Celtic Christianity

2338:, a prince of South Wales, who before his death renounced the world to lead an eremitical life, Cadoc followed his father's example and received the religious habit from St. Tathai, an Irish monk, superior of a small community at Swent near Chepstow, in Monmouthshire. Returning to his native county, Cadoc built a church and monastery, which was called Llancarfan, or the "Church of the Stags". Here he established a monastery, college and hospital. The spot at first seemed an impossible one, and an almost inaccessible marsh, but he and his monks drained and cultivated it, transforming it into one of the most famous religious houses in South Wales. His legend recounts that he daily fed a hundred clergy and a hundred soldiers, a hundred workmen, a hundred poor men, and the same number of widows. When thousands left the world and became monks, they very often did so as clansmen, dutifully following the example of their chief. Bishoprics, canonries, and parochial benefices passed from one to another member of the same family, and frequently from father to son. Their tribal character is a feature which Irish and Welsh monasteries had in common. 1456:

for calculating Easter; the clerics responded that they would need to confer with their people and await a larger assembly. Bede relates that the bishops particularly consulted a hermit on how to respond. He told them to respond based on Augustine's conduct: were he to rise to greet them, they would know him for a humble servant of Christ and should submit to his authority but, were he to remain seated, they would know him to be arrogant and prideful and should reject him. As it happened, Augustine did keep his seat, provoking mistrust. In the negotiations that followed, he offered to allow the Britons to maintain all their native customs but three: they should adopt Rome's more advanced method of calculating the date of Easter, reform their baptismal ritual, and join the missionary efforts among the Saxons. The British clerics rejected all of these, as well as Augustine's authority over them.

908: 1718:; small enclosures in which groups of Christians, often of both sexes and including the married, lived together, served in various roles and ministered to the local population. Patrick set up diocesan structures with a hierarchy of bishops, priests, and deacons. During the late 5th and 6th centuries true monasteries became the most important centres: in Patrick's own see of Armagh the change seems to have happened before the end of the 5th century, thereafter the bishop was the abbot also. Within a few generations of the arrival of the first missionaries the monastic and clerical class of the isle had become fully integrated with the culture of Latin letters. Besides Latin, Irish ecclesiastics developed a written form of 3294:' a Celtic Christianity, with its peculiar national faults and characteristics, finds place even in the New Testament. The Galatians, whose apostasy from pure Christianity has endowed the Church with St Paul's masterly defence of Christian freedom, were Celts ' There was a Celtic-speaking population in Galatia in the late centuries BC and perhaps into the early centuries AD, of which only fragmentary traces of the language survive in attested personal and place name evidence. However, the idea that the early Christian communities in Galatia shared certain 'national faults and characteristics' with the population of early medieval Ireland is entirely without foundation. 2285:

enter the Irish monasteries. When these students became adults, they would leave the monastery to live out their lives. Eventually, these people would retire back to secure community provided by the monastery and stay until their death. However, some would stay within the monastery and become leaders. Since most of the clergy were Irish, native traditions were well-respected. Permeable monasticism popularised the use of vernacular and helped mesh the norms of secular and monastic element in Ireland, unlike other parts of Europe where monasteries were more isolated. Examples of these intertwining motifs can be seen in the hagiographies of

2229:. While this may have been the case for centuries in most of Ireland, it was never the rule throughout the Celtic world at large. It is certain that the ideal of monasticism was universally esteemed in Celtic Christianity. This was especially true in Ireland and areas evangelised by Irish missionaries, where monasteries and their abbots came to be vested with a great deal of ecclesiastical and secular power. Following the growth of the monastic movement in the 6th century, abbots controlled not only individual monasteries, but also expansive estates and the secular communities that tended them. As monastics, abbots were not necessarily 7622: 2196: 2576:. Although this accusation was raised at a time of heightened political tensions between Columbanus and the Gallic bishops, some historians have cautioned that it ought not be dismissed as a mere ruse because the Gauls may have been genuinely worried about blurring the boundaries between Gallic Christians and their Jewish neighbours. That the Irish practised obsolete Old Testament laws is another accusation that repeats itself a number of times in the early Middle Ages, most famously in the case of the 8th-century Irish charismatic preacher, 2419: 226: 2210:. According to Richard Woods, the familial, democratic, and decentralized aspects of Egyptian Christianity were better suited to structures and values of Celtic culture than was a legalistic diocesan form. Monasteries tended to be cenobitical in that monks lived in separate cells but came together for common prayer, meals, and other functions. Some more austere ascetics became hermits living in remote locations in what came to be called the "green martyrdom". An example of this would be Kevin of Glendalough and 33: 796: 2921:, an Italian monk who entered the monastery in Bobbio in 618, three years after the Saint's death; Jonas wrote the life c. 643. This author lived during the abbacy of Attala, Columbanus's immediate successor, and his informants had been companions of the saint. Mabillon in the second volume of his "Acta Sanctorum O.S.B." gives the life in full, together with an appendix on the miracles of the saint, written by an anonymous member of the Bobbio community. 1692: 5872: 2707: 1145: 1582: 2297:

without requiring them to become monks. These students were then allowed to leave and live within the community, and were welcomed back in their old age to retire in peace. This style of monasticism allowed for the monastery to connect with, and become a part of, the community at large. The availability of the monks to the people was instrumental in converting Ireland from paganism to Christianity, allowing a blend of the two cultures.

738: 1967: 2693: 889: 91:, and the popularity of going into "exile for Christ". Additionally, there were other practices that developed in certain parts of Great Britain and Ireland that were not known to have spread beyond particular regions. The term typically denotes the regional practices among the insular churches and their associates rather than actual theological differences. 1437:, establish new sees and churches throughout their territories, and reassert papal authority over the native church. Gregory intended for Augustine to become the metropolitan bishop over all of southern Britain, including the existing dioceses under Welsh and Cornish control. Augustine met with British bishops in a series of conferences – known as the 639:(1934–1961), which identified Celtic Christianity with an "Abortive Far Western Civilization" – the nucleus of a new society, which was prevented from taking root by the Roman Church, Vikings, and Normans. Others have been content to speak of "Celtic Christianity" as consisting of certain traditions and beliefs intrinsic to the Celts. 2501:. From early periods the kin nature of many monasteries had meant that some married men were part of the community, supplying labour and with some rights, including in the election of abbots (but obliged to abstain from sex during fasting periods). Some abbacies passed from father to son, and then even grandsons. A revival of the 2637:

closely, and most are "at least partially inspired and driven by denominational and national rivalries, ecclesiastical and secular power politics, and an anti-Roman Catholic agenda." Though often inaccurate or distorted, the beliefs of these movements have greatly influenced popular conceptions of historical Celtic Christianity.

1997:. The early material referring to the Celtic tonsure emphasizes its distinctiveness from the Roman alternative and invariably connects its use to the Celtic dating of Easter. Those preferring the Roman tonsure considered the Celtic custom extremely unorthodox, and associated it with the form of tonsure worn by the 2649:. These ideas were expanded during the English Reformation, as Protestant authors appropriated the concept of a "Celtic Church" as a native, anti-Roman predecessor to their own movement. Nevertheless, despite his scholarly deconstruction of much of the popular view of "Celtic Christianity", in work such as his 2546:

rite, or that there was no confirmation at all. At any rate, it is unlikely to have caused as much discord as the Easter controversy or the tonsure, as no other source mentions it. As such there is no evidence that heterodox baptism figured into the practice of the Irish church. The Celtic Christians

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The Easter question was settled at various times in different places. The following dates are derived from Haddan and Stubbs: southern Ireland, 626–628; northern Ireland, 692; Northumbria (converted by Irish missions), 664; East Devon and Somerset, the Britons under Wessex, 705; the Picts, 710; Iona,

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groups seeking to recover something of ancient spirituality that they believe is missing from the modern world. For these groups, Celtic Christianity becomes a cipher for whatever is lost in the modern religious experience. Corning notes that these notions say more about modern desires than about the

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A distinctive part of Scottish Presbyterian worship is the singing of metrical psalms, many of them set to old Celtic Christianity Scottish traditional and folk tunes. These verse psalms have been exported to Africa, North America and other parts of the world where Presbyterian Scots missionaries or

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Irish monasticism was notable for its permeability. In permeable monasticism, people were able to move freely in and out of the monastic system at different points of life. Young boys and girls would enter the system to pursue Latin scholarship. Students would sometimes travel from faraway lands to

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was taken by Bede as fulfillment of the prophecy made by Augustine of Canterbury following the Synod of Chester. The prophecy stated that the British church would receive war and death from the Saxons if they refused to proselytise. Despite the inaccuracies of their system, the Britons did not adopt

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is the only surviving account of these meetings: according to it, some of the clerics of the nearest British province met Augustine at a site that was known thereafter as Augustine's Oak. Augustine focused on seeking assistance for his work among the Saxons and reforming the Britons' obsolete method

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According to Bradley, most, though not all, revivalists are non-Celts for whom Celtic Christianity has an "exotic and peripheral" appeal. Adherents typically claim their revivals restore authentic practices and traits, though Bradley notes they reflect contemporary concerns and prejudices much more

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At least in Ireland, the monastic system became increasingly secularised from the 8th century, as close ties between ruling families and monasteries became apparent. The major monasteries were now wealthy in land and had political importance. On occasion they made war either upon each other or took

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cleric-scholars in continental Europe found themselves implicated in theological controversies but it is not always possible to distinguish when a controversy was based on matters of substance or on political grounds or xenophobic sentiments. Synods were held in Ireland, Gaul, and England (e.g. the

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developed, where confession was made privately to a priest, under the seal of secrecy, and where penance was given privately and ordinarily performed privately as well. Certain handbooks were made, called "penitentials", designed as a guide for confessors and as a means of regularising the penance

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put forth a new hypothesis, claiming that the entire forehead was shaven back to the ears. Mabillon's version was widely accepted, but contradicts the early sources. In 2003 Daniel McCarthy suggested a triangular shape, with one side between the ears and a vertex towards the front of the head. The

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remain very well known, and in the case of manuscript decoration had a profound influence on Western medieval art. The manuscripts were certainly produced by and for monasteries, and the evidence suggests that metalwork was produced in both monastic and royal workshops, perhaps as well as secular

2083:, the "medicines of penance", to Gaul at a time when they had come to be neglected. Though the process met some resistance, by 1215 the practice had become established as the norm, with the Fourth Lateran Council establishing a canonical statute requiring confession at a minimum of once per year. 647:

of the regions, but due to other historical and geographical factors. Additionally, the Christians of Ireland and Britain were not "anti-Roman"; Celtic areas respected the authority of Rome and the papacy as strongly as any other region of Europe. Caitlin Corning further notes that the "Irish and

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brought the nations of Britain and Ireland into closer contact with the orthodoxy of the councils. The customs and traditions particular to Insular Christianity became a matter of dispute, especially the matter of the proper calculation of Easter. In addition to Easter dating, Irish scholars and

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where he built a church of stone, "Candida Casa". Tradition holds that Ninian established an episcopal see at the Candida Casa in Whithorn, and named the see for Saint Martin of Tours. He converted the southern Picts to Christianity, and died around 432. Many Irish saints trained at the "Candida

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However, modern scholars have identified problems with all of these claims, and find the term "Celtic Christianity" problematic in and of itself. Modern scholarship roundly rejects the idea of a "Celtic Church" due to the lack of substantiating evidence. Indeed, distinct Irish and British church

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Bede implies that in the time of Augustine of Canterbury, British churches used a baptismal rite that was in some way at variance with the Roman practice. According to Bede, the British Christians' failure to "complete" the sacrament of baptism was one of the three specific issues with British

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This willingness to learn, and also to teach, was a hallmark of the "permeable monasticism" that so characterised the Irish monastery. While a hermitage was still the highest form of dedication, the monasteries were very open to allowing students and children within the walls for an education,

629:. One view, which gained substantial scholarly traction in the 19th century, was that there was a "Celtic Church", a significant organised Christian body or denomination uniting the Celtic peoples and separating them from the "Roman" church of continental Europe. An example of this appears in 643:

traditions existed, each with their own practices, and there was significant local variation even within the individual Irish and British spheres. While the Irish and British churches had some traditions in common, these were relatively few. Even these commonalities did not exist due to the

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Bradley traces the origins of Celtic Christian revivalism to the Middle Ages. In the 8th and 9th century, authors wrote idealised hagiographies of earlier saints, whose "golden age" of extraordinary holiness contrasted with the perceived corruption of later times. Similarly, the 12th- and

2580:(fl. 745), who was condemned as a heretic, in part for urging followers to follow Old Testament law in such controversial matters as obliging a man to marry his widowed sister-in-law upon his brother's death. One example for the Irish tendency to adhere closely to the Old Testament is the 1381:

differed from that elsewhere and also became a point of contention. A distinction that became increasingly important was the nature of church organisation: some monasteries were led by married clergy, inheritance of religious offices was common (in Wales, as late as the 12th century), and

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Church, while others classify Celtic Christianity as a set of distinctive practices occurring in those areas. Varying scholars reject the former notion, but note that there were certain traditions and practices present in both the Irish and British churches that were not seen in the wider

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A number of other distinctive traditions and practices existed (or are taken to have existed) in Britain or Ireland, but are not known to have been in use across the entire region. Different writers and commenters have identified different traditions as representative of so-called Celtic

2350:, a key figure in Cornish monasticism. Gildas the Wise was invited by Cadoc to deliver lectures in the monastery and spent a year there, during which he made a copy of a book of the Gospels, long treasured in the church of St. Cadoc. One of the most notable pupils of Illtyd was St. 1621:. Ninian's work was carried on by Palladius, who left Ireland to work among the Picts. The mission to the southern Picts apparently met with some setbacks, as Patrick charged Coroticus and the "apostate Picts" with conducting raids on the Irish coast and seizing Christians as slaves. 2138:, the "lesser" peregrinatio, involving leaving one's home area but not the island, and the "superior" peregrinatio, which meant leaving Ireland for good. This voluntary exile to spend one's life in a foreign land far from friends and family came to be termed the "white martyrdom". 1382:

illegitimacy was treated much more leniently with fathers simply needing to acknowledge the child for him to inherit an equal share with his brothers. Prior to their conquest by England, most churches have records of bishops and priests but not an established

2559:, which is to say that they observed certain religious rites after the manner of the Jews. The belief that Irish Christians were Judaizers can be observed in three main areas: the Easter Controversy, the notion that the Irish practised obsolete laws from the 2276:

overrode the diocese, or that the abbot replaced the Bishop; Bishops still exercised ultimate spiritual authority and remained in charge of the diocesan clergy. But either way, the monastic ideal was regarded as the utmost expression of the Christian life.

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Irish monks also founded monasteries across the continent, exerting influence greater than many more ancient continental centres. The first issuance of a papal privilege granting a monastery freedom from episcopal oversight was that of Pope Honorius I to

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argues that the primary reason for the British bishops' rejection of Augustine – and especially his call for them to join his missionary effort – was his claim to sovereignty over them, given that his see would be so deeply entwined with the Anglo-Saxon

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There has been little attempt to create a new denomination based on the supposed distinctive tenets of Celtic Christianity although there is a tiny Celtic Orthodox Church which has bases in Brittany, England and Wales and links with the Syrian Orthodox

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and (not unrelated to this) the view that they adhered too closely to the Old Testament. Quite apart from the intricate theological concerns that underpinned the debate over Easter in early 7th-century Gaul, Columbanus also found himself accused of

1266:. Such communities were organized on tribal models: founding saints were almost invariably lesser members of local dynasties, they were not infrequently married, and their successors were often chosen from among their kin. In the 6th century, the " 1904:

In the early 600s Christians in Ireland and Britain became aware of the divergence in dating between them and those in Europe. The first clash came in 602 when a synod of French bishops opposed the practices of the monasteries established by

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People have conceived of "Celtic Christianity" in different ways at different times. Writings on the topic frequently say more about the time in which they originate than about the historical state of Christianity in the early medieval

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arrived in 431 as the first missionary bishop sent by Rome. His mission does not seem to have been entirely successful. The subsequent mission of Saint Patrick, traditionally starting in 432, established churches in conjunction with

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The focus on powerful abbots and monasteries was limited to the Irish Church, however, and not in Britain. The British church employed an episcopal structure corresponding closely to the model used elsewhere in the Christian world.

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by descent, spent the first period of his religious life as a disciple of St. Cadoc at Llancarvan. He founded the monastery at Llantwit Major. The monastery stressed learning as well as devotion. One of his fellow students was

2257:, replaced the diocese as the chief administrative unit of the church, and the position of Abbot largely replaced that of bishop in authority and prominence. According to this model, bishops were still needed, since certain 2584:, a late 7th- or early 8th-century Irish canon law collection which was the first text of church law to draw heavily on the Bible, and in particular the Old Testament. In Scotland similar accusations surround the supposed 609:, and many notions are now discredited in modern academic discourse. One particularly prominent feature ascribed to Celtic Christianity is that it is supposedly inherently distinct from – and generally opposed to – the 3340:

Six Old English Chronicles of Which Two Are Now First Translated from the Monkish Latin Originals: Ethelwerd's Chronicle, Asser's Life of Alfred, Geoffrey of Monmouth's British History, Gildas, Nennius, and Richard of

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or bishops). They were usually descended from one of the many Irish royal families, and the founding regulations of the abbey sometimes specified that the abbacy should if possible be kept within one family lineage.

1302:, and others destroyed many ecclesiastical records. Similarly, the distance from Rome, hostility to native practices and cults, and relative unimportance of the local sees has left only two local Welsh saints in the 687:

and the intrinsic qualities of the "Celtic race", further influenced ideas about Celtic Christianity. Romantics idealised the Celts as a primitive, bucolic people who were far more poetic, spiritual, and freer of

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movement, and growing nationalism influenced ideas about what was becoming known as "Celtic Christianity". Beginning in the early 20th century, a full-fledged revival movement began, centred on the island of

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or exiles of this type were seeking personal spiritual fulfilment, but many became involved in missionary endeavours. The Briton Saint Patrick became the evangelist of Ireland during what he called his

1889:'s original equinox on 25 March instead of the Nicaean equinox, which had already drifted to 21 March. This calendar was conserved by the Britons and Irish while the Romans and French began to use the 2533:. For some generations monks trained by Irish missionaries continued to use the Rule and to found new monasteries using it, but most converted to the Benedictine Rule over the 8th and 9th centuries. 2604:, "the singing of metrical psalms, many of them set to old Celtic Christianity Scottish traditional and folk tunes" is a feature that remains a "distinctive part of Scottish Presbyterian worship". 676:) in thought. The English church, they claimed, was not forming a new institution, but casting off the shackles of Rome and returning to its true roots as the indigenous national church of Britain. 692:

than their neighbours. The Celts were seen as having an inner spiritual nature that shone through even after their form of Christianity had been destroyed by the authoritarian and rational Rome.

2072:), and it seems that, for some sins, private penance was allowed instead. Nonetheless, penance and reconciliation was prevailingly a public rite (sometimes unrepeatable), which included 2542:

practice that Augustine could not overlook. There is no indication as to how the baptism was "incomplete" according to the Roman custom. It may be that there was some difference in the

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system. Pre-conquest, most Christians would not attend regular services but relied on members of the monastic communities who would occasionally make preaching tours through the area.

1909:; Columbanus appealed to Pope Gregory I but received no answer and finally moved from their jurisdiction. It was a primary concern for St Augustine and his mission, although 3324:

The Epistle of Gildas the most ancient British Author: who flourished in the yeere of our Lord, 546. And who by his great erudition, sanctitie, and wisdome, acquired the name of

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AUCHMUTY, J. J. “IRELAND AND THE CELTIC PEOPLES IN TOYNBEE'S ‘STUDY OF HISTORY.’” Hermathena, no. 70, 1947, pp. 45–53. JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/23037506. Accessed 2 Aug. 2020.

1327:, as it produced the most obvious signs of disunity: the old and new methods did not usually agree, causing Christians following one system to begin celebrating the feast of the 7073: 2272:, has offered a more nuanced view of the interrelationships between the monastic system and the traditional Church structures. Sharpe argues that there is no evidence that the 2389:

among them. It was from Illtud and his successors that the Irish sought guidance on matters of ritual and discipline. Finnian of Clonard studied under Cadoc at Llancarfan in

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716–718; Strathclyde, 721; North Wales, 768; South Wales, 777. Cornwall held out the longest of any, perhaps even, in parts, to the time of Bishop Aedwulf of Crediton (909).

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The Irish penitential practice spread throughout the continent, where the form of public penance had fallen into disuse. Saint Columbanus was credited with introducing the

5142: 2012:, but it may have been circulating since the Synod of Whitby. The tonsure is also mentioned in a passage, probably of the 7th century but attributed wrongly to Gildas: " 5832: 3451: 2023:

suggested a semi-circular shape, rounded in the front and culminating at a line between the ears. This suggestion was accepted by many subsequent writers, but in 1703

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The exact shape of the Irish tonsure is unclear from the early sources, although they agree that the hair was in some way shorn over the head from ear to ear. In 1639

1982:, or method of cutting one's hair, to distinguish their social identity as men of the cloth. In Ireland men otherwise wore longish hair, and a shaved head was worn by 2060:

In antiquity, penance had been a public ritual. Penitents were divided into a separate part of the church during liturgical worship, and they came to Mass wearing

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and Columbanus similarly founded highly important religious communities after leaving their homes. Irish-educated English Christians such as Gerald of Mayo, the

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that often involved some form of general confession. There is evidence that this public penance was preceded by a private confession to a bishop or priest (

1878: 1766:) at which Irish and British religious rites were rejected but a degree of variation continued in Britain after the Ionan church accepted the Roman date. 7648: 2206:

Monastic spirituality came to Britain and then Ireland from Gaul, by way of Lérins, Tours, and Auxerre. Its spirituality was heavily influenced by the

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By the early fifth century, the religion had spread to Ireland, which had never been part of the Roman Empire. There were Christians in Ireland before

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held the remains of 20,000. More often, the title was given to the founder of any ecclesiastical settlement, which would thenceforth be known as their

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Gierek, Bozena (2011). "Celtic spirituality in contemporary Ireland". In Cosgrove, Olivia; Cox, Laurence; Kuhling, Carmen; Mulholland, Peter (eds.).

1947: 1441:– that attempted to assert his authority and to compel them to abandon aspects of their service that had fallen out of line with Roman practice. The 2134:, in which individuals permanently left their homes and put themselves entirely in God's hands. In the Irish tradition there were two types of such 1929:

were generally the readiest to acknowledge the superiority of the new tables: the bishops of southern Ireland adopted the continental system at the

1838:(325) decided that all Christians should observe a common date for Easter separate from the Jewish calculations, according to the practice of the 656:

Corning writes that scholars have identified three major strands of thought that have influenced the popular conceptions of Celtic Christianity:

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In the 6th and 7th centuries, Irish monks established monastic institutions in parts of modern-day Scotland (especially Columba, also known as

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Caitlin Corning identifies four customs that were common to both the Irish and British churches but not used elsewhere in the Christian world.

1679:, he is said to have 'floated' across to Cornwall after being thrown into the sea tied to a millstone. He has been identified on occasion with 1974:, in the shape of a crown, differing from the Irish tradition, which is unclear but involved shaving the hair from ear to ear in some fashion 586: 2245:, to argue that the monastic system came to be the dominant ecclesiastical structure in the Irish church, essentially replacing the earlier 1451: 672:

writers of this time popularised the idea of an indigenous British Christianity that opposed the foreign "Roman" church and was purer (and

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founded the See of Lindisfarne in Anglo-Saxon Northumbria in 635, whence Gaelic-Irish practice heavily influenced northern England.

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is more obscure, but the native church seems to have been greatly strengthened by Welsh and Irish missionaries such as Saints

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is deprecated by many historians as it implies a unified and identifiable entity entirely separate from that of mainstream Western

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Boyle, Elizabeth (2017). "Writing Medieval Irish History in the Nineteenth Century". In Hill, Jacqueline; Lyons, Mary Ann (eds.).

7578: 7568: 2016:" ("Britons are contrary to the whole world, enemies of Roman customs, not only in the Mass but also in regard to the tonsure"). 1600:

was born about 360 in what is present day Galloway, the son of a chief of the Novantae, apparently a Christian. He studied under

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were even driven to complain of the Irish "canonising dead men in troops whenever they seemed to be somewhat better than usual".

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Bradley argues that historically well-founded insights can be applied to re-imagine life and ministry in contemporary churches.

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and more general Christian revivals. By the end of the 20th century, another wave of enthusiasm began, this time influenced by

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A Welshman of noble birth, Saint Petroc was educated in Ireland. He set out in a small boat with a few followers. In a type of

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Initially, Christianity was but one of a number of religions: in addition to the native and syncretic local forms of paganism,

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The monasteries of the Irish missions, and many at home, adopted the Rule of Saint Columbanus, which was stricter than the

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Ireland's new religious movements: Alternative Spiritualities, Migrant Religions, the New Age and New Religious Movements

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had begun spreading these inventions further afield. Such ideas were used by mediaeval anti-Roman movements such as the

1503:'s dispatch of Joseph of Arimathea in part aimed to preserve the priority and authority of the native establishments at 5076:(1981). "The Celtic Church: Is This a Valid Concept? O'Donnell lectures in Celtic Studies, University of Oxford 1975". 3310: 3169: 2730: 2633:, as an effort to maintain the "distinctive tenets of Celtic Christianity" in an autocephalous Christian denomination. 1560: 819: 17: 3745: 907: 7056: 6869: 5419: 5391: 5372: 5279: 5100: 5078: 5063: 5042: 4986: 4936: 4724: 4622: 3958: 3839: 3729: 3481: 3280: 3054: 777: 579: 279: 2103:, and referred to the state of living or sojourning away from one's homeland in Roman law. It was later used by the 137:

Christianity. As a whole, Celtic-speaking areas were part of Latin Christendom at a time when there was significant

2725: 2306: 1983: 1202: 376: 261: 156:, especially in the 6th and 7th centuries. Some elements may have been introduced to Ireland by the Romano-British 1629:

followed Palladius. Serf was the teacher of Saint Mungo, the apostle of Strathclyde, and patron saint of Glasgow.

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In the 20th and 21st centuries, ideas about "Celtic Christians" combined with appeals by certain modern churches,

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spread widely throughout the Christian church, but it took two additional unique meanings in Celtic countries.

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functions were reserved only for the ordained, but they had little authority in the ecclesiastical structure.

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ideals. Today, a self-identification with and use of "Celtic Christianity" is common in countries such as

6512: 5777: 5151:(2000). "The Social and Political Problems of the Early English Church". In Pelteret, David A. E. (ed.). 5073: 4893: 4823: 2242: 2052:

In Christian Ireland – as well as Pictish and English peoples they Christianised – a distinctive form of

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Plummer, Charles (1975) . "Excursus on the Paschal Controversy and Tonsure". In Plummer, Charles (ed.).

1252:" was used quite broadly by British, Irish, and English Christians. Extreme cases are Irish accounts of 270: 7083: 6958: 6563: 6532: 5917: 5299: 4817:. Venerabilis Baedae Opera Historica. Oxonii: E Typographeo Clarendoniano – via Internet Archive. 2408: 2269: 2221:

One controversial belief is that the true ecclesiastical power in the Celtic world lay in the hands of

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rulers in favor of their own families and clans. By some estimates, these traditions produced over 800

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movements, which have shaped popular perceptions of the Celts and their Christian religious practices.

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British were no more pro-women, pro-environment, or even more spiritual than the rest of the Church."

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says 200. Bede is unclear on the date of the battle, but the current view is that it occurred in 616.

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Churches diverge significantly after the 8th century. Interest in the subject has led to a series of

138: 6844: 5325:

Stancliffe, Clare (1992). "Columbanus and the Gallic Bishops". In Constable, G.; Rouche, M. (eds.).

2853:

Note, however, that many events of Patrick's hagiographies may have originally intended the earlier

2365:

on a promontory on the western sea. It was well placed to be a centre of Insular Christianity. When

2034:

cites the authority of Saint Patrick as indicating that the custom originated with the swineherd of

1989:

The prevailing Roman custom was to shave a circle at the top of the head, leaving a halo of hair or

1614: 885:, although the first Christian communities probably were established at least some decades earlier. 7384: 6818: 6794: 6120: 5205: 2771: 2601: 2265: 2130:

as penance for certain infractions. Additionally, there was a tradition of undertaking a voluntary

1866: 1576: 1504: 1299: 1291: 1287: 1222: 1159: 1043: 954: 839: 804: 717: 326: 284: 161: 7095: 6743: 6289: 6008: 5827: 5717: 4953: 4614: 3335: 2819: 2720: 2613: 2362: 2035: 1854:, finding the first Sunday after an idealized Passover on the first full moon after the equinox. 1835: 1430: 1405: 1198: 748: 333: 247: 225: 1647:, they let God determine their course. The winds and tides brought them to the Padstow estuary. 1317:

Insular Christianity developed distinct traditions and practices, most pointedly concerning the

1003:

in 360. A number of references to the church in Roman Britain are also found in the writings of

7563: 7482: 7445: 6517: 5807: 5802: 5196: 4214: 2670: 2630: 2626: 2555:

A recurrent accusation levelled against the Irish throughout the Middle Ages is that they were

2522: 2442: 2014:

Britones toti mundo contrarii, moribus Romanis inimici, non solum in missa sed in tonsura etiam

1890: 1778: 1638: 1530: 1529:) that St Davids finally abandoned its claims to metropolitan status and submitted to the 1473: 1303: 1186: 976: 427: 2568:, a heresy whose central tenet was observing Easter on the same date as the eve of the Jewish 1245:

in Wales around 547 and Ireland around 548, may have contributed to these missionary efforts.

7329: 7144: 6889: 6789: 6160: 6003: 5982: 5302:(1984). "Some problems concerning the organisation of the Church in early medieval Ireland". 5022:

Davies, Wendy (1992). "The Myth of the Celtic Church". In Edwards, Nancy; Lane, Alan (eds.).

3938: 2904: 2828: 2200: 1910: 1336: 1328: 1182: 972: 456: 293: 3425: 7472: 7344: 7078: 6728: 6125: 6048: 5857: 5782: 3946: 3275:. Histories of the Sacred and Secular, 1700–2000. Cham, Switzerland: Springer. p. 72. 2890: 2547:

may have used triple immersion in Baptism, and may have been slow to adopt infant baptism.

2478: 1898: 1843: 1700: 1648: 1534: 1395: 1370: 1210: 1170: 1126: 1051: 1042:

to overrun the northern areas of Roman Britain (in some cases joining in), in concert with

992: 435: 431: 391: 3853:

the year of coming to Ireland, which rests upon clear and unvarying tradition, A.D. 432 .

3793: 1893:

cycle of 532 years. The Romans (but not the French) then adopted the still-better work of

1817: 8: 7621: 7359: 7228: 7158: 7139: 7118: 7051: 6874: 6748: 6568: 6553: 6548: 6502: 6477: 6150: 6043: 5842: 5661: 5456: 4812: 3607: 2621:

notes that the recurrent interest in medieval insular Christianity has led to successive

2585: 2530: 2426: 2422: 2195: 2009: 1954:

and its satellites held out until 716, while the Welsh did not adopt the Roman and Saxon

1874: 1826: 1610: 1552: 1516: 1508: 1242: 1075: 1020: 1000: 980: 859: 661: 562: 396: 6758: 4801: 3807: 1680: 7525: 7256: 7149: 7113: 7034: 6989: 6884: 6710: 6601: 6558: 6487: 6294: 6069: 5837: 5822: 5817: 5812: 5722: 5579: 5535: 5429: 5334: 5249: 5008: 3697: 2841: 2474: 2108: 1851: 1798: 1719: 1672: 1618: 1500: 1496: 1324: 1279: 1194: 1110: 1012: 996: 930: 634: 496: 80: 41: 2091:

A final distinctive tradition common across Britain and Ireland was the popularity of

7389: 7364: 7354: 7090: 7063: 6944: 6799: 6784: 6779: 6738: 6733: 6638: 6527: 6482: 6472: 6464: 6135: 6089: 6079: 5925: 5752: 5732: 5691: 5415: 5387: 5368: 5275: 5253: 5169: 5131: 5106: 5096: 5059: 5038: 4982: 4932: 4763: 4753: 4730: 4720: 4662: 4618: 4550: 4399: 3954: 3942: 3835: 3725: 3477: 3411: 3357: 3276: 3165: 3050: 2823: 2818:

The date of Alban's execution has been a subject of discussion among historians with

2803: 2249:

of the type found in most of the rest of the Christian world. Hughes argued that the

1926: 1894: 1885:. This was introduced to Britain, whose clerics at some point modified it to use the 1512: 1477: 1457: 1426: 1340: 1166: 1118: 1035: 934: 847: 831: 665: 630: 626: 461: 411: 60: 4979:

The Celtic and Roman Traditions: Conflict and Consensus in the Early Medieval Church

1917:

and eventual restoration to his throne meant that Celtic practice was introduced to

1857:

Various tables were drawn up, aiming to produce the necessary alignment between the

7418: 7379: 7334: 7321: 7241: 7220: 7123: 7068: 6753: 6573: 6492: 6304: 6084: 6023: 5913: 5792: 5787: 5757: 5727: 5681: 5643: 5509: 5313: 5241: 3834:. Cosimo classics biography. New York: Cosimo, Inc. (published 2008). p. 331. 3331: 3319: 3040: 2858: 2755: 2646: 2622: 2577: 2565: 2366: 2246: 1652: 1499:'s control. The development of legends about the mission of Fagan and Deruvian and 1488: 1438: 1354: 1262: 1071: 1031: 988: 975:

in the early 4th century and its promotion by subsequent Christian emperors. Three

968: 946: 713: 673: 606: 511: 317: 312: 122: 56: 4910: 4350: 2418: 7461: 7399: 7339: 7302: 7274: 7236: 7201: 7181: 6964: 6954: 6939: 6826: 6633: 6497: 6260: 6115: 6074: 6064: 5908: 5847: 5767: 5762: 5747: 5742: 5655: 5348: 5119: 5053: 5032: 4926: 4544: 3829: 3270: 3044: 2918: 2795: 2712: 2430: 1994: 1922: 1886: 1839: 1813: 1763: 1601: 1462: 1249: 696: 614: 610: 177: 107: 73: 1495:

of "Gwynedd". The Norman invasion of Wales finally brought Welsh dioceses under

1023:

was said to have visited the island in part to oppose the bishops who advocated

7500: 7490: 7466: 7413: 7369: 7284: 7264: 7246: 7191: 7186: 7154: 6999: 6979: 6804: 6705: 6684: 6679: 6316: 6250: 6245: 6234: 6215: 6209: 6205: 6018: 6013: 5972: 5899: 5885: 5797: 5772: 5737: 5696: 5686: 5622: 5609: 5549: 5493: 5485: 5476: 5449: 5365:

The Conversion of Britain: Religion, Politics and Society in Britain c. 600–800

5353:

The Times of Bede: Studies in Early English Christian Society and its Historian

5263:

Celtic and Anglo-Saxon Painting: Book illumination in the British Isles 600–800

3447: 2876: 2833: 2787: 2763: 2589: 2454: 2207: 2116: 2104: 1422: 1358: 1343:

record over fifty religious foundations in southeast Wales alone. Although the

1311: 1275: 1257: 1253: 1055: 958: 870: 307: 185: 64: 27:

Christianity in the Celtic language–speaking world during the early Middle Ages

5245: 7637: 7297: 7269: 7176: 7168: 6910: 6862: 6648: 6596: 6325: 6265: 6255: 6155: 6130: 5921: 5360: 5110: 4767: 4418: 4372: 3405: 3330:(8 vols). T. Cotes for William Cooke (London), 1638. Edited and reprinted by 3272:

Representing Irish Religious Histories: Historiography, Ideology and Practice

2779: 2560: 2446: 2412: 2351: 2347: 2151: 2024: 1882: 1675:

worked in Devon. Saint Piran is the patron saint of tin miners. An Irishman,

1556: 1548: 1206: 1190: 1144: 900: 851: 843: 823: 795: 721: 541: 536: 181: 157: 153: 32: 5384:'The Work of Angels', Masterpieces of Celtic Metalwork, 6th–9th centuries AD 4734: 3916:, 3 vols (Oxford, 1869–78), I, 112-3, Quoted in "The Catholic Encyclopedia". 2513:) of God" movement founding new monasteries detached from family groupings. 2477:, particularly in Gaul (especially Columbanus). Monks from Iona Abbey under 2355: 1978:

All monks of the period, and apparently most or all clergy, kept a distinct

1469: 1085:) stated that Constantine's neglect of the area's defense against Irish and 446: 7615: 7408: 7196: 6720: 6674: 6613: 6522: 6299: 6277: 6270: 5712: 5637: 5627: 5559: 4806:. London: Longman, Green, Longman and Roberts – via Internet Archive. 4058:

Councils and Ecclesiastical Documents Relating to Great Britain and Ireland

3914:

Councils and Ecclesiastical Documents Relating to Great Britain and Ireland

3753: 3344: 2698: 2543: 2498: 2494: 2493:

part in secular wars – a battle in 764 is supposed to have killed 200 from

2486: 2020: 1723: 1722:. Others who influenced the development of Christianity in Ireland include 1597: 1585: 1564: 1434: 1267: 1234: 1226: 1178: 1174: 1094: 1047: 1016: 922: 684: 618: 526: 521: 361: 356: 173: 169: 68: 52: 37: 5904: 5351:(2006). "Bede and the 'Church of the English'". In Baxter, Stephen (ed.). 2893:, whose kingdom had been evangelised by both Irish and Roman missionaries. 2836:

places it in 305. Still others argue that sometime during the persecutors

2681:, both among participants in established churches and independent groups. 2625:

he terms "Celtic Christian revivalism". He notes the establishment of the

1914: 1738:

510 – 592, who evangelised in the area of present-day Scotland) and Saint

7530: 7515: 6916: 6835: 6643: 6628: 6618: 6591: 6417: 6370: 6282: 6033: 5650: 5554: 5441: 4922: 4847: 4714: 3767: 3562: 2871: 2661: 2657: 2618: 2438: 2374: 2312: 2290: 2215: 2047: 2001: 1918: 1862: 1442: 1350: 1307: 1241:) and the attendant famines and disease, particularly the arrival of the 1230: 1218: 1024: 957:, although there is no textual or archaeological evidence to support the 938: 863: 835: 810:

According to medieval traditions, Christianity arrived in Britain in the

689: 680: 516: 486: 451: 386: 371: 366: 351: 189: 99: 6185: 5956: 5317: 7453: 7441: 6894: 6858: 6658: 6623: 6583: 6175: 5942: 5933: 3825: 3706: 2450: 2331: 2286: 2167: 2159: 2126:

In the first sense, the penitentials prescribed permanent or temporary

2073: 1998: 1951: 1906: 1870: 1858: 1691: 1626: 1271: 1102: 1050:

attacks on the coast. The Roman provinces seem to have been retaken by

984: 942: 874: 762: in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. 669: 476: 1739: 1604:

before returning to his own land about 397. He established himself at

1189:

among the Saxons in England, Briton refugees and missionaries such as

6853: 5965: 5148: 3364:. Vol. 5. Peabody, MA: Hendrickson Publishers. pp. 254–256. 2556: 2466: 2390: 2175: 2061: 1958:

until induced to do so around 768 by Elfodd, "archbishop" of Bangor.

1581: 1400: 1122: 1106: 1098: 962: 926: 491: 6165: 5871: 5175:

A History of Wales from the Earliest Times to the Edwardian Conquest

4841:. Toronto: Pontifical Institute of Mediaeval Studies. pp. 93–5. 3476:. University Park: Pennsylvania State University Press. p. 22. 3452:"1400th anniversary of the re-organisation of the Diocese of London" 3383: 2154:

left his home to ultimately become bishop in Brittany. The Irishmen

1777:

was eventually adopted as a universal practice of the Church by the

737: 7510: 6974: 6427: 6382: 6346: 6334: 6180: 6140: 5960: 5952: 5947: 5929: 5852: 5589: 5584: 5569: 4404:

A History of the Welsh Church to the Dissolution of the Monasteries

2569: 2342: 2335: 2226: 2211: 2163: 1966: 1831: 1802: 1668: 1664: 1660: 1605: 1544: 1374: 1319: 1153: 1141:

or subjugating them under kingdoms with no formal church presence.

1138: 1134: 1008: 950: 869:

The earliest certain historical evidence of Christianity among the

855: 827: 531: 501: 481: 63:. Some writers have described a distinct Celtic Church uniting the 6195: 5034:

The Irish in Early Medieval Europe: Identity, Culture and Religion

2525:, the main alternative in the West. In particular there was more 1555:. The legend that Jesus himself visited Britain is referred to in 1105:. In any case, Roman authority was greatly weakened following the 971:

intensified with the legalisation of the Christian religion under

613:. Other common claims include that Celtic Christianity denied the 7520: 7495: 7374: 7349: 6984: 6949: 6922: 6849: 6831: 6422: 6358: 5987: 5617: 5594: 5304: 5232:

Meeder, Sven (2011). "Boniface and the Irish Heresy of Clemens".

4659:

Following the Celtic Way: A New Assessment of Celtic Christianity

3700:

Ecclesiastical History of the English Nation. Book 1 Chapter XXII

2674: 2645:

popularised and romanticised older Celtic traditions such as the

2595: 2526: 2502: 2402: 2386: 2320: 2171: 2155: 2005: 1979: 1971: 1774: 1656: 1378: 1283: 1149: 965:

as deriving from another thousand martyrs during the same years.

709: 700: 551: 471: 406: 381: 165: 149: 148:

Nonetheless, distinctive traditions developed and spread to both

110:

explained, "One of the common misconceptions is that there was a

88: 84: 79:

Such practices include: a distinctive system for determining the

4406:. London: Elliot Stock. p. 72 – via Internet Archive. 3943:"Letter on the Keeping of Easter to those not present at Nicaea" 2822:

proposing that it took place during the persecutions of Emperor

2241:

This focus on the monastery has led some scholars, most notably

7505: 7292: 7074:

Constitutional status of Orkney, Shetland and the Western Isles

6994: 6969: 6933: 6927: 6840: 6763: 6689: 6608: 6110: 5599: 5544: 5026:. Oxbow Monograph. Vol. 16. Oxford: Oxbow. pp. 12–21. 3305: 2837: 2510: 2506: 2378: 2316: 2222: 1809: 1731: 1715: 1676: 1622: 1492: 1383: 1345: 878: 815: 622: 506: 142: 2334:, founded in the latter part of the fifth century. The son of 1993:; this was eventually associated with the imagery of Christ's 1205:. The Irish in turn made Christians of the Picts and English. 160:, and later, others from Ireland to Great Britain through the 6394: 6200: 6145: 6038: 5632: 5574: 5564: 5522: 5472: 4752:. Newcastle upon Tyne: Cambridge Scholars. pp. 300–317. 4231:

Venerablilis Baedae, Historiam Ecclesiasticam Gentis Anglorum

2917:

The main source for Columbanus's life or vita is recorded by

2735: 2573: 2382: 2370: 2327: 2254: 2100: 1130: 1090: 1039: 888: 644: 546: 466: 401: 3474:

An Age of Tyrants: Britain and the Britons A.D. 400–600

2889:

Indeed, this is noted as occurring in the household of King

873:

is found in the writings of such early Christian Fathers as

6653: 6190: 6170: 6105: 5938: 3953:, vol. III, Signature Books (published 1996), §18–20, 3693: 2666: 2505:

tradition came in the second half of the century, with the

2264:

However, more recent scholarship, particularly the work of

1563:". The words of Blake's poem were set to music in 1916 by 1468:

The death of hundreds of British clerics to the pagan king

1446: 1409: 1332: 1067: 800: 683:

of the 18th century, in particular Romantic notions of the

3768:"Butler, Alban. "The Lives of the Saints", Vol. VII, 1866" 3336:"The Works of Gildas, Surnamed 'Sapiens,' or the Wise", §8 651: 3426:"Explaining the origin of the 'field of the dead' legend" 2588:. The Celtic Church is also thought to have observed the 2572:, namely the fourteenth day of the Jewish lunar month of 2178:, and other English all followed these Irish traditions. 822:

dated its arrival to the latter part of the reign of the

4640: 4638: 4598:. New York and London: G. P. Putnam's Sons. p. 237. 617:, was less authoritarian than the Catholic Church, more 5128:

A New History of Ireland: Prehistoric and Early Ireland

4791:

Adomnan (1991). Anderson, A.O.; Anderson, M.O. (eds.).

1290:

that were venerated locally in Wales, but invasions by

708:

Some associate the early Christians of Celtic-speaking

4958:

The Rise of Western Christendom: Triumph and Diversity

4716:

Celtic Christian communities : live the tradition

4546:

The Sacramental Church: The Story of Anglo-Catholicism

4179: 4177: 2004:. This association appears in a 672 letter from Saint 129:" is used to describe this supposed dichotomy between 6386: 4635: 3812:

New Schaff-Herzog Encyclopedia of Religious Knowledge

2181: 1256:'s presiding over 3,300 saints and Welsh claims that 6772: 4928:

Celtic Christianity: Making Myths and Chasing Dreams

4917:. Vol. 16. New York: Longmans, Green, & Co. 4233:. Oxford: Oxford University Press. pp. 348–354. 2688: 1058:

had already been killed or taken as slaves. In 407,

4355:

Early Christian Ireland: Ancient Peoples and Places

4174: 3328:. Faithfully translated out of the originall Latine 1659:. She also travelled to Cornwall – that is ancient 4839:De controversia paschali and De ratione conputandi 2111:, who wrote that Christians should live a life of 720:) with later Christians of north-western Europe's 55:that was common, or held to be common, across the 5434:The Coming of Christianity to Anglo-Saxon England 4868:McNeill, John T.; Gamer, Helena M., eds. (1938). 4425:. Vol. 15. New York: Robert Appleton Company 4379:. Vol. 15. New York: Robert Appleton Company 3456:Dr Rowan Williams: 104th Archbishop of Canterbury 3356: 2651:Celtic Christian Communities: Live The Tradition 1897:in 525, which brought them into harmony with the 704:reality of Christianity in the Early Middle Ages. 7635: 5292:Irish Monasticism, Origins and Early Development 3159: 2754:Translations into languages of Celtic heritage: 1950:saw the northern Irish bishops follow suit. The 1850:) then became a complicated process involving a 5052:Herren, Michael W.; Brown, Shirley Ann (2002). 4964: 4876: 4696: 4694: 4345: 4343: 2987: 2407:Finnian of Clonard is said to have trained the 2373:of Saint David's. Contemporary with David were 668:declared itself separate from papal authority. 5030: 4349: 3900: 3623: 3621: 3164:. New York: Oxford U Press. pp. 154–156. 3162:A Study of History: Abridgment of, Volumes 1–6 2607: 2596:Influence on Christianity in the British Isles 1113:in 410. Medieval legend attributed widespread 925:and immigrants introduced other cults such as 145:was no less intense in Celtic-speaking areas. 67:and distinguishing them from adherents of the 7664:History of Christianity in the United Kingdom 6350: 5457: 5327:Mélanges offerts au Professeur Oliver Guillot 4960:(2nd ed.). Oxford: Blackwell Publishing. 4877:Patrick (Saint) (1998). Skinner, John (ed.). 3705:. London: J.M. Dent; E.P. Dutton – via 3360:(1999). "On the Seventy Apostles of Christ". 3192: 3190: 2323:were leading figures in 6th-century Britain. 1551:, as well as by English Catholics during the 953:, were said to have been martyred during the 945:" – probably lived in the early 4th century. 580: 141:. But a general collective veneration of the 6338: 5428: 5193:Celtic Benediction: Morning and Night Prayer 5120:"The Church in Early Irish Society: 400–800" 4908: 4885: 4867: 4825:Ecclesiastical History of the English People 4691: 4650: 4366: 4364: 4340: 4306: 4304: 4302: 4271: 4156: 4144: 4132: 4120: 3831:Life of St. Patrick and His Place in History 3548: 3533: 3508: 3496: 3046:Die Christianisierung Europas im Mittelalter 2369:sought a scholar for his court, he summoned 1881:", which includes an 84-year cycle based on 1590:Book of Hours of the Virgin and Saint Ninian 1452:Ecclesiastical History of the English People 1270:" – those of the invading Irish Brychan and 1169:, although poorly attested, saw the "Age of 6398: 6362: 5051: 4602: 4265: 4261: 4259: 4257: 4090: 4068: 4066: 4038: 3640: 3638: 3636: 3618: 3573: 3403: 3128: 3126: 3124: 3122: 3120: 3118: 2967: 2965: 2550: 2253:, or network of monasteries attached to an 1482: 1363: 1331:while others continued to solemnly observe 1062:declared himself "emperor of the West" and 1007:Christian fathers. Britain was the home of 621:, friendlier to women, more connected with 139:regional variation of liturgy and structure 6374: 5471: 5464: 5450: 5436:(3rd ed.). London: B.T. Batsford Ltd. 5339:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher ( 5324: 5260: 5031:Flechner, Roy; Meeder, Sven, eds. (2016). 5013:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher ( 4569: 4443: 4244: 4242: 4240: 3937: 3343:. Henry G. Bohn (London), 1848. Hosted at 3187: 3160:Toynbee, Arnold; Somervell, David (1987). 3143: 3141: 3002:(London, 1966); W. Davies and P. Wormald, 2629:, which maintains a relationship with the 1671:who travelled on to Brittany. Her brother 1632: 929:. At various times, the Christians risked 587: 573: 7649:12th-century disestablishments in Ireland 5162:Celtic Culture: A Historical Encyclopedia 4995: 4370: 4361: 4299: 3404:Ingram, James; Giles, J.A., eds. (1847). 2983: 2940: 2938: 2902:Bede says 1,200 British clergy died; the 1846:. Calculating the proper date of Easter ( 778:Learn how and when to remove this message 5203: 4799: 4416: 4254: 4196: 4194: 4192: 4108: 4096: 4084: 4072: 4063: 4044: 4032: 4020: 4008: 3896: 3894: 3633: 3602: 3600: 3446: 3115: 2962: 2417: 2319:and his pupils Saint David, Gildas, and 2194: 2115:in the present world while awaiting the 1965: 1784: 1690: 1580: 1399: 1143: 991:, are known to have been present at the 906: 887: 862:, however, are now usually accounted as 794: 102:. For this reason, many prefer the term 31: 5347: 4973: 4921: 4832: 4814:Historia Ecclesiastica Gentis Angelorum 4790: 4712: 4700: 4685: 4656: 4644: 4575: 4237: 4228: 4203:"The Spirituality of the Celtic Church" 4183: 3972: 3925: 3719: 3544: 3542: 3256: 3244: 3232: 3220: 3208: 3138: 3132: 3109: 3097: 3085: 3073: 3039: 3027: 2971: 2225:of monasteries, rather than bishops of 652:Developing image of Celtic Christianity 14: 7636: 6315: 5409: 5381: 5298: 5231: 5190: 5117: 5090: 5072: 5024:The Early Church in Wales and the West 5021: 4872:. New York: Columbia University Press. 4845: 4795:(2nd ed.). Oxford Medieval Texts. 4747: 4608: 4581: 4518: 4506: 4494: 4458: 4397: 4391: 4322: 4310: 4293: 4277: 3931: 3864: 3800: 3520: 3468: 3069: 2995: 2991: 2935: 1487:until induced to do so around 768 by " 1415:Historia ecclesiastica gentis Anglorum 7644:5th-century establishments in Ireland 7547: 7439: 7218: 7020: 6452: 6232: 5883: 5520: 5445: 5359: 5269: 5206:"On the Shape of the Insular Tonsure" 5168: 4952: 4863:. Six Old English Chronicles. London. 4858: 4854:. Six Old English Chronicles. London. 4811:Bede (1896). Plummer, Charles (ed.). 4593: 4530: 4447: 4200: 4189: 4168: 3891: 3680: 3668: 3644: 3627: 3597: 3591: 3579: 3268: 3015: 2516: 1820:on the first full moon following the 1792: 1752: 5289: 5274:. London: Harvey Miller Publishers. 5272:Book Illumination in the Middle Ages 5159: 5147: 4901: 4881:. Translated by John Skinner. Image. 4821: 4810: 4542: 4482: 4470: 4334: 4248: 4227:This list includes information from 4060:, 3 vols (Oxford, 1869–78), I, 112-3 3996: 3984: 3885: 3824: 3692: 3656: 3560: 3539: 3532:Quoted translated from the Latin in 3196: 3147: 2956: 2944: 2489:, one of Columbanus's institutions. 1925:. The groups furthest away from the 1873:was replaced by (or by the time of) 1567:as the well-known song "Jerusalem". 1129:, driving Christian Britons back to 760:adding citations to reliable sources 731: 625:, and more comfortable dealing with 7440: 5153:Anglo-Saxon History: Basic Readings 3000:The Church in Early English Society 1961: 1824:but did not always succeed. In his 1655:was the daughter of the Welsh king 1533:, by which point the popularity of 24: 5402: 4911:"The Celtic Church and its Saints" 4783: 4056:A. W. Haddan and W. Stubbs (ed.), 3912:A. W. Haddan and W. Stubbs (ed.), 3311:De Excidio et Conquestu Britanniae 2998:, pp. 1–20; Kathleen Hughes, 2857:, a Gaul dispatched to Ireland by 2731:History of Christianity in Ireland 2182:Other British and Irish traditions 1812:was originally dated according to 1663:– to evangelize the locals as did 1561:And did those feet in ancient time 1408:from an 8th-century manuscript of 1349:were rather modest affairs, great 912:The discovery of St. Alban's bones 25: 7680: 6870:Festival Interceltique de Lorient 5093:The Church in Early Irish Society 5079:Cambridge Medieval Celtic Studies 4719:. Kelowna, B.C.: Northstone Pub. 4543:Nash, John F. (9 February 2011). 2326:Not far from Llantwit Fawr stood 1217:, although native saints such as 1209:then began the conversion of the 1181:, and others first completed the 1125:. The Saxon communities followed 280:Christianity in Medieval Scotland 7620: 6233: 5870: 5412:How the Irish Saved Civilization 5386:. London: British Museum Press. 5001:Early Medieval Ireland: 400–1200 4741: 4706: 4679: 4587: 4563: 4536: 4524: 4512: 4500: 2911: 2705: 2691: 2656:In the 18th and 19th centuries, 2307:Clas (ecclesiastical settlement) 2233:(i.e. they were not necessarily 2064:and ashes in a process known as 2038:, the king who opposed Patrick. 1515:. It was not until the death of 1203:Seven Founder Saints of Brittany 736: 447:Seven Founder Saints of Brittany 224: 168:. However, the histories of the 121:Popularized by German historian 118:Church was nationally opposed." 5355:. Oxford: Blackwell Publishing. 5155:. New York: Garland Publishing. 4888:The Lives of the British Saints 4778: 4596:The Rise of the Medieval Church 4488: 4476: 4464: 4452: 4437: 4410: 4328: 4316: 4283: 4221: 4162: 4150: 4138: 4126: 4114: 4102: 4078: 4050: 4026: 4014: 4002: 3990: 3978: 3966: 3919: 3906: 3879: 3870: 3858: 3818: 3778: 3760: 3738: 3713: 3686: 3674: 3662: 3650: 3585: 3554: 3526: 3514: 3502: 3490: 3462: 3440: 3418: 3397: 3368: 3350: 3299: 3262: 3250: 3238: 3226: 3214: 3202: 3178: 3153: 3103: 3091: 3079: 2896: 2883: 2864: 2847: 2812: 2095:("exile for Christ"). The term 2086: 2057:given for each particular sin. 2041: 1421:At the end of the 6th century, 1268:Three Saintly Families of Wales 1167:Fifth and sixth century Britain 747:needs additional citations for 5037:. London: Palgrave Macmillan. 4965:Charles-Edwards, T.M. (2000). 4931:. Edinburgh University Press. 4833:Cummian (1988). Walsh, Maura; 4661:. Augsburg Books. p. 12. 4630:Emigres have been influential. 3724:. New York: Ballantine Books. 3063: 3033: 3021: 3009: 2977: 2950: 2748: 2586:cultural taboo concerning pork 2315:written some centuries later, 2190: 1282:– displaced many of the local 1197:were then responsible for the 933:, although the earliest known 599: 13: 1: 7589:Celtic place names in Galicia 7219: 5265:. New York: George Braziller. 5058:. Woodbridge: Boydell Press. 5055:Christ in Celtic Christianity 4909:Baring-Gould, Sabine (1898). 4886:Baring-Gould, Sabine (1907). 4870:Medieval Handbooks of Penance 4609:Bowden, John Stephen (2005). 4549:. Wipf and Stock Publishers. 3612:Powys Digital History Project 3608:"Early Christianity in Wales" 3006:(Audio Learning Tapes, 1980). 2928: 2582:Collectio canonum Hibernensis 2341:Illtud, said to have been an 2031:Collectio canonum Hibernensis 1941: 1934: 1757:Connections with the greater 1743: 1735: 1727: 1523: 1079: 899:, written and illustrated by 893:Amphibalus baptizing converts 241:Christianity in Roman Britain 7021: 5531:Ancient Celtic ethnic groups 4800:Williams, John, ed. (1860). 4611:Encyclopedia of Christianity 4373:"Welsh Monastic Foundations" 4213:(3): 243–255. Archived from 4201:Woods, Richard (Fall 1985). 3380:Orthodoxy's Western Heritage 3076:, pp. 207–208, 220 n. 3 2784:Credjue Creestee/Creestiaght 2726:History of Ireland (400–800) 2396: 1879:On the measurement of Easter 7: 7669:Medieval history of Ireland 6513:Welsh literature in English 6453: 5884: 5610:Modern Celtic ethnic groups 5521: 5382:Youngs, Susan, ed. (1989). 5367:. London: Pearson/Longman. 5130:. Oxford University Press. 3018:, pp. 16, 51, 129, 132 2684: 2608:Celtic Christian revivalism 2497:when they were defeated by 1570: 1221:also arose. The history of 1199:Christianization of Ireland 1127:a form of Germanic paganism 712:(purportedly recipients of 10: 7685: 7659:Catholic Church in Ireland 6533:Scottish Gaelic literature 5918:Brigantia (ancient region) 5191:Newell, J. Philip (2000). 4828:. Oxford University Press. 4417:Thurston, Herbert (1912). 3901:Flechner & Meeder 2016 2611: 2590:seventh day as the Sabbath 2536: 2409:Twelve Apostles of Ireland 2400: 2304: 2300: 2045: 1796: 1698: 1686: 1636: 1574: 1393: 1121:hired by the British king 881:in the first years of the 790: 727: 442:Twelve Apostles of Ireland 257:Catholic Church in Ireland 7611: 7554: 7548: 7543: 7481: 7452: 7435: 7398: 7320: 7311: 7283: 7255: 7227: 7214: 7167: 7132: 7106: 7027: 7016: 6903: 6880:Hebridean Celtic Festival 6817: 6719: 6698: 6667: 6582: 6541: 6508:Welsh-language literature 6463: 6459: 6448: 6410: 6324: 6241: 6228: 6098: 6057: 5996: 5892: 5879: 5868: 5705: 5674: 5608: 5529: 5516: 5483: 5329:. Paris. pp. 205–14. 5261:Nordenfalk, Carl (1977). 5246:10.1017/s0009640711000035 5204:McCarthy, Daniel (2003). 5178:. Longmans, Green, and Co 5118:Hughes, Kathleen (2005). 5091:Hughes, Kathleen (1966). 4859:Giles, J.A., ed. (1848). 4423:The Catholic Encyclopedia 4377:The Catholic Encyclopedia 4371:Chandlery, Peter (1912). 3786:"The Story of St. Petroc" 3563:"Reviews and comments on 2844:(251–259) is more likely. 2792:Críostaíocht/Críostúlacht 2453:, and metalwork like the 2433:, Irish, late 8th century 2119:. Augustine's version of 2081:medicamenta paentitentiae 1651:was a student of Petroc. 1540:Historia Regum Britanniae 1288:pre-congregational saints 1213:and the other peoples of 1185:. Unwilling or unable to 1183:Christianization of Wales 1093:to fully revolt from the 1087:Saxon raids and invasions 7313:Ancient Celtic languages 4509:, pp. 313, 316, 319 4353:; de Paor, Liam (1958). 4157:McNeill & Gamer 1938 4145:McNeill & Gamer 1938 4133:McNeill & Gamer 1938 4121:McNeill & Gamer 1938 3867:, pp. 306 & 310 3808:"Saint Ciaran of Saigir" 3565:The Book of Welsh Saints 3428:. British History Online 2832:lists the year 283, and 2741: 2551:Accusations of Judaizing 2132:peregrinatio pro Christo 2093:peregrinatio pro Christo 1577:Hiberno-Scottish mission 1389: 1223:Christianity in Cornwall 1160:Joseph Ratcliffe Skelton 1054:the next year, but many 955:Diocletianic Persecution 846:". Medieval accounts of 805:Aristobulus of Britannia 718:Epistle to the Galatians 327:Christianity in Cornwall 285:Hiberno-Scottish mission 271:Christianity in Scotland 194:Celtic Christian Revival 7584:Gaulish words in French 7569:Celtic words in English 5828:Scottish New Zealanders 5718:Anglo-Celtic Australian 5410:Cahill, Thomas (1996). 5294:. Dublin: Talbot Press. 4967:Early Christian Ireland 4915:The Lives of the Saints 4615:Oxford University Press 4357:. Frederick A. Praeger. 4266:Herren & Brown 2002 3951:The Life of Constantine 3594:, p. 176 and note. 3088:, pp. 223–224 n. 1 2721:Ancient Celtic religion 2614:Neo-Celtic Christianity 2443:illuminated manuscripts 1836:First Council of Nicaea 1818:tried to place Passover 1633:Cornwall and West Devon 1431:Augustine of Canterbury 1406:Augustine of Canterbury 1158:, book illustration by 1089:caused the Britons and 660:The first arose in the 334:Neo-Celtic Christianity 262:Early Christian Ireland 248:Christianity in Ireland 6518:Early Irish literature 6399: 6387: 6375: 6363: 6351: 6339: 5808:Scotch-Irish Canadians 5803:Scotch-Irish Americans 5160:Koch, John T. (2006). 4981:. Palgrave Macmillan. 4313:, p. 311 and note 3470:Snyder, Christopher A. 3407:Anglo-Saxon Chronicles 3376:"St. Alban the Martyr" 2807: 2799: 2791: 2783: 2775: 2767: 2759: 2671:Irish Literary Revival 2669:and influenced by the 2631:Syriac Orthodox Church 2627:Celtic Orthodox Church 2523:Rule of Saint Benedict 2434: 2203: 2107:, in particular Saint 1975: 1779:Fourth Lateran Council 1696: 1639:List of Cornish saints 1615:Ciarán of Clonmacnoise 1593: 1531:Province of Canterbury 1483: 1474:Kingdom of Northumbria 1418: 1364: 1304:General Roman Calendar 1237:. Extreme weather (as 1163: 995:. Others attended the 918: 904: 807: 83:, a style of monastic 45: 7145:Scottish independence 6890:Celtic Media Festival 6773:National music scenes 6004:Proto-Celtic religion 5706:Related ethnic groups 4852:De Excidio Britanniae 4713:Bradley, Ian (2000). 4657:Bradley, Ian (2020). 4594:Flick, A. C. (1909). 4461:, pp. 15–16, 125 4398:Newell, E.J. (1895). 3790:St. Petroc's, Padstow 2905:Anglo-Saxon Chronicle 2829:Anglo-Saxon Chronicle 2826:as early as 209. The 2768:Cristnogaeth Geltaidd 2421: 2401:Further information: 2361:St David established 2201:Martyrology of Oengus 2198: 1969: 1785:Pan-Celtic traditions 1694: 1584: 1403: 1147: 1038:mutiny, allowing the 1034:saw the troops along 993:Synod of Arles in 314 973:Constantine the Great 916:The Life of St. Alban 910: 897:The Life of St. Alban 891: 798: 615:authority of the Pope 607:Celtic-speaking world 294:Christianity in Wales 87:, a unique system of 35: 7469:(Medieval Welsh law) 7079:Scottish nationalism 6729:Ancient Celtic music 6049:Romano-Celtic temple 5858:Welsh New Zealanders 5783:Irish New Zealanders 5270:Pächt, Otto (1986). 3947:Eusebius of Caesaria 3720:Tuchman, B. (1978). 3072:, pp. 230–270; 2988:Charles-Edwards 2000 2891:Oswiu of Northumbria 2437:The achievements of 1899:Church of Alexandria 1701:List of Irish saints 1649:Kevin of Glendalough 1588:as intercessor from 1537:'s pseudohistorical 1535:Geoffrey of Monmouth 1481:the Roman and Saxon 1396:List of Welsh saints 1103:their native customs 1064:withdrew his legions 1060:Constantine III 1052:Theodosius the Elder 830:: an account of the 756:improve this article 392:Insular illumination 162:Irish mission system 114:Church to which the 104:Insular Christianity 7654:Celtic Christianity 7159:Irish republicanism 7140:Breton independence 7119:Scottish devolution 7052:Cornish nationalism 6875:Pan Celtic Festival 6749:Scottish folk music 6503:Scottish literature 6029:Celtic Christianity 5833:Scottish Travellers 5818:Scottish Argentines 5662:Scottish Travellers 5430:Mayr-Harting, Henry 5318:10.1484/j.peri.3.68 5290:Ryan, John (1931). 5143:Google Books link 2 5095:. London: Methuen. 4892:Scanned by Google; 4217:on 3 November 2013. 3876:Riley, 82–93, 95–96 3386:on 15 November 2009 3362:Ante-Nicean Fathers 2531:corporal punishment 2529:and an emphasis on 2427:evangelist portrait 2266:Donnchadh Ó Corráin 2247:episcopal structure 2076:at its conclusion. 2010:Geraint of Dumnonia 1827:Life of Constantine 1611:Tigernach of Clones 1596:According to Bede, 1553:English Reformation 1339:spread widely; the 1243:Plague of Justinian 1173:" among the Welsh. 1001:Council of Ariminum 979:bishops, including 860:Joseph of Arimathea 662:English Reformation 563:Portal Christianity 397:Insular monasticism 217:Celtic Christianity 49:Celtic Christianity 7150:Welsh independence 7114:Cornish devolution 7035:Breton nationalism 6885:Celtic Connections 6488:Cornish literature 5838:Ulster Protestants 5823:Scottish Canadians 5813:Scottish Americans 5723:Anglo-Irish people 5170:Lloyd, John Edward 4861:Historia Brittonum 4647:, pp. viii–ix 4521:, pp. 319–320 4280:, pp. 311–312 4207:Spirituality Today 4111:, pp. 142–143 4087:, pp. 147–148 4075:, pp. 140–167 4035:, pp. 141–143 3975:, p. 224 n. 1 3888:, pp. 100–102 3828:(December 2008) . 3796:on 20 August 2013. 3774:. 12 January 2023. 3750:The Whithorn Trust 3683:, pp. 118–119 3630:, pp. 174–175 3582:, pp. 175–177 3523:, pp. 310–311 3199:, pp. 432–434 2994:, pp. 12–21; 2959:, pp. 431–432 2808:Cristianismo celta 2517:Rule of Columbanus 2435: 2204: 2109:Augustine of Hippo 2036:Lóegaire mac Néill 1976: 1907:St Columbanus 1852:lunisolar calendar 1799:Easter controversy 1793:Easter calculation 1775:penitential system 1753:Universal practice 1730:451 – 525), Saint 1697: 1673:Nectan of Hartland 1619:Finnian of Movilla 1594: 1501:Philip the Apostle 1476:around 616 at the 1419: 1357:also developed at 1280:Caw of Strathclyde 1195:Finnian of Clonard 1164: 1013:Augustine of Hippo 997:Council of Serdica 919: 905: 808: 497:Finnian of Movilla 424:Saints and leaders 46: 18:Celtic monasticism 7631: 7630: 7607: 7606: 7539: 7538: 7431: 7430: 7427: 7426: 7390:Cisalpine Gaulish 7210: 7209: 7096:national identity 7091:Welsh nationalism 7084:national identity 7064:Irish nationalism 7012: 7011: 7008: 7007: 6945:Cornish wrestling 6813: 6812: 6734:Breton Folk music 6699:Regional cultures 6542:National cultures 6528:Gaelic literature 6483:Breton literature 6444: 6443: 6440: 6439: 6436: 6435: 6224: 6223: 6136:Chief of the Name 6009:Celtic polytheism 5926:Sub-Roman Britain 5866: 5865: 5753:Irish Australians 5733:Cornish Americans 5692:Scottish diaspora 5286:(trans fr German) 5137:978-0-19-922665-8 5124:Ó Cróinín, Dáibhí 4997:Ó Cróinín, Dáibhí 4902:Secondary sources 4835:Ó Cróinín, Dáibhí 4759:978-1-4438-2588-7 4668:978-1-5064-6743-6 4584:, pp. 251–80 4572:, pp. 211–12 4556:978-1-60899-789-3 4290:Ó Cróinín, Dáibhí 3903:, pp. 231–41 3561:Williams, Rowan. 3549:Baring-Gould 1898 3534:Baring-Gould 1898 3509:Baring-Gould 1898 3497:Baring-Gould 1898 3412:Project Gutenberg 3358:Pseudo-Hippolytus 3112:, pp. vii–ix 3041:Padberg, Lutz von 3004:The Celtic Church 2824:Septimius Severus 2623:revival movements 2458:commercial ones. 2330:'s foundation of 2199:Excerpt from the 1931:Synod of Mag Léne 1927:Gregorian mission 1869:. The less exact 1834:records that the 1773:A uniquely Irish 1547:and followers of 1478:Battle of Chester 1458:John Edward Lloyd 1341:Llandaff Charters 1115:Saxon immigration 1101:and reverting to 935:Christian martyrs 923:Roman legionaries 914:, illustrated in 832:seventy disciples 788: 787: 780: 681:Romantic movement 666:Church of England 627:Celtic polytheism 597: 596: 462:Brigit of Kildare 412:Sculptured stones 61:Early Middle Ages 59:world during the 16:(Redirected from 7676: 7624: 7545: 7544: 7437: 7436: 7419:Galwegian Gaelic 7318: 7317: 7216: 7215: 7124:Welsh devolution 7018: 7017: 6770: 6769: 6759:Sean-nós singing 6754:Welsh folk music 6744:Irish folk music 6711:Highland culture 6493:Irish literature 6473:Arthurian Legend 6461: 6460: 6450: 6449: 6402: 6390: 6378: 6366: 6354: 6342: 6322: 6321: 6313: 6312: 6290:Neo-Christianity 6230: 6229: 6161:Gaelic astrology 6121:Celtic festivals 6024:Celtic mythology 5997:Ancient religion 5914:Iron Age Britain 5881: 5880: 5874: 5853:Welsh Argentines 5793:Irish Uruguayans 5788:Irish Travellers 5758:Irish Brazilians 5748:Irish Argentines 5728:Breton Americans 5682:Cornish diaspora 5644:Irish Travellers 5518: 5517: 5510:Celtic languages 5466: 5459: 5452: 5443: 5442: 5437: 5425: 5414:. Anchor Books. 5397: 5378: 5356: 5349:Wormald, Patrick 5344: 5338: 5330: 5321: 5295: 5285: 5266: 5257: 5228: 5226: 5224: 5210: 5200: 5187: 5185: 5183: 5165: 5156: 5141: 5114: 5087: 5074:Hughes, Kathleen 5069: 5048: 5027: 5018: 5012: 5004: 4992: 4975:Corning, Caitlin 4970: 4961: 4949: 4947: 4945: 4918: 4891: 4882: 4873: 4864: 4855: 4842: 4829: 4818: 4807: 4803:Annales Cambriae 4796: 4772: 4771: 4745: 4739: 4738: 4710: 4704: 4698: 4689: 4683: 4677: 4676: 4654: 4648: 4642: 4633: 4632: 4606: 4600: 4599: 4591: 4585: 4579: 4573: 4567: 4561: 4560: 4540: 4534: 4528: 4522: 4516: 4510: 4504: 4498: 4492: 4486: 4480: 4474: 4468: 4462: 4456: 4450: 4441: 4435: 4434: 4432: 4430: 4414: 4408: 4407: 4395: 4389: 4388: 4386: 4384: 4368: 4359: 4358: 4347: 4338: 4337:, pp. 32–34 4332: 4326: 4320: 4314: 4308: 4297: 4296:, pp. 13–14 4287: 4281: 4275: 4269: 4263: 4252: 4246: 4235: 4234: 4225: 4219: 4218: 4198: 4187: 4181: 4172: 4166: 4160: 4159:, pp. 13–17 4154: 4148: 4142: 4136: 4130: 4124: 4118: 4112: 4106: 4100: 4094: 4088: 4082: 4076: 4070: 4061: 4054: 4048: 4042: 4036: 4030: 4024: 4018: 4012: 4006: 4000: 3994: 3988: 3982: 3976: 3970: 3964: 3963: 3935: 3929: 3923: 3917: 3910: 3904: 3898: 3889: 3883: 3877: 3874: 3868: 3862: 3856: 3855: 3850: 3848: 3822: 3816: 3815: 3804: 3798: 3797: 3792:. Archived from 3782: 3776: 3775: 3764: 3758: 3757: 3756:on 18 July 2011. 3752:. Archived from 3742: 3736: 3735: 3722:A Distant Mirror 3717: 3711: 3710: 3704: 3690: 3684: 3678: 3672: 3666: 3660: 3654: 3648: 3642: 3631: 3625: 3616: 3615: 3604: 3595: 3589: 3583: 3577: 3571: 3570: 3558: 3552: 3551:, pp. 30–40 3546: 3537: 3530: 3524: 3518: 3512: 3506: 3500: 3494: 3488: 3487: 3466: 3460: 3459: 3444: 3438: 3437: 3435: 3433: 3422: 3416: 3415: 3401: 3395: 3394: 3393: 3391: 3382:, archived from 3372: 3366: 3365: 3354: 3348: 3332:John Allen Giles 3320:Thomas Habington 3317: 3303: 3297: 3296: 3291: 3289: 3266: 3260: 3254: 3248: 3242: 3236: 3230: 3224: 3218: 3212: 3206: 3200: 3194: 3185: 3182: 3176: 3175: 3157: 3151: 3145: 3136: 3130: 3113: 3107: 3101: 3095: 3089: 3083: 3077: 3067: 3061: 3060: 3037: 3031: 3025: 3019: 3013: 3007: 2981: 2975: 2969: 2960: 2954: 2948: 2942: 2922: 2915: 2909: 2900: 2894: 2887: 2881: 2868: 2862: 2859:Pope Celestine I 2851: 2845: 2816: 2810: 2752: 2715: 2710: 2709: 2708: 2701: 2696: 2695: 2694: 2647:Arthurian legend 2643:literary revival 2578:Clement Scotus I 2566:Quartodecimanism 2367:Alfred the Great 1962:Monastic tonsure 1946: 1943: 1939: 1936: 1867:calendrical moon 1748: 1745: 1737: 1729: 1714:like his own in 1681:Ciarán of Saigir 1653:Saint Endelienta 1528: 1525: 1486: 1439:Synod of Chester 1367: 1355:monastic schools 1201:and made up the 1084: 1081: 1032:Great Conspiracy 1030:Around 367, the 1021:St Germanus 969:Christianization 947:Julius and Aaron 848:King Lucius 783: 776: 772: 769: 763: 740: 732: 674:proto-Protestant 636:Study of History 589: 582: 575: 512:Julius and Aaron 318:Synod of Victory 313:Synod of Chester 228: 218: 208: 199: 198: 123:Lutz von Padberg 81:dating of Easter 21: 7684: 7683: 7679: 7678: 7677: 7675: 7674: 7673: 7634: 7633: 7632: 7627: 7603: 7550: 7535: 7477: 7473:Early Scots law 7462:Early Irish law 7448: 7423: 7400:Scottish Gaelic 7394: 7335:Proto-Brittonic 7307: 7303:Beurla Reagaird 7279: 7275:Scottish Gaelic 7251: 7223: 7206: 7202:Columba Project 7182:Celtic Congress 7163: 7128: 7102: 7023: 7004: 6965:Gaelic handball 6955:Gaelic football 6940:Cornish hurling 6899: 6809: 6768: 6715: 6694: 6680:Gaelic clothing 6663: 6578: 6537: 6498:Manx literature 6455: 6432: 6411:Other claimants 6406: 6311: 6261:Celtic Congress 6237: 6220: 6116:Celtic calendar 6094: 6053: 5992: 5888: 5875: 5862: 5848:Welsh Americans 5768:Irish Catholics 5763:Irish Canadians 5743:Irish Americans 5701: 5675:Celtic diaspora 5670: 5604: 5533: 5525: 5512: 5479: 5470: 5440: 5422: 5405: 5403:Further reading 5400: 5394: 5375: 5332: 5331: 5300:Sharpe, Richard 5282: 5222: 5220: 5208: 5199:, MI: Eerdmans. 5181: 5179: 5138: 5103: 5066: 5045: 5006: 5005: 4989: 4943: 4941: 4939: 4904: 4899: 4846:Gildas (1848). 4793:Life of Columba 4786: 4784:Primary sources 4781: 4776: 4775: 4760: 4746: 4742: 4727: 4711: 4707: 4699: 4692: 4684: 4680: 4669: 4655: 4651: 4643: 4636: 4625: 4617:. p. 242. 4607: 4603: 4592: 4588: 4580: 4576: 4570:Stancliffe 1992 4568: 4564: 4557: 4541: 4537: 4529: 4525: 4517: 4513: 4505: 4501: 4493: 4489: 4481: 4477: 4469: 4465: 4457: 4453: 4444:Nordenfalk 1977 4442: 4438: 4428: 4426: 4415: 4411: 4396: 4392: 4382: 4380: 4369: 4362: 4348: 4341: 4333: 4329: 4321: 4317: 4309: 4300: 4288: 4284: 4276: 4272: 4264: 4255: 4247: 4238: 4226: 4222: 4199: 4190: 4182: 4175: 4167: 4163: 4155: 4151: 4147:, pp. 9–12 4143: 4139: 4131: 4127: 4119: 4115: 4107: 4103: 4095: 4091: 4083: 4079: 4071: 4064: 4055: 4051: 4043: 4039: 4031: 4027: 4019: 4015: 4007: 4003: 3995: 3991: 3983: 3979: 3971: 3967: 3961: 3936: 3932: 3928:, pp. 1–19 3924: 3920: 3911: 3907: 3899: 3892: 3884: 3880: 3875: 3871: 3863: 3859: 3846: 3844: 3842: 3823: 3819: 3806: 3805: 3801: 3784: 3783: 3779: 3766: 3765: 3761: 3744: 3743: 3739: 3732: 3718: 3714: 3691: 3687: 3679: 3675: 3667: 3663: 3655: 3651: 3643: 3634: 3626: 3619: 3606: 3605: 3598: 3590: 3586: 3578: 3574: 3559: 3555: 3547: 3540: 3531: 3527: 3519: 3515: 3507: 3503: 3495: 3491: 3484: 3467: 3463: 3450:(22 May 2004). 3448:Williams, Rowan 3445: 3441: 3431: 3429: 3424: 3423: 3419: 3402: 3398: 3389: 3387: 3374: 3373: 3369: 3355: 3351: 3315: 3314:. 6th century. 3304: 3300: 3287: 3285: 3283: 3267: 3263: 3255: 3251: 3243: 3239: 3231: 3227: 3223:, pp. 1, 4 3219: 3215: 3207: 3203: 3195: 3188: 3183: 3179: 3172: 3158: 3154: 3146: 3139: 3131: 3116: 3108: 3104: 3096: 3092: 3084: 3080: 3068: 3064: 3057: 3038: 3034: 3026: 3022: 3014: 3010: 2982: 2978: 2970: 2963: 2955: 2951: 2943: 2936: 2931: 2926: 2925: 2919:Jonas of Bobbio 2916: 2912: 2901: 2897: 2888: 2884: 2869: 2865: 2855:Saint Palladius 2852: 2848: 2817: 2813: 2776:Crìosdaidheachd 2772:Scottish Gaelic 2753: 2749: 2744: 2713:Cornwall portal 2711: 2706: 2704: 2697: 2692: 2690: 2687: 2616: 2610: 2598: 2553: 2539: 2519: 2431:Book of Mulling 2405: 2399: 2309: 2303: 2243:Kathleen Hughes 2193: 2184: 2089: 2050: 2044: 1995:crown of thorns 1964: 1948:Council of Birr 1944: 1937: 1923:synod in Whitby 1887:Julian calendar 1840:bishops of Rome 1814:Hebrew calendar 1805: 1797:Main articles: 1795: 1787: 1764:Synod of Whitby 1755: 1746: 1703: 1689: 1641: 1635: 1609:Casa", such as 1602:Martin of Tours 1579: 1573: 1526: 1463:Kingdom of Kent 1433:to convert the 1398: 1392: 1365:Llanilltud Fawr 1152:at the gate of 1082: 1015:'s doctrine of 999:in 347 and the 818:'s 6th-century 793: 784: 773: 767: 764: 753: 741: 730: 654: 611:Catholic Church 602: 593: 557: 556: 438: 434: 430: 425: 417: 416: 347: 339: 338: 303:"Age of Saints" 236: 216: 204: 108:Patrick Wormald 74:Christian world 57:Celtic-speaking 28: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 7682: 7672: 7671: 7666: 7661: 7656: 7651: 7646: 7629: 7628: 7626: 7625: 7618: 7612: 7609: 7608: 7605: 7604: 7602: 7601: 7596: 7591: 7586: 7581: 7576: 7571: 7566: 7561: 7555: 7552: 7551: 7541: 7540: 7537: 7536: 7534: 7533: 7528: 7523: 7518: 7513: 7508: 7503: 7498: 7493: 7491:Gaelic warfare 7487: 7485: 7479: 7478: 7476: 7475: 7470: 7467:Cyfraith Hywel 7464: 7458: 7456: 7450: 7449: 7433: 7432: 7429: 7428: 7425: 7424: 7422: 7421: 7416: 7414:Deeside Gaelic 7411: 7405: 7403: 7396: 7395: 7393: 7392: 7387: 7385:Hispano-Celtic 7382: 7377: 7372: 7367: 7362: 7357: 7352: 7347: 7342: 7340:Proto-Goidelic 7337: 7332: 7326: 7324: 7315: 7309: 7308: 7306: 7305: 7300: 7295: 7289: 7287: 7281: 7280: 7278: 7277: 7272: 7267: 7261: 7259: 7253: 7252: 7250: 7249: 7244: 7239: 7233: 7231: 7225: 7224: 7212: 7211: 7208: 7207: 7205: 7204: 7199: 7194: 7192:Celtic society 7189: 7187:Celtic Revival 7184: 7179: 7173: 7171: 7165: 7164: 7162: 7161: 7155:United Ireland 7152: 7147: 7142: 7136: 7134: 7130: 7129: 7127: 7126: 7121: 7116: 7110: 7108: 7104: 7103: 7101: 7100: 7099: 7098: 7088: 7087: 7086: 7076: 7071: 7066: 7061: 7060: 7059: 7049: 7048: 7047: 7042: 7031: 7029: 7025: 7024: 7014: 7013: 7010: 7009: 7006: 7005: 7003: 7002: 7000:Welsh handball 6997: 6992: 6987: 6982: 6980:Highland games 6977: 6972: 6967: 6962: 6952: 6947: 6942: 6937: 6930: 6925: 6920: 6913: 6907: 6905: 6901: 6900: 6898: 6897: 6892: 6887: 6882: 6877: 6872: 6867: 6866: 6865: 6856: 6847: 6838: 6823: 6821: 6815: 6814: 6811: 6810: 6808: 6807: 6802: 6797: 6792: 6787: 6782: 6776: 6774: 6767: 6766: 6761: 6756: 6751: 6746: 6741: 6736: 6731: 6725: 6723: 6717: 6716: 6714: 6713: 6708: 6706:Gaelic culture 6702: 6700: 6696: 6695: 6693: 6692: 6687: 6685:Highland dress 6682: 6677: 6671: 6669: 6665: 6664: 6662: 6661: 6656: 6651: 6649:Pictish stones 6646: 6641: 6636: 6631: 6626: 6621: 6616: 6611: 6606: 6605: 6604: 6594: 6588: 6586: 6580: 6579: 6577: 6576: 6571: 6566: 6561: 6556: 6551: 6545: 6543: 6539: 6538: 6536: 6535: 6530: 6525: 6520: 6515: 6510: 6505: 6500: 6495: 6490: 6485: 6480: 6475: 6469: 6467: 6457: 6456: 6446: 6445: 6442: 6441: 6438: 6437: 6434: 6433: 6431: 6430: 6425: 6420: 6414: 6412: 6408: 6407: 6405: 6404: 6392: 6380: 6368: 6356: 6344: 6331: 6329: 6319: 6310: 6309: 6308: 6307: 6302: 6292: 6287: 6286: 6285: 6275: 6274: 6273: 6268: 6263: 6253: 6251:Celtic nations 6248: 6246:Celtic Revival 6242: 6239: 6238: 6226: 6225: 6222: 6221: 6219: 6218: 6213: 6203: 6198: 6193: 6188: 6183: 6178: 6173: 6168: 6163: 6158: 6153: 6148: 6143: 6138: 6133: 6128: 6123: 6118: 6113: 6108: 6102: 6100: 6096: 6095: 6093: 6092: 6087: 6082: 6077: 6072: 6067: 6061: 6059: 6055: 6054: 6052: 6051: 6046: 6041: 6036: 6031: 6026: 6021: 6019:Celtic Animism 6016: 6014:Celtic deities 6011: 6006: 6000: 5998: 5994: 5993: 5991: 5990: 5985: 5980: 5975: 5973:Cisalpine Gaul 5970: 5969: 5968: 5963: 5945: 5936: 5911: 5902: 5900:Gaelic Ireland 5896: 5894: 5890: 5889: 5877: 5876: 5869: 5867: 5864: 5863: 5861: 5860: 5855: 5850: 5845: 5840: 5835: 5830: 5825: 5820: 5815: 5810: 5805: 5800: 5798:Manx Americans 5795: 5790: 5785: 5780: 5775: 5773:Irish Chileans 5770: 5765: 5760: 5755: 5750: 5745: 5740: 5738:English people 5735: 5730: 5725: 5720: 5715: 5709: 5707: 5703: 5702: 5700: 5699: 5697:Welsh diaspora 5694: 5689: 5687:Irish diaspora 5684: 5678: 5676: 5672: 5671: 5669: 5668: 5667: 5666: 5665: 5664: 5653: 5648: 5647: 5646: 5630: 5625: 5620: 5614: 5612: 5606: 5605: 5603: 5602: 5597: 5592: 5587: 5582: 5577: 5572: 5567: 5562: 5557: 5552: 5547: 5541: 5539: 5527: 5526: 5514: 5513: 5494:Celtic studies 5486:Celtic nations 5484: 5481: 5480: 5469: 5468: 5461: 5454: 5446: 5439: 5438: 5426: 5420: 5406: 5404: 5401: 5399: 5398: 5392: 5379: 5373: 5361:Yorke, Barbara 5357: 5345: 5322: 5296: 5287: 5280: 5267: 5258: 5234:Church History 5229: 5201: 5188: 5166: 5157: 5145: 5136: 5115: 5101: 5088: 5070: 5064: 5049: 5043: 5028: 5019: 4993: 4987: 4971: 4962: 4950: 4937: 4919: 4905: 4903: 4900: 4898: 4897: 4883: 4874: 4865: 4856: 4843: 4830: 4819: 4808: 4797: 4787: 4785: 4782: 4780: 4777: 4774: 4773: 4758: 4740: 4725: 4705: 4703:, p. viii 4690: 4678: 4667: 4649: 4634: 4623: 4601: 4586: 4574: 4562: 4555: 4535: 4523: 4511: 4499: 4487: 4475: 4463: 4451: 4436: 4419:"Welsh Church" 4409: 4390: 4360: 4351:de Paor, Máire 4339: 4327: 4315: 4298: 4282: 4270: 4253: 4236: 4220: 4188: 4173: 4161: 4149: 4137: 4135:, pp. 7–9 4125: 4113: 4101: 4089: 4077: 4062: 4049: 4037: 4025: 4013: 4001: 3989: 3977: 3965: 3959: 3930: 3918: 3905: 3890: 3878: 3869: 3857: 3840: 3817: 3814:. p. 117. 3799: 3777: 3759: 3746:"Saint Ninian" 3737: 3730: 3712: 3685: 3673: 3661: 3659:, pp. 106 3649: 3632: 3617: 3596: 3584: 3572: 3553: 3538: 3525: 3513: 3501: 3489: 3482: 3461: 3439: 3417: 3396: 3367: 3349: 3318:Translated by 3298: 3281: 3261: 3249: 3247:, pp. 2–3 3237: 3225: 3213: 3201: 3186: 3177: 3171:978-0195050806 3170: 3152: 3137: 3114: 3102: 3090: 3078: 3062: 3055: 3032: 3020: 3008: 2984:Ó Cróinín 1995 2976: 2961: 2949: 2933: 2932: 2930: 2927: 2924: 2923: 2910: 2895: 2882: 2877:Acta Sanctorum 2874:compiling the 2863: 2846: 2811: 2746: 2745: 2743: 2740: 2739: 2738: 2733: 2728: 2723: 2717: 2716: 2702: 2686: 2683: 2658:antiquarianism 2609: 2606: 2597: 2594: 2552: 2549: 2538: 2535: 2518: 2515: 2473:), and on the 2455:Ardagh Chalice 2398: 2395: 2305:Main article: 2302: 2299: 2270:Richard Sharpe 2208:Desert Fathers 2192: 2189: 2187:Christianity. 2183: 2180: 2117:Kingdom of God 2105:Church Fathers 2088: 2085: 2046:Main article: 2043: 2040: 1963: 1960: 1921:until the 664 1822:Spring equinox 1794: 1791: 1786: 1783: 1754: 1751: 1688: 1685: 1634: 1631: 1592:(15th century) 1572: 1569: 1559:'s 1804 poem " 1423:Pope Gregory I 1404:A portrait of 1391: 1388: 1359:Llantwit Major 1276:Cunedda Wledig 1258:Bardsey Island 1254:Gerald of Mayo 1248:The title of " 1056:Romano-Britons 1036:Hadrian's Wall 1011:, who opposed 977:Romano-British 959:folk etymology 949:, citizens of 842:as "bishop of 838:in 1854 lists 834:discovered at 792: 789: 786: 785: 744: 742: 735: 729: 726: 706: 705: 693: 677: 653: 650: 601: 598: 595: 594: 592: 591: 584: 577: 569: 566: 565: 559: 558: 555: 554: 549: 544: 539: 534: 529: 524: 519: 514: 509: 504: 499: 494: 489: 484: 479: 474: 469: 464: 459: 454: 449: 444: 428:Cornish saints 426: 423: 422: 419: 418: 415: 414: 409: 404: 399: 394: 389: 384: 379: 374: 369: 364: 359: 354: 348: 345: 344: 341: 340: 337: 336: 330: 329: 323: 322: 321: 320: 315: 310: 308:Synod of Brefi 305: 297: 296: 290: 289: 288: 287: 282: 274: 273: 267: 266: 265: 264: 259: 251: 250: 244: 243: 237: 234: 233: 230: 229: 221: 220: 212: 211: 131:Irish-Scottish 65:Celtic peoples 26: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 7681: 7670: 7667: 7665: 7662: 7660: 7657: 7655: 7652: 7650: 7647: 7645: 7642: 7641: 7639: 7623: 7619: 7617: 7614: 7613: 7610: 7600: 7599:– in Portugal 7597: 7595: 7592: 7590: 7587: 7585: 7582: 7580: 7579:– in Galician 7577: 7575: 7572: 7570: 7567: 7565: 7562: 7560: 7557: 7556: 7553: 7546: 7542: 7532: 7529: 7527: 7524: 7522: 7519: 7517: 7514: 7512: 7509: 7507: 7504: 7502: 7499: 7497: 7494: 7492: 7489: 7488: 7486: 7484: 7480: 7474: 7471: 7468: 7465: 7463: 7460: 7459: 7457: 7455: 7451: 7447: 7443: 7438: 7434: 7420: 7417: 7415: 7412: 7410: 7407: 7406: 7404: 7401: 7397: 7391: 7388: 7386: 7383: 7381: 7378: 7376: 7373: 7371: 7368: 7366: 7363: 7361: 7358: 7356: 7353: 7351: 7348: 7346: 7343: 7341: 7338: 7336: 7333: 7331: 7328: 7327: 7325: 7323: 7319: 7316: 7314: 7310: 7304: 7301: 7299: 7296: 7294: 7291: 7290: 7288: 7286: 7282: 7276: 7273: 7271: 7268: 7266: 7263: 7262: 7260: 7258: 7254: 7248: 7245: 7243: 7240: 7238: 7235: 7234: 7232: 7230: 7226: 7222: 7217: 7213: 7203: 7200: 7198: 7195: 7193: 7190: 7188: 7185: 7183: 7180: 7178: 7177:Celtic League 7175: 7174: 7172: 7170: 7169:Pan-Celticism 7166: 7160: 7156: 7153: 7151: 7148: 7146: 7143: 7141: 7138: 7137: 7135: 7131: 7125: 7122: 7120: 7117: 7115: 7112: 7111: 7109: 7105: 7097: 7094: 7093: 7092: 7089: 7085: 7082: 7081: 7080: 7077: 7075: 7072: 7070: 7067: 7065: 7062: 7058: 7055: 7054: 7053: 7050: 7046: 7045:reunification 7043: 7041: 7038: 7037: 7036: 7033: 7032: 7030: 7026: 7019: 7015: 7001: 6998: 6996: 6993: 6991: 6988: 6986: 6983: 6981: 6978: 6976: 6973: 6971: 6968: 6966: 6963: 6960: 6956: 6953: 6951: 6948: 6946: 6943: 6941: 6938: 6936: 6935: 6931: 6929: 6926: 6924: 6921: 6919: 6918: 6914: 6912: 6909: 6908: 6906: 6902: 6896: 6893: 6891: 6888: 6886: 6883: 6881: 6878: 6876: 6873: 6871: 6868: 6864: 6860: 6857: 6855: 6851: 6848: 6846: 6842: 6839: 6837: 6833: 6830: 6829: 6828: 6825: 6824: 6822: 6820: 6816: 6806: 6803: 6801: 6798: 6796: 6793: 6791: 6788: 6786: 6783: 6781: 6778: 6777: 6775: 6771: 6765: 6762: 6760: 6757: 6755: 6752: 6750: 6747: 6745: 6742: 6740: 6737: 6735: 6732: 6730: 6727: 6726: 6724: 6722: 6718: 6712: 6709: 6707: 6704: 6703: 6701: 6697: 6691: 6688: 6686: 6683: 6681: 6678: 6676: 6673: 6672: 6670: 6666: 6660: 6659:Triple spiral 6657: 6655: 6652: 6650: 6647: 6645: 6642: 6640: 6637: 6635: 6632: 6630: 6627: 6625: 6622: 6620: 6617: 6615: 6612: 6610: 6607: 6603: 6600: 6599: 6598: 6595: 6593: 6590: 6589: 6587: 6585: 6581: 6575: 6572: 6570: 6567: 6565: 6562: 6560: 6557: 6555: 6552: 6550: 6547: 6546: 6544: 6540: 6534: 6531: 6529: 6526: 6524: 6521: 6519: 6516: 6514: 6511: 6509: 6506: 6504: 6501: 6499: 6496: 6494: 6491: 6489: 6486: 6484: 6481: 6479: 6478:Bardic Poetry 6476: 6474: 6471: 6470: 6468: 6466: 6462: 6458: 6451: 6447: 6429: 6426: 6424: 6421: 6419: 6416: 6415: 6413: 6409: 6401: 6396: 6393: 6389: 6384: 6381: 6377: 6372: 6369: 6365: 6360: 6357: 6353: 6348: 6345: 6341: 6336: 6333: 6332: 6330: 6327: 6326:Celtic League 6323: 6320: 6318: 6314: 6306: 6303: 6301: 6298: 6297: 6296: 6293: 6291: 6288: 6284: 6281: 6280: 6279: 6276: 6272: 6269: 6267: 6266:Celtic League 6264: 6262: 6259: 6258: 6257: 6256:Pan-Celticism 6254: 6252: 6249: 6247: 6244: 6243: 6240: 6236: 6231: 6227: 6217: 6214: 6211: 6207: 6204: 6202: 6199: 6197: 6194: 6192: 6189: 6187: 6184: 6182: 6179: 6177: 6174: 6172: 6169: 6167: 6164: 6162: 6159: 6157: 6156:Gaelicisation 6154: 6152: 6149: 6147: 6144: 6142: 6139: 6137: 6134: 6132: 6131:Celticisation 6129: 6127: 6124: 6122: 6119: 6117: 6114: 6112: 6109: 6107: 6104: 6103: 6101: 6097: 6091: 6088: 6086: 6083: 6081: 6078: 6076: 6073: 6071: 6068: 6066: 6063: 6062: 6060: 6056: 6050: 6047: 6045: 6042: 6040: 6037: 6035: 6032: 6030: 6027: 6025: 6022: 6020: 6017: 6015: 6012: 6010: 6007: 6005: 6002: 6001: 5999: 5995: 5989: 5986: 5984: 5981: 5979: 5976: 5974: 5971: 5967: 5964: 5962: 5958: 5954: 5951: 5950: 5949: 5946: 5944: 5940: 5939:Iron Age Gaul 5937: 5935: 5931: 5927: 5923: 5922:Roman Britain 5919: 5915: 5912: 5910: 5906: 5903: 5901: 5898: 5897: 5895: 5891: 5887: 5882: 5878: 5873: 5859: 5856: 5854: 5851: 5849: 5846: 5844: 5841: 5839: 5836: 5834: 5831: 5829: 5826: 5824: 5821: 5819: 5816: 5814: 5811: 5809: 5806: 5804: 5801: 5799: 5796: 5794: 5791: 5789: 5786: 5784: 5781: 5779: 5778:Irish Mexican 5776: 5774: 5771: 5769: 5766: 5764: 5761: 5759: 5756: 5754: 5751: 5749: 5746: 5744: 5741: 5739: 5736: 5734: 5731: 5729: 5726: 5724: 5721: 5719: 5716: 5714: 5711: 5710: 5708: 5704: 5698: 5695: 5693: 5690: 5688: 5685: 5683: 5680: 5679: 5677: 5673: 5663: 5659: 5658: 5657: 5654: 5652: 5649: 5645: 5641: 5640: 5639: 5636: 5635: 5634: 5631: 5629: 5626: 5624: 5621: 5619: 5616: 5615: 5613: 5611: 5607: 5601: 5598: 5596: 5593: 5591: 5588: 5586: 5583: 5581: 5578: 5576: 5573: 5571: 5568: 5566: 5563: 5561: 5558: 5556: 5553: 5551: 5548: 5546: 5543: 5542: 5540: 5537: 5532: 5528: 5524: 5519: 5515: 5511: 5507: 5503: 5502:Celtic tribes 5499: 5495: 5491: 5487: 5482: 5478: 5474: 5467: 5462: 5460: 5455: 5453: 5448: 5447: 5444: 5435: 5431: 5427: 5423: 5421:0-385-41849-3 5417: 5413: 5408: 5407: 5395: 5393:0-7141-0554-6 5389: 5385: 5380: 5376: 5374:0-582-77292-3 5370: 5366: 5362: 5358: 5354: 5350: 5346: 5342: 5336: 5328: 5323: 5319: 5315: 5311: 5307: 5306: 5301: 5297: 5293: 5288: 5283: 5281:0-19-921060-8 5277: 5273: 5268: 5264: 5259: 5255: 5251: 5247: 5243: 5240:(2): 251–80. 5239: 5235: 5230: 5218: 5214: 5207: 5202: 5198: 5194: 5189: 5177: 5176: 5171: 5167: 5163: 5158: 5154: 5150: 5146: 5144: 5139: 5133: 5129: 5125: 5121: 5116: 5112: 5108: 5104: 5102:1-59740-067-X 5098: 5094: 5089: 5085: 5081: 5080: 5075: 5071: 5067: 5065:0-85115-889-7 5061: 5057: 5056: 5050: 5046: 5044:9781137430595 5040: 5036: 5035: 5029: 5025: 5020: 5016: 5010: 5002: 4998: 4994: 4990: 4988:1-4039-7299-0 4984: 4980: 4976: 4972: 4968: 4963: 4959: 4955: 4951: 4940: 4938:0-7486-1047-2 4934: 4930: 4929: 4924: 4920: 4916: 4912: 4907: 4906: 4895: 4889: 4884: 4880: 4875: 4871: 4866: 4862: 4857: 4853: 4849: 4844: 4840: 4836: 4831: 4827: 4826: 4822:Bede (1999). 4820: 4816: 4815: 4809: 4805: 4804: 4798: 4794: 4789: 4788: 4769: 4765: 4761: 4755: 4751: 4744: 4736: 4732: 4728: 4726:1-896836-43-7 4722: 4718: 4717: 4709: 4702: 4697: 4695: 4687: 4682: 4675: 4670: 4664: 4660: 4653: 4646: 4641: 4639: 4631: 4626: 4624:9780195223934 4620: 4616: 4612: 4605: 4597: 4590: 4583: 4578: 4571: 4566: 4558: 4552: 4548: 4547: 4539: 4533:, p. 175 4532: 4527: 4520: 4515: 4508: 4503: 4497:, p. 317 4496: 4491: 4484: 4479: 4472: 4467: 4460: 4455: 4449: 4445: 4440: 4424: 4420: 4413: 4405: 4401: 4400:"Chapter III" 4394: 4378: 4374: 4367: 4365: 4356: 4352: 4346: 4344: 4336: 4331: 4325:, p. 312 4324: 4319: 4312: 4307: 4305: 4303: 4295: 4291: 4286: 4279: 4274: 4267: 4262: 4260: 4258: 4251:, p. 433 4250: 4245: 4243: 4241: 4232: 4224: 4216: 4212: 4208: 4204: 4197: 4195: 4193: 4185: 4180: 4178: 4171:, p. 252 4170: 4165: 4158: 4153: 4146: 4141: 4134: 4129: 4122: 4117: 4110: 4109:McCarthy 2003 4105: 4099:, p. 149 4098: 4097:McCarthy 2003 4093: 4086: 4085:McCarthy 2003 4081: 4074: 4073:McCarthy 2003 4069: 4067: 4059: 4053: 4047:, p. 141 4046: 4045:McCarthy 2003 4041: 4034: 4033:McCarthy 2003 4029: 4023:, p. 140 4022: 4021:McCarthy 2003 4017: 4011:, p. 146 4010: 4009:McCarthy 2003 4005: 3999:, p. 217 3998: 3993: 3986: 3981: 3974: 3969: 3962: 3960:1-56085-072-8 3956: 3952: 3948: 3944: 3940: 3934: 3927: 3922: 3915: 3909: 3902: 3897: 3895: 3887: 3882: 3873: 3866: 3861: 3854: 3843: 3841:9781605204024 3837: 3833: 3832: 3827: 3821: 3813: 3809: 3803: 3795: 3791: 3787: 3781: 3773: 3769: 3763: 3755: 3751: 3747: 3741: 3733: 3731:0-345-34957-1 3727: 3723: 3716: 3708: 3703: 3701: 3695: 3689: 3682: 3677: 3671:, p. 180 3670: 3665: 3658: 3653: 3647:, p. 177 3646: 3641: 3639: 3637: 3629: 3624: 3622: 3613: 3609: 3603: 3601: 3593: 3588: 3581: 3576: 3568: 3566: 3557: 3550: 3545: 3543: 3535: 3529: 3522: 3517: 3510: 3505: 3498: 3493: 3485: 3483:0-271-01780-5 3479: 3475: 3471: 3465: 3457: 3453: 3449: 3443: 3427: 3421: 3413: 3409: 3408: 3400: 3385: 3381: 3377: 3371: 3363: 3359: 3353: 3346: 3342: 3337: 3333: 3329: 3325: 3321: 3313: 3312: 3307: 3302: 3295: 3284: 3282:9783319415314 3278: 3274: 3273: 3265: 3258: 3253: 3246: 3241: 3234: 3229: 3222: 3217: 3210: 3205: 3198: 3193: 3191: 3181: 3173: 3167: 3163: 3156: 3150:, p. 432 3149: 3144: 3142: 3134: 3129: 3127: 3125: 3123: 3121: 3119: 3111: 3106: 3100:, p. xii 3099: 3094: 3087: 3082: 3075: 3071: 3066: 3058: 3056:9783150170151 3052: 3048: 3047: 3042: 3036: 3030:, p. 207 3029: 3024: 3017: 3012: 3005: 3001: 2997: 2993: 2989: 2985: 2980: 2973: 2968: 2966: 2958: 2953: 2947:, p. 431 2946: 2941: 2939: 2934: 2920: 2914: 2907: 2906: 2899: 2892: 2886: 2879: 2878: 2873: 2867: 2860: 2856: 2850: 2843: 2839: 2835: 2831: 2830: 2825: 2821: 2815: 2809: 2805: 2801: 2797: 2793: 2789: 2785: 2781: 2777: 2773: 2769: 2765: 2761: 2757: 2751: 2747: 2737: 2734: 2732: 2729: 2727: 2724: 2722: 2719: 2718: 2714: 2703: 2700: 2689: 2682: 2680: 2676: 2672: 2668: 2663: 2659: 2654: 2652: 2648: 2644: 2641:13th-century 2638: 2634: 2632: 2628: 2624: 2620: 2615: 2605: 2603: 2600:According to 2593: 2591: 2587: 2583: 2579: 2575: 2571: 2567: 2562: 2561:Old Testament 2558: 2548: 2545: 2534: 2532: 2528: 2524: 2514: 2512: 2509:or "clients ( 2508: 2504: 2500: 2496: 2490: 2488: 2482: 2480: 2476: 2472: 2468: 2464: 2459: 2456: 2452: 2448: 2447:Book of Kells 2444: 2440: 2432: 2428: 2424: 2420: 2416: 2414: 2413:Clonard Abbey 2410: 2404: 2394: 2392: 2388: 2384: 2380: 2376: 2372: 2368: 2364: 2363:his monastery 2359: 2357: 2353: 2352:Samson of Dol 2349: 2348:Paul Aurelian 2344: 2339: 2337: 2333: 2329: 2324: 2322: 2318: 2314: 2313:hagiographies 2311:According to 2308: 2298: 2294: 2292: 2288: 2282: 2278: 2275: 2271: 2267: 2262: 2260: 2256: 2252: 2248: 2244: 2239: 2236: 2232: 2228: 2224: 2219: 2217: 2213: 2209: 2202: 2197: 2188: 2179: 2177: 2173: 2169: 2165: 2161: 2157: 2153: 2150:there, while 2149: 2144: 2139: 2137: 2133: 2129: 2124: 2122: 2118: 2114: 2110: 2106: 2102: 2098: 2094: 2084: 2082: 2077: 2075: 2071: 2067: 2063: 2058: 2055: 2049: 2039: 2037: 2033: 2032: 2026: 2025:Jean Mabillon 2022: 2017: 2015: 2011: 2007: 2003: 2000: 1996: 1992: 1987: 1985: 1981: 1973: 1968: 1959: 1957: 1953: 1952:abbey at Iona 1949: 1932: 1928: 1924: 1920: 1916: 1913:'s flight to 1912: 1908: 1902: 1900: 1896: 1892: 1888: 1884: 1880: 1877:'s treatise " 1876: 1872: 1868: 1864: 1860: 1855: 1853: 1849: 1845: 1841: 1837: 1833: 1829: 1828: 1823: 1819: 1815: 1811: 1807: 1804: 1800: 1790: 1782: 1780: 1776: 1771: 1767: 1765: 1760: 1750: 1741: 1733: 1725: 1721: 1717: 1713: 1708: 1702: 1693: 1684: 1682: 1678: 1674: 1670: 1666: 1662: 1658: 1654: 1650: 1646: 1640: 1630: 1628: 1624: 1620: 1616: 1612: 1607: 1603: 1599: 1591: 1587: 1583: 1578: 1568: 1566: 1562: 1558: 1557:William Blake 1554: 1550: 1549:John Wycliffe 1546: 1542: 1541: 1536: 1532: 1521: 1518: 1514: 1510: 1506: 1502: 1498: 1494: 1490: 1485: 1479: 1475: 1471: 1466: 1464: 1459: 1454: 1453: 1448: 1444: 1440: 1436: 1432: 1428: 1425:dispatched a 1424: 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757: 751: 750: 745:This section 743: 739: 734: 733: 725: 723: 722:Celtic fringe 719: 715: 711: 702: 698: 694: 691: 686: 682: 678: 675: 671: 667: 663: 659: 658: 657: 649: 646: 640: 638: 637: 632: 628: 624: 620: 616: 612: 608: 590: 585: 583: 578: 576: 571: 570: 568: 567: 564: 561: 560: 553: 550: 548: 545: 543: 542:Samson of Dol 540: 538: 535: 533: 530: 528: 525: 523: 520: 518: 515: 513: 510: 508: 505: 503: 500: 498: 495: 493: 490: 488: 485: 483: 480: 478: 475: 473: 470: 468: 465: 463: 460: 458: 455: 453: 450: 448: 445: 443: 440: 439: 437: 433: 429: 421: 420: 413: 410: 408: 405: 403: 400: 398: 395: 393: 390: 388: 385: 383: 380: 378: 375: 373: 370: 368: 365: 363: 360: 358: 355: 353: 350: 349: 343: 342: 335: 332: 331: 328: 325: 324: 319: 316: 314: 311: 309: 306: 304: 301: 300: 299: 298: 295: 292: 291: 286: 283: 281: 278: 277: 276: 275: 272: 269: 268: 263: 260: 258: 255: 254: 253: 252: 249: 246: 245: 242: 239: 238: 232: 231: 227: 223: 222: 219: 214: 213: 209: 207: 201: 200: 197: 195: 191: 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Retrieved 5216: 5212: 5197:Grand Rapids 5192: 5180:. Retrieved 5174: 5161: 5152: 5127: 5092: 5083: 5077: 5054: 5033: 5023: 5000: 4978: 4969:. Cambridge. 4966: 4957: 4954:Brown, Peter 4942:. Retrieved 4927: 4923:Bradley, Ian 4914: 4894:alphabetized 4887: 4878: 4869: 4860: 4851: 4838: 4824: 4813: 4802: 4792: 4779:Bibliography 4749: 4743: 4715: 4708: 4701:Bradley 1999 4688:, p. ix 4686:Bradley 1999 4681: 4672: 4658: 4652: 4645:Bradley 1999 4628: 4610: 4604: 4595: 4589: 4577: 4565: 4545: 4538: 4526: 4514: 4502: 4490: 4485:, p. 37 4478: 4473:, p. 36 4466: 4454: 4439: 4427:. Retrieved 4422: 4412: 4403: 4393: 4381:. Retrieved 4376: 4354: 4330: 4318: 4285: 4273: 4268:, p. 13 4230: 4223: 4215:the original 4210: 4206: 4186:, p. 17 4184:Corning 2006 4164: 4152: 4140: 4128: 4123:, p. 28 4116: 4104: 4092: 4080: 4057: 4052: 4040: 4028: 4016: 4004: 3992: 3987:, p. 34 3980: 3973:Wormald 2006 3968: 3950: 3933: 3926:Corning 2006 3921: 3913: 3908: 3881: 3872: 3860: 3852: 3845:. 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ABC-CLIO. 4848:Giles, J.A. 4582:Meeder 2011 4519:Hughes 2005 4507:Hughes 2005 4495:Hughes 2005 4459:Youngs 1989 4429:19 November 4383:18 December 4323:Hughes 2005 4311:Hughes 2005 4294:Youngs 1989 4278:Hughes 2005 3939:Constantine 3865:Hughes 2005 3826:Bury, J. B. 3521:Hughes 2005 3432:20 November 3390:21 November 3341:Cirencester 3259:, p. 3 3235:, p. 2 3211:, p. 4 3135:, p. 1 3070:Sharpe 1984 2996:Hughes 1981 2992:Davies 1992 2872:Bollandists 2820:John Morris 2800:Kristeniezh 2619:Ian Bradley 2602:John Bowden 2471:Colum Cille 2439:insular art 2375:Saint Teilo 2291:St. Columba 2259:sacramental 2216:Lindisfarne 2191:Monasticism 2048:Penitential 2002:Simon Magus 1919:Northumbria 1695:St. Patrick 1527: 1147 1513:Glastonbury 1351:monasteries 1337:Monasticism 1156:'s fortress 1119:mercenaries 1005:4th-century 939:Saint Alban 931:persecution 883:3rd century 840:Aristobulus 836:Mount Athos 812:1st century 690:rationalism 664:, when the 645:"Celticity" 600:Definitions 387:Insular art 372:Celtic Rite 367:Celtic mass 352:Bell shrine 100:Christendom 7638:Categories 7594:– in Italy 7496:Ceathairne 7360:Gallaecian 6990:Road bowls 6895:Eisteddfod 6863:Calan Awst 6859:Lughnasadh 6465:Literature 6328:definition 6151:Clan chief 5943:Roman Gaul 5934:Hen Ogledd 5660:including 5642:including 5312:: 230–70. 5149:John, Eric 4531:Lloyd 1912 4448:Pächt 1986 4169:Brown 2003 3707:Wikisource 3681:Yorke 2006 3669:Lloyd 1912 3645:Lloyd 1912 3628:Lloyd 1912 3592:Lloyd 1912 3580:Lloyd 1912 3345:Wikisource 3316:(in Latin) 3288:4 February 3049:. Reclam. 3016:Brown 2003 2929:References 2760:Kristoneth 2612:See also: 2423:Saint John 2332:Llancarfan 2287:St. Brigid 2168:Willibrord 2160:Two Ewalds 2074:absolution 1999:heresiarch 1970:The Roman 1945: 697 1938: 630 1875:Augustalis 1859:solar year 1844:Alexandria 1759:Latin West 1747: 570 1699:See also: 1667:mother of 1637:See also: 1627:Saint Serf 1575:See also: 1505:St David's 1489:Archbishop 1470:Æthelfrith 1394:See also: 1272:Hen Ogledd 1239:around 535 1187:missionize 1083: 500 1074:historian 1025:his heresy 985:Restitutus 981:Archbishop 943:Amphibalus 875:Tertullian 670:Protestant 477:Columbanus 7526:Redshanks 7501:Ceithearn 7229:Brittonic 7221:Languages 6854:Calan Mai 6845:Gŵyl Fair 6819:Festivals 6634:Interlace 6058:Mythology 5966:Gallaecia 5580:Galatians 5335:cite book 5254:163075473 5219:: 140–167 5111:711797907 5009:cite book 5003:. London. 4879:Confessio 4768:758707463 4483:John 2000 4471:John 2000 4335:John 2000 4249:Koch 2006 3997:Ryan 1931 3985:John 2000 3886:Ryan 1931 3657:Bede 1999 3197:Koch 2006 3148:Koch 2006 2957:Koch 2006 2945:Koch 2006 2557:Judaizers 2479:St. Aidan 2475:continent 2467:Old Irish 2463:Colmcille 2445:like the 2429:from the 2391:Glamorgan 2377:, Cadoc, 2343:Armorican 2176:Ceolfrith 2143:peregrini 2062:sackcloth 1915:Dál Riata 1895:Dionysius 1891:Victorian 1781:of 1215. 1720:Old Irish 1712:civitates 1707:Palladius 1306:: Saints 1211:Dál Riata 1123:Vortigern 1107:Visigoths 1099:Roman law 1072:Byzantine 963:Lichfield 927:Mithraism 768:July 2021 619:spiritual 517:Kentigern 492:Dubricius 164:of Saint 94:The term 44:, Ireland 7511:Gaesatae 7402:dialects 7365:Lepontic 7355:Galatian 7257:Goidelic 7107:Autonomy 7022:Politics 6975:Rounders 6827:Calendar 6800:Scotland 6785:Cornwall 6780:Brittany 6668:Clothing 6619:Knotwork 6597:Brooches 6569:Scotland 6554:Cornwall 6549:Brittany 6428:Y Wladfa 6383:Scotland 6347:Cornwall 6335:Brittany 6186:Seanchaí 6181:Tanistry 6141:Derbfine 6070:Scottish 5961:Brittany 5957:Domnonée 5953:Armorica 5948:Britonia 5930:Dumnonia 5905:Dálriata 5590:Lepontii 5585:Helvetii 5570:Gallaeci 5432:(1991). 5363:(2006). 5172:(1912). 4999:(1995). 4977:(2006). 4956:(2003). 4925:(1999). 4837:(eds.). 4735:44620654 3772:Bartleby 3696:(1910). 3472:(1998). 3043:(1998). 2842:Valerian 2804:Galician 2685:See also 2662:Romantic 2570:Passover 2356:Brittany 2336:Gwynllyw 2274:paruchia 2251:paruchia 2231:ordained 2227:dioceses 2212:Cuthbert 2164:Willehad 2070:sacerdos 2008:to King 1956:computus 1861:and the 1848:computus 1832:Eusebius 1816:, which 1803:computus 1669:St David 1665:St Nonna 1661:Dumnonia 1606:Whithorn 1571:Scotland 1545:Lollards 1509:Llandaff 1484:computus 1320:computus 1312:Winifred 1284:Silurian 1215:Scotland 1154:Bridei I 1139:Brittany 1135:Cornwall 1009:Pelagius 951:Caerleon 856:Deruvian 828:Tiberius 532:Oudoceus 502:Gwynllyw 482:Cuthbert 346:Features 206:a series 202:Part of 7564:Deities 7521:Hobelar 7483:Warfare 7446:Warfare 7380:Pictish 7375:Cumbric 7350:Gaulish 7322:Extinct 7242:Cornish 7040:history 6985:Hurling 6959:Ladies' 6950:Curling 6923:Camogie 6850:Beltane 6832:Samhain 6790:Ireland 6559:Ireland 6454:Culture 6423:England 6359:Ireland 6317:Nations 6216:Coinage 6206:Warfare 6099:Society 6090:Cornish 6080:British 5988:Galatia 5978:Balkans 5886:Studies 5623:Cornish 5618:Bretons 5595:Noricum 5550:Britons 5523:Peoples 5305:Peritia 5223:18 June 5213:Celtica 5126:(ed.). 5086:: 1–20. 4850:(ed.). 4674:Church. 3949:(ed.), 3941:(325), 3326:Sapiens 2756:Cornish 2679:Ireland 2675:New Age 2537:Baptism 2527:fasting 2511:vassals 2503:ascetic 2465:or, in 2403:Termonn 2397:Ireland 2387:Tysilio 2321:Deiniol 2235:priests 2172:Wilfrid 2156:Columba 2054:penance 2006:Aldhelm 1980:tonsure 1972:tonsure 1940:); the 1865:of the 1740:Caillín 1687:Ireland 1657:Brychan 1520:Bernard 1497:England 1472:of the 1445:cleric 1427:mission 1379:tonsure 1300:Normans 1296:Vikings 1150:Columba 1076:Zosimus 895:, from 871:Britons 844:Britain 820:account 799:Modern 791:Britain 728:History 710:Galatia 701:New Age 631:Toynbee 552:Tewdrig 537:Patrick 472:Columba 457:Brendan 407:Plygain 382:Culdees 235:History 186:Cornish 166:Columba 150:Ireland 89:penance 85:tonsure 7559:Tribes 7506:Fianna 7293:Shelta 7237:Breton 7057:status 6995:Shinty 6970:Gouren 6934:Cnapan 6928:Cammag 6841:Imbolc 6764:Carnyx 6690:Tartan 6609:Carnyx 6376:Mannin 6352:Kernow 6340:Breizh 6210:Gaelic 6166:Fáinne 6111:Brehon 6085:Breton 6039:Druids 5893:Places 5600:Volcae 5545:Belgae 5506:· 5504: 5498:· 5496: 5490:· 5488: 5418: 5390: 5371: 5278: 5252: 5182:17 May 5134: 5109: 5099: 5062: 5041: 4985: 4935: 4766: 4756: 4733: 4723: 4665: 4621: 4553: 3957: 3847:5 July 3838: 3728: 3702: 3480: 3306:Gildas 3279: 3168: 3053: 2838:Decius 2796:Breton 2660:, the 2507:culdee 2379:Padarn 2317:Illtud 2223:abbots 1991:corona 1984:slaves 1911:Oswald 1863:phases 1810:Easter 1732:Moluag 1724:Brigid 1716:Armagh 1677:Ciaran 1623:Ternan 1617:, and 1517:Bishop 1511:, and 1493:Elfodd 1429:under 1384:parish 1377:. The 1373:, and 1371:Bangor 1346:clasau 1325:Easter 1292:Saxons 1235:Breaca 1233:, and 1227:Petroc 1171:Saints 1162:(1906) 1137:, and 1070:. The 989:London 983: 879:Origen 858:, and 826: 816:Gildas 623:nature 527:Ninian 507:Illtud 188:, and 182:Breton 143:Papacy 116:Celtic 7549:Lists 7370:Noric 7285:Mixed 7265:Irish 7247:Welsh 6911:Bando 6904:Sport 6805:Wales 6721:Music 6654:Torcs 6644:Mazes 6574:Wales 6400:Cymru 6395:Wales 6278:Music 6201:Vates 6196:Túath 6146:Druid 6075:Welsh 6065:Irish 5656:Scots 5638:Irish 5633:Gaels 5628:Welsh 5575:Gauls 5565:Gaels 5536:Names 5508: 5500: 5492: 5473:Celts 5250:S2CID 5209:(PDF) 5122:. 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