Conservation agriculture

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environmental result or outcome, e.g. number of breeding birds, or number of plant species in grasslands, with the flexibility to choose what management is required to achieve the desired result." Results-based payment programs are also commonly referred to as Pay for Performance or Payment for Ecosystem Services. These programs differ from traditional conservation programs by focusing on observed, verifiable outcomes as opposed to implementation of best practices. Pure results-based programs refer to programs that provide payments to farmers solely on the delivery of an environmental outcome. Hybrid results-based programs refer to programs that may have a management requirement component in addition to payments for observable environmental outcomes. Results based programs often increase farmer autonomy and participation, produce clear quantifiable results and effectively link payment to environmental conservation outcomes. Some NGOs have started to pilot similar programs in the US, for example Winrock International partnered with the Sand County Foundation to provide payment to farmers for reducing nutrient loads from their lands across the Midwest.

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grassland, for example reduction of pesticides, reduction of grassland mowing, and most commonly, organic farming. In a 2015 review of studies examining the effects of the two schemes, it was found that out-of-production schemes had a higher success rate at enhancing the number of thriving species around the land. The reason behind this is thought to be the scheme's focus on enhancing specific species by providing them with more unaltered habitats, which results in more food resources for the specific species. On the other hand, in-production schemes attempt to enhance the quality of the land in general, and are thus less species specific. Based on the findings, the reviewers suggest that schemes which more specifically target the declining groups of species, may be more effective. The findings and the targets will be implemented between 2015 and 2020, so that by 2025, the effectiveness of these schemes can be re-assessed and will have increased significantly (Batáry et al. 2015).

1026:. As the changes in practices that ensure the protection of the environment are costly to farmers, the EU developed agri-environment schemes to financially compensate individual farmers for applying these changes and therefore increased the implementation of conservation agriculture. The schemes are voluntary for farmers. Once joined, they commit to a minimum of five years during which they have to adopt various sustainable farming techniques. According to the Euro-stat website, in 2009 the agricultural area enrolled in agri-environment schemes covered 38.5 million hectares (20.9% of agricultural land in the 27 member states of the EU at the time) (Agri-environmental indicator 2015). The 1018:. In the following years the main purpose of these schemes changed slightly. Initially, they sought to protect threatened habitats, but gradually shifted their focus to the prevention of the loss of wildlife from agricultural landscapes. Most recently, the schemes are placing more emphasis on improving the services that the land can provide to humans (e.g. pollination). Overall, farmers involved in the scheme aim to practice environmentally friendlier farming techniques such as: reducing the use of pesticides, managing or altering their land to increase more wildlife friendly habitats (e.g. increasing areas of trees and bushes), reducing irrigation, 25: 93: 885: 963:

field which will then be beneficial for the producer the next year when crops are planted once again. The practice of grazing livestock using CA helps the farmer who raises crops on that field and the farmer who raises the livestock that graze off that field. Livestock produce compost or manure which are a great help in generating soil fertility (Pawley W.H. 1963). The practices of CA and grazing livestock on a field for many years can allow for better yields in the following years as long as these practices continue to be followed.

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establishing an organic layer and producing its own fertilizer and this may take time. It can be many years before a producer will start to see better yields than he/she has had previously. Another financial undertaking is purchasing of new equipment. When starting to use CA, a producer may have to buy new planters or drills in order to produce effectively. These financial tasks are ones that may impact whether or not a producer decides to switch to CA or not.

2533: 1006:. This process has been used for quite some time now, but the future is looking towards ways to handle and conserve nutrients within manure for a longer time. But besides animal waste, food and urban waste are also being looked towards as a way to use growth within CA (Kirchmann & Thorvaldsson 2000). Turning these products from waste to being used to grow crops and improve yields is something that would be beneficial for conservationists and producers. 955:

improving, and making more efficient use of their natural resources" (FAO 2006). Producers will find that the benefits of CA will come later rather than sooner. Since CA takes time to build up enough organic matter and have soils become their own fertilizer, the process does not start to work overnight. But if producers make it through the first few years of production, results will start to become more satisfactory.

1075:, there were around 6.08 billion people on Earth in the year 2000. By 2050 there will be an estimated 9.1 billion people. With this increase comes the responsibility for producers to increase food supply using the same or less land than we use today. Problems arise in the fact that if CA farms do not produce as much as conventional farms, this leaves the world with less food for more people. 864:

will act as a natural insecticide and herbicide against specific crops. Not allowing insects or weeds to establish a pattern will help to eliminate problems with yield reduction and infestations within fields (FAO 2007). Crop rotation can also help build up soil infrastructure. Establishing crops in a rotation allows for an extensive buildup of rooting zones which will allow for better

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conservationist outlook. But in the tropics there is more pressure to change to conservation areas because of the limited resources that are available. Places like Europe have also started to catch onto the ideas and principles of CA, but still nothing much is being done to change due to there being a minimal amount of pressure for people to change their ways of living (FAO 2006).

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patches of initial vegetation) while harvesting a diverse grouping of crops around it. This, in turn, allows for animals such as bees to pollinate, and the natural predation of unwanted pests. By practicing such method the harvester can expect to see much lower yields, but also an increase in biodiversity given time. This decrease of yield then gives rise to the idea of

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this mulch will produce a high organic matter level which will act as a fertilizer for the soil surface. If CA practices were used done for many years and enough organic matter was being built up at the surface, then a layer of mulch would start to form. This layer helps prevent soil erosion from taking place and ruining the soil's profile or layout. The presence of

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critical because the global population has increased over the years and more food needs to be produced every year (New Standard 1992). Sometimes referred to as "agricultural environmental management", conservation agriculture may be sanctioned and funded through conservation programs promulgated through agricultural legislation, such as the

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renewable resource, which means that whatever is taken out of the soil can be put back over time (New Standard 1992). As long as good soil upkeep is maintained, the soil will continue to renew itself. This could be very beneficial to a producer who is practicing CA and is looking to keep soils at a productive level for an extended time.

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As in any other business, producers and conservationists are always looking towards the future. In this case CA is a very important process to be looked at for future generation. There are many organizations that have been created to help educate and inform producers and conservationists in the world

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called "The role of conservation agriculture and sustainable agriculture", crop rotation can be used best as a disease control against other preferred crops (Hobbs et al. 2007). This process will not allow pests such as insects and weeds to be set into a rotation with specific crops. Rotational crops

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On the side of the producer and/or farmer, CA can eventually do all that is done in conventional agriculture, and it can conserve better than conventional agriculture. CA according to Theodor Friedrich, who is a specialist in CA, believes "Farmers like it because it gives them a means of conserving,

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while also allowing for production of agricultural products. In this approach, land is set aside to preserve the wildlife while the rest is used to fulfill the farmers need of agricultural commodities. Farmers take this approach by leaving some aspects of the land the same (i.e., scattered trees and

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According to the article "The role of conservation agriculture and sustainable agriculture", the layer of mulch that is built up over time will become like a buffer zone between soil and mulch and this will help reduce wind and water erosion. With this comes the protection of the soil's surface when

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has caught on as a process that can save soil organic levels for a longer period and still allow the soil to be productive for longer periods (FAO 2007). Additionally, the process of tilling can increase time and labor for producing that crop. Minimum soil disturbance also reduce destruction of soil

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CA is shown to have even higher yields and higher outputs than conventional agriculture once it has been established over long periods. Also, a producer has the benefit of knowing that the soil in which his crops are grown is a renewable resource. According to New Standard Encyclopedia, soils are a

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On the side of the conservationist, CA can be seen as beneficial because there is an effort to conserve what people use every day. Since agriculture is one of the most destructive forces against biodiversity, CA can change the way humans produce food and energy. With conservation come environmental

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in CA is much like the first in dealing with protecting the soil. The principle of managing the top soil to create a permanent organic soil cover can allow for growth of organisms within the soil structure. This growth will break down the mulch that is left on the soil surface. The breaking down of

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When no-till practices are followed, the producer sees a reduction in production cost for a certain crop. Tillage of the ground requires more money in order to fuel tractors or to provide feed for the animals pulling the plough. The producer sees a reduction in labor because he or she does not have

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Allen B, Hart K, Radley G, Tucker G, Keenleyside C, Oppermann R, Underwood E, Menadue H, Poux X, Beaufoy G, Herzon I, Povellato A, Vanni F, Pražan J, Hudson T, Yellachich N (2014) Biodiversity protection through results-based remuneration of ecological achievement. Report Prepared for the European

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In this vein, in recent years 'results based pilot programs' have been introduced across the EU under Pillar Two of the Common Agriculture Policy. Results-based agri-environmental programs are defined by the European Commission as "schemes where farmers and land managers are paid for delivering an

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The farmer and/or producer can use this same land in another way when crops have been harvested. The introduction of grazing livestock to a field that once held crops can be beneficial for the producer and also the field itself. Livestock manure can be used as a natural fertilizer for a producer's

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Land sparing is another way that producer and conservationist can be on the same page. Land sparing advocates for the land that is being used for agricultural purposes to continue to produce crops at increased yield. With an increase in yield on all land that is in use, other land can be set aside

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Agriculture according to the New Standard Encyclopedia is "one of the most important sectors in the economies of most nations" (New Standard 1992). At the same time conservation is the use of resources in a manner that safely maintains a resource that can be used by humans. Conservation has become

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The Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) has determined that conservation agriculture (CA) has three key principles that producers (farmers) can proceed through in the process of CA. These three principles outline what conservationists and producers believe can be done to

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In conservation agriculture there are many examples that can be looked towards as a way of farming and at the same time conserving. These practices are well known by most producers. The process of no-till is one that follows the first principle of CA, causing minimal mechanical soil disturbance.

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There are not enough people who can financially turn from conventional farming to conservation. The process of CA takes time; when a producer first becomes a conservationist, the results can be a financial loss to them (in most cases, the investment and policy generally exist). CA is based upon

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As much as conservation agriculture can benefit the world, there are some problems that come with it. There are many reasons why conservation agriculture cannot always be a win-win situation. Examples of these disadvantages include high initial costs of specialized planting equipment, and a new

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is practiced), and focus on improving or setting land aside that will not be used for the production of food, for example, the addition of wildflower strips. In-production schemes (used for a smaller scale, but more intensively farmed land) focus on the sustainable management of arable crops or

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Interactions with livestock and competition for crop residues - In developing countries, livestock is often an integral part of the farming system, so it needs to be considered when introducing CA. The application of CA requires a critical level of crop residues remaining on the surface, while

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problems within their fields. These producers are using the same principles within CA, in that they are leaving cover over their fields in order to save fields from erosion and leaching of chemicals (Kirchmann & Thorvaldsson 2000). Processes and studies like this are allowing for a better

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No-till also brings other benefits to the producer. According to the FAO, tillage is one of the most "energy consuming" processes that can be used: It requires a lot of labor, time, and fuel to till. Producers can save 30% to 40% of time and labor by practicing the no-till process. (FAO 3020)

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With the struggle to adapt comes the struggle to make CA grow across the globe. CA has not spread as quickly as most conservationists would like. The reason for this is because there is not enough pressure for producers in places such as North America to change their way of living to a more

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for conservation and production for biodiversity. Agricultural land stays in production but would have to increase its yield potential to keep up with demand. Land that is not being put into agriculture would be used for conserving biodiversity (Green, et al. 2005). In fact, data from the

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dynamic farming system that requires new management skills and a learning process by the farmer. Long term experience with conservation farming all over the world has shown that this system does not present more or less but different problems to a farmer, all of them possible to resolve.

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Keenleyside C, Radley G, Tucker G, Underwood E, Hart K,Allen B and Menadue H (2014) Results-based Payments for Biodiversity Guidance Handbook: Designing and implementing results-based agri-environment programs 2014-20. Prepared for the European Commission, DG Environment, Contract No

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rain falls on the ground. Land that is not protected by a layer of mulch is left open to the elements (Hobbs et al. 2007). This type of ground cover also helps keep the temperature and moisture levels of the soil at a higher level rather than if it was tilled every year (FAO 2007).

817:, and preventing water loss from occurring within the soil. In the past agriculture has looked at soil tillage as a main process in the introduction of new crops to an area. It was believed that tilling the soil would increase fertility within the soil through 875:

increases the amount of oxygen in the soil and increases the aerobic processes, hastening the breakdown of organic material. Thus more nutrients are available for the next crop but, at the same time, the soil is depleted more quickly of its nutrient reserves.

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called "Farming and the Fate of Wild Nature" there are two more kinds of CA. The practice of wildlife-friendly farming and land sparing are ideas for producers who are looking to practice better conservation towards biodiversity (Green, et al. 2005).

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In the same journal article is presented another way in which producers and conservationists are looking towards the future. Circulation of plant nutrients can be a vital part for conserving the future. An example of this would be the use of

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spent a total of €3.23 billion on agri-environment schemes in 2012, significantly exceeding the cost of managing special sites of conservation (Natura 2000) that year, which came to a total of €39.6 million (Batáry et al. 2015).

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Hobbs, P.R., Sayre, Ken & Gupta, R. (2008) The role of conservation agriculture in sustainable agriculture. Philosophical transactions of the Royal Society of London. Series B, Biological sciences 363(1491):

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traditionally most of these residues are used for feeding livestock. It is a common practice to allow livestock to graze in the harvested crop fields or to slash the crop residue and store it for fodder.

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With CA comes the idea of producing enough food. With cutting back in fertilizer, not tilling the ground, and other processes comes the responsibility to feed the world. According to the

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Grass, Ingo; Loos, Jacqueline; Baensch, Svenja; Batáry, Péter; Librán-Embid, Felipe; Ficiciyan, Anoush; Klaus, Felix; Riechers, Maraja; Rosa, Julia; Tiede, Julia; Udy, Kristy (2019).

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and natural biological processes above and below the ground surface, which contribute to increased water and nutrient use efficiency and to improved and sustained crop production."

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Fisher, K. A., Winsten, J. R., Spratt, E. U., Anderson, R. U., & Smith, R. U. (2017). Pay for Performance Conservation: A How-To Guide (pp. 1-43, Rep.). Delta Institute.

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as "Conservation Agriculture (CA) is a farming system that can prevent losses of arable land while regenerating degraded lands.It promotes minimum soil disturbance (i.e.

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Fischer, Joern; Abson, David J.; Butsic, Van; Chappell, M. Jahi; Ekroos, Johan; Hanspach, Jan; Kuemmerle, Tobias; Smith, Henrik G.; Wehrden, Henrik von (2014).

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Batáry, P. et al., 2015. The role of agri-environment schemes in conservation and environmental management. Conservation Biology, 29(4), pp. 1006–1016.

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Allen B, et al (2014) Biodiversity protection through results-based remuneration of ecological achievement. Report Prepared for the European Commission

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Pawley, W.H. 1963. Possibilities of Increasing World Food Production. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. Rome, Italy. Pg 98.

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Kirchmann, H., Thorvaldsson, G. 2000. European Journal of Agronomy. Challenging Targets for Future Agriculture. Vol. 12, Issues 3-4. Pg 145-161.

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of CA. These organizations can help to inform, conduct research, and buy land in order to preserve animals and plants (New Standard 1992).

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Organic molecules in the soil break down into phosphates, nitrates and other beneficial elements which are thus better absorbed by plants.

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Gupta, R., Hobbs, P.R., Sayre, Ken. 2007. The role of conservation agriculture in sustainable agriculture. The Royal Society. Pg. 1-13.

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There are two main types of agri-environment schemes which have shown different outcomes. Out-of-production schemes tend to be used in

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Increase in water conservation due to the layer of organic matter and ground cover to help eliminate transportation and access runoff.

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Conservation Agriculture, Agriculture and Consumer Protection Department, Food and Agriculture Organization, United Nations

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Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO). 2007. Agriculture and Consumer Protection Department. Rome, Italy Available from

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Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO). 2006. Agriculture and Consumer Protection Department. Rome, Italy Available from

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understanding of how to conserve what we are using and finding ways to put back something that may have been lost before.

951:, improvement in air quality due to lower emissions being produced, and a chance for larger biodiversity in a given area. 2562: 2438: 2175: 1015: 821:

that takes place in the soil. Also tilling of soil can cause severe erosion and crusting which leads to a decrease in

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Commission, DG Environment, Contract No ENV.B.2/ETU/2013/0046, Institute for European Environmental Policy, London.

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in CA is practicing minimum soil disturbance which is essential to maintaining minerals within the soil, stopping

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Agricultural Environmental Management, Water Quality Information Center, U.S. Department of Agriculture

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New Standard Encyclopedia. 1992. Standard Educational Operation. Chicago, Illinois. Pg(s) A-141, C-546.

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also reduce the velocity of runoff and the impact of rain drops thus reducing soil erosion and runoff.

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Besides conserving the soil, there are other examples of how CA is used. According to an article in

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NRCS Conservation Programs, Natural Resources Conservation Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture

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https://web.archive.org/web/20071213192023/http://www.prb.org/Journalists/FAQ/WorldPopulation.aspx

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In the field of CA there are many benefits that both the producer and conservationist can obtain.

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Within fields that are controlled by CA the producer will see an increase in organic matter.

786:), maintenance of a permanent soil cover, and diversification of plant species. It enhances 2483: 2473: 2280: 2077: 2026: 2016: 1981: 1879: 1874: 1838: 1803: 1798: 1793: 1738: 1717: 1356: 1307: 1183: 740: 493: 446: 115: 1479: 884: 8: 2290: 2265: 2258: 2180: 2102: 1823: 1813: 1783: 1027: 989:

Another way in which CA is looking to the future is through prevention. According to the

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Wildlife-friendly farming, also known as land sharing, allows for the conservation of

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micro and macro-organism habitats that is common in conventional ploughing practices.

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Conservation- or eco-agriculture involves multiple elements to protect wildlife.

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FSA Conservation Programs, Farm Service Agency, U.S. Department of Agriculture

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needed to produce the same amount of food declined by 68 percent worldwide.

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ENV.B.2/ETU/2013/0046, Institute for European Environmental Policy, London

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benefits of CA. These benefits include less erosion possibilities, better

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Sustainable Agriculture and Natural Resource Management (SANREM CRSP)

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Population Reference Bureau. 2007. Washington, D.C. Available from

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The FAO believes that there are three major benefits from CA:

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or crop interactions. According to an article published in the

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In 1992, 'agri-environment schemes' became compulsory for all

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Willy H. Verheye, ed. (2010). "Conservation Agriculture".

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Willy H. Verheye, ed. (2010). "Conservation Agriculture".

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practices (where the farming land is widespread and less

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Farming system to preserve and regenerate land capacity

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to be in the fields as long as a conventional farmer.

1345:"Land Sparing Versus Land Sharing: Moving Forward" 1172:"Land Sparing Versus Land Sharing: Moving Forward" 807:conserve what we use for a longer period of time. 1607:Agri-environmental indicator- commitments, 2015. 1407:"Peak Farmland and the Prospect for Land Sparing" 2549: 1957:Other effective area-based conservation measures 1576:Soils, Plant Growth and Crop Production Volume I 1572: 1545:Soils, Plant Growth and Crop Production Volume I 1541: 931:shows that between 1961 and 2012, the amount of 1952:Integrated Conservation and Development Project 976:Improvement of soil structure and rooting zone. 861:Physiological Transactions of the Royal Society 1702: 774:) can be defined by a statement given by the 748: 1442: 1149:"Conservation agriculture: The 3 principles" 904: 1716: 1709: 1695: 1234:"Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment" 755: 741: 1615:http://www.fao.org/ag/magazine/0110sp.htm 1427: 1378: 1368: 1319: 1205: 1195: 993:producers are looking for ways to reduce 69:Learn how and when to remove this message 883: 32:This article includes a list of general 2550: 1690: 1342: 1231: 1143: 1141: 1139: 1137: 1112: 980: 1227: 1225: 18: 13: 1601: 1134: 38:it lacks sufficient corresponding 14: 2589: 1829:Conservation biology of parasites 1647: 1415:Population and Development Review 1222: 929:Food and Agriculture Organization 801: 776:Food and Agriculture Organization 2532: 2531: 1945:Tropical rainforest conservation 1849:Vulnerability and susceptibility 1429:10.1111/j.1728-4457.2013.00561.x 724: 91: 23: 2494:NatureServe conservation status 1779:Conservation-induced extinction 1566: 1535: 1526: 1517: 1507: 1497: 921: 710:Agriculture and the environment 176:British Agricultural Revolution 1885:Conservation management system 1769:Conservation-dependent species 1729:Index of conservation articles 1472: 1436: 1395: 1336: 1287: 1163: 156:Agriculture in the Middle Ages 1: 2111:Assisted natural regeneration 1915:Ecoregion conservation status 1105: 2499:Special Area of Conservation 2037:Landscape-scale conservation 2032:High conservation value area 1910:Community-based conservation 1643:. ( Accessed December 2007). 1343:Joern, Fischer (June 2013). 1016:European Union Member States 991:European Journal of Agronomy 161:Arab Agricultural Revolution 7: 2517:List of conservation issues 1925:Evidence-based conservation 1819:Mutualisms and conservation 1078: 1073:Population Reference Bureau 1050: 938: 879: 10: 2594: 2563:Environmental conservation 1967:Roadless area conservation 1759:Compassionate conservation 1480:"Conservation Agriculture" 1120:"Conservation Agriculture" 121:Agriculture in Mesoamerica 2512: 2466: 2321: 2158: 2101: 2070: 1990: 1857: 1737: 1724: 1624:(Accessed November 2007). 1622:http://www.fao.org/ag/ca/ 1617:(Accessed November 2007). 905:Wildlife-friendly farming 648:Universities and colleges 608:Universities and colleges 2354:Central African Republic 2002:Conservation designation 1920:Environmental protection 1905:Conspicuous conservation 1895:Conservation photography 1870:Conservation development 1865:Conservation agriculture 1583:Publishers. p. 99. 1552:Publishers. p. 98. 1460:. Global Change Data Lab 1010:Agri-environment schemes 838:The second key principle 768:Conservation agriculture 633:Agriculturist profession 452:Agricultural engineering 437:Agricultural cooperative 2578:Sustainable food system 2573:Sustainable agriculture 2093:Human–wildlife conflict 1977:Site-based conservation 1900:Conservation psychology 1718:Conservation of species 1095:Sustainable agriculture 855:the practicing diverse 811:The first key principle 603:Sustainable food system 598:Sustainable agriculture 489:Animal-free agriculture 457:Agricultural technology 53:more precise citations. 2150:Species reintroduction 1809:Latent extinction risk 1275:Cite journal requires 889: 853:The third principle is 731:Agriculture portal 690:History of agriculture 675:Agriculture by country 670:Agricultural machinery 638:Agricultural machinery 556:Mechanised agriculture 126:Austronesian expansion 2568:Permaculture concepts 2522:List of organisations 2176:Hawaiian honeycreeper 2116:Ecosystem restoration 2088:Habitat fragmentation 2083:Fortress conservation 2042:Marine protected area 2012:Conservation easement 2007:Conservation district 1972:Roadside conservation 1890:Conservation movement 1834:Species translocation 1774:Conservation genetics 1764:Conservation behavior 1232:Berry, Brosi (2008). 887: 868:(Hobbs et al. 2007). 680:Agriculture companies 643:Government ministries 442:Agricultural supplies 279:Convertible husbandry 2484:Planetary boundaries 2474:Conservation officer 2078:Conservation refugee 2027:Habitat conservation 2017:Conservation reserve 1982:Wetland conservation 1880:Conservation grazing 1875:Conservation finance 1839:Conservation welfare 1804:In-situ conservation 1799:Extinction threshold 1794:Ex-situ conservation 1349:Conservation Letters 1176:Conservation Letters 494:Cellular agriculture 447:Agricultural science 116:Neolithic Revolution 2558:Agriculture by type 1824:Nature conservation 1814:Marine conservation 1784:Conservation status 1361:2014ConL....7..149F 1312:2019PeoNa...1..262G 1188:2014ConL....7..149F 1028:European Commission 375:Steam sterilization 2121:Island restoration 2052:Open space reserve 1844:Threatened species 1370:10.1111/conl.12084 1197:10.1111/conl.12084 981:Future development 949:water conservation 890: 866:water infiltration 284:Rotational grazing 166:Columbian exchange 2545: 2544: 2504:Soil conservation 2057:Wildlife corridor 1940:Forest protection 1935:Forest management 1590:978-1-84826-367-3 1559:978-1-84826-367-3 1457:Our World in Data 1403:Ausubel, Jesse H. 1300:People and Nature 1040:intensive farming 1036:extensive farming 765: 764: 613:Urban agriculture 586:Rice-duck farming 534:Intensive farming 504:Extensive farming 79: 78: 71: 2585: 2535: 2534: 2419:Papua New Guinea 2311:Cryopreservation 2276:Gray nurse shark 1930:Flagship species 1754:Captive breeding 1711: 1704: 1697: 1688: 1687: 1595: 1594: 1570: 1564: 1563: 1539: 1533: 1530: 1524: 1521: 1515: 1511: 1505: 1501: 1495: 1494: 1492: 1491: 1484:Project Drawdown 1476: 1470: 1469: 1467: 1465: 1440: 1434: 1433: 1431: 1411: 1399: 1393: 1392: 1382: 1372: 1340: 1334: 1333: 1323: 1291: 1285: 1284: 1278: 1273: 1271: 1263: 1261: 1255:. 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