated for just non-Jews. They were also allowed to pray in their own synagogues. Lastly,
4030:, summoned a commission of Jewish notables to make suggestions for the amelioration of the condition of their coreligionists. The direct result of the efforts of these men was the abolition, in 1785, of the degrading poll-tax and the permission to settle in all parts of France. Shortly afterward the
3625:
In 1257 or 1258 ("Ordonnances", i. 85), wishing, as he says, to provide for his safety of soul and peace of conscience, Louis issued a mandate for the restitution in his name of the amount of usurious interest which had been collected on the confiscated property, the restitution to be made either to
3613:
However, he did not cancel the debts owed by Christians. Later, Louis became conscience-stricken, and, overcome by scruples, he feared lest the treasury, by retaining some part of the interest paid by the borrowers, might be enriched with the product of usury. As a result, one-third of the debts was
3403:
During the century which terminated so disastrously for the Jews, their condition was not altogether bad, especially if compared with that of their brethren in Germany. Thus may be explained the remarkable intellectual activity which existed among them, the attraction that it exercised over the Jews
3399:
on 14 March 1181, the King ordered the Jews arrested on a Saturday, in all their synagogues, and despoiled of their money and their investments. In the following April 1182, he published an edict of expulsion, but according to the Jews a delay of three months for the sale of their personal property.
4469:
Although life was looking brighter for these Western Jews, some Jews who lived in Eastern Europe believed that the Emancipation in Western countries were causing Jews to lose their traditional beliefs and culture. As more and more Jews were becoming assimilated into their new lives, these Jews were
3908:
Provence was not incorporated into France until 1481, and the expulsion edict of 1394 did not apply there. The privileges of the Jews of Provence were confirmed in 1482. However, from 1484, anti-Jewish disturbances broke out, with looting and violence perpetrated by laborers from outside the region
3878:
suddenly published an ordinance in which he declared, in substance, that for a long time he had been taking note of the many complaints provoked by the excesses and misdemeanors which the Jews committed against Christians; and that the prosecutors, having made several investigations, had discovered
3853:
states, that a large number of the debts owing to the Jews had not been recovered, and that the holders of the notes had preserved them; the decree of return specified that two-thirds of the old debts recovered by the Jews should go into the treasury. The conditions under which they were allowed to
3196:
had sent to the East through a beggar a letter that provoked the order for the destruction of the Church of the Holy Sepulcher. Glaber adds that, on the discovery of the crime, the expulsion of the Jews was everywhere decreed. Some were driven out of the cities, others were put to death, while some
5483:
caused controversy when he advised all French Jews to "move immediately" to Israel and escape what he coined "the wildest anti-semitism" in France. In August 2007, some 2,800 olim were due to arrive in Israel from France, as opposed to the 3,000 initially forecast. 1,129 French Jews made aliyah to
4780:
in June 1940, about 330,000 Jews lived in France (and another 370,000 in never occupied French North Africa). Of the 330,000, fewer than half held French citizenship and the others were foreigners, mostly exiles from Germany and Central Europe who had immigrated to France during the 1930s. Another
3857:
They were to live by the work of their hands or to sell merchandise of good quality; they were to wear the circular badge, and not discuss religion with laymen. They were not to be molested, either with regard to the chattels they had carried away at the time of their banishment, or with regard to
3516:
should be repaid to the Jews in three years and that the debts due the Jews should be inscribed and placed under the control of their lords. The lords then collected the debts for the Jews, doubtless receiving a commission. Louis furthermore ordered that the special seal for Jewish deeds should be
4784:
About 200,000 Jews, and the large majority of foreign Jews, resided in the Paris area. Among the 150,000 French Jews, about 30,000, generally native to Central Europe, had recently obtained French citizenship after immigrating to France during the 1930s. Following the 1940 armistice after Germany
4334:
would hasten to undo the work of the Revolution with regard to Jewish emancipation, but were soon disappointed. The emancipation the French Jews had made enough progress that the clerical monarch could not find pretexts for curtailing their rights as citizens. They were no longer treated as poor,
3937:
During the second half of the 17th century, a number of Jews attempted to reestablish themselves in Provence. Before the French Revolution abolished the administrative entity of Provence, the first community outside the southwest, Alsace-Lorraine and Comtat Venaissin, was re-formed in Marseilles.
3137:
to stop the persecution in Lorraine (1007). Jacob undertook the journey to Rome, but was imprisoned with his wife and four sons by Duke Richard, and escaped death only by allegedly miraculous means. He left his eldest son, Judah, as a hostage with Richard while he and his wife and three remaining
5519:
created a shock wave of fear across the French Jewish community. As a result of these events, the Jewish Agency planned an aliyah plan for 120,000 French Jews who wish to make aliyah. In addition, with Europe's stagnant economy as of early 2015, many affluent French Jewish skilled professionals,
4585:
as the real spy. High-ranking military officials suppressed the new evidence and a military court unanimously acquitted Esterhazy after the second day of his trial. The Army accused Dreyfus of additional charges based on false documents. Word of the military court's framing of Dreyfus and of the
4194:
This proposition was accepted amid loud applause. Rewbell endeavored, indeed, to oppose the motion, but he was interrupted by Regnault de Saint-Jean, president of the Assembly, who suggested "that every one who spoke against this motion should be called to order, because he would be opposing the
4625:
The Affair from 1894 to 1906 divided France deeply and lastingly into two opposing camps: the pro-Army, mostly Catholic "anti-Dreyfusards" who generally lost the initiative to the anticlerical, pro-republican Dreyfusards. It embittered French politics and helped the radical party come to power.
4189:
I believe that freedom of worship does not permit any distinction in the political rights of citizens on account of their creed. The question of the political existence of the Jews has been postponed. Still the Muslems and the men of all sects are admitted to enjoy political rights in France. I
3717:
intended merely to fill the gap in his treasury, and was not at all concerned about the well-being of his subjects, is shown by the fact that he put himself in the place of the Jewish moneylenders and exacted from their Christian debtors the payment of their debts, which they themselves had to
3560:, unreservedly condemned loans at interest. He was less amenable than Philip Augustus to fiscal considerations. Despite former conventions, in an assembly held at Melun in December 1230, he compelled several lords to sign an agreement not to authorize Jews to make any loan. No one in the whole
3468:
refused to sign any such treaties, and in that year, he even refused to affirm the crown's asserted right to force non-retention policies on its barons. Such treaties became obsolete after Louis IX's ordinance of Melun (1230), when it became illegal for a Jew to migrate between lordships. This
2961:
kings of Spain. From this epoch (689) dates the earliest known inscription relating to the Jews of France, the "Funerary Stele of Justus, Matrona and Dulciorella" of Narbonne, written in Latin and Hebrew. The Jews of Narbonne, chiefly merchants, were popular among the people who often rebelled
4827:
In the meantime, the Germans began deportations of Jews from France to the death camps in eastern Europe. The first trains left on 27 March 1942. Deportations continued until 17 August 1944, by which time nearly 76,000 Jews (including those from Vichy France) were deported, of whom only 2,500
4417:
removed this last remnant of medieval legislation. With this act of justice the history of the Jews of France merges into the general history of the French people. The rapidity with which many of them won affluence and distinction in the nineteenth century is without parallel. In spite of the
4356:
by the Revolution, have shown themselves worthy of the privileges granted to them". After a short discussion the motion was adopted by a large majority. In January 1831, it passed in the Chamber of Peers by 89 votes to 57, and on 8 February it was ratified by King Louis Philippe, who from the
4840:), prohibiting them from moving, and limiting their access to public places and most professional activities, especially the practice of medicine. The Vichy government also implemented those anti-Jewish laws in the colonies of Vichy North Africa. In 1941, the Vichy government established the
4835:
Antisemitism was particularly virulent in Vichy France, which controlled a third of France from 1940 to 1942, at which point the Germans took over that southern area. Vichy's Jewish policy was a mixture of 1930s antiforeigner legislation with the virulent antisemitism of the Action Française
3865:
If they engaged in pawnbroking, they were not to take more than two deniers in the pound a week; they were to lend only on pledges. Two men with the title "auditors of the Jews" were entrusted with the execution of this ordinance and were to take cognizance of all claims that might arise in
4219:, had to pay important fines or to run away to save their lives while some Jewish bankers (49 according to the Jewish Encyclopedia) were imprisoned at Paris as suspects and nine of them were executed. The decree of the convention by which the Catholic faith was annulled and replaced by the
5434:
was mutilated and tortured to death by the so-called "Barbarians gang", led by Youssouf Fofana. This murder was motivated by money and fueled by antisemitic prejudices (the perpetrators said they believed Jews to be rich). In March 2012, a gunman, who had previously killed three soldiers,
3839:(1314â16) recalled the Jews. In an edict dated 28 July 1315, he permitted them to return for a period of twelve years, authorizing them to establish themselves in the cities in which they had lived before their banishment. He issued this edict in answer to the demands of the people.
3029:(ruled 814â840), faithful to the principles of his father Charlemagne, granted strict protection to Jews, whom he respected as merchants. Like his father, Louis believed that 'the Jewish question' could be solved with the gradual conversion of Jews; according to medievalist scholar
3572:), wherever he might find him and however long a period had elapsed since the Jew had settled elsewhere. At the same time, the ordinance of 1223 was enacted afresh, which only proves that it had not been carried into effect. Both king and lords were forbidden to borrow from Jews.
4223:
was applied by the provincial clubs, especially by those of the German districts, to the Jewish religion as well. Some synagogues were pillaged and the mayors of a few eastern towns (Strasbourg, Troyes, etc.) forbade the celebration of Sabbath (to apply the week of ten days).
4785:
invaded France, the Nazis incorporated the provinces of Alsace and Lorraine into Germany. The remainder of northern and western France was placed under German military control. Unoccupied southern metropolitan France and the French empire were placed under the control of the
3713:, condemned the Jews to banishment, and took forcible possession of their property, real and personal. Their houses, lands, and movable goods were sold at auction; and for the king were reserved any treasures found buried in the dwellings that had belonged to the Jews. That
4622:. The new trial resulted in another conviction and a 10-year sentence but Dreyfus was pardoned and set free. All accusations against Alfred Dreyfus eventually were demonstrated to be baseless, and in 1906 Dreyfus was exonerated and reinstated as a major in the French Army.
4697:
of Eastern Europe. The flow temporarily halted during World War I but resumed afterwards. The long-established, heavily assimilated Jewish population by 1920 was now only a third of the French Jewish population. It was overwhelmed by new immigrants and the restoration of
3617:
In 1251, while Louis was in captivity on the Crusade, a popular movement rose up with the intention of traveling to the east to rescue him; although they never made it out of northern France, Jews were subject to their attacks as they wandered throughout the country (see
3969:
was home to a significant number of Jews. In annexing the region in 1648, the French government was at first inclined toward the banishment of Jews living in those provinces but thought better of it in view of the benefit he could derive from them. On 25 September 1675,
5238:
In the wake of the Holocaust, around 180,000 Jews remained in France, many of whom were refugees from Eastern Europe who either could not or would not return to their former home countries. To prevent the types of abuses that took place under the German Occupation and
3437:, or annual quit-rent, the legal fees for the writs necessitated by the Jews' law trials, and the seal duty. A thoroughly characteristic feature of this fiscal policy is that the bishops (according to the agreement of 1204 regulating the spheres of ecclesiastical and
3037:(779â841) had many run-ins with the Jews of France. He wrote about how rich and powerful they were becoming. Scholars such as Jeremy Cohen suggest that Saint Agobard's belief in Jewish power contributed to his involvement in violent revolutions attempting to dethrone
4836:
movement. The Vichy government openly collaborated with the Nazi occupiers to identify Jews for deportation and transportation to the death camps. As early as October 1940, without any request from the Germans, the Vichy government passed anti-Jewish measures (the
3353:
document, the Jews throughout France were at that time in great fear and wrote to their brothers in the Rhine countries making known to them their terror and asking them to fast and pray. In the Rhineland, thousands of Jews were killed by the crusaders (see
3331:, chief of the school of Narbonne, who was perhaps the founder of exegetical studies in France, and Menachem b. កelbo. Thus the 11th century was a period of fruitful activity in literature. Thenceforth French Judaism became one of the poles within Judaism.
3909:
hired for the harvest season. In some places, Jews were protected by the town officials, and they were declared to be under royal protection. However, a voluntary exodus began and was accelerated when similar disorders were repeated in 1485. According to
3197:
killed themselves; only a few remained in the "Roman world". Count Paul Riant (1836â1888) says that this whole story of the relations between the Jews and the Mohammedans is only one of those popular legends with which the chronicles of the time abound.
3255:, and were commented upon and studied both as a pious exercise in dialectics and from the practical point of view. While most of the focus of Jewish authors was religious, they did discuss other subjects, like the papal presence in their communities.
3681:, finally occupied itself with the Jews of Southern France who converted to Christianity. The popes complained that not only were baptized Jews returning to their former faith but that Christians also were being converted to Judaism. In March 1273,
4009:
By the 1780s there were about 40,000 to 50,000 Jews in France, chiefly centered in Bordeaux, Metz, and a few other cities. They had very limited rights and opportunities, apart from the money-lending business, but their status was not illegal. An
4306:. Despite the positive effects, it is unclear however, whether Napoleon himself was disposed favorably towards the Jews, or merely saw them as a political or financial tool. On 17 March 1808, Napoleon rolled back some reforms by the so-called
3452:) signed treaties with their neighbours, whereby the latter refused to permit the former's Jews entry into his domains, thus "retaining" them for the lord to tax. This practice arose in response to the common flight of Jews in the face of a
5429:
and antisemitic acts were publicized around the world, including the desecration of Jewish graves and tensions between the children of North African Muslim immigrants and North African Jewish children. One of the worst crimes happened when
5439:
in Toulouse in an antisemitic attack, killing four people, including three children. President Nicolas Sarkozy said, "I want to say to all the leaders of the Jewish community, how close we feel to them. All of France is by their side."
3724:, a Jewish fast day, that the Jews were arrested. In prison they received notice that they had been sentenced to exile; that, abandoning their goods and debts, and taking only the clothes which they had on their backs and the sum of 12
3145:, who wrote in 1030, is to be believed (he had a reputation as a fabricator), the anti-Jewish feelings arose in 1010 after Western Jews addressed a letter to their Eastern coreligionists warning them of a military movement against the
3132:
Jewry suffered from persecutions that were so terrible that many women, in order to escape the fury of the mob, jumped into the river and drowned. A notable of the town, Jacob b. Jekuthiel, a Talmudic scholar, sought to intercede with
3962:
At the beginning of the 17th century, Jews began again to re-enter France. This resulted in a new edict of 23 April 1615 which forbade Christians, under the penalty of death and confiscation, to shelter Jews or to converse with them.
8995:
5499:
alluding to former Israel Prime Minister's Ariel Sharon's similar 2004 advisement towards the French Jewish community to move to Israel. In 2013, 3,120 French Jews immigrated to Israel, marking a 63% increase over the previous year.
5520:
business moguls and investors have sought Israel as a start-up haven for international investments, as well as job and new business opportunities. Dov Maimon, a French Jewish émigré who studies migration as a senior fellow at the
4373:, or 'careers for the gifted', permitted French Jews to enter previously forbidden fields such as the arts, finance, trade, and government. For this they were never forgiven by primarily Royalist and Catholic antisemites.
3997:
In the course of the 18th century, the attitude of the authorities toward Jews became more tolerant and corrected previous legislation. The authorities often overlooked infractions of the edict of banishment; a colony of
3879:
many violations by the Jews of the agreement they had made with him. Therefore, he decreed as an irrevocable law and statute that thenceforth no Jew should dwell in his domains ("Ordonnances", vii. 675). According to the
3208:
and to Guifred, bishop of the city, praising them for having prevented the massacre of the Jews in their district, and reminding them that God does not approve of the shedding of blood. In 1065 also, Alexander admonished
5587:
Since the 7 October 2023 attacks in Israel 30,000 Jews have gone up to Israel of which from France 1,600 ; of those Interested in Going up to Israel {France, Canada and the United States] France has the 335% increase
5251:
The surviving French Jews were joined in the late 1940s, 1950s and 1960s by large numbers of Jews from France's predominantly Muslim North African colonies (along with millions of other French nationals) as part of the
3187:
and exile. For a month theologians held disputations with the Jews, but without much success, for only three or four of Jews abjured their faith; others killed themselves; and the rest either fled or were expelled from
4422:
was formed "to work everywhere for the emancipation and moral progress of the Jews; to offer effective assistance to Jews suffering from antisemitism; and to encourage all publications calculated to promote this aim."
10846:
10806:
3349:(1096), when the crusaders are stated, for example, to have shut up the Jews of Rouen in a church and to have murdered them without distinction of age or sex, sparing only those who accepted baptism. According to a
8241:
4145:, who demanded their complete emancipation. The National Assembly shared the indignation of the prelate, but left the question of emancipation undecided; it was intimidated by the deputies of Alsace, especially by
10873:
10732:
2885:), archisynagogues, patersynagogues, and other synagogue officials. The Jews worked principally as merchants, as they were prohibited from owning land; they also served as tax collectors, sailors, and physicians.
3978:, taking them under his special protection. This, however, did not prevent them from being subjected to every kind of extortion, and their position remained the same as it had been under the Austrian government.
11478:
5146:
4418:
deep-rooted prejudices which prevailed in certain classes of French society, many of them occupied high positions in literature, art, science, jurisprudence, the armyâindeed, in every walk of life. In 1860, the
3408:
to study did not cease with his death; his successorsâthe members of his family first among themâcontinued his work. Research moved within the same limits as in the preceding century, and dealt mainly with the
4599:
In 1899, Dreyfus was returned to France for another trial. The intense political and judicial scandal that ensued divided French society between those who supported Dreyfus (now called "Dreyfusards"), such as
9287:
4168:
exerted all the power of their eloquence to bring about the desired emancipation; but the repeated disturbances in Alsace and the strong opposition of the deputies of that province and of the clericals, like
11027:
5290:
restaurants and Jewish schools have multiplied, in particular since the 1980s. In part in response to internal and international events, many of the younger generations have committed to religious renewal.
4706:-speakers from Russia and Poland as well as German-speaking Jews who fled the Nazi regime after 1933. The historic base of traditional Judaism was in Alsace-Lorraine, which was recovered by France in 1918.
11283:
4789:, a new collaborationist French government. Some Jews managed to escape the invading German forces. Some found refuge in the countryside. Spain allowed 25,600 Jews to use its territory as an escape route.
4335:
downtrodden peddlers or money-lenders with whom every petty official could do as he liked. Many of them already occupied high positions in the army and the magistracy, as well as in the arts and sciences.
4807:
The first roundup of Jews took place on 14 May 1941, and 4,000 foreign Jews were taken captive. Another roundup took place on 20 August 1941, collecting both French and foreign Jews, who were sent to the
4310:, declaring all debts with Jews reduced, postponed, or annulled; this caused the Jewish community to nearly collapse. The decree also restricted where Jews could live, especially for those in the eastern
3023:, or grain. Legally, Jews belonged to the emperor and could be tried only by him. But the numerous provincial councils which met during Charlemagne's reign were not concerned with the Jewish communities.
10841:
7848:
5278:
By 1968, Sephardi Jews from the former French possessions in North Africa constituted the majority of the Jews of France. Before World War II and the Holocaust, French Jews were predominately from the
5552:
However, to some, this possible antisemitic motive was concealed by the general media, raising questions about the media's motives to do this, an issue reflected in the French Jewish community press.
4369:
Full equality did not occur until 1831. By the fourth decade of the nineteenth century, France provided an environment in which Jews took active and many times leading roles. The Napoleonic policy of
13141:
10159:
7930:
4896:
and the historical revisionism that denied France's responsibility for 1942 roundup and subsequent deportation of 13,000 Jews (or the eventual deportation of 76,000 Jews). He refuted claims that the
10856:
4900:, in power during WW II, did not represent the State. "It was indeed France that organised this", French police collaborating with the Nazis. "Not a single German" was directly involved, he added.
4152:
On 22 December 1789, the Jewish question came again before the Assembly in debating the issue of admitting to public service all citizens without distinction of creed. Mirabeau, the abbé Grégoire,
8434:
In January 2009 an estimated 352 acts of antisemitism took place in comparison with 460 separate incidents in the whole of 2008. This phenomenon has been linked to the war between Israel and Gaza.
5983:
5487:
However, in the long term, France is not one of the top countries of Jewish emigration toward Israel. Many French Jews feel a strong attachment to France. In November 2012, Israeli Prime Minister
12309:
11306:
5896:
5531:
on a gas factory near Lyon on 26 June 2015, in which the severed head of a local (non-Jewish) businessman was pinned to the gates and an ISIS flag was raised, Immigration and Absorption Minister
4634:
The relatively small Jewish community was based in Paris, and very well established in the city's business, financial, and intellectual elite. A third of Parisian bankers were Jewish, led by the
11003:
4918:
Macron made a subtle reference to Chirac's 1995 apology when he added, "I say it again here. It was indeed France that organized the roundup, the deportation, and thus, for almost all, death."
4413:
before the Court of NĂźmes in defense of a rabbi who had refused to take this oath, and to a valuable essay on the subject by Martin, a prominent Christian trial lawyer from Strasburg, that the
10953:
8990:
4448:
many Jews found themselves moving from the rural areas of France and into the big cities. In these big cities, Jews had new job opportunities and many were advancing up the economic ladder.
13191:
12074:
4777:
2674:
2632:
10987:
8209:
5555:
According to the Jewish Agency, nearly 6500 French Jews had made aliyah as of mid-November 2015 and it was estimated that 8000 French Jews would settle down in Israel by the end of 2015.
6145:
4570:. He was convicted and sentenced to life imprisonment for allegedly having communicated French military secrets to the German Embassy in Paris. Dreyfus was sent to the penal colony at
4361:
in 1829, was recognized as a state institution, and was granted a subsidy. The government likewise liquidated the debts contracted by various Jewish communities before the Revolution.
3645:
in 1215. This consisted of a piece of red felt or cloth cut in the form of a wheel, four fingers in circumference, which had to be attached to the outer garment at the chest and back.
3486:
7869:
Holocaust Monuments and National Memory Cultures in France and Germany Since 1989: The Origins and Political Function of the VĂ©l' D'Hiv' in Paris and the Holocaust Monument in Berlin
3080:. One authority said the Jewish traders boasted about buying whatever they pleased from bishops and abbots. Isaac the Jew, who was sent by Charlemagne in 797 with two ambassadors to
10184:
10154:
8697:
3270:
10939:
8411:
7822:
5331:
agreement, the French government secretly transported parts of its own atomic technology to Israel in the late 1950s which the Israeli government used to create nuclear weapons.
11680:
5547:, more than 80 percent of French Jews considered making aliyah. The largest attack on the evening of 13 November killed 90 people, leaving 200 wounded at a rock concert in the
4673:. The Jews considered themselves fully assimilated into French culture, for them Judaism was entirely a matter of religious belief, with minimal ethnic or cultural dimensions.
10481:
6962:"Aussi Philippe le Bel ne put les frapper sans tarir du mĂȘme coup l'une des sources les plus fĂ©condes de la prospĂ©ritĂ© commerciale, industrielle et financiĂšre de son royaume."
5275:
By 1951, France's Jewish population totalled around 250,000. Between 1956 and 1967, about 235,000 Sephardi Jews from Algeria, Tunisia, Morocco and Egypt immigrated to France.
8035:
5225:
3138:
sons went to Rome. He bribed the pope with seven gold marks and two hundred pounds, who thereupon sent a special envoy to King Robert ordering him to stop the persecutions.
10967:
8232:
4068:
3693:, who had buried a Christian convert in their cemetery, were brought before the Inquisition in 1278 for trial, with their rabbi, Isaac Males, being condemned to the stake.
3460:, where they purchased the right to settle unmolested by gifts (bribes) to their new lord. In May 1210 the crown negotiated a series of treaties with the neighbours of the
11928:
3732:
In striking at the Jews, Philip the Fair at the same time dried up one of the most fruitful sources of the financial, commercial, and industrial prosperity of his kingdom.
4709:
The new arrivals got along poorly with the established elite Jewish community. They did not want to assimilate, and they vigorously supported such new causes, especially
3176:
1250:
7080:
7069:, encompasses the king's full reign in six volumes. Originally written in Latin, the work was translated to French in six volumes by L. Bellaguet between 1839 and 1852.
4862:
museum, 2006). This award is given to "non-Jews who acted according to the most noble principles of humanity by risking their lives to save Jews during the Holocaust."
4357:
beginning had shown himself favorable to placing Judaism on an equal footing with the other faiths. Shortly afterward the rabbinical college, which had been founded at
12294:
11529:
11316:
5342:
in 1967, in which the relations became strained. Following the war, the United States became Israel's main supplier of weapons and military technology. After the 1972
11507:
10932:
8258:
10946:
5847:
5320:, voting for its formation at the United Nations. It was Israel's main ally and primary supplier of military hardware for nearly two decades between 1948 and 1967.
3854:
settle in the land are set forth in a number of articles; some of the guaranties which were accorded the Jews had probably been demanded by them and been paid for.
11374:
5795:
10960:
8660:
4885:
Chirac also identified those who were responsible: "450 policemen and gendarmes, French, under the authority of their leaders obeyed the demands of the Nazis."
4792:
German occupation forces published their first anti-Jewish measure on 27 September 1940 as the "First Ordinance." The measure was a census of Jews, and defined "
4291:. In conquered countries, he abolished laws restricting Jews to ghettos. In 1807, he added Judaism as an official religion of France, with previously sanctioned
3033:, some people believed this tolerance threatened the Christian unity of the Empire, which led to the strengthening of the Bishops at the expense of the Emperor.
8767:
5918:
5302:
attack since actions of the German occupation in the Second World War. The attack followed an increase in antisemitic incidents in the late 1970s by Neo Nazis.
12435:
12324:
11483:
11341:
10981:
6768:
The Jewish Encyclopedia: A Descriptive Record of the History, Religion, Literature, and Customs of the Jewish People from the Earliest Times to the Present Day
4829:
4638:, which also played a dominant role in the well organized Jewish community. Many of the most influential French intellectuals were nominally Jewish, including
1828:
12503:
10996:
10456:
9269:
8449:
1483:
1178:
12662:
7639:
3192:. Similar expulsions took place in other French towns. By 1030, Rodulfus Glaber knew more concerning this story. According to his 1030 explanation, Jews of
11631:
9811:
4165:
2646:, with many being very proud to be fully assimilated into French culture, and they comprised an upscale subgroup. A more traditional Judaism was based in
1370:
5151:
4878:
3736:
To a large extent, the history of the Jews of France ceased. The span of control of the King of France had increased considerably in extent. Outside the
8911:
4318:
and beyond (as of 1810), in hopes of assimilating them into society. Many of these restrictions were eased again in 1811 and finally abolished in 1818.
13121:
11257:
10918:
9641:
Cole, Joshua. "Constantine before the riots of August 1934: civil status, anti-Semitism, and the politics of assimilation in interwar French Algeria."
3606:
and the confiscation of their property, for use in his crusade, but the order for the expulsion was only partly enforced if at all. Louis left for the
2578:
8962:
3820:
3091:, was probably one of these merchants. He was said to have asked the Baghdad caliph for a rabbi to instruct the Jews whom he had allowed to settle at
13266:
12196:
10925:
10911:
10789:
10774:
10300:
9784:
8860:
5218:
4650:. The Dreyfus affair to some degree rekindled their sense of being Jewish. Jews were prominent in art and culture, holding special prominence in the
2787:(1906), "The first settlements of Jews in Europe are obscure. From 163 BCE there is evidence of Jews in Rome . In the year 6 C.E. there were Jews at
2670:
342:
4027:
13115:
12961:
10466:
9457:
Graizbord, David. "Becoming Jewish in Early Modern France: Documents on Jewish Community-Building in Seventeenth-Century Bayonne and Peyrehorade."
9197:
7823:"Address by Mr Jacques Chirac President of the Republic Delivered During Ceremonies Commemorating the Great Roundup of 16 and 17 July 1942 (Paris)"
5608:
4881:, land of welcome and asylum, France committed that day the irreparable. Breaking its word, it delivered those it protected to their executioners."
4493:
and denounced the ills of civilization: individualism, egoism, and class conflict. He was hostile to the Jews and also to the British. Toussenel's
4393:
4268:
4076:
3829:
1365:
12991:
9313:
5316:
Since World War II, France's government has varied in supporting and opposing the Israeli government. It was initially a very strong supporter of
12956:
12951:
12946:
8307:
7893:
6477:
3812:âall regions located in Empire. It is not possible to estimate the number of fugitives; that given by GrĂ€tz, 100,000, has no foundation in fact.
3508:
than his father, Philip Augustus, knew also how to look after the interests of his treasury. Although he declared that from 8 November 1223, the
1613:
12971:
12931:
11288:
10471:
8016:
12941:
12463:
11650:
10642:
9939:
9759:
7531:
5161:
5110:
4345:
11737:
6157:
5497:"In my role as Prime Minister of Israel, I always say to Jews, wherever they may be, I say to them: Come to Israel and make Israel your home."
3049:
gained them papal support for the overthrow of Emperor Louis. Upon Louis the Pious' return to power in 834, he deposed Saint Agobard from his
13056:
12478:
11884:
10890:
10275:
9869:
9153:
4869:
formally apologized to the Jewish community for the complicit role that French policemen and civil servants played in the roundups. He said:
1867:
5338:
in 1962, in which Algeria gained independence, France began to shift toward a more pro-Arab view. This change accelerated rapidly after the
10250:
5934:
5253:
5211:
4930:
9537:
5951:
4832:.) The majority of Jews deported were non-French Jews. One quarter of the pre-war Jewish population of France was killed in that process.
4035:
3299:, served for edification, but also advanced the taste for seeking the plain and true meaning of the bible. The school which he founded at
2865:. These cities had generally been centers of ancient Roman administration and were located on the great commercial routes. The Jews built
13134:
12878:
12425:
10851:
10627:
8694:
5447:
suggested that the extent of antisemitism in France has been exaggerated and that "France was not an antisemitic country". The Newspaper
852:
815:
13153:
5636:
4190:
demand that the motion for postponement be withdrawn, and a decree passed that the Jews in France enjoy the privileges of full citizens.
12147:
10245:
8886:
8421:
5040:
3901:
since at least the 1st century. The earliest documentary evidence for the presence of Jews dates from the middle of the 5th century in
2754:
after those countries gained independence in the 1950s and 1960s. They span a range of religious affiliations, from the ultra-Orthodox
4207:
deputy Schwendt wrote to his constituents, "nothing more than the name of a distinct religion". However, in Alsace, especially in the
11908:
10305:
10076:
9889:
9039:
4118:
and obtained the right for Jews from eastern France to elect their own delegates. Among them were the son of Cerfbeer, Theodore, and
1791:
10622:
9914:
9804:
9749:
4497:(1845) argued that French finance and commerce was controlled by an alien Jewish presence, typified in the malign influence of the
4094:, who were willing to trade in their communal rights in exchange for full citizenship, participated in 1789 in the election of the
3709:
Toward the middle of 1306 the treasury was nearly empty, and the king, as he was about to do the following year in the case of the
1814:
8045:
3564:
was allowed to detain a Jew belonging to another, and each lord might recover a Jew who belonged to him, just as he might his own
3277:
The great Jewish figure who dominated the second half of the 11th century, as well as the whole rabbinical history of France, was
12366:
12266:
12056:
11761:
11416:
11278:
10380:
10285:
10086:
9547:
5882:
5738:
5115:
4842:
2945:
proposed the expulsion of all Jews who would not accept Christianity. No mention of the Jews was found from his reign to that of
1164:
8255:
5768:
12640:
12362:
11488:
11412:
10823:
10217:
10174:
10126:
10001:
9996:
9215:
9017:
7613:
7283:
5399:). The Jewish community in France is estimated from a core population of 480,000â500,000 to an enlarged population of 600,000.
5045:
4768:
4006:
was tolerated in Paris. The voices of enlightened Christians who demanded justice for the proscribed people began to be heard.
2918:, 'peace be upon Israel'. In various sources it is described as a Jewish inscription dated with the local calendarâthe
2571:
1741:
1676:
1558:
12392:
12334:
11447:
11384:
9421:
8788:
3441:
jurisdiction) continued to prohibit the clergy from excommunicating those who sold goods to the Jews or who bought from them.
12256:
11695:
11544:
11539:
10689:
9407:
9131:
8162:
7877:
6793:
6746:
6603:
6444:
6352:
6293:
4961:
4126:
written by the Jewish community from eastern France asked for the end of the discriminatory status and taxes targeting Jews.
862:
13106:
9748:
Jean-Marc Dreyfus, Institut d'Ătudes Politiques, Paris; Jonathan Laurence, Center for European Studies, Harvard University,
7912:
2974:
is documented, with their position being regulated by law. Exchanges with the Orient strongly declined with the presence of
12715:
12652:
11964:
11722:
11534:
10801:
10131:
9961:
9175:
8478:
6213:
Hosang, F. J. Elizabeth Boddens (2018). "Jews in 6th and 7th-century legal texts from Spain and Gaul: A few observations".
6150:
5156:
5076:
2826:). This was to prevent Christians from being subject to them and possibly incited to change their faith. At the funeral of
1300:
12725:
13251:
10136:
9797:
9648:
Fitch, Nancy. "Mass Culture, Mass Parliamentary Politics, and Modern Anti-Semitism: The Dreyfus Affair in Rural France."
9085:
8937:
8486:
5528:
5416:
4938:
4635:
4498:
4137:
everywhere in France. In certain districts of Alsace the peasants attacked the dwellings of the Jews, who took refuge in
2770:
1568:
1385:
1375:
615:
10878:
8508:
3490:
12226:
10665:
10061:
9670:
8718:
8672:
7507:
7399:
6419:
5712:
1964:
1914:
1879:
1573:
1438:
1305:
10632:
9658:
Goldberg, Chad Alan. "The Jews, the Revolution, and the Old Regime in French Anti-Semitism and Durkheim's Sociology."
5621:
12342:
11392:
11032:
10784:
10779:
10737:
10727:
10637:
10413:
10031:
9991:
9971:
9951:
9854:
8744:
7704:
7203:
6986:
6268:
6086:
5916:
5516:
3180:
3161:
by the Muslims in 1009. After the destruction, European reaction to the rumor of the letter was of shock and dismay,
2564:
1656:
1618:
1593:
1513:
1498:
1345:
1285:
1240:
11897:
11586:
6068:
5243:, the legislature passed laws to suppress antisemitic harassment and actions, and established educational programs.
4389:
2877:, the Jews were organized for religious purposes as they were in the Roman empire. They appear to have had priests (
2758:
communities to the large segment of Jews who are entirely secular and who often marry outside the Jewish community.
12241:
11262:
11214:
11082:
10290:
10164:
9966:
7257:
7160:
5984:"Jews are leaving France in record numbers amid rising antisemitism and fears of more Isis-inspired terror attacks"
5602:
5461:
5030:
4837:
1949:
1931:
1837:
1731:
1583:
1578:
1503:
1468:
1335:
8630:
8453:
7578:
Birnbaum, Pierre (1995). "French Jewish Sociologists Between Reason and Faith: The Impact of the Dreyfus Affair".
5562:
was attacked with a machete by a Kurdish teenager. Some Jewish groups debated recommending that Jews not wear the
3120:
There were widespread persecutions of Jews in France beginning in 1007 or 1009. These persecutions, instigated by
13261:
12986:
12685:
11903:
11189:
10295:
10169:
10116:
10091:
10046:
10041:
10016:
9874:
6944:[Catalog of Documents of the Charters Treasury relating to the Jews under the reign of Philip the Fair].
5184:
4676:
By the time Dreyfus was fully exonerated in 1906, antisemitism declined sharply and it declined again during the
3444:
The practice of "retention treaties" spread throughout France after 1198. Lords intending to impose a heavy tax (
2467:
2366:
1921:
1904:
1857:
1756:
1666:
1603:
1553:
1533:
1528:
1448:
1422:
1397:
1275:
1265:
1255:
1235:
1230:
12574:
12538:
10676:
9776:
4481:(1803â1885) was a political writer and zoologist who introduced antisemitism into French mainstream thinking. A
3728:
each, they would have to quit the kingdom within one month. Speaking of this exile, a French historian has said,
13256:
12140:
11060:
11055:
10755:
10270:
10081:
10071:
10021:
9981:
9934:
9929:
9919:
9904:
9899:
9894:
9879:
9864:
9859:
9849:
9844:
9839:
9834:
9479:
7554:
7352:
6865:
6644:
6564:
5521:
5391:
France has the largest Jewish population in Europe and the third largest Jewish population in the world (after
5100:
5055:
5035:
5014:
4419:
4330:
did not materially change the political condition of the Jews. Enemies of the Jews cherished the hope that the
3658:
1940:
1926:
1894:
1874:
1842:
1786:
1761:
1736:
1716:
1706:
1691:
1686:
1681:
1661:
1651:
1646:
1623:
1538:
1523:
1443:
1402:
1355:
1350:
1270:
1215:
17:
9417:
9334:
4141:. A gloomy picture of the outrages upon them was sketched before the National Assembly (3 August) by the abbé
2830:, in 449, Jews and Christians mingled in crowds and wept; the former were said to have sung psalms in Hebrew.
13196:
12838:
12600:
12430:
11244:
10722:
10699:
10179:
10121:
10066:
10056:
10036:
10026:
10011:
10006:
9986:
9956:
9924:
9884:
9820:
8139:
8068:
6516:
5613:
4813:
4405:
oath continued to be administered to them, in spite of the repeated protestations of both the rabbis and the
3642:
2361:
1899:
1884:
1847:
1809:
1781:
1771:
1766:
1751:
1746:
1726:
1711:
1671:
1637:
1608:
1508:
1493:
1417:
1407:
1325:
1295:
1220:
1206:
5403:
4261:
3213:"that the conversion of Jews is not to be obtained by force." Also in the same year, Alexander called for a
12314:
11331:
11209:
10255:
10240:
10096:
10051:
9976:
9946:
7749:
5617:
5371:
5295:
5199:
5194:
4797:
4540:(I Accuse), addressing the President of the Republic, and accusing the government with antisemitism in the
4509:
3892:
3619:
3380:
3154:
3125:
3058:
2693:
1969:
1889:
1852:
1776:
1721:
1588:
1563:
1488:
1463:
1453:
1392:
1315:
1310:
1290:
1280:
1260:
1245:
1138:
842:
606:
601:
11918:
9631:
Caron, Vicki. "The Antisemitic revival in France in the 1930s: the socioeconomic dimension reconsidered."
8814:
3011:
Charlemagne fixed a formula for the Jewish oath to the state. He allowed Jews to enter into lawsuits with
13091:
13001:
12680:
12620:
12236:
11204:
11194:
10868:
10501:
7423:
5540:
5311:
5105:
4855:
4414:
4349:
4170:
4111:
4015:
3465:
3096:
2930:
They probably remained under Roman law until the triumph of Christianity, with the status established by
1959:
1954:
1909:
1862:
1548:
1518:
1478:
1473:
1330:
636:
11923:
11593:
11298:
8378:
6039:
5821:
3395:) against the Jews, many of whom were burned or attacked in France. Immediately after the coronation of
2935:
13209:
12372:
12231:
11879:
11717:
11427:
10617:
10210:
9677:
Jean-Paul Sartre and the Jewish question: anti-antisemitism and the politics of the French intellectual
9452:
The Jews in Nineteenth-Century France: From the French Revolution to the Alliance Israelite Universelle
9382:
9062:
8837:
7376:
6193:
5641:
5376:
4582:
4019:
3312:
2433:
2278:
1986:
1380:
576:
566:
302:
11675:
9715:
7231:
6396:
5327:, relations between Israel and France remained strong. It is widely believed that, as a result of the
4211:
the reactionaries did not cease their agitations and Jews were victims of discriminations. During the
3915:
13081:
12886:
12191:
12133:
11252:
11112:
10418:
10408:
9464:
Haus, Jeffrey. "Liberte, Egalite, Utilite: Jewish Education and State in Nineteenth-Century France."
8040:
5874:
5269:
4988:
4567:
2547:
2240:
2091:
2032:
923:
12748:
12675:
12377:
11432:
10516:
9369:
7301:
Crossley, Ceri (2004). "Anglophobia and anti-Semitism: The case of Alphonse Toussenel (1803â1885)".
6941:
4747:
3426:
3015:. They were not allowed to require Christians to work on Sundays. Jews were not allowed to trade in
12319:
12299:
12271:
12211:
12201:
12186:
12181:
12176:
12171:
11336:
11321:
11136:
10328:
9756:
8538:
6942:"Catalogue des Documents du Trésor des Chartes relatifs aux Juifs sous le rÚgne de Philippe le Bel"
5680:
5581:
5477:
4821:
4283:
3584:
3233:, despite their fantastic character. Finally, and above all, their attention was occupied with the
2678:
2250:
2230:
1340:
820:
361:
11742:
8336:
6889:
Jordan, William Chester (1998). "Jews, Regalian Rights, and the Constitution in Medieval France".
4146:
4034:
was raised by two men of genius, who subsequently became prominent in the French RevolutionâCount
3701:
not to imprison any Jews at the instance of the Inquisitors, but in 1299 he rescinded this order.
12793:
12700:
12281:
12261:
12251:
12246:
12221:
12206:
12156:
12010:
11824:
11493:
10511:
10491:
10260:
9374:
6317:
5646:
4893:
4763:
4095:
3529:
3324:
3210:
2874:
2827:
2391:
2381:
2346:
2225:
2215:
1998:
1169:
1111:
945:
624:
581:
296:
236:
13127:
13026:
12646:
10812:
7453:
Wilson, Stephen (1976). "Antisemitism and Jewish Response in France during the Dreyfus Affair".
6502:
5651:
4451:
4123:
3532:, he performed only the minimum service of 40 days and left for home amid charges of treachery.
13171:
13061:
12896:
12347:
12216:
12042:
11913:
11559:
11397:
11233:
10694:
10350:
9691:
Reconciling France Against Democracy: The Croix de Feu and the Parti Social Fran ais, 1927â1945
9497:
8602:
6198:
6021:
5955:
5685:
5574:
5512:
5465:
5426:
5363:
5167:
5120:
4809:
4718:
4437:
4399:
While the Jews had become in other respects the equals of their Christian fellow citizens, the
4153:
3927:
3630:
3320:
2978:
2686:
2655:
2624:
2510:
2245:
2159:
1225:
777:
396:
366:
188:
7694:
6783:
6766:
6736:
6636:
6630:
6556:
6550:
6113:
Mais la date du décÚs est calculée en fonction du calendrier local, ici celui du rÚgne du roi
5969:
4754:. The new intensity of antisemitism facilitated the extremism of the Vichy regime after 1940.
4592:, a vehement open letter published in a Paris newspaper in January 1898 by the notable writer
3142:
13021:
12823:
12562:
12114:
11890:
11644:
10551:
10365:
10203:
9469:
7867:
5626:
5449:
5420:
5350:, one of the planners of the attack. Both France and Israel participated in the 15-year-long
4353:
4327:
4246:
4237:
4119:
3521:
3505:
3205:
3030:
2822:(9 July 425), that prohibited Jews and pagans from practising law or holding public offices (
2762:
2401:
2396:
2341:
2129:
1044:
772:
759:
654:
371:
13086:
9428:
The Jews of the Republic: A Political History of State Jews in France from Gambetta to Vichy
8357:
8189:
5584:, was found dead in her apartment in the east of the French capital, where she lived alone.
5328:
4282:
also spread the concept in the lands he conquered across Europe, liberating Jews from their
13041:
12868:
12763:
12568:
12352:
12289:
12049:
11874:
11732:
11569:
11402:
11311:
10862:
10670:
10375:
5347:
4888:
In July 2017, while at a ceremony at the site of the VĂ©lodrome d'Hiver, France's President
4874:
4680:, as a nation was aware that many Jews died fighting for France. The antisemitic newspaper
4406:
4381:
4242:
3926:
From 1484, one town after another had called for expulsion, but the calls were rejected by
3875:
3862:, and no one was to be forced by the king or his officers to repay to them usurious loans.
3674:
3497:
3388:
3355:
2472:
2424:
2164:
2022:
835:
700:
689:
647:
11768:
6067:(3 May 2018). "Les noms des juifs Ă Paris (XII-XIV siĂšcle)". In Nadiras, SĂ©bastien (ed.).
5544:
5492:
4904:
4643:
3008:
traders were nearly the only group to maintain trade between the Occident and the Orient.
8:
12813:
12445:
12387:
11829:
11819:
11442:
11102:
11042:
10704:
10683:
9270:"French Jewish Politician Alain Ghozland Found Murdered In Home, Anti-Semitism To Blame?"
8668:
7081:"States, regimes, and decisions: why Jews were expelled from Medieval England and France"
6026:
5631:
5454:
5257:
5060:
5050:
4311:
4275:
4185:, formerly a parliamentary councilor, Duport, unexpectedly ascended the tribune and said,
4110:
reluctant to yield to the state their intra-communal privileges, were denied this right.
3951:
3931:
3714:
3694:
3666:
3121:
2783:
2751:
2620:
2612:
2525:
2220:
898:
765:
668:
661:
591:
479:
354:
13076:
12843:
11933:
10322:
4739:
4410:
4385:
3404:
of other countries, and the numerous works produced in those days. The impulse given by
13148:
12543:
12513:
12397:
11814:
11705:
11554:
11452:
11199:
11117:
11074:
10601:
10387:
9514:
9489:
8300:
8267:
8167:
7804:
7796:
7595:
7525:
7478:
7370:
7326:
7111:
7048:
6922:
6914:
6838:
6697:
6238:
6031:
5548:
5488:
5444:
5367:
5351:
5261:
5128:
4993:
4854:
On the other hand, France is recognised as the nation with the third highest number of
4817:
4804:. The Vichy government even protected them after attacks as a way to deny persecution.
4609:
4581:
Two years later, in 1896, evidence came to light identifying a French Army major named
4478:
4433:
3825:
3634:
3556:(1226â70) (also known as Saint Louis), with his ardent piety and his submission to the
3553:
3525:
3464:
and successfully "captured" its Jews with a large tax levy. From 1223 on, however, the
3237:
and its commentaries. The text of this work, together with that of the writings of the
3069:
2807:
2705:
2376:
2326:
2273:
2268:
2182:
2052:
1320:
1149:
908:
828:
682:
248:
13066:
12630:
12610:
11794:
11784:
10566:
10496:
10423:
9108:
8991:"Grenoble attack: Man found beheaded and Islamist flag raised above factory in France"
8479:"Immigrants, by Period of Immigration, Country of Birth and Last Country of Residence"
8134:
7991:
7640:"Jewish Artists of the School of Paris 1905-1939 - Nadine Nieszawer and DĂ©borah Princ"
7067:
Chronique de Religieux de Saint-Denys, contenant le regne de Charles VI de 1380 a 1422
5742:
4851:
to round-up Jews. They participated in the Vel' d'Hiv roundup on 16 and 17 July 1942.
4613:
4428:
4228:
and wealthier Jews deprived themselves of their jewels to make similar contributions.
3316:
3053:, to the consternation of Rome. There were unsubstantiated rumors in this period that
2619:
in the late 18th century, on the other hand, France was the first European country to
94:
12901:
12858:
12833:
12788:
12670:
12498:
12402:
12304:
12079:
12003:
11989:
11834:
11564:
11457:
11326:
10531:
10526:
9624:
Caron, Vicki. "The'Jewish Question'from Dreyfus to Vichy." in Martin Alexander, ed.,
9518:
8583:
8386:
7873:
7808:
7700:
7587:
7560:
7550:
7513:
7503:
7482:
7470:
7405:
7395:
7358:
7348:
7330:
7318:
7209:
7199:
7115:
7103:
7040:
6992:
6982:
6926:
6906:
6871:
6861:
6830:
6789:
6742:
6689:
6650:
6640:
6570:
6560:
6450:
6440:
6415:
6358:
6348:
6299:
6289:
6264:
6242:
6230:
6161:
6132:
6092:
6082:
6043:
5597:
5504:
4800:. Still, the vast majority of synagogues remained opened during the whole war in the
4734:
4655:
4571:
4482:
4292:
4047:
3905:. The Jewish presence reached a peak in 1348 when it probably numbered about 15,000.
3840:
3836:
3741:
3561:
3513:
3201:
2616:
2604:
2520:
2462:
2442:
2259:
1819:
1458:
918:
789:
719:
596:
509:
376:
12483:
11849:
10392:
8815:"Immigration figures reach 10-year high in 2014 â with large boost from French Jews"
7497:
4725:
contributed to a revival of antisemitism in the 1930s. Conservative writers such as
4687:
4605:
4142:
4039:
2681:. By the war's end, 25% of the Jewish population of France had been murdered in the
13181:
12891:
12828:
12773:
12743:
12035:
11996:
11615:
11184:
10818:
10556:
10521:
10345:
9506:
9495:
Safran, William (May 2004). "Ethnoreligious Politics in France: Jews and Muslims".
7788:
7462:
7310:
7095:
7032:
6898:
6822:
6681:
6222:
6074:
6064:
6035:
5086:
4331:
4057:
3438:
3328:
2926:, an "inscription relating to the Jews of France", or as a "Christian inscription".
2850:
2490:
2371:
2331:
2295:
1993:
1543:
1054:
810:
714:
629:
519:
311:
196:
192:
172:
159:
151:
80:
12981:
12605:
11359:
10461:
10428:
8912:"Jewish Agency-Affiliated Think Tank Composes Aliyah Plan for 120,000 French Jews"
7232:"Chapitre XIV â La RĂ©volution française et l'Ă©mancipation des Juifs â (1789â1806)"
3737:
12966:
12863:
12778:
12768:
12458:
12357:
11747:
11700:
11690:
11685:
11407:
11159:
11122:
11107:
10974:
10795:
10744:
10451:
10334:
10280:
9780:
9763:
9233:
8701:
7948:
7164:
6976:
5988:
5922:
5343:
5256:. They fled to France because of the decline of the French Empire and a surge in
5081:
4889:
4743:
4699:
4682:
4663:
4651:
4618:
4588:
4536:
4514:
4505:
4486:
4461:
4456:
4288:
4250:
4212:
4174:
4161:
4031:
3999:
3920:
3710:
3607:
3580:
3557:
3396:
3168:
3150:
3134:
3081:
3054:
3046:
3038:
3026:
2950:
2946:
2923:
2870:
2815:
2647:
2452:
2411:
2406:
2386:
2308:
2302:
2235:
2187:
2027:
2008:
1159:
888:
800:
783:
327:
184:
180:
168:
147:
65:
50:
13051:
12635:
12488:
10586:
9789:
9532:
Schoolcraft, Ralph. "In Lieu of Memory: Contemporary Jewish Writing in France,"
9510:
8565:
8163:"Jews in France Feel Sting as Anti-Semitism Surges Among Children of Immigrants"
8110:
8088:
7314:
7136:
6011:
5796:"La communauté juive de France compte 550.000 personnes, dont 25.000 à Toulouse"
4409:. It was only in 1846, owing to a brilliant defense speech by the Jewish lawyer
3512:
on Jews' debts should no longer hold good, he at the same time ordered that the
3375:
13235:
12808:
12615:
12518:
12107:
12102:
12097:
12092:
12087:
11971:
11938:
11839:
11549:
11087:
11050:
10904:
10596:
10355:
10340:
9636:
9566:
Anderson, Thomas P. "Edouard Drumont and the Origins of Modern Anti-Semitism."
9438:
9365:
9314:"Paris: Two charged with anti-Semitic murder of 85-year-old Holocaust survivor"
8282:
7466:
6017:
5436:
4966:
4866:
4730:
4647:
4601:
4563:
4549:
4541:
4220:
4115:
3975:
3880:
3850:
3845:
3757:
3682:
3535:
3304:
2792:
2788:
2716:, which has the largest Jewish population among all European cities (277,000),
2709:
2628:
2552:
2351:
2206:
2086:
2065:
2042:
2037:
2015:
2003:
1598:
1079:
1013:
978:
956:
893:
731:
709:
571:
550:
526:
292:
274:
232:
155:
13176:
12911:
12906:
11854:
11422:
10506:
9698:
The Jew Accused: Three Anti-Semitic Affairs (Dreyfus, Beilis, Frank) 1894â1915
9288:"In France, murder of a Jewish woman ignites debate over the word 'terrorism'"
9251:
8233:"Toulouse shooting: Same gun and motorbike used in Jewish and soldier attacks"
7792:
7099:
6902:
6811:"New Light on the Persecution of French Jews at the Time of the First Crusade"
6096:
5380:
3614:
forgiven, but the other two-thirds were to be remitted to the royal treasury.
3245:
2949:. The Jews on the other hand continued to dwell and to prosper in what is now
2627:
still occurred in cycles and reached a high in the 1890s, as shown during the
13245:
13223:
13071:
13046:
13031:
13011:
12848:
12818:
12803:
12783:
12758:
12733:
12710:
12695:
12508:
12493:
12382:
12167:
12017:
11844:
11437:
11097:
10660:
10591:
10576:
10571:
10561:
10546:
10476:
9360:
8512:
8390:
8262:
7849:"Marine Le Pen: France 'not responsible' for deporting Jews during Holocaust"
7591:
7517:
7474:
7409:
7322:
7107:
7044:
6910:
6834:
6693:
6454:
6256:
6234:
6165:
6013:
5580:
On 23 March 2018, an 85-year-old French Jewish woman and Holocaust survivor,
5396:
5283:
4976:
4639:
4575:
4562:
The affair began in November 1894 with the conviction for treason of Captain
4490:
4303:
4157:
4011:
3720:
3662:
3461:
3422:
3346:
3226:
3050:
3034:
3005:
2907:
2811:
2747:
2701:
2500:
2495:
1701:
1628:
1154:
1003:
998:
993:
983:
961:
913:
675:
514:
419:
381:
332:
224:
9581:
9395:
Adler, Jacques. "The Jews and Vichy: reflections on French historiography."
8722:
8416:
7894:"'France organised this': Macron denounces state role in Holocaust atrocity"
7564:
7362:
6996:
6981:. Translated by DeBevoise, M.B. Princeton, N.J: Princeton University Press.
6875:
6685:
6654:
6574:
6362:
6303:
6047:
5524:, predicted as many as 250,000 French Jews to make aliyah by the year 2030.
5460:
Rises in antisemitism in modern France have been linked to the intensifying
4921:
4593:
4531:
4178:
3548:
In spite of all these restrictions designed to restrain, if not to suppress
2677:
to deport a large number of both French Jews and foreign Jewish refugees to
13016:
12976:
12921:
12738:
12705:
12625:
12592:
12528:
12523:
12468:
12417:
11789:
11369:
11364:
11219:
11179:
11154:
11149:
11092:
10581:
10536:
10486:
10265:
10226:
9109:"For French Jews, a New Reality: Under Attack for Being French, Not Jewish"
8607:
8073:
7213:
6136:
5573:
On 4 April 2017, the horrific murder of a 65-year-old French Jewish woman,
5480:
5335:
5240:
4971:
4912:
4908:
4897:
4793:
4786:
4751:
4659:
4401:
4182:
3910:
3251:
3012:
2998:
2990:
2882:
2750:, many of whom (or their parents) emigrated from former French colonies of
2744:
2666:
2636:
2615:
increased over time, including multiple expulsions and returns. During the
2530:
2356:
2197:
2192:
2150:
2103:
1197:
1064:
1049:
1008:
973:
586:
428:
228:
12853:
12125:
9595:
The pope of antisemitism: the career and legacy of Edouard-Adolphe Drumont
9588:
Anti-Semitism in France: A Political History from LĂ©on Blum to the Present
7345:
Antisemitism : a historical encyclopedia of prejudice and persecution
6078:
4722:
2888:
2712:. French Jewish communities are concentrated in the metropolitan areas of
12916:
12753:
12473:
12407:
11607:
11462:
11144:
10541:
9445:
Jewish Youth and Identity in Postwar France: Rebuilding Family and Nation
6100:
5431:
5384:
5339:
5324:
5265:
5091:
5003:
4998:
4726:
4677:
4003:
3549:
3470:
3392:
3162:
2971:
2919:
2659:
2608:
2515:
2457:
2122:
1028:
1023:
1018:
988:
9578:
Globalizing Race: Antisemitism and Empire in French and European Culture
9571:
9404:
Rhinestones, Religion, and the Republic: Fashioning Jewishness in France
9359: This article incorporates text from a publication now in the
8887:"Wealthy French Jews Are Fleeing Anti-Semitism and Bringing Their Money"
8069:"France responsible for sending Jews to concentration camps, says court"
7154:
6701:
6669:
5848:"Four shot dead at Jewish school in France; gun used in earlier attacks"
5769:"Fears of Anti-Semitism: More and More French Jews Emigrating to Israel"
3801:
3653:
3076:
disembarked on the coast of Narbonnese Gaul, they were taken for Jewish
2685:, though this was a lower proportion than in most other countries under
13096:
13036:
12533:
12453:
11754:
11021:
10897:
10749:
10434:
10360:
9767:
9684:
The extreme right in interwar France: the Faisceau and the Croix de Feu
9653:
9612:
9252:"French Jewish Politician Found Dead With Stab Wounds in His Apartment"
8638:
7800:
7776:
7599:
7052:
6918:
6842:
6810:
6607:
6226:
5913:
5532:
5246:
4946:
4859:
4801:
4254:
4216:
4134:
3982:
3805:
3745:
3588:
3576:
to Jews. The king wished in this way to strike a deadly blow at usury.
2954:
2942:
2866:
2834:
2729:
2173:
1187:
1116:
1074:
903:
883:
442:
349:
269:
212:
8719:"Netanyahu to French Jews: 'Come to Israel and make Israel your home'"
6345:
The Jews in medieval Normandy : a social and intellectual history
5567:
5543:, committed by suspected ISIS affiliates reputedly in retaliation for
5453:
had earlier said the same thing. According to a 2005 poll made by the
5323:
After the military alliance between France and Israel during the 1956
3986:
3249:, was first revised and copied; then these writings were treated as a
3193:
3183:(bishop 990â1012), offered the Jews of his diocese the choice between
3116:
Costumes of medieval French Jews, as reimagined in a 1906 encyclopedia
2854:
2696:
in Europe and the third-largest Jewish population in the world (after
12798:
12690:
11637:
9773:
8768:"French anti-Semitism and French aliyah skyrocket on parallel tracks"
8543:
8452:. The Coordination Forum for Countering Anti-Semitism. Archived from
7913:"Macron Denounces Anti-Zionism as 'Reinvented Form of Anti-Semitism'"
7614:"The Jewish painters of l'Ăcole de Paris-from the Holocaust to today"
7020:
6288:. Berkeley, Calif: University of California Press. pp. 139â141.
5559:
5299:
5279:
4714:
4315:
4300:
4107:
4023:
3971:
3777:
3698:
3678:
3158:
3042:
3002:
2958:
2931:
2717:
2682:
2336:
2321:
1411:
1359:
1121:
1069:
1059:
740:
736:
726:
641:
401:
7970:"When Did the U.S. and Israel Become Allies? (Hint: Trick Question)"
7678:
From Dreyfus to Vichy : the remaking of French Jewry, 1906â1939
7665:
From Dreyfus to Vichy : the remaking of French Jewry, 1906â1939
7036:
6826:
6600:
Inventaire Critique des Lettres Historiques des Croisades â 786â1100
6286:
Living Letters of the Law: Ideas of the Jew in Medieval Christianity
4693:
After 1900, a wave of Jewish immigrants arrived, mostly fleeing the
4022:
as purveyor to the army, was the representantive of the Jews before
3897:
Archaeological evidence has been discovered of a Jewish presence in
3629:
Later, after having discussed the subject with his son-in-law, King
3485:
1089:
8695:"Stay or go? French Jews face a growing â and emotional â dilemma."
8194:
7750:"Que sont devenues les synagogues françaises pendant l'Occupation?"
6670:"Through Jewish Eyes: Polemical Literature and the Medieval Papacy"
5739:"More Than One Quarter of Jews in France Want To Leave, Poll Finds"
5472:
Between 2000 and 2009, 13,315 French Jews moved to Israel, or made
4296:
4279:
4208:
4130:
4103:
4087:
4083:
4052:
3981:
In 1683, Louis XIV expelled Jews from the newly acquired colony of
3898:
3809:
3793:
3789:
3785:
3773:
3769:
3761:
3749:
3690:
3599:
3509:
3340:
3146:
3092:
3077:
3016:
2897:
2862:
2846:
2796:
2740:
2733:
2505:
2115:
2047:
878:
386:
337:
9727:
Shields, James G. "Antisemitism in France: The spectre of Vichy."
8308:"Islamic Extremism: Common Concern for Muslim and Western Publics"
7969:
5815:
5813:
3781:
3303:, his birthplace, after having followed the teachings of those of
9018:"Come home!' Israeli minister urges French Jews amid terror wave"
8341:
7900:. Associated Press. 17 July 2017 – via www.theguardian.com.
6635:. University Park: Pennsylvania State University Press. pp.
4983:
4848:
4781:
110,000 French Jews were living in the colony of French Algeria.
4710:
4703:
4694:
4670:
4666:
4091:
4043:
3565:
3474:
3295:
3214:
3189:
3184:
3085:
3073:
2994:
2810:(died 366) for having fled from the Jewish society. The emperors
2708:
is estimated to number 480,000â550,000, depending in part on the
2651:
2481:
2447:
2316:
2110:
1099:
1094:
966:
857:
752:
748:
744:
493:
488:
465:
447:
322:
317:
307:
285:
260:
208:
9234:"Marseille teacher attack: Jewish leaders agonise over skullcap"
9154:"French Jews head to Israel in the wake of Paris terror attacks"
8631:"'Sarkozy effect' on French Jewish immigration to Israel ?"
8509:"Le chiffre de l'alya des Juifs de France ne décolle pas !"
7931:"Macron hosts Netanyahu, condemns anti-Zionism as anti-Semitism"
5819:
4746:
denounced Jews. Perhaps the most violent antisemitic writer was
3469:
ordinanceâthe first piece of public legislation in France since
3269:
2842:
12581:
11600:
10195:
9527:
Obstinate Hebrews: Representations of Jews in France, 1715â1815
9176:"Dozens of French Jews immigrate to Israel after Paris attacks"
8210:"'Gang of Barbarians': 14 Defendants Will Be Retried on Appeal"
6437:
A history of Christianity : the first three thousand years
6117:, et non en fonction du calendrier juif comme au bas Moyen Ăge.
5810:
5563:
5473:
5392:
5317:
5287:
5189:
5024:
4772:
Antisemitic Exposition during Nazi occupation of France (1942).
4596:. Activists put pressure on the government to reopen the case.
4495:
Les juifs rois de l'époque, histoire de la féodalité financiÚre
4215:, at Bordeaux, Jewish bankers, compromised in the cause of the
4204:
4099:
3966:
3956:
3765:
3753:
3592:
3434:
3410:
3350:
3300:
3286:
3282:
3239:
3234:
3088:
2878:
2766:
2755:
2697:
2600:
2141:
2136:
2096:
2081:
1192:
1084:
504:
470:
456:
391:
9486:
From Dreyfus to Vichy: The Remaking of French Jewry, 1906â1939
9040:"Israel's Absorption Ministry Plans for Influx of French Jews"
8987:
7721:
From Dreyfus to Vichy: The Remaking of French Jewry, 1906â1939
6536:
ib. 262, according to whom the event occurred in 1007 or 1008.
4612:, and those who condemned him (the anti-Dreyfusards), such as
3835:
Nine years had hardly passed since the expulsion of 1306 when
3112:
9198:"Teenager Attacks Jewish Teacher in Marseille With a Machete"
8412:""L'antisémitisme est de retour", selon le président du Crif"
7238:. Histoire antique des pays et des hommes de la Mediterrannée
7196:Ătre juif dans la sociĂ©tĂ© française, du Moyen-Ăge Ă nos jours
6114:
5897:"Le Bilan de la Shoah en France [Le régime de Vichy]"
4526:
4138:
3902:
3859:
3797:
3603:
3405:
3308:
3293:(particularly on the Pentateuch), a sort of repertory of the
3290:
3278:
3264:
3129:
3068:
Jews were engaged in export trade, particularly traveling to
2975:
2901:
2893:
2858:
2838:
2713:
2643:
1104:
533:
437:
406:
6555:(Rev. and expanded ed.). New York: Doubleday. pp.
5346:
at the Olympics, the French government refused to extradite
3919:(xiv. 162â183), about 3,000 Jews came to Provence after the
3539:
A group of medieval Jewish moneylenders conducting business.
3311:, immediately became famous. Around his chair were gathered
3200:
Another violent commotion arose at about 1065. At this date
9414:
The Jews of France: A History from Antiquity to the Present
9086:"French now realizing they, and not just Jews, are targets"
8362:
7284:"L'affaire de la "consonnance israélite" du nom de famille"
7250:
6978:
The Jews of France: A History from Antiquity to the Present
6188:
6186:
6184:
4358:
3172:
3165:
3020:
2986:
2982:
2819:
2800:
2725:
2721:
2596:
256:
8838:"Jewish Agency: 'Dramatic' Rise in French, Ukraine Aliyah"
7777:"The Jews and Vichy: Reflections on French Historiography"
7347:. Levy, Richard S. Santa Barbara, Calif.: ABC-CLIO. 2005.
6383:
MS. No. 563, 23; see also Jew. Encyc. v. 447, s.v. France.
4616:, the director and publisher of the antisemitic newspaper
3520:
Twenty-six barons accepted Louis VIII's new measures, but
3489:
A gathering of thirteenth-century French Rabbis (from the
8963:"Israel Gains With Influx of French Jewish Entrepreneurs"
8661:"Top countries of origin for Jewish immigrants to Israel"
8115:
6070:
Noms de lieux, noms de personnes: la question des sources
5656:
4922:
Post-World War II: Anti-discriminatory laws and migration
4702:. About 200,000 immigrants arrived, 1900 to 1939, mostly
4512:
in 1889, and was the founder and editor of the newspaper
4504:
Antisemitism based on racism emerged in the 1880s led by
3448:, literally "capture") on Jews living in their lordship (
7194:
Philippe, BĂ©atrice (1979). "La RĂ©volution et l'Empire".
6181:
5566:
in public. A 73 year old Jewish municipal councillor in
3849:
for the privilege of returning. It is also probable, as
9544:
The Jews of Medieval France: The Community of Champagne
9132:"Steady increase in number of French Jews making aliya"
8066:
6858:
The Jews of Medieval France: The Community of Champagne
6815:
Proceedings of the American Academy for Jewish Research
5713:"French Jews fear anti-Semitism will destroy community"
5298:, France's Jewish population suffered its first deadly
3504:
of 1223, while more inspired with the doctrines of the
7829:(in French). Présidence de la République. 16 July 1995
6012:
Broydé, Isaac Luria; et al. (1906). "France". In
4830:
Timeline of deportations of French Jews to death camps
4042:âthe former of whom, while on a diplomatic mission in
3788:. The exiles could not take refuge anywhere except in
2658:
and communism, the latter two being popular among the
13207:
9607:
Byrnes, R. F. "Edouard Drumont and La France Juive."
8135:"Anti-Semitism rising, Jews in France ponder leaving"
6310:
6140:
5822:"Gunman attacks Jewish school in France, four killed"
5410:
4586:
attendant cover-up began to spread, chiefly owing to
3815:
3602:, Louis ordered the expulsion of all Jews engaged in
2981:. Trading and importing of oriental products such as
8511:(in French). Magazine Terre d'Israel. Archived from
8017:"Mastermind behind the Munich Olympics attacks dies"
7547:
France and the Dreyfus Affair: A Documentary History
5247:
Jewish exodus from France's colonies in North Africa
3416:
2739:
The majority of French Jews in the 21st century are
2120:
2101:
524:
9216:"France debates Jewish skullcap after knife attack"
9083:
8745:"Immigration to Israel Rises by 7% â Led by French"
8473:
8471:
6602:by Paul Edouard Didier Riant (Paris, 1880), p. 38.
6263:(in French). Dover Publications. pp. 123â128.
4879:
Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen
4690:included Jews among France's "spiritual families".
4075:, the 1791 decree giving the Jews full citizenship
3413:, rabbinical jurisprudence, and Biblical exegesis.
13122:Sons and Daughters of Jewish Deportees from France
11258:Law regarding foreign nationals of the Jewish race
11041:
8989:
8861:"Number of French Jews Emigrating to Israel Rises"
8450:"The 2011 annual report on antisemitism in France"
8231:
8036:"France faces its guilt for deporting Jews in war"
7394:. New York; Bern; Frankfurt am Main; Paris: Lang.
6632:El Camino : Walking to Santiago de Compostela
6467:Berliner's "Magazin," iii.; "Oáșar áčŹob," pp. 46â48.
6428:
5970:"France : Un portrait de la population juive"
4344:to the campaign led in Parliament by the deputies
3421:This century, which opened with the return of the
2873:, and according to an edict of 331 by the emperor
10790:French Foundation for the Study of Human Problems
10775:Collaboration with Nazi Germany and Fascist Italy
9819:
9785:The Museum of the Jewish People at Beit Hatfutsot
9705:Muslims and Jews in France: History of a Conflict
9619:The Dreyfus affair in French society and politics
9437:3.3 (1891): 367â435. long scholarly description.
8539:"As attacks rise in France, Jews flock to Israel"
8358:"Report: Gaza war reverses drop in anti-Semitism"
7499:The Dreyfus Affair in French Society and Politics
6478:"Jekuthiel ben Judah Ha-Kohen | Encyclopedia.com"
6131:
5637:List of Holocaust memorials and museums in France
5282:tradition and culture. The Sephardim, who follow
4757:
3677:, which had been instituted in order to suppress
3061:was a converted Jew, as she would not accept the
13243:
8716:
8468:
7078:
6970:
6968:
6277:
6261:Mahomet et Charlemagne (reprint of 1937 classic)
5732:
5730:
3319:(Rashbam), and Shemaya, his grandsons; likewise
2776:
2607:. France was a centre of Jewish learning in the
10733:List of constitutional laws of the Vichy regime
9628:(1999): 172â202, a guide to the historiography.
9106:
8988:Raziye Akkoc, and Henry Samuel (26 June 2015).
6178:(Click on search link and enter above EDCS-ID.)
5820:John Irish and Guillaume Serries (March 2012).
4717:. The Yiddish influx and the Jewishness of the
4686:closed in 1924, and the former anti-Dreyfusard
4489:, he criticized the economic liberalism of the
4274:Though the Revolution had begun the process of
11651:Legion of French Volunteers Against Bolshevism
8938:"Aliyah plan prepares for 120,000 French Jews"
8808:
8806:
8337:"French Jews ask Sarkozy to help curb attacks"
8312:Pew Research Center's Global Attitudes Project
7692:
7688:
7686:
7021:"The Expulsion of the Jews from France (1306)"
6544:
6542:
6409:
5570:was murdered in his apartment the same month.
5495:advised the French Jewish community by saying
4253:, an imperial Jewish high court sanctioned by
4063:
3370:
3225:During this period, which continued until the
2833:In the sixth century, Jews were documented in
12141:
10211:
9805:
9129:
9060:
8957:
8955:
8789:"74% of French Jews Consider Leaving Country"
8532:
8530:
7865:
6965:
6255:
5736:
5727:
5536:in the same period during the previous year.
5219:
4198:
3992:
3425:to France proper (then almost reduced to the
2900:at the 7th-century beginning of the reign of
2572:
72:
9667:Antisemitism during the French Second Empire
8858:
8190:"Suspects in death of French Jew face trial"
8067:Lizzy Davies (in Paris) (17 February 2009).
7392:Antisemitism during the French Second Empire
7177:Religion and Revolution in France, 1780â1804
7018:
5889:
5841:
5839:
5762:
5760:
5675:
5673:
5671:
5254:Jewish exodus from Arab and Muslim countries
4778:France came under occupation by Nazi Germany
3689:In accordance with these rules, the Jews of
3517:abolished and replaced by the ordinary one.
2913:
2692:In the 21st century, France has the largest
57:
42:
13116:Fondation pour la MĂ©moire de la DĂ©portation
12426:Center of Contemporary Jewish Documentation
12155:
10852:Underground media in German-occupied France
9364:
8835:
8803:
8765:
7859:
7732:
7683:
7225:
7223:
7065:History of the reign of Charles VI, titled
6771:. Funk & Wagnalls Company. p. 448.
6764:
6548:
6539:
6158:Catholic University of EichstÀtt-Ingolstadt
5793:
5710:
4114:, a French-Jewish financier, then asked to
3913:, in a special study of the subject in the
3648:
3220:
3149:. According to Adémar, Christians urged by
2905:
816:History of the Jews in the Byzantine Empire
12148:
12134:
10218:
10204:
9812:
9798:
8952:
8812:
8527:
8444:
8442:
7530:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (
6434:
5845:
5706:
5704:
5558:In January 2016, a 35-year-old teacher in
5305:
5226:
5212:
4654:art movement, typified by such artists as
3704:
3107:
2765:. Since 2010 or so, more have been making
2579:
2565:
93:
9710:Marrus, Michael R. and Robert 0. Paxton.
8603:"French Jews caught up in a war of words"
8600:
8376:
8355:
8331:
8329:
7949:"Israel PM mourns France's deported Jews"
6336:
6194:"The Virtual Jewish History Tour, France"
6007:
6005:
6003:
6001:
5999:
5836:
5766:
5757:
5668:
3828:dating from before the expulsion of 1394
3626:those who had paid it or to their heirs.
3579:In 1243, Louis ordered, at the urging of
3365:
13267:History of the Jews in Europe by country
10874:Newspapers confiscated for collaboration
9554:The myth of the Jew in France, 1967â1982
9385:at the website of Jewish Virtual Library
9084:Amanda Borschel-Dan (15 November 2015).
8377:Eberstadt, Fernanda (29 February 2004).
7964:
7962:
7577:
7300:
7220:
7193:
7189:
7187:
7185:
6974:
6719:
6628:
6552:A concise history of the Catholic Church
6347:. New York: Cambridge University Press.
5375:
4767:
4525:
4450:
4380:
4321:
4260:
4241:
4067:
4018:, who had rendered great service to the
3950:
3819:
3652:
3534:
3484:
3391:led to nearly a century of accusations (
3374:
3268:
3111:
2904:. The text begins with the Latin phrase
2887:
13154:List of Holocaust memorials and museums
12436:Timeline of deportations to death camps
11279:Commissariat-General for Jewish Affairs
10857:Freedom of the Press Ordinances of 1944
9736:The Holocaust, the French, and the Jews
9063:"80% of French Jews considering aliyah"
8884:
8721:. European Jewish Press. Archived from
8439:
8128:
8126:
7910:
7198:(in French). Paris: Ăditions Montalba.
7079:Barkey, Karen; Katznelson, Ira (2011).
6781:
6127:
6125:
6063:
6059:
6057:
5954:. World Jewish Congress. Archived from
5883:United States Holocaust Memorial Museum
5869:
5867:
5865:
5701:
4843:Commissariat-General for Jewish Affairs
4231:
3345:The Jews of France suffered during the
3153:were shocked by the destruction of the
2642:Before 1919, most French Jews lived in
114:(includes non-Jewish relatives of Jews)
14:
13244:
13135:MĂ©morial des Martyrs de la DĂ©portation
12641:Vichy Holocaust collaboration timeline
10824:Vichy Holocaust collaboration timeline
9494:
8326:
8033:
7452:
7131:
7129:
7127:
7125:
6888:
6788:. Yale University Press. p. 345.
6765:Singer, Isidore; Adler, Cyrus (1903).
6318:"Internet History Sourcebooks Project"
6212:
5996:
4566:, a young French artillery officer of
4203:Judaism in France thus became, as the
3941:
162:(most endangered and some now extinct)
12129:
10199:
9793:
9156:. IB Business Times. 17 November 2015
8536:
8280:
8256:"Rothschild: France not anti-Semitic"
8244:from the original on 12 January 2022.
8160:
7959:
7774:
7747:
7726:
7644:Fondation pour la MĂ©moire de la Shoah
7544:
7389:
7182:
6855:
6760:
6758:
6724:. London: Liverpool University Press.
6715:
6713:
6711:
6391:
6389:
6379:iii. 46â48, Hebrew part, reproducing
6283:
5503:During the first few months of 2014,
5443:However, Jewish philanthropist Baron
5425:In the early 2000s, rising levels of
5402:In 2009, France's highest court, the
4962:History of the Jews under Muslim rule
4820:. The most notorious roundup was the
4444:, but not to their Muslim neighbors.
4394:Musée d'Art et d'Histoire du Judaïsme
2970:The presence of Jews in France under
2965:
2869:in these cities. In harmony with the
2818:sent a decree to Amatius, prefect of
12716:Police collaboration in Vichy France
11965:The Destruction of the European Jews
10807:Political situation in French Africa
10802:Police collaboration in Vichy France
9433:Debré, Simon. "The Jews of France."
9107:Shitbon, Shirli (14 November 2015).
8998:from the original on 12 January 2022
8717:Yossi Lempkowicz (5 November 2012).
8283:"Are the French really antisemitic?"
8132:
8123:
7495:
7422:Guy Canivet, first President of the
7229:
6939:
6808:
6785:Medieval Christianity: A New History
6734:
6667:
6342:
6122:
6054:
6030:. Vol. V. New York and London:
5907:
5862:
5741:. Jewish Federations. Archived from
5511:In January 2015, events such as the
4578:, where he spent almost five years.
4436:to the approximately 40,000 Jews of
4338:
3869:
123:Regions with significant populations
13142:Mémorial national de la déportation
9597:(University Press of America, 1986)
9348:
9178:. Times of Israel. 17 November 2015
8885:Mosendz, Polly (5 September 2014).
8707:. 21 January 2015. 21 January 2015.
8584:"French Jews 'must move to Israel'"
8566:"French Jews leave with no regrets"
8487:Israel Central Bureau of Statistics
8356:Branovsky, Yael (25 January 2009).
8111:"Anti-Semitism 'On Rise in Europe'"
8089:"Chirac Vows to Fight Race Attacks"
7984:
7122:
6741:. Simon and Schuster. p. 156.
6738:Heritage: Civilization and the Jews
6412:The Complete Jewish Guide to France
5529:2015 Saint-Quentin-Fallavier attack
5417:Antisemitism in 21st-century France
4939:Jewish exodus from the Muslim world
4499:Rothschild banking family of France
3480:
2914:
73:
58:
24:
10666:French National-Collectivist Party
9707:(Princeton University Press, 2014)
9693:(McGill-Queen's Press-MQUP, 2014).
9586:Birnbaum, Pierre; Kochan, Miriam.
9406:(Stanford University Press, 2014)
9389:
9130:Bassist, Rina (17 November 2015).
9061:Cohen, Shimon (16 November 2015).
8601:Gentleman, Amelia (20 July 2004).
8537:Stone, Andrea (22 November 2004).
8281:Vidal, Dominique (December 2002).
8034:Davies, Lizzy (18 February 2009).
6755:
6708:
6588:Chronicles of Adhémar of Chabannes
6530:Chronicles of Adhémar of Chabannes
6386:
5484:Israel in 2009 and 1,286 in 2010.
5411:Antisemitism and Jewish emigration
4314:, with all its annexations in the
3923:expelled Jews from Spain in 1492.
3816:Return of the Jews to France, 1315
3175:for the destruction. In that year
25:
13278:
10780:Collaboration with Imperial Japan
10738:French Constitutional Law of 1940
10414:French Constitutional Law of 1940
9742:
9560:
9426:Birnbaum, Pierre, and Jane Todd.
9368:; et al., eds. (1901â1906).
8271:, 15 June 2006/ 24 November 2010.
8161:Smith, Craig S. (26 March 2006).
7911:Goldman, Russell (17 July 2017).
7696:France: The Dark Years, 1940â1944
6860:. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press.
6146:Epigraphik-Datenbank Clauss/Slaby
5517:Porte de Vincennes hostage crisis
5491:in a joint press conference with
5427:antisemitism among French Muslims
4907:had specifically stated that the
4521:
3543:
3417:Recalled by Philip Augustus, 1198
607:Historical population comparisons
13229:
13217:
11263:Second law on the status of Jews
10690:Légion Française des Combattants
10225:
9643:Journal of North African Studies
9529:(Univ of California Press, 2003)
9450:Graetz, Michael, and Jane Todd.
9378:. New York: Funk & Wagnalls.
9354:
9339:
9328:
9306:
9280:
9262:
9244:
9226:
9208:
9190:
9168:
9146:
9123:
9100:
9077:
9054:
9032:
9010:
8981:
8930:
8904:
8878:
8852:
8829:
8781:
8759:
8737:
8710:
8687:
8653:
8637:. 16 August 2007. Archived from
8623:
8594:
8576:
8558:
8501:
8404:
8370:
8349:
7748:Aubry, Antoine (7 August 2016).
7737:. Toulouse: Privat. p. 376.
7699:. OUP Oxford. pp. 105â107.
7303:Modern & Contemporary France
7258:"Alliance Israelite Universelle"
6439:. London: Penguin. p. 396.
5681:"Jewish Population of the World"
5609:Museum of Jewish Art and History
4945:
4892:denounced the country's role in
4838:Vichy laws on the status of Jews
4364:
4269:Museum of Jewish Art and History
4077:Museum of Jewish Art and History
3830:Museum of Jewish Art and History
3097:History of the Jews in Babylonia
1251:Democratic Republic of the Congo
1165:Historical population by country
12987:Marie-Claude Vaillant-Couturier
10954:France, revue de l'Ătat nouveau
10847:Censorship under the occupation
9020:. Times of Israel. 26 June 2015
8813:Judy Maltz (31 December 2014).
8274:
8248:
8224:
8202:
8182:
8154:
8103:
8081:
8060:
8027:
8009:
7941:
7923:
7904:
7886:
7841:
7815:
7768:
7741:
7713:
7670:
7657:
7632:
7618:Jews, Europe, the XXIst century
7606:
7571:
7549:. Boston: Bedford/St. Martins.
7538:
7489:
7446:
7433:
7428:Justice from the Dreyfus Affair
7416:
7383:
7337:
7294:
7276:
7169:
7147:
7072:
7059:
7019:Schwarzfuchs, Simon R. (1967).
7012:
7003:
6933:
6882:
6849:
6802:
6775:
6728:
6661:
6622:
6613:
6593:
6581:
6549:Bokenkotter, Thomas S. (2004).
6523:
6509:
6495:
6470:
6461:
6403:
6369:
6249:
6206:
5976:
5962:
5944:
5927:
5737:Joe Berkofsky (25 March 2012).
5711:Serge Attal (14 January 2013).
5357:
5185:Expulsions and exoduses of Jews
4629:
4473:
4376:
4046:, had made the acquaintance of
3946:
3334:
2912:and includes the Hebrew phrase
2720:, with a population of 70,000,
10756:Service du travail obligatoire
10728:Armistice of Saint Jean d'Acre
10238:World War II collaboration in:
9821:History of the Jews in Europe
8483:Statistical Abstract of Israel
8420:. 3 March 2009. Archived from
7872:. Berghahn Books. p. 53.
7733:Blumenkranz, Bernhard (1972).
7230:Fournier, François-Dominique.
6534:Chronicles of William Godellus
5935:"Jewish world population 2016"
5787:
5522:Jewish People Policy Institute
5437:opened fire at a Jewish school
5264:and Israel's victories in the
5015:Antisemitism in the Arab world
4847:which in 1942 worked with the
4758:World War II and the Holocaust
4420:Alliance Israelite Universelle
4390:Alliance Israélite Universelle
4266:Sermon in an israelite oratory
3659:North French Hebrew Miscellany
3598:In order to finance his first
2962:against the Visigothic kings.
13:
1:
13197:Vichy anti-Jewish legislation
13187:History of the Jews in France
12431:Vichy anti-Jewish legislation
10879:Office français d'information
10700:Revolutionary Social Movement
10371:History of the Jews in France
9626:French History since Napoleon
9602:Antisemitism in modern France
9383:History of the Jews in France
8859:DAN BILEFSKY (20 June 2014).
8345:(in French). 30 January 2009.
8140:The Christian Science Monitor
6517:Monumenta Germaniae Historica
6435:MacCulloch, Diarmaid (2009).
5794:France info (19 March 2012).
5662:
5614:History of the Jews in Alsace
5603:D'Estienne du Bourguet Family
4814:concentration camps in France
4106:, and in Paris, many of them
3643:Fourth Council of the Lateran
2997:almost disappeared under the
2777:Roman and Merovingian periods
2771:rising antisemitism in France
2593:history of the Jews in France
822:Christianity and Judaism
12575:Jeunesse Populaire Française
12539:Carl-Heinrich von StĂŒlpnagel
10677:Jeunesse Populaire Française
8969:. Bloomberg. 22 January 2015
8836:Moshe Cohen (22 June 2014).
8766:Josh Hasten (7 April 2014).
8133:Ford, Peter (22 June 2004).
7735:Histoire des Juifs en France
7290:(in French). 18 August 2007.
7141:www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org
5846:Jim Maceda (19 March 2012).
5462:IsraeliâPalestinian conflict
5372:Jewish population by country
5296:1980 Paris synagogue bombing
5195:Historical Jewish population
4798:seven synagogues were bombed
4510:Antisemitic League of France
3893:History of the Jews in Arles
3381:Grandes Chroniques de France
3281:(Rabbi Shlomo Yitzchaki) of
3217:against the Moors in Spain.
3155:Church of the Holy Sepulcher
3126:Richard II, Duke of Normandy
3102:
3072:under Charlemagne. When the
3045:and Agobard's entreaties to
177:Predominant spoken languages
144:Traditional Jewish languages
7:
12681:Louis Darquier de Pellepoix
12621:Louis Darquier de Pellepoix
11904:Municipal elections of 1945
11587:Service d'ordre légionnaire
11195:French protectorate of Laos
10869:Maréchal, nous voilà !
10502:Louis Darquier de Pellepoix
9679:(U of Nebraska Press, 2006)
9511:10.1080/0140238042000228086
9274:Headlines & Global News
8747:. Forward. 29 December 2013
7315:10.1080/0963948042000284722
7025:The Jewish Quarterly Review
6735:Eban, Abba Solomon (1984).
5767:Gil Yaron (22 March 2012).
5591:
5541:November 2015 Paris attacks
5464:. Between the start of the
4856:Righteous Among the Nations
4064:The Revolution and Napoleon
3886:
3502:Etablissement sur les Juifs
3466:Count Palatine of Champagne
3371:Expulsion from France, 1182
2121:
2102:
1829:Latin America and Caribbean
525:
10:
13283:
13252:Jews and Judaism in France
11929:Holocaust denial in France
11880:Ordinance of 9 August 1944
10618:Government of Vichy France
9650:American Historical Review
9568:Catholic Historical Review
9042:. Algemeiner. 21 June 2015
8940:. JWeekly. 29 January 2015
7467:10.1177/026569147600600203
6975:Benbassa, Esther (1999) .
6720:Grossman, Avraham (2012).
6619:Simonsohn, pp 35–37.
5642:List of West European Jews
5414:
5361:
5334:But, after the end of the
5309:
4761:
4583:Ferdinand Walsin Esterhazy
4547:
4530:Newspaper front page with
4287:the Jewish community, the
4235:
4199:During the Reign of Terror
4166:comte de Clermont-Tonnerre
3993:Beginnings of emancipation
3890:
3338:
3262:
2763:French Jews live in Israel
2706:Jewish community in France
2631:, and in the 1940s, under
2599:and Jewish communities in
2434:Jewish political movements
2131:Conversion to Judaism
111:Enlarged Jewish population
13162:
13105:
13000:
12930:
12877:
12724:
12661:
12591:
12552:
12444:
12416:
12333:
12280:
12163:
12070:
12027:
11981:
11956:
11947:
11909:1946 legislative election
11865:
11807:
11777:
11723:Saint Pierre and Miquelon
11663:
11624:
11578:
11522:
11515:
11506:
11471:
11383:
11350:
11297:
11271:
11253:Law on the status of Jews
11243:
11232:
11172:
11135:
11073:
11033:Syria and Lebanon mandate
11013:
10832:
10765:
10713:
10651:
10610:
10444:
10409:Armistice of 22 June 1940
10401:
10314:
10233:
10145:
10107:
9827:
9757:"The Holocaust in France"
9712:Vichy France and the Jews
9633:Journal of Modern History
9580:(Northwestern UP, 2018).
9476:The Jews of Modern France
9459:journal of social history
8916:Jewish Telegraphic Agency
8485:(in English and Hebrew).
8212:(in French). 13 July 2009
8041:The Sydney Morning Herald
7827:www.jacqueschirac-asso.fr
7793:10.1017/S0018246X01002175
7100:10.1007/s11186-011-9150-8
6903:10.1017/S0364009400010011
6399:. JewishEncyclopedia.com.
6032:Funk and Wagnalls Company
5466:Israeli offensive in Gaza
4865:In 1995 French President
4459:'s antisemitic newspaper
4249:was the president of the
3477:to refuse non-retention.
2922:of Egicaârather than the
2806:An early account praised
837:Hinduism and Judaism
223:
218:
207:
202:
142:
137:
127:
122:
106:
101:
92:
37:
12569:Parti Populaire Français
11919:Trial of Philippe PĂ©tain
11594:Groupe mobile de réserve
11137:French Equatorial Africa
10940:L'Ămancipation nationale
10842:Antisemitic publications
9762:22 February 2019 at the
9751:Anti-semitism in France.
7992:"Israel Nuclear Profile"
7502:. Oxfordshire, England.
6414:. St. Martin's Griffin.
6375:Published in Berliner's
5200:IslamicâJewish relations
4440:, at that time a French
3686:way as the delinquents.
3649:The Medieval Inquisition
3641:or badge decreed by the
3595:and other Jewish works.
3524:(1201â53), the powerful
3258:
3221:Franco-Jewish literature
2979:in the Mediterranean sea
2957:and a dependency of the
2936:third Council of Orléans
663:Temple in Jerusalem
356:Bar and bat mitzvah
12701:Charles du Paty de Clam
12601:Anti-Jewish legislation
12310:French Riviera roundups
12157:The Holocaust in France
12011:The Sorrow and the Pity
11825:Siegfried Line campaign
11632:SS Charlemagne division
11494:The Holocaust in France
10643:Second Laval government
10512:Charles du Paty de Clam
10492:Pierre-Antoine Cousteau
9480:excerpt and text search
9435:Jewish Quarterly Review
9418:excerpt and text search
9399:44.4 (2001): 1065â1082.
9375:The Jewish Encyclopedia
8379:"A Frenchman Or a Jew?"
8254:Krieger, Leila Hilary.
7775:Adler, Jacques (2001).
7693:Julian Jackson (2003).
7545:Burns, Michael (1999).
7455:European Studies Review
7390:Isser, Natalie (1991).
6946:Revue des Ă©tudes juives
6782:Madigan, Kevin (2015).
6686:10.1111/1468-229X.12019
6410:Toni L. Kamins (2001).
6040:2027/mdp.39015064245445
6027:The Jewish Encyclopedia
6022:Vizetelly, Frank Horace
5921:11 October 2017 at the
5647:France-Israel relations
5312:FranceâIsrael relations
5306:FranceâIsrael relations
4764:The Holocaust in France
4568:Alsatian Jewish descent
4026:. The humane minister,
3916:Revue des Ătudes Juives
3705:The Great Exile of 1306
3669:(fol. 521a, c. 1278â98)
3570:tanquam proprium servum
3473:timesâalso declared it
3383:depicting the expulsion
3323:, Judah b. Nathan, and
3273:Woodcut of Rashi (1539)
3211:Landulf VI of Benevento
3108:Persecutions (987â1137)
3065:for their first child.
2828:Hilary, Bishop of Arles
2669:, the Vichy government
2623:its Jewish population.
625:Twelve Tribes of Israel
107:Core Jewish population:
13262:Antisemitism in France
13172:Antisemitism in France
13092:André and Magda Trocmé
12897:Antoinette Feuerwerker
12676:Louis-Ferdinand CĂ©line
11885:Provisional Government
11545:15th Military Division
11540:14th Military Division
11375:Yellow badge in France
10695:National Popular Rally
10628:First Laval government
10517:Pierre-Ătienne Flandin
10351:French colonial empire
9870:Bosnia and Herzegovina
9498:West European Politics
8791:. Forward. 19 May 2014
7972:. History News Network
7866:Peter Carrier (2006).
7781:The Historical Journal
7375:: CS1 maint: others (
7262:Jewish Virtual Library
6668:Rist, Rebecca (2013).
6629:Hoinacki, Lee (1996).
6520:, Scriptores, iv. 137.
6284:Cohen, Jeremy (1999).
6199:Jewish Virtual Library
6135:; Slaby, Wolfgang A.;
5879:Holocaust Encyclopedia
5686:Jewish Virtual Library
5513:Charlie Hebdo shooting
5478:Israeli Prime Minister
5388:
5364:Demographics of France
5168:The Forgotten Refugees
4810:Drancy internment camp
4773:
4748:Louis-Ferdinand CĂ©line
4545:
4466:
4396:
4271:
4258:
4195:constitution itself".
4192:
4079:
4073:Loi relative aux Juifs
3959:
3955:Old Jewish Quarter of
3881:Religieux de St. Denis
3874:On 17 September 1394,
3832:
3734:
3670:
3631:Theobald II of Navarre
3540:
3494:
3491:BibliothĂšque Nationale
3384:
3366:Expulsions and Returns
3274:
3117:
2927:
2906:
2761:Approximately 200,000
43:
13257:Jewish French history
13022:Le Chambon-sur-Lignon
12563:Devisenschutzkommando
12115:Category:Vichy France
11738:Operation Bright Moon
11535:7th Military Division
10933:Documents maçonniques
9729:Patterns of Prejudice
9696:Lindemann, Albert S.
9662:29.4 (2011): 248â271.
9645:17.5 (2012): 839â861.
9609:Jewish Social Studies
9490:online free to borrow
9488:(Columbia UP, 1979).
8700:3 August 2015 at the
8635:European Jewish Press
8287:Le Monde Diplomatique
7580:Jewish Social Studies
7163:7 August 2004 at the
6940:Luce, Siméon (1881).
6856:Taitz, Emily (1994).
6809:Golb, Norman (1966).
6532:ed. Bouquet, x. 152;
6397:"Jacob Ben Jekuthiel"
6343:Golb, Norman (1998).
6079:10.4000/books.pan.951
5627:French Jews in Israel
5450:Le Monde Diplomatique
5421:French Jews in Israel
5385:Chief Rabbi of France
5379:
4989:ArabâIsraeli conflict
4771:
4529:
4454:
4384:
4371:carriĂšres aux talents
4322:After the Restoration
4264:
4247:Joseph David Sinzheim
4245:
4238:Napoleon and the Jews
4187:
4147:Jean-François Rewbell
4120:Joseph David Sinzheim
4071:
3954:
3823:
3730:
3697:at first ordered his
3656:
3538:
3488:
3378:
3339:Further information:
3272:
3243:, particularly their
3115:
3035:Saint Agobard of Lyon
3031:J. M. Wallace-Hadrill
2891:
2710:definition being used
2660:French political left
1371:SĂŁo TomĂ© and PrĂncipe
1366:Republic of the Congo
760:Second Temple Judaism
631:Kingdom of Judah
602:Modern historiography
219:Related ethnic groups
13128:MĂ©morial de la Shoah
13082:Jules-GĂ©raud SaliĂšge
13042:Pierre-Marie Gerlier
13027:ChĂąteau de Chabannes
12764:Messaoud El Mediouni
12647:RĂ©volution nationale
12050:Le Silence de la mer
11875:Liberation of France
11484:Deportation timeline
10989:RĂ©volution nationale
10863:Le Juif et la France
10813:RĂ©volution nationale
10671:French Popular Party
10376:Treaty of Versailles
9779:13 June 2018 at the
9774:"The Jews of France"
9731:24#2â4 (1990): 5â17.
9652:97#1 (1992): 55â95.
9635:70.1 (1998): 24â73.
8424:on 30 September 2012
6680:(5 (333)): 639â662.
6482:www.encyclopedia.com
6014:Funk, Isaac Kaufmann
5652:MĂ©morial de la Shoah
4737:, and the leader of
4232:Attitude of Napoleon
4050:and his school (see
3989:was no less severe.
3780:, reaching from the
3498:Louis VIII of France
3356:German Crusade, 1096
3206:Viscount of Narbonne
3143:Adhémar of Chabannes
2795:; in the year 39 at
2473:World Agudath Israel
1614:United Arab Emirates
701:Second Temple period
691:Babylonian captivity
165:Liturgical languages
13149:Rivesaltes Memorial
12504:Hans-Dietrich Ernst
12393:Royallieu-CompiĂšgne
12363:Natzweiler-Struthof
11830:Sigmaringen enclave
11820:Liberation of Paris
11479:Deportation convoys
11448:Royallieu-CompiĂšgne
11413:Natzweiler-Struthof
11284:Order of Physicians
11043:French North Africa
10705:Peasant Corporation
10684:Mouvement Franciste
10482:Jacques Charpentier
10457:Jean-Marie Bergeret
10108:States with limited
9675:Judaken, Jonathan.
9660:Sociological Theory
9556:(Mosaic Press 1987)
9552:Weinberg, Henry H.
9525:Schechter, Ronald.
9468:22.1 (2002): 1â27.
9447:(Indiana UP, 2015).
9402:Arkin, Kimberly A.
8669:Pew Research Center
8489:. 26 September 2011
7496:Cahm, Eric (2014).
7288:Journal d'un avocat
6505:. encyclopedia.com.
6139:; Woitas, Barbara.
5958:on 23 October 2014.
5632:List of French Jews
5455:Pew Research Center
5407:of anti-Semitism".
5258:Muslim Antisemitism
4903:Neither Chirac nor
4326:The restoration of
4276:Jewish emancipation
4133:was the signal for
3974:granted these Jews
3942:Early modern period
3740:, it now comprised
3667:Mountains of Ararat
3657:Miniature from the
3325:Isaac Levi b. Asher
3204:wrote to BĂ©ranger,
3041:in the early 830s.
2908:requiescunt in pace
2784:Jewish Encyclopedia
2679:concentration camps
2603:since at least the
766:Hellenistic Judaism
344:Land of Israel
303:Principles of faith
34:
13087:Pierre-Marie Théas
12544:Carltheo Zeitschel
12514:Ernst Heinrichsohn
11924:Klaus Barbie trial
11815:Operation Overlord
11555:Army of the Levant
11489:Holocaust timeline
11173:Asia & Oceania
11075:French West Africa
10633:Flandin government
10602:Carltheo Zeitschel
10388:War guilt question
9722:The Dreyfus Affair
9720:Read, Piers Paul.
9686:(Routledge, 2016).
9621:(Routledge, 2014).
9600:Byrnes, Robert F.
9412:Benbassa, Esther.
9397:Historical Journal
9276:. 13 January 2016.
9240:. 12 January 2016.
9222:. 13 January 2016.
9204:. 12 January 2016.
9202:The New York Times
8865:The New York Times
8572:. 23 January 2003.
8456:on 2 February 2014
8383:The New York Times
8268:The Jerusalem Post
8168:The New York Times
7917:The New York Times
7680:pp 54â57, 199â202.
7620:. 25 November 2021
7441:The Dreyfus Affair
7236:Histoire des Juifs
7088:Theory and Society
7009:Bouquet, xxii. 118
6590:ed. Bouquet, x. 34
6227:10.1111/rec3.12290
5992:. 25 January 2016.
5489:Benjamin Netanyahu
5445:Eric de Rothschild
5389:
5368:Religion in France
5352:Lebanese Civil War
5329:Protocol of SĂšvres
5262:founding of Israel
5129:Hurum air disaster
4911:, in power during
4858:(according to the
4822:Vel' d'Hiv Roundup
4774:
4610:Georges Clemenceau
4546:
4508:, who founded the
4485:and a disciple of
4479:Alphonse Toussenel
4467:
4434:French citizenship
4432:granted automatic
4415:Court of Cassation
4397:
4346:comte de Rambuteau
4272:
4259:
4080:
3960:
3833:
3671:
3635:Count of Champagne
3620:Shepherds' Crusade
3554:Louis IX of France
3541:
3526:Count of Champagne
3500:(1223â26), in his
3495:
3385:
3275:
3118:
2966:Carolingian period
2928:
2808:Hilary of Poitiers
2748:North African Jews
2327:Jewish Koine Greek
1869:Dominican Republic
1150:Judaism by country
829:Jews and Christmas
684:Assyrian captivity
74:Ś€ÖżŚšŚÖ·Ś ŚŠŚŚŚŚŚ©Śą ŚŚŚŚ
32:
13205:
13204:
13062:PĂšre Marie-BenoĂźt
12902:David Feuerwerker
12859:Charlotte Salomon
12834:Sonia Olschanezky
12789:Maurice Halbwachs
12671:Robert Brasillach
12555:and organizations
12499:Theodor Dannecker
12343:Beaune-la-Rolande
12123:
12122:
12080:French Resistance
12066:
12065:
12004:Milice, film noir
11990:Bombing the Nazis
11898:Ăpuration sauvage
11835:Fernand de Brinon
11803:
11802:
11743:Wallis and Futuna
11659:
11658:
11502:
11501:
11393:Beaune-la-Rolande
11228:
11227:
11215:Kouang-Tchéou-Wan
11168:
11167:
11131:
11130:
11069:
11068:
11004:L'Union française
10785:Foreign relations
10638:Darlan government
10623:PĂ©tain government
10532:Charles Huntziger
10527:Gaston Henry-Haye
10193:
10192:
9734:Zuccotti, Susan.
9611:(1948): 165â184.
9593:Busi, Frederick.
9443:Doron, Daniella.
9088:. Times of Israel
8994:. The Telegraph.
8918:. 25 January 2015
8891:New York Observer
8725:on 28 August 2017
8665:Faith on the move
8240:. 19 March 2012.
7879:978-1-84545-295-7
7439:Piers Paul Read,
7153:See Article 1 of
6795:978-0-300-15872-4
6748:978-0-671-44103-6
6446:978-0-14-195795-1
6354:978-0-521-58032-8
6324:. 26 January 1996
6295:978-0-520-92291-4
5715:. Times of Israel
5598:Abraham of Aragon
5545:Opération Chammal
5505:The Jewish Agency
5493:François Hollande
5270:Arab-Israeli wars
5236:
5235:
5069:Exodus by country
4905:François Hollande
4735:Marcel Jouhandeau
4644:Lucien LĂ©vy-Bruhl
4636:Rothschild family
4483:utopian socialist
4388:, founder of the
4339:State recognition
4293:Roman Catholicism
4221:worship of Reason
4048:Moses Mendelssohn
4020:French government
3870:Expulsion of 1394
3841:Geoffrey of Paris
3837:Louis X of France
3562:Kingdom of France
3433:, comprising the
3431:Produit des Juifs
3379:A miniature from
3202:Pope Alexander II
3181:Bishop of Limoges
2781:According to the
2694:Jewish population
2617:French Revolution
2605:Early Middle Ages
2589:
2588:
2538:
2537:
2286:
2285:
2033:Reconstructionist
1977:
1976:
1129:
1128:
936:
935:
773:JewishâRoman wars
721:Hasmonean dynasty
637:Kingdom of Israel
541:
540:
242:
241:
115:
16:(Redirected from
13274:
13234:
13233:
13232:
13222:
13221:
13220:
13213:
13182:Battle of France
13168:
13108:
13077:Germaine RibiĂšre
12935:
12892:Jean Elleinstein
12880:
12844:BĂ©atrice Reinach
12829:Casimir Oberfeld
12824:IrĂšne NĂ©mirovsky
12774:Benjamin Fondane
12727:
12447:
12419:
12295:Clermont-Ferrand
12150:
12143:
12136:
12127:
12126:
12043:Section spéciale
12036:Castle to Castle
11997:The Eye of Vichy
11954:
11953:
11934:Mission Mattéoli
11891:Ăpuration lĂ©gale
11645:Légion impériale
11616:Special Brigades
11520:
11519:
11513:
11512:
11317:Clermont-Ferrand
11241:
11240:
11185:French Indochina
11170:
11169:
11133:
11132:
11071:
11070:
11039:
11038:
10919:Le Cri du peuple
10887:
10819:Special Sections
10723:Anti-Jewish laws
10557:George Montandon
10552:Bernard Ménétrel
10522:Philippe Henriot
10323:Action Française
10220:
10213:
10206:
10197:
10196:
10146:Dependencies and
10087:Northern Ireland
9828:Sovereign states
9814:
9807:
9800:
9791:
9790:
9703:Mandel, Maud S.
9682:Kalman, Samuel.
9665:Isser, Natalie.
9522:
9474:Hyman, Paula E.
9461:(2006): 147â180.
9379:
9358:
9357:
9349:Other references
9343:
9337:
9332:
9326:
9325:
9323:
9321:
9310:
9304:
9303:
9301:
9299:
9284:
9278:
9277:
9266:
9260:
9259:
9248:
9242:
9241:
9230:
9224:
9223:
9212:
9206:
9205:
9194:
9188:
9187:
9185:
9183:
9172:
9166:
9165:
9163:
9161:
9150:
9144:
9143:
9141:
9139:
9134:. Jerusalem Post
9127:
9121:
9120:
9118:
9116:
9104:
9098:
9097:
9095:
9093:
9081:
9075:
9074:
9072:
9070:
9058:
9052:
9051:
9049:
9047:
9036:
9030:
9029:
9027:
9025:
9014:
9008:
9007:
9005:
9003:
8993:
8985:
8979:
8978:
8976:
8974:
8959:
8950:
8949:
8947:
8945:
8934:
8928:
8927:
8925:
8923:
8908:
8902:
8901:
8899:
8897:
8882:
8876:
8875:
8873:
8871:
8856:
8850:
8849:
8847:
8845:
8833:
8827:
8826:
8824:
8822:
8810:
8801:
8800:
8798:
8796:
8785:
8779:
8778:
8776:
8774:
8763:
8757:
8756:
8754:
8752:
8741:
8735:
8734:
8732:
8730:
8714:
8708:
8693:Sitbon, Shirli.
8691:
8685:
8684:
8682:
8680:
8675:on 5 August 2013
8671:. Archived from
8657:
8651:
8650:
8648:
8646:
8627:
8621:
8620:
8618:
8616:
8598:
8592:
8591:
8580:
8574:
8573:
8562:
8556:
8555:
8553:
8551:
8534:
8525:
8524:
8522:
8520:
8505:
8499:
8498:
8496:
8494:
8475:
8466:
8465:
8463:
8461:
8446:
8437:
8436:
8431:
8429:
8408:
8402:
8401:
8399:
8397:
8374:
8368:
8367:
8353:
8347:
8346:
8333:
8324:
8323:
8321:
8319:
8304:
8298:
8297:
8295:
8293:
8278:
8272:
8252:
8246:
8245:
8235:
8228:
8222:
8221:
8219:
8217:
8206:
8200:
8199:
8198:. 29 April 2009.
8186:
8180:
8179:
8177:
8175:
8158:
8152:
8151:
8149:
8147:
8130:
8121:
8120:
8119:. 31 March 2004.
8107:
8101:
8100:
8098:
8096:
8085:
8079:
8078:
8064:
8058:
8057:
8055:
8053:
8044:. Archived from
8031:
8025:
8024:
8013:
8007:
8006:
8004:
8002:
7988:
7982:
7981:
7979:
7977:
7966:
7957:
7956:
7945:
7939:
7938:
7927:
7921:
7920:
7908:
7902:
7901:
7890:
7884:
7883:
7863:
7857:
7856:
7845:
7839:
7838:
7836:
7834:
7819:
7813:
7812:
7787:(4): 1065â1082.
7772:
7766:
7765:
7763:
7761:
7745:
7739:
7738:
7730:
7724:
7723:(1979) pp 63â88.
7717:
7711:
7710:
7690:
7681:
7674:
7668:
7661:
7655:
7654:
7652:
7650:
7636:
7630:
7629:
7627:
7625:
7610:
7604:
7603:
7575:
7569:
7568:
7542:
7536:
7535:
7529:
7521:
7493:
7487:
7486:
7450:
7444:
7437:
7431:
7420:
7414:
7413:
7387:
7381:
7380:
7374:
7366:
7341:
7335:
7334:
7298:
7292:
7291:
7280:
7274:
7273:
7271:
7269:
7254:
7248:
7247:
7245:
7243:
7227:
7218:
7217:
7191:
7180:
7173:
7167:
7151:
7145:
7144:
7133:
7120:
7119:
7085:
7076:
7070:
7063:
7057:
7056:
7016:
7010:
7007:
7001:
7000:
6972:
6963:
6961:
6959:
6957:
6937:
6931:
6930:
6886:
6880:
6879:
6853:
6847:
6846:
6806:
6800:
6799:
6779:
6773:
6772:
6762:
6753:
6752:
6732:
6726:
6725:
6717:
6706:
6705:
6665:
6659:
6658:
6626:
6620:
6617:
6611:
6597:
6591:
6585:
6579:
6578:
6546:
6537:
6527:
6521:
6513:
6507:
6506:
6499:
6493:
6492:
6490:
6488:
6474:
6468:
6465:
6459:
6458:
6432:
6426:
6425:
6407:
6401:
6400:
6393:
6384:
6373:
6367:
6366:
6340:
6334:
6333:
6331:
6329:
6322:Fordham Homepage
6314:
6308:
6307:
6281:
6275:
6274:
6253:
6247:
6246:
6215:Religion Compass
6210:
6204:
6203:
6190:
6179:
6177:
6175:
6173:
6154:
6129:
6120:
6119:
6110:
6108:
6099:. Archived from
6061:
6052:
6051:
6009:
5994:
5993:
5980:
5974:
5973:
5966:
5960:
5959:
5948:
5942:
5941:
5939:
5931:
5925:
5911:
5905:
5904:
5893:
5887:
5886:
5871:
5860:
5859:
5857:
5855:
5843:
5834:
5833:
5831:
5829:
5817:
5808:
5807:
5805:
5803:
5791:
5785:
5784:
5782:
5780:
5764:
5755:
5754:
5752:
5750:
5734:
5725:
5724:
5722:
5720:
5708:
5699:
5698:
5696:
5694:
5677:
5527:Hours after the
5404:council of state
5228:
5221:
5214:
5087:Operation Yachin
5041:Oujda and Jerada
4949:
4926:
4925:
4909:Vichy government
4898:Vichy government
4740:Action française
4455:1893 edition of
4429:Crémieux decrees
4411:Adolphe Crémieux
4386:Adolphe Crémieux
4129:The fall of the
4058:Zalkind Hourwitz
3808:, and a part of
3792:, the county of
3585:burning in Paris
3530:siege of Avignon
3481:Under Louis VIII
3329:Moses ha-Darshan
3313:Simáž„ah b. Samuel
2953:, then known as
2917:
2916:
2911:
2851:Clermont-Ferrand
2581:
2574:
2567:
2430:
2429:
2311:
2132:
2126:
2107:
2071:
2070:
2018:
1965:New Zealand
1917:
1880:El Salvador
1870:
1802:Northern America
1794:
1388:
1144:
1143:
1055:Crimean Karaites
951:
950:
929:
927:
848:
846:
838:
832:
823:
811:Rabbinic Judaism
792:
786:
780:
768:
756:
722:
715:Maccabean Revolt
692:
685:
679:
671:
664:
658:
650:
632:
556:
555:
530:
425:
424:
357:
345:
244:
243:
237:ethnic divisions
160:Jewish languages
113:
109:480,000â550,000
102:Total population
97:
84:
76:
75:
69:
61:
60:
54:
46:
35:
31:
21:
13282:
13281:
13277:
13276:
13275:
13273:
13272:
13271:
13242:
13241:
13240:
13230:
13228:
13218:
13216:
13208:
13206:
13201:
13192:Occupied France
13166:
13158:
13101:
13067:René de Naurois
13003:
13002:Righteous Among
12996:
12967:Denise Holstein
12933:
12926:
12873:
12864:Sascha Schapiro
12779:Otto Freundlich
12769:Jacques Feldbau
12720:
12657:
12631:Philippe PĂ©tain
12611:François Darlan
12587:
12554:
12553:Nazi occupation
12548:
12459:Ernst Achenbach
12440:
12412:
12329:
12276:
12159:
12154:
12124:
12119:
12084:Year in France
12075:Occupied France
12062:
12057:Suite française
12023:
11977:
11949:
11943:
11914:Fourth Republic
11867:
11861:
11799:
11795:Philippe PĂ©tain
11785:François Darlan
11773:
11701:Franco-Thai War
11655:
11620:
11574:
11498:
11467:
11379:
11352:
11346:
11293:
11267:
11235:
11224:
11164:
11127:
11065:
11037:
11009:
10975:Je suis partout
10912:Le Cahier jaune
10885:
10881:
10834:
10828:
10796:La jeune France
10767:
10761:
10745:Paris Protocols
10715:
10709:
10653:
10647:
10606:
10567:Philippe PĂ©tain
10497:François Darlan
10452:Joseph Antignac
10440:
10424:Philippe PĂ©tain
10397:
10335:Camelots du Roi
10310:
10229:
10224:
10194:
10189:
10147:
10141:
10127:Northern Cyprus
10109:
10103:
10002:North Macedonia
9823:
9818:
9781:Wayback Machine
9764:Wayback Machine
9745:
9689:Kennedy, Sean.
9570:(1967): 28â42.
9563:
9392:
9390:Further reading
9366:Singer, Isidore
9355:
9351:
9346:
9340:
9335:Israel 365 News
9333:
9329:
9319:
9317:
9316:. 27 March 2018
9312:
9311:
9307:
9297:
9295:
9292:Washington Post
9286:
9285:
9281:
9268:
9267:
9263:
9250:
9249:
9245:
9232:
9231:
9227:
9214:
9213:
9209:
9196:
9195:
9191:
9181:
9179:
9174:
9173:
9169:
9159:
9157:
9152:
9151:
9147:
9137:
9135:
9128:
9124:
9114:
9112:
9105:
9101:
9091:
9089:
9082:
9078:
9068:
9066:
9059:
9055:
9045:
9043:
9038:
9037:
9033:
9023:
9021:
9016:
9015:
9011:
9001:
8999:
8986:
8982:
8972:
8970:
8961:
8960:
8953:
8943:
8941:
8936:
8935:
8931:
8921:
8919:
8910:
8909:
8905:
8895:
8893:
8883:
8879:
8869:
8867:
8857:
8853:
8843:
8841:
8834:
8830:
8820:
8818:
8811:
8804:
8794:
8792:
8787:
8786:
8782:
8772:
8770:
8764:
8760:
8750:
8748:
8743:
8742:
8738:
8728:
8726:
8715:
8711:
8702:Wayback Machine
8692:
8688:
8678:
8676:
8659:
8658:
8654:
8644:
8642:
8641:on 5 April 2012
8629:
8628:
8624:
8614:
8612:
8599:
8595:
8590:. 18 July 2004.
8582:
8581:
8577:
8564:
8563:
8559:
8549:
8547:
8535:
8528:
8518:
8516:
8507:
8506:
8502:
8492:
8490:
8477:
8476:
8469:
8459:
8457:
8448:
8447:
8440:
8427:
8425:
8410:
8409:
8405:
8395:
8393:
8375:
8371:
8354:
8350:
8335:
8334:
8327:
8317:
8315:
8306:
8305:
8301:
8291:
8289:
8279:
8275:
8261:5 June 2008 at
8253:
8249:
8230:
8229:
8225:
8215:
8213:
8208:
8207:
8203:
8188:
8187:
8183:
8173:
8171:
8159:
8155:
8145:
8143:
8131:
8124:
8109:
8108:
8104:
8094:
8092:
8087:
8086:
8082:
8065:
8061:
8051:
8049:
8032:
8028:
8015:
8014:
8010:
8000:
7998:
7990:
7989:
7985:
7975:
7973:
7968:
7967:
7960:
7955:. 16 July 2017.
7947:
7946:
7942:
7935:Washington Post
7929:
7928:
7924:
7909:
7905:
7892:
7891:
7887:
7880:
7864:
7860:
7853:Washington Post
7847:
7846:
7842:
7832:
7830:
7821:
7820:
7816:
7773:
7769:
7759:
7757:
7746:
7742:
7731:
7727:
7718:
7714:
7707:
7691:
7684:
7675:
7671:
7662:
7658:
7648:
7646:
7638:
7637:
7633:
7623:
7621:
7612:
7611:
7607:
7576:
7572:
7557:
7543:
7539:
7523:
7522:
7510:
7494:
7490:
7451:
7447:
7438:
7434:
7421:
7417:
7402:
7388:
7384:
7368:
7367:
7355:
7343:
7342:
7338:
7299:
7295:
7282:
7281:
7277:
7267:
7265:
7256:
7255:
7251:
7241:
7239:
7228:
7221:
7206:
7192:
7183:
7179:(2000) pp 72â89
7174:
7170:
7165:Wayback Machine
7158:, of 6 May 1687
7152:
7148:
7135:
7134:
7123:
7083:
7077:
7073:
7064:
7060:
7037:10.2307/1453511
7017:
7013:
7008:
7004:
6989:
6973:
6966:
6955:
6953:
6938:
6934:
6887:
6883:
6868:
6854:
6850:
6827:10.2307/3622388
6807:
6803:
6796:
6780:
6776:
6763:
6756:
6749:
6733:
6729:
6718:
6709:
6666:
6662:
6647:
6627:
6623:
6618:
6614:
6598:
6594:
6586:
6582:
6567:
6547:
6540:
6528:
6524:
6514:
6510:
6501:
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6211:
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6192:
6191:
6182:
6171:
6169:
6168:. EDCS-28300234
6148:
6141:"EDCS-28300234"
6133:Clauss, Manfred
6130:
6123:
6106:
6104:
6089:
6062:
6055:
6018:Singer, Isidore
6010:
5997:
5989:The Independent
5982:
5981:
5977:
5972:. Religioscope.
5968:
5967:
5963:
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5949:
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5937:
5933:
5932:
5928:
5923:Wayback Machine
5912:
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5374:
5362:Main articles:
5360:
5344:Munich massacre
5314:
5308:
5284:nusach sepharad
5249:
5232:
5082:Operation Mural
4924:
4890:Emmanuel Macron
4828:survived. (see
4766:
4760:
4744:Charles Maurras
4700:Alsace-Lorraine
4683:La Libre Parole
4678:First World War
4632:
4619:La Libre Parole
4614:Ădouard Drumont
4552:
4524:
4515:La Libre Parole
4506:Edouard Drumont
4487:Charles Fourier
4476:
4462:La Libre Parole
4457:Edouard Drumont
4379:
4367:
4341:
4324:
4289:Grand Sanhedrin
4251:Grand Sanhedrin
4240:
4234:
4213:Reign of Terror
4201:
4175:Bishop of Nancy
4096:Estates-General
4066:
4032:Jewish question
3995:
3949:
3944:
3921:Alhambra Decree
3895:
3889:
3872:
3818:
3715:Philip the Fair
3707:
3665:landing on the
3651:
3608:Seventh Crusade
3587:of some 12,000
3581:Pope Gregory IX
3558:Catholic Church
3546:
3483:
3456:to a different
3419:
3397:Philip Augustus
3373:
3368:
3343:
3337:
3317:Shamuel b. MeĂŻr
3267:
3261:
3223:
3169:Rodulfus Glaber
3151:Pope Sergius IV
3135:Pope John XVIII
3110:
3105:
3082:Harun al-Rashid
3047:Pope Gregory IV
3039:Louis the Pious
3027:Louis the Pious
2968:
2951:Southern France
2947:Pepin the Short
2924:Hebrew calendar
2871:Theodosian code
2816:Valentinian III
2779:
2769:in response to
2687:Nazi occupation
2648:Alsace-Lorraine
2633:Nazi occupation
2585:
2540:
2539:
2427:
2417:
2416:
2407:Judeo-Malayalam
2387:Judaeo-Georgian
2307:
2298:
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2287:
2188:Yiddish theatre
2130:
2068:
2058:
2057:
2016:
1989:
1979:
1978:
1915:
1868:
1792:
1386:
1170:Genetic studies
1141:
1131:
1130:
948:
938:
937:
925:
924:
844:
843:
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821:
803:and Middle Ages
801:Rabbinic period
788:
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763:
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690:
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653:
648:in Judaism
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11351:Discrimination
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11307:French Riviera
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11272:Administration
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10467:Louis Bourgain
10464:
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10398:
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10395:
10393:Henry DorgĂšres
10390:
10385:
10384:
10383:
10373:
10368:
10366:Third Republic
10363:
10358:
10356:Nuremberg Laws
10353:
10348:
10346:Fall of France
10343:
10341:Dreyfus affair
10338:
10331:
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10148:other entities
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9802:
9794:
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9744:
9743:External links
9741:
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9576:Bell, Dorian.
9574:
9562:
9559:
9558:
9557:
9550:
9542:Taitz, Emily.
9540:
9530:
9523:
9505:(3): 423â451.
9492:
9484:Hyman, Paula.
9482:
9472:
9466:Modern Judaism
9462:
9455:
9448:
9441:
9431:
9424:
9410:
9400:
9391:
9388:
9387:
9386:
9380:
9350:
9347:
9345:
9344:
9338:
9327:
9305:
9294:. 23 July 2017
9279:
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8736:
8709:
8705:Jewish Journal
8686:
8652:
8622:
8593:
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8557:
8526:
8500:
8467:
8438:
8403:
8369:
8348:
8325:
8314:. 14 July 2005
8299:
8273:
8247:
8223:
8201:
8181:
8153:
8122:
8102:
8080:
8059:
8048:on 3 July 2014
8026:
8023:. 3 July 2010.
8008:
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7885:
7878:
7858:
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7705:
7682:
7669:
7656:
7631:
7605:
7570:
7555:
7537:
7509:978-1315842639
7508:
7488:
7461:(2): 225â248.
7445:
7432:
7415:
7401:978-0820414546
7400:
7382:
7353:
7336:
7309:(4): 459â472.
7293:
7275:
7264:. 8 April 2019
7249:
7219:
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7181:
7168:
7146:
7121:
7094:(5): 475â503.
7071:
7058:
7011:
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6881:
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6794:
6774:
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6707:
6660:
6645:
6621:
6612:
6592:
6580:
6565:
6538:
6522:
6508:
6494:
6469:
6460:
6445:
6427:
6421:978-0312244491
6420:
6402:
6385:
6381:Parma De Rossi
6368:
6353:
6335:
6309:
6294:
6276:
6269:
6248:
6221:(12): e12290.
6205:
6180:
6121:
6103:on 29 May 2020
6087:
6065:Fellous, Sonia
6053:
5995:
5975:
5961:
5943:
5926:
5906:
5888:
5861:
5835:
5809:
5786:
5756:
5745:on 2 June 2013
5726:
5700:
5666:
5664:
5661:
5660:
5659:
5654:
5649:
5644:
5639:
5634:
5629:
5624:
5611:
5605:
5600:
5593:
5590:
5582:Mireille Knoll
5539:Following the
5412:
5409:
5383:, the current
5359:
5356:
5310:Main article:
5307:
5304:
5260:following the
5248:
5245:
5234:
5233:
5231:
5230:
5223:
5216:
5208:
5205:
5204:
5203:
5202:
5197:
5192:
5187:
5179:
5178:
5177:Related topics
5174:
5173:
5172:
5171:
5164:
5159:
5154:
5149:
5141:
5140:
5136:
5135:
5134:
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5001:
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4986:
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4955:
4951:
4950:
4942:
4941:
4935:
4934:
4923:
4920:
4883:
4882:
4867:Jacques Chirac
4762:Main article:
4759:
4756:
4731:Pierre Gaxotte
4688:Maurice BarrĂšs
4652:Ăcole de Paris
4648:Emile Durkheim
4631:
4628:
4606:Henri Poincaré
4602:Anatole France
4572:Devil's Island
4564:Alfred Dreyfus
4556:Dreyfus affair
4550:Dreyfus affair
4548:Main article:
4542:Dreyfus affair
4523:
4522:Dreyfus affair
4520:
4475:
4472:
4378:
4375:
4366:
4363:
4340:
4337:
4323:
4320:
4236:Main article:
4233:
4230:
4200:
4197:
4143:Henri Grégoire
4116:Jacques Necker
4065:
4062:
3994:
3991:
3976:letters patent
3948:
3945:
3943:
3940:
3891:Main article:
3888:
3885:
3871:
3868:
3851:Adolphe Vuitry
3817:
3814:
3768:, the Marche,
3706:
3703:
3683:Pope Gregory X
3650:
3647:
3591:copies of the
3545:
3544:Under Louis IX
3542:
3482:
3479:
3418:
3415:
3372:
3369:
3367:
3364:
3336:
3333:
3263:Main article:
3260:
3257:
3222:
3219:
3109:
3106:
3104:
3101:
3057:' second wife
2967:
2964:
2793:Gallia Celtica
2778:
2775:
2675:Nazi occupiers
2629:Dreyfus affair
2587:
2586:
2584:
2583:
2576:
2569:
2561:
2558:
2557:
2556:
2555:
2550:
2542:
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2528:
2523:
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2513:
2508:
2503:
2498:
2493:
2485:
2484:
2478:
2477:
2476:
2475:
2470:
2468:Territorialism
2465:
2460:
2455:
2450:
2445:
2437:
2436:
2428:
2423:
2422:
2419:
2418:
2415:
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2409:
2404:
2399:
2394:
2389:
2384:
2379:
2374:
2369:
2364:
2359:
2354:
2352:Judaeo-Spanish
2349:
2347:Judaeo-Iranian
2344:
2339:
2334:
2329:
2324:
2319:
2314:
2313:
2312:
2299:
2294:
2293:
2290:
2289:
2284:
2283:
2282:
2281:
2276:
2271:
2263:
2262:
2256:
2255:
2254:
2253:
2248:
2243:
2238:
2233:
2228:
2223:
2218:
2210:
2209:
2203:
2202:
2201:
2200:
2195:
2190:
2185:
2177:
2176:
2170:
2169:
2168:
2167:
2162:
2154:
2153:
2147:
2146:
2145:
2144:
2139:
2134:
2127:
2118:
2113:
2108:
2099:
2094:
2089:
2084:
2076:
2075:
2069:
2064:
2063:
2060:
2059:
2056:
2055:
2050:
2045:
2040:
2035:
2030:
2025:
2020:
2013:
2012:
2011:
2006:
2001:
1990:
1985:
1984:
1981:
1980:
1975:
1974:
1973:
1972:
1967:
1962:
1957:
1952:
1944:
1943:
1937:
1936:
1935:
1934:
1929:
1924:
1919:
1912:
1907:
1902:
1897:
1892:
1887:
1882:
1877:
1872:
1865:
1860:
1855:
1850:
1845:
1840:
1832:
1831:
1825:
1824:
1823:
1822:
1817:
1812:
1804:
1803:
1799:
1798:
1797:
1796:
1793:United Kingdom
1789:
1784:
1779:
1774:
1769:
1764:
1759:
1754:
1749:
1744:
1739:
1734:
1729:
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1679:
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1669:
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1634:
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1626:
1621:
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1606:
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1596:
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1576:
1571:
1566:
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1556:
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1531:
1526:
1521:
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1511:
1506:
1501:
1496:
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1481:
1476:
1471:
1466:
1461:
1456:
1451:
1446:
1441:
1433:
1432:
1428:
1427:
1426:
1425:
1420:
1415:
1405:
1400:
1395:
1390:
1383:
1378:
1373:
1368:
1363:
1353:
1348:
1343:
1338:
1333:
1328:
1323:
1318:
1313:
1308:
1303:
1298:
1293:
1288:
1283:
1278:
1273:
1268:
1263:
1258:
1253:
1248:
1243:
1238:
1233:
1228:
1226:Bilad-el-Sudan
1223:
1218:
1210:
1209:
1203:
1202:
1201:
1200:
1195:
1190:
1182:
1181:
1179:Land of Israel
1175:
1174:
1173:
1172:
1167:
1162:
1157:
1152:
1142:
1137:
1136:
1133:
1132:
1127:
1126:
1125:
1124:
1119:
1114:
1109:
1108:
1107:
1102:
1097:
1092:
1087:
1077:
1072:
1067:
1062:
1057:
1052:
1047:
1039:
1038:
1037:Related groups
1034:
1033:
1032:
1031:
1026:
1021:
1016:
1011:
1006:
1001:
996:
991:
986:
981:
976:
971:
970:
969:
964:
949:
944:
943:
940:
939:
934:
933:
932:
931:
921:
916:
911:
906:
901:
896:
894:Jewish atheism
891:
886:
881:
873:
872:
868:
867:
866:
865:
860:
855:
850:
845:IslamicâJewish
840:
833:
818:
813:
805:
804:
797:
796:
795:
794:
770:
757:
729:
724:
717:
712:
710:Yehud Medinata
704:
703:
697:
696:
695:
694:
687:
680:
672:
659:
651:
639:
634:
627:
619:
618:
616:Ancient Israel
612:
611:
610:
609:
604:
599:
594:
589:
584:
579:
574:
572:Land of Israel
569:
561:
560:
554:
549:
548:
545:
544:
539:
538:
537:
536:
531:
527:Shulchan Aruch
522:
517:
512:
507:
499:
498:
497:
496:
491:
483:
482:
476:
475:
474:
473:
468:
460:
459:
453:
452:
451:
450:
445:
440:
432:
431:
423:
418:
417:
414:
413:
410:
409:
404:
399:
394:
389:
384:
379:
374:
369:
364:
359:
352:
347:
340:
335:
330:
325:
320:
315:
305:
300:
293:God in Judaism
289:
284:
283:
280:
279:
278:
277:
272:
264:
263:
253:
252:
240:
239:
233:Ashkenazi Jews
221:
220:
216:
215:
205:
204:
200:
199:
140:
139:
135:
134:
132:
131:
128:
125:
124:
120:
119:
104:
103:
99:
98:
90:
89:
86:
85:
70:
55:
44:Juifs français
39:
38:
28:
18:Jews in France
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
13279:
13268:
13265:
13263:
13260:
13258:
13255:
13253:
13250:
13249:
13247:
13237:
13227:
13225:
13215:
13214:
13211:
13198:
13195:
13193:
13190:
13188:
13185:
13183:
13180:
13178:
13175:
13173:
13170:
13165:
13164:
13161:
13155:
13152:
13150:
13147:
13145:
13143:
13139:
13137:
13136:
13132:
13130:
13129:
13125:
13123:
13120:
13118:
13117:
13113:
13112:
13110:
13104:
13098:
13095:
13093:
13090:
13088:
13085:
13083:
13080:
13078:
13075:
13073:
13072:Paul Ramadier
13070:
13068:
13065:
13063:
13060:
13058:
13055:
13053:
13050:
13048:
13047:Justin Godart
13045:
13043:
13040:
13038:
13035:
13033:
13032:Jacques Ellul
13030:
13028:
13025:
13023:
13020:
13018:
13015:
13013:
13012:Albert Bedane
13010:
13009:
13007:
13005:
12999:
12993:
12990:
12988:
12985:
12983:
12982:André Rogerie
12980:
12978:
12975:
12973:
12970:
12968:
12965:
12963:
12960:
12958:
12957:Henry Bulawko
12955:
12953:
12952:Henri Borlant
12950:
12948:
12947:Joseph Bialot
12945:
12943:
12940:
12939:
12937:
12929:
12923:
12920:
12918:
12915:
12913:
12910:
12908:
12905:
12903:
12900:
12898:
12895:
12893:
12890:
12888:
12887:Guy Deutscher
12885:
12884:
12882:
12876:
12870:
12867:
12865:
12862:
12860:
12857:
12855:
12852:
12850:
12849:Claude Rodier
12847:
12845:
12842:
12840:
12837:
12835:
12832:
12830:
12827:
12825:
12822:
12820:
12819:Bernard Natan
12817:
12815:
12812:
12810:
12807:
12805:
12804:Bereck Kofman
12802:
12800:
12797:
12795:
12792:
12790:
12787:
12785:
12784:Salomon Gluck
12782:
12780:
12777:
12775:
12772:
12770:
12767:
12765:
12762:
12760:
12759:Marianne Cohn
12757:
12755:
12752:
12750:
12747:
12745:
12742:
12740:
12737:
12735:
12734:Henri Abraham
12732:
12731:
12729:
12723:
12717:
12714:
12712:
12711:Xavier Vallat
12709:
12707:
12704:
12702:
12699:
12697:
12696:Maurice Papon
12694:
12692:
12689:
12687:
12684:
12682:
12679:
12677:
12674:
12672:
12669:
12668:
12666:
12664:
12663:Collaborators
12660:
12654:
12651:
12649:
12648:
12644:
12642:
12639:
12637:
12634:
12632:
12629:
12627:
12624:
12622:
12619:
12617:
12614:
12612:
12609:
12607:
12606:René Bousquet
12604:
12602:
12599:
12598:
12596:
12594:
12590:
12584:
12583:
12579:
12577:
12576:
12572:
12570:
12567:
12565:
12564:
12560:
12559:
12557:
12551:
12545:
12542:
12540:
12537:
12535:
12532:
12530:
12527:
12525:
12522:
12520:
12517:
12515:
12512:
12510:
12509:Herbert Hagen
12507:
12505:
12502:
12500:
12497:
12495:
12494:Alois Brunner
12492:
12490:
12487:
12485:
12482:
12480:
12477:
12475:
12472:
12470:
12467:
12465:
12462:
12460:
12457:
12455:
12452:
12451:
12449:
12443:
12437:
12434:
12432:
12429:
12427:
12424:
12423:
12421:
12418:Documentation
12415:
12409:
12406:
12404:
12401:
12399:
12396:
12394:
12391:
12389:
12386:
12384:
12381:
12379:
12376:
12374:
12371:
12368:
12364:
12361:
12359:
12356:
12354:
12351:
12349:
12346:
12344:
12341:
12340:
12338:
12336:
12332:
12326:
12323:
12321:
12318:
12316:
12313:
12311:
12308:
12306:
12303:
12301:
12298:
12296:
12293:
12291:
12288:
12287:
12285:
12283:
12279:
12273:
12270:
12268:
12265:
12263:
12260:
12258:
12255:
12253:
12250:
12248:
12245:
12243:
12240:
12238:
12235:
12233:
12230:
12228:
12225:
12223:
12220:
12218:
12215:
12213:
12210:
12208:
12205:
12203:
12200:
12198:
12195:
12193:
12190:
12188:
12185:
12183:
12180:
12178:
12175:
12173:
12169:
12168:The Holocaust
12166:
12165:
12162:
12158:
12151:
12146:
12144:
12139:
12137:
12132:
12131:
12128:
12116:
12113:
12109:
12106:
12104:
12101:
12099:
12096:
12094:
12091:
12089:
12086:
12085:
12083:
12081:
12078:
12076:
12073:
12072:
12069:
12059:
12058:
12054:
12052:
12051:
12047:
12045:
12044:
12040:
12038:
12037:
12033:
12032:
12030:
12026:
12020:
12019:
12015:
12013:
12012:
12008:
12006:
12005:
12001:
11999:
11998:
11994:
11992:
11991:
11987:
11986:
11984:
11980:
11974:
11973:
11969:
11967:
11966:
11962:
11961:
11959:
11955:
11952:
11946:
11940:
11937:
11935:
11932:
11930:
11927:
11925:
11922:
11920:
11917:
11915:
11912:
11910:
11907:
11905:
11902:
11900:
11899:
11895:
11893:
11892:
11888:
11886:
11883:
11881:
11878:
11876:
11873:
11872:
11870:
11864:
11856:
11853:
11851:
11848:
11846:
11845:Jean Luchaire
11843:
11841:
11838:
11836:
11833:
11832:
11831:
11828:
11826:
11823:
11821:
11818:
11816:
11813:
11812:
11810:
11806:
11796:
11793:
11791:
11788:
11786:
11783:
11782:
11780:
11776:
11770:
11767:
11763:
11760:
11759:
11758:
11757:
11753:
11751:
11750:
11746:
11744:
11741:
11739:
11736:
11734:
11731:
11729:
11726:
11724:
11721:
11719:
11718:SyriaâLebanon
11716:
11714:
11711:
11707:
11704:
11703:
11702:
11699:
11697:
11694:
11692:
11689:
11687:
11684:
11682:
11679:
11677:
11676:Mers-el-KĂ©bir
11674:
11672:
11669:
11668:
11666:
11662:
11652:
11649:
11647:
11646:
11642:
11640:
11639:
11635:
11633:
11630:
11629:
11627:
11623:
11617:
11614:
11610:
11609:
11605:
11604:
11603:
11602:
11598:
11596:
11595:
11591:
11589:
11588:
11584:
11583:
11581:
11577:
11571:
11568:
11566:
11563:
11561:
11558:
11556:
11553:
11551:
11548:
11546:
11543:
11541:
11538:
11536:
11533:
11531:
11528:
11527:
11525:
11521:
11518:
11514:
11511:
11509:
11505:
11495:
11492:
11490:
11487:
11485:
11482:
11480:
11477:
11476:
11474:
11470:
11464:
11461:
11459:
11456:
11454:
11451:
11449:
11446:
11444:
11441:
11439:
11436:
11434:
11431:
11429:
11426:
11424:
11421:
11418:
11414:
11411:
11409:
11406:
11404:
11401:
11399:
11396:
11394:
11391:
11390:
11388:
11386:
11382:
11376:
11373:
11371:
11368:
11366:
11363:
11361:
11358:
11357:
11355:
11349:
11343:
11340:
11338:
11335:
11333:
11330:
11328:
11325:
11323:
11320:
11318:
11315:
11313:
11310:
11308:
11305:
11304:
11302:
11300:
11296:
11290:
11287:
11285:
11282:
11280:
11277:
11276:
11274:
11270:
11264:
11261:
11259:
11256:
11254:
11251:
11250:
11248:
11246:
11242:
11239:
11237:
11231:
11221:
11218:
11216:
11213:
11211:
11208:
11206:
11203:
11201:
11198:
11196:
11193:
11191:
11188:
11186:
11183:
11181:
11178:
11177:
11175:
11171:
11161:
11158:
11156:
11153:
11151:
11148:
11146:
11143:
11142:
11140:
11138:
11134:
11124:
11121:
11119:
11116:
11114:
11111:
11109:
11106:
11104:
11101:
11099:
11096:
11094:
11091:
11089:
11086:
11084:
11081:
11080:
11078:
11076:
11072:
11062:
11059:
11057:
11054:
11052:
11049:
11048:
11046:
11044:
11040:
11034:
11031:
11029:
11028:Occupied zone
11026:
11024:
11023:
11019:
11018:
11016:
11012:
11006:
11005:
11001:
10999:
10998:
10994:
10992:
10990:
10986:
10984:
10983:
10979:
10977:
10976:
10972:
10970:
10969:
10965:
10963:
10962:
10961:Ici la France
10958:
10956:
10955:
10951:
10949:
10948:
10944:
10942:
10941:
10937:
10935:
10934:
10930:
10928:
10927:
10923:
10921:
10920:
10916:
10914:
10913:
10909:
10907:
10906:
10902:
10900:
10899:
10895:
10893:
10892:
10888:
10883:
10880:
10877:
10875:
10872:
10870:
10867:
10865:
10864:
10860:
10858:
10855:
10853:
10850:
10848:
10845:
10843:
10840:
10839:
10837:
10831:
10825:
10822:
10820:
10817:
10815:
10814:
10810:
10808:
10805:
10803:
10800:
10798:
10797:
10793:
10791:
10788:
10786:
10783:
10781:
10778:
10776:
10773:
10772:
10770:
10764:
10758:
10757:
10753:
10751:
10748:
10746:
10743:
10739:
10736:
10735:
10734:
10731:
10729:
10726:
10724:
10721:
10720:
10718:
10712:
10706:
10703:
10701:
10698:
10696:
10693:
10691:
10688:
10686:
10685:
10681:
10679:
10678:
10674:
10672:
10669:
10667:
10664:
10662:
10661:French League
10659:
10658:
10656:
10654:organizations
10650:
10644:
10641:
10639:
10636:
10634:
10631:
10629:
10626:
10624:
10621:
10619:
10616:
10615:
10613:
10609:
10603:
10600:
10598:
10595:
10593:
10592:Xavier Vallat
10590:
10588:
10585:
10583:
10580:
10578:
10577:Simon Sabiani
10575:
10573:
10572:Pierre Pucheu
10570:
10568:
10565:
10563:
10562:Maurice Papon
10560:
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10550:
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10547:Jean Luchaire
10545:
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10483:
10480:
10478:
10477:Alexis Carrel
10475:
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10468:
10465:
10463:
10462:René Bousquet
10460:
10458:
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10450:
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10443:
10437:
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10430:
10429:HĂŽtel du Parc
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10264:
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10246:Baltic states
10244:
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10160:Faroe Islands
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10132:South Ossetia
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9361:public domain
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9087:
9080:
9065:. Arutz Sheva
9064:
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9041:
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9013:
8997:
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8984:
8968:
8967:Bloomberg.com
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8892:
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8866:
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8855:
8840:. Arutz Sheva
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8597:
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8515:on 5 May 2012
8514:
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8270:
8269:
8264:
8263:archive.today
8260:
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8238:The Telegraph
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8091:. 9 July 2004
8090:
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7424:Supreme Court
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7205:2-85870-017-6
7201:
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7178:
7175:Nigel Aston,
7172:
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7156:The Code Noir
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6998:
6994:
6990:
6988:1-4008-2314-5
6984:
6980:
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6948:(in French).
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6301:
6297:
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6287:
6280:
6272:
6270:0-486-42011-6
6266:
6262:
6258:
6257:Henri Pirenne
6252:
6244:
6240:
6236:
6232:
6228:
6224:
6220:
6216:
6209:
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6200:
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6185:
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6156:(in German).
6155:
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6118:
6116:
6102:
6098:
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6088:9791036512308
6084:
6080:
6076:
6073:(in French).
6072:
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5901:bseditions.fr
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5397:United States
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5147:Awareness day
5145:
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4914:
4910:
4906:
4901:
4899:
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4894:the Holocaust
4891:
4886:
4880:
4876:
4875:Enlightenment
4872:
4871:
4870:
4868:
4863:
4861:
4857:
4852:
4850:
4846:
4844:
4839:
4833:
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4755:
4753:
4749:
4745:
4742:
4741:
4736:
4732:
4728:
4724:
4720:
4719:Popular Front
4716:
4712:
4707:
4705:
4701:
4696:
4691:
4689:
4685:
4684:
4679:
4674:
4672:
4668:
4665:
4661:
4657:
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4645:
4641:
4640:Henri Bergson
4637:
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4621:
4620:
4615:
4611:
4607:
4603:
4597:
4595:
4591:
4590:
4584:
4579:
4577:
4576:French Guiana
4573:
4569:
4565:
4560:
4557:
4551:
4543:
4539:
4538:
4533:
4528:
4519:
4517:
4516:
4511:
4507:
4502:
4500:
4496:
4492:
4491:July Monarchy
4488:
4484:
4480:
4471:
4464:
4463:
4458:
4453:
4449:
4445:
4443:
4439:
4435:
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4421:
4416:
4412:
4408:
4404:
4403:
4395:
4391:
4387:
4383:
4374:
4372:
4365:Full equality
4362:
4360:
4355:
4351:
4347:
4336:
4333:
4329:
4319:
4317:
4313:
4312:French Empire
4309:
4308:décret infùme
4305:
4304:Protestantism
4302:
4298:
4294:
4290:
4285:
4281:
4277:
4270:
4267:
4263:
4256:
4252:
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4206:
4196:
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4148:
4144:
4140:
4136:
4132:
4127:
4125:
4121:
4117:
4113:
4112:Herz Cerfbeer
4109:
4105:
4101:
4098:but those in
4097:
4093:
4089:
4085:
4078:
4074:
4070:
4061:
4059:
4055:
4054:
4049:
4045:
4041:
4038:and the Abbé
4037:
4033:
4029:
4025:
4021:
4017:
4013:
4007:
4005:
4001:
3990:
3988:
3984:
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3867:
3863:
3861:
3855:
3852:
3848:
3847:
3842:
3838:
3831:
3827:
3826:Hanukkah lamp
3822:
3813:
3811:
3807:
3803:
3799:
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3791:
3787:
3783:
3779:
3775:
3771:
3767:
3763:
3759:
3755:
3751:
3747:
3743:
3739:
3738:Ăle de France
3733:
3729:
3727:
3726:sous tournois
3723:
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3712:
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3696:
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3676:
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3632:
3627:
3623:
3621:
3615:
3611:
3609:
3605:
3601:
3596:
3594:
3590:
3586:
3582:
3577:
3573:
3571:
3567:
3563:
3559:
3555:
3551:
3537:
3533:
3531:
3527:
3523:
3518:
3515:
3511:
3507:
3503:
3499:
3492:
3487:
3478:
3476:
3472:
3467:
3463:
3462:royal demesne
3459:
3455:
3451:
3447:
3442:
3440:
3436:
3432:
3428:
3427:Ăle de France
3424:
3414:
3412:
3407:
3401:
3398:
3394:
3390:
3389:First Crusade
3382:
3377:
3363:
3359:
3357:
3352:
3348:
3347:First Crusade
3342:
3332:
3330:
3326:
3322:
3318:
3314:
3310:
3306:
3302:
3298:
3297:
3292:
3288:
3284:
3280:
3271:
3266:
3256:
3254:
3253:
3248:
3247:
3242:
3241:
3236:
3232:
3228:
3227:First Crusade
3218:
3216:
3212:
3207:
3203:
3198:
3195:
3191:
3186:
3182:
3178:
3174:
3170:
3167:
3164:
3160:
3156:
3152:
3148:
3144:
3139:
3136:
3131:
3127:
3123:
3114:
3100:
3098:
3094:
3090:
3087:
3083:
3079:
3075:
3071:
3066:
3064:
3060:
3056:
3052:
3048:
3044:
3040:
3036:
3032:
3028:
3024:
3022:
3018:
3014:
3009:
3007:
3004:
3000:
2996:
2992:
2988:
2984:
2980:
2977:
2973:
2963:
2960:
2956:
2952:
2948:
2944:
2943:King Dagobert
2939:
2937:
2933:
2925:
2921:
2910:
2909:
2903:
2899:
2895:
2890:
2886:
2884:
2880:
2876:
2872:
2868:
2864:
2860:
2856:
2852:
2848:
2844:
2840:
2836:
2831:
2829:
2825:
2821:
2817:
2813:
2812:Theodosius II
2809:
2804:
2802:
2798:
2794:
2790:
2786:
2785:
2774:
2772:
2768:
2764:
2759:
2757:
2753:
2749:
2746:
2742:
2737:
2735:
2731:
2727:
2723:
2719:
2715:
2711:
2707:
2703:
2702:United States
2699:
2695:
2690:
2688:
2684:
2680:
2676:
2672:
2668:
2663:
2661:
2657:
2656:Popular Front
2653:
2649:
2645:
2640:
2638:
2634:
2630:
2626:
2622:
2618:
2614:
2610:
2606:
2602:
2598:
2594:
2582:
2577:
2575:
2570:
2568:
2563:
2562:
2560:
2559:
2554:
2551:
2549:
2546:
2545:
2544:
2543:
2532:
2529:
2527:
2524:
2522:
2519:
2517:
2514:
2512:
2509:
2507:
2504:
2502:
2499:
2497:
2494:
2492:
2489:
2488:
2487:
2486:
2483:
2480:
2479:
2474:
2471:
2469:
2466:
2464:
2461:
2459:
2456:
2454:
2451:
2449:
2446:
2444:
2441:
2440:
2439:
2438:
2435:
2432:
2431:
2426:
2421:
2420:
2413:
2410:
2408:
2405:
2403:
2400:
2398:
2395:
2393:
2392:Judeo-Aramaic
2390:
2388:
2385:
2383:
2382:Judeo-Italian
2380:
2378:
2375:
2373:
2370:
2368:
2365:
2363:
2362:GhardaĂŻa Sign
2360:
2358:
2355:
2353:
2350:
2348:
2345:
2343:
2340:
2338:
2335:
2333:
2330:
2328:
2325:
2323:
2320:
2318:
2315:
2310:
2306:
2305:
2304:
2301:
2300:
2297:
2292:
2291:
2280:
2277:
2275:
2272:
2270:
2267:
2266:
2265:
2264:
2261:
2258:
2257:
2252:
2249:
2247:
2244:
2242:
2239:
2237:
2234:
2232:
2229:
2227:
2224:
2222:
2219:
2217:
2214:
2213:
2212:
2211:
2208:
2205:
2204:
2199:
2196:
2194:
2191:
2189:
2186:
2184:
2181:
2180:
2179:
2178:
2175:
2172:
2171:
2166:
2163:
2161:
2158:
2157:
2156:
2155:
2152:
2149:
2148:
2143:
2140:
2138:
2135:
2133:
2128:
2125:
2124:
2119:
2117:
2114:
2112:
2109:
2106:
2105:
2100:
2098:
2095:
2093:
2090:
2088:
2085:
2083:
2080:
2079:
2078:
2077:
2073:
2072:
2067:
2062:
2061:
2054:
2051:
2049:
2046:
2044:
2041:
2039:
2036:
2034:
2031:
2029:
2026:
2024:
2021:
2019:
2014:
2010:
2007:
2005:
2002:
2000:
1997:
1996:
1995:
1992:
1991:
1988:
1987:Denominations
1983:
1982:
1971:
1968:
1966:
1963:
1961:
1958:
1956:
1953:
1951:
1948:
1947:
1946:
1945:
1942:
1939:
1938:
1933:
1930:
1928:
1925:
1923:
1920:
1918:
1913:
1911:
1908:
1906:
1903:
1901:
1898:
1896:
1893:
1891:
1888:
1886:
1883:
1881:
1878:
1876:
1873:
1871:
1866:
1864:
1861:
1859:
1856:
1854:
1851:
1849:
1846:
1844:
1841:
1839:
1836:
1835:
1834:
1833:
1830:
1827:
1826:
1821:
1818:
1816:
1815:United States
1813:
1811:
1808:
1807:
1806:
1805:
1801:
1800:
1795:
1790:
1788:
1785:
1783:
1780:
1778:
1775:
1773:
1770:
1768:
1765:
1763:
1760:
1758:
1755:
1753:
1750:
1748:
1745:
1743:
1740:
1738:
1735:
1733:
1730:
1728:
1725:
1723:
1720:
1718:
1715:
1713:
1710:
1708:
1705:
1703:
1700:
1698:
1695:
1693:
1690:
1688:
1685:
1683:
1680:
1678:
1675:
1673:
1670:
1668:
1665:
1663:
1660:
1658:
1655:
1653:
1650:
1648:
1645:
1644:
1643:
1642:
1639:
1636:
1635:
1630:
1627:
1625:
1622:
1620:
1617:
1615:
1612:
1610:
1607:
1605:
1602:
1600:
1597:
1595:
1592:
1590:
1587:
1585:
1582:
1580:
1577:
1575:
1572:
1570:
1567:
1565:
1562:
1560:
1557:
1555:
1552:
1550:
1547:
1545:
1542:
1540:
1537:
1535:
1532:
1530:
1527:
1525:
1522:
1520:
1517:
1515:
1512:
1510:
1507:
1505:
1502:
1500:
1497:
1495:
1492:
1490:
1487:
1485:
1482:
1480:
1477:
1475:
1472:
1470:
1467:
1465:
1462:
1460:
1457:
1455:
1452:
1450:
1447:
1445:
1442:
1440:
1437:
1436:
1435:
1434:
1430:
1429:
1424:
1421:
1419:
1416:
1413:
1409:
1406:
1404:
1401:
1399:
1396:
1394:
1391:
1389:
1384:
1382:
1379:
1377:
1374:
1372:
1369:
1367:
1364:
1361:
1357:
1354:
1352:
1349:
1347:
1344:
1342:
1339:
1337:
1334:
1332:
1329:
1327:
1324:
1322:
1319:
1317:
1314:
1312:
1309:
1307:
1304:
1302:
1301:Guinea-Bissau
1299:
1297:
1294:
1292:
1289:
1287:
1284:
1282:
1279:
1277:
1274:
1272:
1269:
1267:
1264:
1262:
1259:
1257:
1254:
1252:
1249:
1247:
1244:
1242:
1239:
1237:
1234:
1232:
1229:
1227:
1224:
1222:
1219:
1217:
1214:
1213:
1212:
1211:
1208:
1205:
1204:
1199:
1196:
1194:
1191:
1189:
1186:
1185:
1184:
1183:
1180:
1177:
1176:
1171:
1168:
1166:
1163:
1161:
1158:
1156:
1155:Lists of Jews
1153:
1151:
1148:
1147:
1146:
1145:
1140:
1135:
1134:
1123:
1120:
1118:
1115:
1113:
1110:
1106:
1103:
1101:
1098:
1096:
1093:
1091:
1088:
1086:
1083:
1082:
1081:
1078:
1076:
1073:
1071:
1068:
1066:
1063:
1061:
1058:
1056:
1053:
1051:
1048:
1046:
1043:
1042:
1041:
1040:
1036:
1035:
1030:
1027:
1025:
1022:
1020:
1017:
1015:
1012:
1010:
1007:
1005:
1002:
1000:
997:
995:
992:
990:
987:
985:
982:
980:
977:
975:
972:
968:
965:
963:
960:
959:
958:
955:
954:
953:
952:
947:
942:
941:
930:
922:
920:
917:
915:
914:The Holocaust
912:
910:
907:
905:
902:
900:
897:
895:
892:
890:
887:
885:
882:
880:
877:
876:
875:
874:
870:
869:
864:
861:
859:
856:
854:
851:
849:
841:
839:
834:
830:
824:
819:
817:
814:
812:
809:
808:
807:
806:
802:
799:
798:
791:
785:
779:
774:
771:
767:
761:
758:
754:
750:
746:
742:
738:
733:
730:
728:
725:
723:
718:
716:
713:
711:
708:
707:
706:
705:
702:
699:
698:
693:
688:
686:
681:
677:
673:
670:
665:
660:
656:
652:
649:
643:
640:
638:
635:
633:
628:
626:
623:
622:
621:
620:
617:
614:
613:
608:
605:
603:
600:
598:
595:
593:
590:
588:
585:
583:
580:
578:
575:
573:
570:
568:
565:
564:
563:
562:
558:
557:
552:
547:
546:
535:
532:
529:
528:
523:
521:
518:
516:
515:Mishneh Torah
513:
511:
508:
506:
503:
502:
501:
500:
495:
492:
490:
487:
486:
485:
484:
481:
478:
477:
472:
469:
467:
464:
463:
462:
461:
458:
455:
454:
449:
446:
444:
441:
439:
436:
435:
434:
433:
430:
427:
426:
421:
416:
415:
408:
405:
403:
400:
398:
395:
393:
390:
388:
385:
383:
380:
378:
375:
373:
370:
368:
365:
363:
360:
358:
353:
351:
348:
346:
341:
339:
336:
334:
331:
329:
326:
324:
321:
319:
316:
313:
309:
306:
304:
301:
298:
294:
291:
290:
287:
282:
281:
276:
275:Who is a Jew?
273:
271:
268:
267:
266:
265:
262:
258:
255:
254:
250:
246:
245:
238:
234:
230:
226:
225:Sephardi Jews
222:
217:
214:
210:
206:
201:
198:
194:
190:
186:
182:
178:
174:
170:
166:
161:
157:
153:
149:
145:
141:
136:
130:
129:
126:
121:
105:
100:
96:
91:
82:
71:
67:
56:
52:
45:
41:
40:
36:
27:
19:
13186:
13140:
13133:
13126:
13114:
13052:PĂšre Jacques
13017:Marc Boegner
12977:Sarah Kofman
12942:Louise Alcan
12922:Rose Warfman
12839:Victor Perez
12794:Paul Hermann
12739:Victor Basch
12706:Paul Touvier
12653:Vichy Police
12645:
12636:André Tulard
12626:Pierre Laval
12593:Vichy France
12580:
12573:
12561:
12529:Kurt Lischka
12524:Josef Kramer
12489:Heinz Röthke
12469:Klaus Barbie
12464:Horst Ahnert
12446:Perpetrators
12325:Villeurbanne
12290:Green ticket
12170:by country:
12055:
12048:
12041:
12034:
12016:
12009:
12002:
11995:
11988:
11970:
11963:
11896:
11889:
11868:& Impact
11790:Henri Giraud
11755:
11748:
11727:
11712:
11670:
11643:
11636:
11606:
11599:
11592:
11585:
11530:1st Regiment
11370:Yellow badge
11365:Nazi plunder
11360:Aryanisation
11342:Villeurbanne
11312:Green ticket
11220:New Hebrides
11180:French India
11155:Ubangi-Shari
11150:Middle Congo
11020:
11002:
10995:
10988:
10980:
10973:
10966:
10959:
10952:
10945:
10938:
10931:
10924:
10917:
10910:
10903:
10896:
10889:
10884:
10861:
10811:
10794:
10766:Policy &
10754:
10682:
10675:
10587:André Tulard
10582:Paul Touvier
10537:Pierre Laval
10487:Henry Coston
10445:Participants
10433:
10370:
10333:
10321:
10301:Soviet Union
10237:
10227:Vichy France
10137:Transnistria
9909:
9750:
9735:
9728:
9721:
9711:
9704:
9697:
9690:
9683:
9676:
9666:
9659:
9649:
9642:
9632:
9625:
9618:
9617:Cahm, Eric.
9608:
9601:
9594:
9590:(1992) 317p.
9587:
9577:
9567:
9561:Antisemitism
9553:
9543:
9536:(2008) 26#4
9533:
9526:
9502:
9496:
9485:
9475:
9465:
9458:
9451:
9444:
9434:
9427:
9413:
9403:
9396:
9373:
9341:
9330:
9318:. Retrieved
9308:
9298:20 September
9296:. Retrieved
9291:
9282:
9273:
9264:
9255:
9246:
9237:
9228:
9219:
9210:
9201:
9192:
9180:. Retrieved
9170:
9158:. Retrieved
9148:
9136:. Retrieved
9125:
9113:. Retrieved
9102:
9090:. Retrieved
9079:
9067:. Retrieved
9056:
9044:. Retrieved
9034:
9022:. Retrieved
9012:
9000:. Retrieved
8983:
8971:. Retrieved
8966:
8942:. Retrieved
8932:
8920:. Retrieved
8915:
8906:
8894:. Retrieved
8890:
8880:
8868:. Retrieved
8864:
8854:
8842:. Retrieved
8831:
8819:. Retrieved
8793:. Retrieved
8783:
8771:. Retrieved
8761:
8749:. Retrieved
8739:
8727:. Retrieved
8723:the original
8712:
8704:
8689:
8677:. Retrieved
8673:the original
8664:
8655:
8643:. Retrieved
8639:the original
8634:
8625:
8613:. Retrieved
8608:The Guardian
8606:
8596:
8587:
8578:
8569:
8560:
8548:. Retrieved
8542:
8517:. Retrieved
8513:the original
8503:
8491:. Retrieved
8482:
8458:. Retrieved
8454:the original
8433:
8426:. Retrieved
8422:the original
8415:
8406:
8394:. Retrieved
8382:
8372:
8361:
8351:
8340:
8316:. Retrieved
8311:
8302:
8290:. Retrieved
8286:
8276:
8266:
8250:
8237:
8226:
8214:. Retrieved
8204:
8193:
8184:
8172:. Retrieved
8166:
8156:
8144:. Retrieved
8138:
8114:
8105:
8093:. Retrieved
8083:
8074:The Guardian
8072:
8062:
8050:. Retrieved
8046:the original
8039:
8029:
8020:
8011:
7999:. Retrieved
7995:
7986:
7974:. Retrieved
7952:
7943:
7934:
7925:
7916:
7906:
7898:The Guardian
7897:
7888:
7868:
7861:
7852:
7843:
7831:. Retrieved
7826:
7817:
7784:
7780:
7770:
7758:. Retrieved
7753:
7743:
7734:
7728:
7720:
7715:
7695:
7677:
7672:
7664:
7659:
7647:. Retrieved
7643:
7634:
7622:. Retrieved
7617:
7608:
7583:
7579:
7573:
7546:
7540:
7498:
7491:
7458:
7454:
7448:
7440:
7435:
7427:
7418:
7391:
7385:
7344:
7339:
7306:
7302:
7296:
7287:
7278:
7266:. Retrieved
7261:
7252:
7240:. Retrieved
7235:
7195:
7176:
7171:
7155:
7149:
7140:
7091:
7087:
7074:
7066:
7061:
7028:
7024:
7014:
7005:
6977:
6954:. Retrieved
6949:
6945:
6935:
6894:
6890:
6884:
6857:
6851:
6818:
6814:
6804:
6784:
6777:
6767:
6737:
6730:
6721:
6677:
6673:
6663:
6631:
6624:
6615:
6599:
6595:
6587:
6583:
6551:
6533:
6529:
6525:
6515:
6511:
6497:
6485:. Retrieved
6481:
6472:
6463:
6436:
6430:
6411:
6405:
6380:
6376:
6371:
6344:
6338:
6326:. Retrieved
6321:
6312:
6285:
6279:
6260:
6251:
6218:
6214:
6208:
6197:
6172:26 September
6170:. Retrieved
6144:
6112:
6107:26 September
6105:. Retrieved
6101:the original
6069:
6025:
5987:
5978:
5964:
5956:the original
5946:
5929:
5909:
5900:
5891:
5878:
5852:. Retrieved
5826:. Retrieved
5800:. Retrieved
5789:
5777:. Retrieved
5772:
5747:. Retrieved
5743:the original
5717:. Retrieved
5691:. Retrieved
5684:
5586:
5579:
5575:Sarah Halimi
5572:
5557:
5554:
5538:
5526:
5510:
5502:
5496:
5486:
5481:Ariel Sharon
5471:
5459:
5448:
5442:
5424:
5401:
5390:
5358:21st century
5336:Algerian War
5333:
5322:
5315:
5293:
5277:
5274:
5250:
5241:Vichy Regime
5237:
5166:
5092:
5046:Tripolitania
5023:
4917:
4913:World War II
4902:
4887:
4884:
4864:
4853:
4841:
4834:
4826:
4806:
4794:who is a Jew
4791:
4787:Vichy Regime
4783:
4775:
4752:Nazi Germany
4738:
4708:
4692:
4681:
4675:
4633:
4630:20th century
4624:
4617:
4598:
4589:J'Accuse...!
4587:
4580:
4561:
4555:
4553:
4537:J'Accuse...!
4535:
4513:
4503:
4494:
4477:
4474:Antisemitism
4468:
4460:
4446:
4441:
4427:
4425:
4402:More Judaico
4400:
4398:
4377:Assimilation
4370:
4368:
4354:disabilities
4350:Jean Viennet
4342:
4325:
4307:
4273:
4265:
4226:
4202:
4193:
4188:
4183:Jacobin Club
4151:
4128:
4081:
4072:
4051:
4012:Alsatian Jew
4008:
3996:
3980:
3965:
3961:
3947:17th century
3936:
3928:Charles VIII
3925:
3914:
3911:Isidore Loeb
3907:
3896:
3873:
3864:
3856:
3844:
3834:
3735:
3731:
3725:
3719:
3708:
3688:
3672:
3638:
3628:
3624:
3616:
3612:
3597:
3578:
3574:
3569:
3550:moneylending
3547:
3519:
3501:
3496:
3457:
3453:
3449:
3445:
3443:
3430:
3420:
3402:
3386:
3360:
3344:
3335:The Crusades
3294:
3276:
3252:corpus juris
3250:
3244:
3238:
3230:
3224:
3199:
3140:
3119:
3084:, the fifth
3067:
3062:
3025:
3010:
2999:Carolingians
2991:black pepper
2969:
2940:
2929:
2915:Ś©ŚŚŚ ŚąŚ Ś©ŚšŚŚ
2832:
2823:
2805:
2782:
2780:
2760:
2752:North Africa
2738:
2691:
2671:collaborated
2667:World War II
2664:
2641:
2637:Vichy regime
2625:Antisemitism
2592:
2590:
2531:Post-Zionism
2402:Judeo-Berber
2397:Judeo-Arabic
2357:Judeo-Gascon
2104:Pidyon haben
2023:Conservative
1696:
1569:Saudi Arabia
1387:South Africa
1376:Sierra Leone
1198:Israeli Jews
1112:Mosaic Arabs
1065:Kaifeng Jews
926:ArabâIsraeli
899:Emancipation
778:Great Revolt
587:Anti-Judaism
582:Antisemitism
577:Name "Judea"
372:Baal teshuva
229:Mizrahi Jews
189:Judeo-Arabic
176:
164:
158:, and other
143:
29:Ethnic group
26:
13177:Armée Juive
13057:Henri Manen
13004:the Nations
12992:LĂ©on Zyguel
12917:Simone Veil
12912:LĂ©on Schwab
12907:David OlĂšre
12869:David Vogel
12754:Kadmi Cohen
12744:HĂ©lĂšne Berr
12686:René Gérard
12479:Kurt Blanke
12474:Werner Best
12388:Romainville
12242:Netherlands
11950:& Media
11855:Marcel DĂ©at
11808:Dissolution
11608:Franc-Garde
11472:Deportation
11443:Romainville
11353:and plunder
11200:Cochinchina
11118:Upper Volta
11083:Ivory Coast
10991:(newspaper)
10905:Aujourd'hui
10652:Parties and
10611:Governments
10542:Jean Leguay
10507:Marcel DĂ©at
10381:Article 231
10175:Isle of Man
10110:recognition
10062:Switzerland
9997:Netherlands
9439:online free
9256:Haaretz.com
9182:17 November
9160:17 November
9138:17 November
9115:17 November
9092:17 November
9069:17 November
8973:13 February
8944:13 February
8896:6 September
8729:13 February
8146:27 November
8052:17 February
7756:(in French)
7649:11 November
7624:11 November
7586:(1): 1â35.
7031:: 482â489.
6956:27 December
6149: [
5798:(in French)
5773:Der Spiegel
5622:in Besançon
5533:Ze'ev Elkin
5432:Ilan Halimi
5381:HaĂŻm Korsia
5340:Six-Day War
5325:Suez Crisis
5266:Six-Day War
5139:Remembrance
5004:Six-Day War
4999:Suez Crisis
4818:yellow star
4727:Paul Morand
4534:'s letter,
4442:département
4328:Louis XVIII
4278:in France,
4154:Robespierre
4028:Malesherbes
4004:German Jews
3930:. However,
3675:Inquisition
3522:Theobald IV
3471:Carolingian
3439:seigniorial
3393:blood libel
3171:blamed the
2972:Charlemagne
2920:regnal year
2875:Constantine
2613:persecution
2609:Middle Ages
2595:deals with
2526:Revisionist
2516:Neo-Zionism
2123:Zeved habat
1916:Puerto Rico
1742:Netherlands
1574:South Korea
1559:Philippines
1439:Afghanistan
1306:Ivory Coast
1080:Crypto-Jews
1045:Bnei Anusim
1024:Bene Israel
989:Beta Israel
946:Communities
853:Middle Ages
592:Persecution
367:Bereavement
213:no religion
33:French Jews
13246:Categories
13097:Varian Fry
13037:Mary Elmes
12972:René Kapel
12534:Carl Oberg
12454:Otto Abetz
12398:Rivesaltes
12373:Pithiviers
12320:Vel' d'Hiv
12237:Luxembourg
11733:Madagascar
11453:Rivesaltes
11428:Pithiviers
11337:Vel' d'Hiv
11103:Mauritania
11022:Zone libre
10997:La Semaine
10835:propaganda
10750:Riom Trial
10472:André Broc
10435:Zone libre
10419:The Eighty
10402:Beginnings
10361:Phoney War
10329:Boulangism
10276:Luxembourg
10032:San Marino
9992:Montenegro
9972:Luxembourg
9952:Kazakhstan
9855:Azerbaijan
9768:Yad Vashem
9220:Yahoo News
8417:Libération
7760:16 January
7556:0312111673
7354:1851094393
7137:"Provence"
6897:(1): 5â7.
6891:AJS Review
6867:031329318X
6646:0271016124
6608:B0017H91JQ
6566:0385505841
6487:9 December
6137:Kolb, Anne
6097:1193020908
5914:Yad Vashem
5854:5 February
5850:. NBC News
5828:5 February
5779:5 February
5749:5 February
5719:5 February
5693:29 January
5663:References
5415:See also:
5268:and other
4954:Background
4860:Yad Vashem
4812:and other
4802:Zone libre
4721:'s leader
4656:Modigliani
4594:Ămile Zola
4532:Ămile Zola
4407:consistory
4179:abbé Maury
4000:Portuguese
3983:Martinique
3876:Charles VI
3806:Roussillon
3746:Vermandois
3721:Tisha B'Av
3699:seneschals
3663:Noah's Ark
3589:manuscript
3013:Christians
2959:Visigothic
2955:Septimania
2867:synagogues
2835:Marseilles
2730:Strasbourg
2621:emancipate
2511:Maximalism
2463:Secularism
2443:Autonomism
2260:Literature
2053:Humanistic
1657:Azerbaijan
1619:Uzbekistan
1594:Tajikistan
1514:Kyrgyzstan
1499:Kazakhstan
1346:Mozambique
1321:Madagascar
1241:Cape Verde
1193:New Yishuv
1188:Old Yishuv
1139:Population
1117:Subbotniks
1075:Samaritans
1014:Romanyotim
957:Ashkenazim
904:Old Yishuv
884:Sabbateans
871:Modern era
863:Golden Age
790:Bar Kokhba
510:Beit Yosef
377:Philosophy
59:ŚŚŚŚŚȘ ŚŠŚšŚ€ŚȘ
13107:Memorials
12934:testimony
12879:Survivors
12854:Alma Rosé
12799:Max Jacob
12749:René Blum
12691:Jean Mamy
12403:Septfonds
12378:Récébédou
12305:Marseille
12232:Lithuania
11866:Aftermath
11696:Indochina
11681:Gibraltar
11638:Carlingue
11625:Auxiliary
11560:Air Force
11458:Septfonds
11433:Récébédou
11327:Marseille
11014:Territory
10947:La France
10833:Press and
10714:Legal and
10165:Gibraltar
9967:Lithuania
9519:145166232
9111:. Haaretz
8821:3 January
8817:. Haaretz
8544:USA Today
8391:0362-4331
8077:. London.
7809:159850802
7667:pp 18â49.
7592:0021-6704
7526:cite book
7518:889266445
7483:144943082
7475:0014-3111
7410:243444805
7371:cite book
7331:145321754
7323:0963-9489
7116:143634044
7108:0304-2421
7045:0021-6682
6927:159553765
6911:0364-0094
6835:0065-6798
6694:0018-2648
6455:712795767
6243:239611324
6235:1749-8171
6166:435767433
5824:. Reuters
5802:9 January
5775:. Spiegel
5560:Marseille
5348:Abu Daoud
5300:terrorist
5280:Ashkenazi
4723:LĂ©on Blum
4715:communism
4426:The 1870
4316:Rhineland
4301:Calvinist
4217:Girondins
4135:disorders
4108:Ashkenazi
4024:Louis XVI
3972:Louis XIV
3932:Louis XII
3824:A bronze
3778:Languedoc
3756:, Maine,
3742:Champagne
3695:Philip IV
3679:Catharism
3610:in 1248.
3493:, Paris).
3231:Midrashim
3159:Jerusalem
3122:Robert II
3103:Capetians
3078:merchants
3070:Palestine
3063:ordinatio
3003:Radhanite
2932:Caracalla
2892:Funerary
2824:militandi
2718:Marseille
2683:Holocaust
2521:Religious
2377:Zarphatic
2367:Bukharian
2337:Judeo-Tat
2322:Yeshivish
2296:Languages
2251:Sephardic
2241:Israelite
2231:Ethiopian
2221:Ashkenazi
2160:Religious
1950:Australia
1932:Venezuela
1838:Argentina
1820:Greenland
1732:Lithuania
1584:Sri Lanka
1579:Singapore
1504:Kurdistan
1469:Indonesia
1459:Hong Kong
1412:Abayudaya
1336:Mauritius
1070:Igbo Jews
1060:Krymchaks
979:Sephardim
847:relations
741:Sadducees
737:Pharisees
727:Sanhedrin
642:Jerusalem
402:Synagogue
270:Etymology
138:Languages
13167:See also
12383:Rieucros
12367:subcamps
12282:Roundups
12192:Bulgaria
11778:Officers
11706:Ko Chang
11508:Military
11438:Rieucros
11417:subcamps
11299:Roundups
11190:Cambodia
11160:Cameroon
11123:Togoland
10891:L'Alerte
10768:politics
10716:treaties
10296:Slovakia
10185:Svalbard
10170:Guernsey
10117:Abkhazia
10092:Scotland
10047:Slovenia
10042:Slovakia
10017:Portugal
9875:Bulgaria
9777:Archived
9760:Archived
9613:in JSTOR
9572:in JSTOR
9370:"France"
9320:14 April
9238:BBC News
8996:Archived
8922:9 August
8751:11 March
8698:Archived
8679:10 March
8645:12 March
8611:. London
8519:10 March
8493:10 March
8460:13 March
8396:9 August
8318:9 August
8259:Archived
8242:Archived
8216:9 August
8195:Ynetnews
8095:9 August
8021:France24
8001:9 August
7953:BBC News
7833:9 August
7754:Slate.fr
7565:40593627
7430:, p. 15.
7363:58830958
7268:9 August
7161:Archived
6997:51580058
6876:29952366
6821:: 1â63.
6702:24429768
6655:33665024
6575:50242976
6363:36461619
6328:9 August
6304:48139723
6259:(2001).
6048:61956716
6024:(eds.).
5952:"France"
5919:Archived
5875:"France"
5618:in Arles
5607:Paris's
5592:See also
5549:Bataclan
5395:and the
5125:Tunisia
4994:1948 war
4967:Sephardi
4931:a series
4929:Part of
4877:and the
4332:Bourbons
4297:Lutheran
4280:Napoleon
4255:Napoleon
4209:Bas-Rhin
4205:Alsatian
4164:and the
4131:Bastille
4104:Lorraine
4088:Bordeaux
4086:Jews in
4084:Sephardi
4053:Haskalah
4040:Grégoire
4036:Mirabeau
4016:Cerfbeer
3899:Provence
3887:Provence
3810:Provence
3802:Dauphiné
3794:Burgundy
3790:Lorraine
3786:Pyrénées
3774:Auvergne
3770:Lyonnais
3762:Touraine
3750:Normandy
3711:Templars
3691:Toulouse
3510:interest
3458:dominium
3450:dominium
3341:Crusades
3321:Shemaria
3246:responsa
3147:Saracens
3093:Narbonne
3017:currency
2941:In 629,
2898:Narbonne
2883:áž„azzanim
2863:Bordeaux
2847:Narbonne
2797:Lugdunum
2741:Sephardi
2734:Toulouse
2700:and the
2635:and the
2548:Category
2506:Kahanism
2453:Feminism
2425:Politics
2309:Biblical
2279:American
2226:Bukharan
2216:American
2116:Shidduch
2092:Clothing
2048:Haymanot
1994:Orthodox
1922:Suriname
1905:Paraguay
1858:Colombia
1757:Portugal
1667:Bulgaria
1604:Thailand
1554:Pakistan
1534:Mongolia
1529:Malaysia
1449:Cambodia
1423:Zimbabwe
1398:Tanzania
1276:Eswatini
1266:Ethiopia
1256:Djibouti
1236:Cameroon
1231:Botswana
1160:Diaspora
1122:Noahides
1095:Marranos
1019:Cochinim
1004:Bukharim
994:Gruzinim
984:Teimanim
974:Mizrahim
962:Galician
928:conflict
889:Hasidism
879:Haskalah
784:Diaspora
655:timeline
567:Timeline
480:Rabbinic
387:Kabbalah
362:Marriage
338:Tzedakah
328:Holidays
286:Religion
249:a series
247:Part of
235:, other
203:Religion
13236:Judaism
13210:Portals
13144:
12932:Witness
12726:Victims
12272:Ukraine
12257:Romania
12212:Hungary
12202:Estonia
12197:Croatia
12187:Belgium
12182:Belarus
12177:Austria
12172:Albania
12028:Fiction
11957:History
11948:History
11769:RĂ©union
11664:Battles
11579:Militia
11523:Regular
11236:affairs
11113:Senegal
11088:Dahomey
11061:Tunisia
11056:Morocco
10982:Revivre
10926:Combats
10898:L'Appel
10315:Prelude
10306:Ukraine
10261:Denmark
10256:Croatia
10251:Belarus
10241:Albania
10082:England
10072:Ukraine
10022:Romania
9982:Moldova
9940:Ireland
9935:Iceland
9930:Hungary
9920:Germany
9915:Georgia
9905:Finland
9900:Estonia
9895:Denmark
9880:Croatia
9865:Belgium
9860:Belarus
9850:Austria
9845:Armenia
9840:Andorra
9835:Albania
9770:website
9714:(1981)
9669:(1991)
9604:(1969).
9546:(1994)
9478:(1998)
9430:(1996).
9416:(2001)
9363::
9046:28 June
9024:28 June
9002:28 June
8773:7 April
8428:3 March
8342:Reuters
8292:5 March
7976:9 March
7801:3133551
7719:Hyman,
7676:Hyman,
7663:Hyman,
7600:4467459
7242:5 March
7214:6303565
7053:1453511
6919:1486732
6843:3622388
6674:History
6503:"Rouen"
6377:Magazin
5568:Créteil
5294:In the
5116:Lebanon
5077:Morocco
5061:Tripoli
5056:Baghdad
4984:Zionism
4972:Mizrahi
4849:Gestapo
4711:Zionism
4704:Yiddish
4695:pogroms
4671:Chagall
4667:Soutine
4438:Algeria
4284:ghettos
4171:La Fare
4162:Barnave
4092:Bayonne
4044:Prussia
3987:Regency
3784:to the
3639:rouelle
3600:Crusade
3514:capital
3475:treason
3296:Midrash
3215:crusade
3194:Orléans
3190:Limoges
3185:baptism
3163:Cluniac
3086:Abbasid
3074:Normans
2995:papyrus
2855:Orléans
2745:Mizrahi
2704:). The
2665:During
2652:Zionism
2491:General
2482:Zionism
2458:Leftism
2448:Bundism
2372:Knaanic
2332:Yevanic
2317:Yiddish
2274:Yiddish
2269:Israeli
2246:Mizrahi
2236:Israeli
2207:Cuisine
2183:Ancient
2165:Secular
2111:Kashrut
2087:Wedding
2074:Customs
2066:Culture
2043:Science
2038:Renewal
2028:Karaite
2009:Hasidic
1941:Oceania
1927:Uruguay
1895:Jamaica
1875:Ecuador
1843:Bolivia
1787:Ukraine
1762:Romania
1737:Moldova
1717:Hungary
1707:Germany
1702:Georgia
1692:Finland
1687:Estonia
1682:Denmark
1677:Czechia
1662:Belarus
1652:Austria
1647:Armenia
1624:Vietnam
1539:Myanmar
1524:Lebanon
1444:Bahrain
1403:Tunisia
1381:Somalia
1356:Nigeria
1351:Namibia
1341:Morocco
1271:Eritrea
1216:Algeria
1100:Neofiti
1009:Italkim
999:Juhurim
909:Zionism
858:Khazars
753:Sicarii
749:Zealots
745:Essenes
732:Schisms
597:Leaders
559:General
551:History
494:Tosefta
489:Midrash
466:Mishnah
448:Ketuvim
443:Nevi'im
392:Customs
323:Shabbat
318:Halakha
310: (
308:Mitzvot
295: (
261:Judaism
209:Judaism
197:Russian
193:Yiddish
173:Aramaic
152:Yiddish
118:600,000
81:Yiddish
13224:France
12582:Milice
12408:Vernet
12358:Milles
12348:Drancy
12267:Serbia
12262:Russia
12252:Poland
12247:Norway
12222:Latvia
12207:France
12018:Uranus
11762:Toulon
11601:Milice
11516:Forces
11463:Vernet
11408:Milles
11398:Drancy
11234:Jewish
11210:Tonkin
11098:Guinea
10886:Press:
10291:Serbia
10286:Poland
10281:Norway
10271:Greece
10266:France
10180:Jersey
10122:Kosovo
10067:Turkey
10057:Sweden
10037:Serbia
10027:Russia
10012:Poland
10007:Norway
9987:Monaco
9957:Latvia
9925:Greece
9910:France
9885:Cyprus
9738:(1999)
9724:(2012)
9716:online
9700:(1991)
9671:online
9654:online
9637:online
9582:online
9548:online
9538:online
9534:Shofar
9517:
9470:online
9454:(1996)
9422:online
9408:online
8870:3 July
8844:3 July
8795:23 May
8389:
7876:
7807:
7799:
7703:
7598:
7590:
7563:
7553:
7516:
7506:
7481:
7473:
7443:(2012)
7408:
7398:
7361:
7351:
7329:
7321:
7212:
7202:
7114:
7106:
7051:
7043:
6995:
6985:
6925:
6917:
6909:
6874:
6864:
6841:
6833:
6792:
6745:
6700:
6692:
6653:
6643:
6606:
6573:
6563:
6453:
6443:
6418:
6361:
6351:
6302:
6292:
6267:
6241:
6233:
6164:
6095:
6085:
6046:
5689:. 2012
5564:kippah
5474:aliyah
5393:Israel
5370:, and
5318:Israel
5288:Kosher
5190:Aliyah
5152:JIMENA
5031:Aleppo
5025:Farhud
4977:Yemeni
4669:, and
4664:Frenel
4660:Pascin
4295:, and
4177:, the
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