355:(PRO). Within PRO seawater is pumped into a pressure chamber where the pressure is lower than the difference between fresh and salt water pressure. Fresh water moves in a semipermeable membrane and increases its volume in the chamber. As the pressure in the chamber is compensated a turbine spins to generate electricity. In Braun's article he states that this process is easy to understand in a more broken down manner. Two solutions, A being salt water and B being fresh water are separated by a membrane. He states "only water molecules can pass the semipermeable membrane. As a result of the osmotic pressure difference between both solutions, the water from solution B thus will diffuse through the membrane in order to dilute solution A". The pressure drives the turbines and power the generator that produces the electrical energy. Osmosis might be used directly to "pump" fresh water out of The Netherlands into the sea. This is currently done using electric pumps.
560:, wherein "heat rises", is blocked using density differences between the three layers that make up the pond, in order to trap heat. The upper convection zone is the uppermost zone, followed by the stable gradient zone, then the bottom thermal zone. The stable gradient zone is the most important. The saltwater in this layer can not rise to the higher zone because the saltwater above has lower salinity and is therefore less-dense and more buoyant; and it can not sink to the lower level because that saltwater is denser. This middle zone, the stable gradient zone, effectively becomes an "insulator" for the bottom layer (although the main purpose is to block natural convection, since water is a poor insulator). This water from the lower layer, the storage zone, is pumped out and the heat is used to produce energy, usually by turbine in an
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specific water environment. The main waste product of salinity gradient technology is brackish water. The discharge of brackish water into the surrounding waters, if done in large quantities and with any regularity, will cause salinity fluctuations. While some variation in salinity is usual, particularly where fresh water (rivers) empties into an ocean or sea anyway, these variations become less important for both bodies of water with the addition of brackish waste waters. Extreme salinity changes in an aquatic environment may result in findings of low densities of both animals and plants due to intolerance of sudden severe salinity drops or spikes. According to the prevailing environmentalist opinions, the possibility of these negative effects should be considered by the operators of future large blue energy establishments.
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however
Statkraft announced not to continue this pilot. Statkraft found that with existing technology, the salt gradient was not high enough to be economic, which other studies have agreed on. Higher salt gradients can be found in geothermal brines and desalination plant brines, and SaltPower, a Danish company, is now building its first commercial plant with high salinity brine. There is perhaps more potential in integrating Pressure Retarded Osmosis as an operating mode of reverse osmosis, rather than a stand-alone technology.
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401:. In this method, seawater is pumped into a pressure chamber that is at a pressure lower than the difference between the pressures of saline water and fresh water. Freshwater is also pumped into the pressure chamber through a membrane, which increase both the volume and pressure of the chamber. As the pressure differences are compensated, a turbine is spun, providing kinetic energy. This method is being specifically studied by the
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The technology related to this type of power is still in its infant stages, even though the principle was discovered in the 1950s. Standards and a complete understanding of all the ways salinity gradients can be utilized are important goals to strive for in order to make this clean energy source more
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on
November 24, 2009. It aimed to produce enough electricity to light and heat a small town within five years by osmosis. At first, it did produce a minuscule 4 kilowatts – enough to heat a large electric kettle, but by 2015 the target was 25 megawatts – the same as a small wind farm. In January 2014
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The results showed the device was able to generate an electric current on the order of a nanoampere. The researchers claim this is 1,000 times the yield of other known techniques for harvesting osmotic energy and makes boron nitride nanotubes an extremely efficient solution for harvesting the energy
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over the electrodes remains low during the charge step and charging is relatively easy. In between the charge and discharge step, the electrodes are brought in contact with freshwater. After this, there are less ions available to neutralize the charge on each electrode such that the voltage over the
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in 1973 at the Ben-Gurion
University of the Negev, Beersheba, Israel. The idea came to Prof. Loeb, in part, as he observed the Jordan River flowing into the Dead Sea. He wanted to harvest the energy of mixing of the two aqueous solutions (the Jordan River being one and the Dead Sea being the other)
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in contact with saline water, followed by a discharge in freshwater. Since the amount of electrical energy which is needed during the charging step is less than one gets out during the discharge step, each completed cycle effectively produces energy. An intuitive explanation of this effect is that
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A research team built an experimental system using boron nitride that produced much greater power than the
Statkraft prototype. It used an impermeable and electrically insulating membrane that was pierced by a single boron nitride nanotube with an external diameter of a few dozen nanometers. With
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While the mechanics and concepts of salinity gradient power are still being studied, the power source has been implemented in several different locations. Most of these are experimental, but thus far they have been predominantly successful. The various companies that have utilized this power have
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A 2012 study on efficiency from Yale
University concluded that the highest extractable work in constant-pressure PRO with a seawater draw solution and river water feed solution is 0.75 kWh/m (2.7 kJ/L) while the free energy of mixing is 0.81 kWh/m (2.9 kJ/L) — a thermodynamic
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Similar to the open cycle in ocean thermal energy conversion (OTEC). The disadvantage of this cycle is the cumbersome problem of a large diameter turbine (75 meters +) operating at below atmospheric pressure to extract the power between the water with less salinity & the water with greater
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Marine and river environments have obvious differences in water quality, namely salinity. Each species of aquatic plant and animal is adapted to survive in either marine, brackish, or freshwater environments. There are species that can tolerate both, but these species usually thrive best in a
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Impingement and entrainment at intake structures are a concern due to large volumes of both river and sea water utilized in both PRO and RED schemes. Intake construction permits must meet strict environmental regulations and desalination plants and power plants that utilize surface water are
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Salinity gradient energy is based on using the resources of “osmotic pressure difference between fresh water and sea water.” All energy that is proposed to use salinity gradient technology relies on the evaporation to separate water from salt. Osmotic pressure is the "chemical potential of
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In 1954, Pattle suggested that there was an untapped source of power when a river mixes with the sea, in terms of the lost osmotic pressure, however it was not until the mid ‘70s where a practical method of harnessing it using selectively permeable membranes by Loeb was outlined.
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or reverse dialysis, which is essentially the creation of a salt battery. This method was described by
Weinstein and Leitz as “an array of alternating anion and cation exchange membranes can be used to generate electric power from the free energy of river and sea water.”
1046:(Brauns, E. “Toward a worldwide sustainable and simultaneous large-scale production of renewable energy and potable water trough salinity gradient power by combining reversed electrodialysis and solar power?” Environmental Process and Technology. Jan 2007. 312-323.)
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The technologies have been confirmed in laboratory conditions. They are being developed into commercial use in the
Netherlands (RED) and Norway (PRO). The cost of the membrane has been an obstacle. A new, lower cost membrane, based on an electrically modified
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is a function of ion density. By introducing a salinity gradient and allowing some of the ions to diffuse out of the capacitor, this reduces the capacitance, and so the voltage must increase, since the voltage equals the ratio of charge to capacitance.
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at low pressures—these non-condensable gases can be re-dissolved of course, but with an energy penalty). Also as stated by Jones and Finley within their article “Recent
Development in Salinity Gradient Power”, there is basically no fuel cost.
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electrodes increases. The discharge step which follows is therefore able to deliver a relatively high amount of energy. A physical explanation is that on an electrically charged capacitor, there is a mutually attractive
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this membrane separating a salt water reservoir and a fresh water reservoir, the team measured the electric current passing through the membrane using two electrodes immersed in the fluid either side of the nanotube.
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Montague, C., Ley, J. A Possible Effect of
Salinity Fluctuation on Abundance of Benthic Vegetation and Associated Fauna in Northeastern Florida Bay. Estuaries and Coasts. 1993. Springer New York. Vol.15 No. 4. Pg.
1055:(Brauns, E. “Toward a worldwide sustainable and simultaneous large-scale production of renewable energy and potable water through salinity gradient power by combining reversed electrodialysis and solar power?.”
461:'s capacitive method, which is relatively new and has so far only been tested on lab scale. With this method energy can be extracted out of the mixing of saline water and freshwater by cyclically charging up
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Chung, Hyung Won; Swaminathan, Jaichander; Banchik, Leonardo D.; Lienhard, John H. (2018). "Economic framework for net power density and levelized cost of electricity in pressure-retarded osmosis".
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concentrated and dilute solutions of salt". When looking at relations between high osmotic pressure and low, solutions with higher concentrations of salt have higher pressure.
1069:
Yin Yip, Ngai; Elimelech, Menachem (2012). "Thermodynamic and Energy
Efficiency Analysis of Power Generation from Natural Salinity Gradients by Pressure Retarded Osmosis".
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The impact of brackish water on ecosystems can be minimized by pumping it out to sea and releasing it into the mid-layer, away from the surface and bottom ecosystems.
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in the saline water efficiently neutralizes the charge on each electrode by forming a thin layer of opposite charge very close to the electrode surface, known as an
200:
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Rao, Akshay K.; Li, Owen R; Wrede, Luke; Coan, Stephen M.; Elias, George; Cordoba, Sandra; Roggenberg, Michael; Castillo, Luciano; Warsinger, David M. (2021).
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in warm water to form ammonium bicarbonate again in cold water. So in a RED energy producing closed system the two different gradients of salinity are kept.
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Straub, Anthony P.; Deshmukh, Akshay; Elimelech, Menachem (2016). "Pressure-retarded osmosis for power generation from salinity gradients: is it viable?".
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that was going to waste in this natural mixing process. In 1977 Prof. Loeb invented a method of producing power by a reverse electrodialysis heat engine.
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The team claimed that a 1 square metre (11 sq ft) membrane could generate around 4 kW and be capable of generating up to 30 MWh per year.
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plastic, made it fit for potential commercial use. Other methods have been proposed and are currently under development. Among them, a method based on
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alternative that creates renewable and sustainable power by using naturally occurring processes. This practice does not contaminate or release
283:. This byproduct is the result of natural forces that are being harnessed: the flow of fresh water into seas that are made up of salt water.
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Post, Jan W.; Veerman, Joost; Hamelers, Hubertus V.M.; Euverink, Gerrit J.W.; Metz, Sybrand J.; Nymeijer, Kitty; Buisman, Cees J.N. (2007).
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Both of these methods do not rely on membranes, so filtration requirements are not as important as they are in the PRO & RED schemes.
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salt water mixture using osmotic power as an intermediary. The primary power source originates from a thermal difference, as part of a
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on the electrode, and the ionic charge in the liquid. In order to pull ions away from the charged electrode, osmotic pressure must do
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provides access to scientific literature and general information on the potential environmental effects of salinity gradient power.
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411:, which has calculated that up to 2.85 GW would be available from this process in Norway. Statkraft has built the world's first
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also done so in many different ways as there are several concepts and processes that harness the power from salinity gradient.
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A database for all data collected by marine energy research and development projects funded by the U.S. Department of Energy.
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sometimes involved with various local, state and federal agencies to obtain permission that can take upwards to 18 months.
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R.E. Pattle (2 October 1954). "Production of electric power by mixing fresh and salt water in the hydroelectric pile".
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Olsson, M.; Wick, G. L.; Isaacs, J. D. (1979-10-26). "Salinity Gradient Power: Utilizing Vapor Pressure Differences".
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A database of information on potential environmental effects of marine energy and offshore wind energy development.
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Using low caloric waste energy by regenerate a high solution ammonium bicarbonate in a solution with a low salinity
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491:. This work done increases the electrical potential energy in the capacitor. An electronic explanation is that
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A database that provides up-to-date information on marine energy deployments in the U.S. and around the world.
2001:
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Brogioli, Doriano (2009-07-29). "Extracting Renewable Energy from a Salinity Difference Using a Capacitor".
2100:
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1423:"Rivers could generate thousands of nuclear power plants worth of energy, thanks to a new 'blue' membrane"
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At Pennsylvania State University, Dr. Logan tries to use waste heat with low calority using the fact that
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890:^ Weintraub, Bob. "Sidney Loeb," Bulletin of the Israel Chemical Society, Dec. 2001, issue 8, page 8-9.
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be used to generate osmotic power if evaporation from solar heat is used to create a salinity gradient,
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1037:(Jones, A.T., W. Finley. “Recent developments in salinity gradient power”. Oceans. 2003. 2284-2287.)
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https://drive.google.com/file/d/1hpgY6dd0Qtb4M6xnNXhutP4pMxidq_jqG962VzWt_W7-hssGnSxSzjTY8RvW/edit
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Energy available from the difference in the salt concentration between seawater and river water
1122:"Salinity-gradient power: Evaluation of pressure-retarded osmosis and reverse electrodialysis"
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Differing salinity gradient power generations exist but one of the most commonly discussed is
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reported creating a membrane that contained around 10 million BNNTs per cubic centimeter.
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556:). Sunlight reaching the bottom of the saltwater pond is absorbed as heat. The effect of
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Vapor pressure differences: open cycle and absorption refrigeration cycle (closed cycle)
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A database of information on technical design and engineering of marine energy devices.
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1207:"Is PRO economically feasible? Not according to Statkraft | ForwardOsmosisTech"
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The method of generating power by pressure retarded osmosis was invented by Prof.
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1340:"A framework for blue energy enabled energy storage in reverse osmosis processes"
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727: – Energy that responsibly meets social, economic, and environmental needs
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At the Eddy Potash Mine in New Mexico, a technology called "salinity gradient
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is the energy available from the difference in the salt concentration between
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987:(4417). American Association for the Advancement of Science (AAAS): 452–454.
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339:) emissions (vapor pressure methods will release dissolved air containing CO
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A network of databases providing broad access to marine energy information.
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ClimateTechWiki: Ocean Energy: Salinity gradient for electricity generation
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using one of the first three methods above, such as the capacitive method.
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1397:"Nanotubes boost potential of salinity power as a renewable energy source"
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Salinity Gradient Solar Pond Technology Applied to Potash Solution Mining
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At the 2019 fall meeting of the Materials Research Society a team from
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2018:
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Portal and Repository for Information on Marine Renewable Energy
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860:^ Israel Patent Application 42658 of July 3, 1973. (see also
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BBC News Norway's Statkraft opens first osmotic power plant
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Erroneously shows Israel priority as 1974 instead of 1973
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One method to utilize salinity gradient energy is called
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Pages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets
1170:"The world's first osmotic power plant from Statkraft"
1452:"Symposium Sessions | 2019 MRS Fall Meeting | Boston"
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Pages displaying wikidata descriptions as a fallback
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314:
592:of salinity gradients for usable electrical power.
818:S. Loeb (22 August 1975). "Osmotic power plants".
575:the potential energy in this salinity gradient is
1561:Basic information about salinity gradient energy.
736: – Energy collected from renewable resources
698:) – Technique of separating salts from water
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393:Osmotic Power Prototype at Tofte (Hurum), Norway
440:A second method being developed and studied is
19:"Blue energy" redirects here. For the NGO, see
1559:Marine Energy Basics: Salinity Gradient Energy
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1239:(1). Royal Society of Chemistry (RSC): 31–48.
1151:Recent Developments in Salinity Gradient Power
936:(5). American Physical Society (APS): 058501.
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914:History of osmotic power (PDF) at archive.org
517:Absorption refrigeration cycle (closed cycle)
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521:For the purpose of dehumidifying air, in a
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550:This method does not harness osmotic power
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190:Nuclear power proposed as renewable energy
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1703:Development of tidal stream generators
1071:Environmental Science & Technology
626:Possible negative environmental impact
415:on the Oslo fjord which was opened by
327:Salinity gradient power is a specific
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436:at the Afsluitdijk in The Netherlands
263:. Two practical methods for this are
1057:Environmental Process and Technology
721: – Energy available from oceans
523:water-spray absorption refrigeration
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1864:Proton-exchange membrane fuel cell
1233:Energy & Environmental Science
742: – Effective partial pressure
709: – Water purification process
688: – Water purification process
385:Simple PRO power generation scheme
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1421:Service, Robert F. (2019-12-04).
315:Basics of salinity gradient power
307:technology and a method based on
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364:extraction efficiency of 91.0%.
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2007:Unitized regenerative fuel cell
1729:Ocean thermal energy conversion
1565:Marine Energy Projects Database
1508:
1487:from the original on 2017-02-02
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1462:from the original on 2019-11-29
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1433:from the original on 2019-12-06
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1403:from the original on 2013-10-28
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903:United States Patent US4171409
305:electric double-layer capacitor
201:Topics by country and territory
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271:(PRO). Both processes rely on
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2002:Solid oxide electrolyzer cell
1399:. Gizmag.com. 13 March 2013.
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1885:Direct borohydride fuel cell
1688:List of tidal power stations
1138:10.1016/j.memsci.2006.11.018
1001:10.1126/science.206.4417.452
840:10.1126/science.189.4203.654
757: – Solar thermal energy
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1972:Membrane electrode assembly
1915:Reformed methanol fuel cell
1771:Renewable energy portal
1719:List of offshore wind farms
1641:List of wave power projects
1636:List of wave power stations
1577:Tethys Engineering Database
1364:10.1016/j.desal.2021.115088
1288:10.1016/j.desal.2018.09.007
1126:Journal of Membrane Science
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279:. The key waste product is
206:Marketing and policy trends
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1992:Protonic ceramic fuel cell
1962:Electro-galvanic fuel cell
1854:Molten carbonate fuel cell
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1982:Photoelectrochemical cell
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552:, only solar power (see:
413:prototype PRO power plant
399:pressure-retarded osmosis
377:Pressure-retarded osmosis
353:pressure-retarded osmosis
323:Pressure-retarded osmosis
269:pressure retarded osmosis
2081:Sustainable technologies
1987:Proton-exchange membrane
1895:Direct-ethanol fuel cell
702:Reversed electrodialysis
692:Electrodialysis reversal
442:reversed electrodialysis
424:Reversed electrodialysis
1977:Membraneless Fuel Cells
1910:Metal hydride fuel cell
1890:Direct carbon fuel cell
1350:. Elsevier BV: 115088.
1185:Statkraft-osmotic-power
930:Physical Review Letters
677:Renewable energy portal
583:Boron nitride nanotubes
567:In theory a solar pond
265:reverse electrodialysis
249:salinity gradient power
1997:Regenerative fuel cell
1936:Enzymatic biofuel cell
1698:Tidal stream generator
1274:. Elsevier BV: 13–20.
713:Semipermeable membrane
449:viable in the future.
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394:
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167:Tidal stream generator
1905:Formic acid fuel cell
1869:Solid oxide fuel cell
1734:Offshore construction
1059:. Jan 2007. 312-323.)
562:organic Rankine cycle
472:electric double layer
431:
392:
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1724:Marine current power
1172:. 27 November 2009.
612:ammonium bicarbonate
466:the great number of
127:Marine current power
73:Crosswind kite power
2101:Membrane technology
1941:Microbial fuel cell
1481:"Energy from Water"
1356:2021Desal.51115088R
1280:2018Desal.448...13C
1209:. 22 January 2014.
1083:2012EnST...46.5230Y
993:1979Sci...206..452O
942:2009PhRvL.103e8501B
832:1975Sci...189..654L
789:1954Natur.174..660P
157:Sustainable biofuel
68:Carbon-neutral fuel
29:Part of a series on
2086:Sustainable energy
1849:Alkaline fuel cell
1541:2009-12-24 at the
1245:10.1039/c5ee02985f
1156:2011-09-01 at the
746:Concentration cell
614:decomposes into NH
600:Rutgers University
577:harnessed directly
558:natural convection
457:A third method is
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83:Geothermal heating
2091:Energy conversion
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1783:Oceans portal
1759:Energy portal
1091:10.1021/es300060m
826:(4203): 654–655.
474:. Therefore, the
453:Capacitive method
432:RED-prototype of
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78:Geothermal energy
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1920:Zinc–air battery
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1038:
1035:
1029:
1028:
976:
970:
969:
925:
916:
911:
905:
900:
894:
888:
882:
881:
880:
876:
870:
869:
865:
858:
852:
851:
815:
809:
808:
797:10.1038/174660a0
772:
751:
734:Renewable energy
730:
697:
679:
674:
673:
665:
660:
659:
459:Doriano Brogioli
329:renewable energy
234:
227:
220:
98:Run-of-the-river
93:Hydroelectricity
88:Geothermal power
45:
35:Renewable energy
26:
25:
2116:
2115:
2111:
2110:
2109:
2107:
2106:
2105:
2066:
2065:
2064:
2059:
2046:
2013:
1945:
1924:
1873:
1837:
1832:
1802:
1797:
1775:
1763:
1751:
1743:
1707:
1674:
1665:
1622:
1617:
1571:Tethys Database
1543:Wayback Machine
1532:
1527:
1514:
1513:
1509:
1503:
1499:
1490:
1488:
1479:
1478:
1474:
1465:
1463:
1450:
1449:
1445:
1436:
1434:
1419:
1415:
1406:
1404:
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1390:
1383:
1379:
1336:
1332:
1325:
1321:
1264:
1260:
1229:
1225:
1216:
1214:
1205:
1204:
1200:
1193:
1189:
1179:
1177:
1168:
1167:
1163:
1158:Wayback Machine
1149:
1145:
1118:
1114:
1067:
1063:
1054:
1050:
1045:
1041:
1036:
1032:
977:
973:
926:
919:
912:
908:
901:
897:
889:
885:
878:
872:
867:
861:
859:
855:
816:
812:
773:
769:
765:
760:
749:
728:
707:Reverse osmosis
695:
686:Forward osmosis
675:
668:
661:
654:
651:
643:Tethys database
628:
621:
617:
608:
585:
542:
519:
510:
502:
485:electric charge
455:
426:
379:
370:
361:
342:
338:
317:
238:
24:
17:
12:
11:
5:
2114:
2104:
2103:
2098:
2093:
2088:
2083:
2078:
2061:
2060:
2058:
2057:
2051:
2048:
2047:
2045:
2044:
2039:
2034:
2029:
2023:
2021:
2015:
2014:
2012:
2011:
2010:
2009:
2004:
1994:
1989:
1984:
1979:
1974:
1969:
1964:
1959:
1953:
1951:
1947:
1946:
1944:
1943:
1938:
1932:
1930:
1926:
1925:
1923:
1922:
1917:
1912:
1907:
1902:
1897:
1892:
1887:
1881:
1879:
1875:
1874:
1872:
1871:
1866:
1861:
1856:
1851:
1845:
1843:
1842:By electrolyte
1839:
1838:
1831:
1830:
1823:
1816:
1808:
1799:
1798:
1796:
1795:
1785:
1773:
1761:
1748:
1745:
1744:
1742:
1741:
1736:
1731:
1726:
1721:
1715:
1713:
1709:
1708:
1706:
1705:
1700:
1695:
1690:
1684:
1682:
1676:
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1664:
1663:
1658:
1653:
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1643:
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1623:
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1593:
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1586:
1580:
1574:
1568:
1562:
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1550:
1545:
1531:
1530:External links
1528:
1526:
1525:
1507:
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1472:
1443:
1427:Science | AAAS
1413:
1388:
1377:
1330:
1319:
1258:
1223:
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1048:
1039:
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906:
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883:
853:
810:
766:
764:
761:
759:
758:
752:
743:
737:
731:
722:
716:
710:
704:
699:
689:
682:
681:
680:
666:
650:
647:
627:
624:
619:
615:
607:
604:
584:
581:
541:
538:
518:
515:
509:
506:
501:
498:
481:electric force
454:
451:
425:
422:
378:
375:
369:
366:
360:
357:
340:
336:
333:carbon dioxide
316:
313:
309:vapor pressure
281:brackish water
240:
239:
237:
236:
229:
222:
214:
211:
210:
209:
208:
203:
195:
194:
193:
192:
184:
183:
182:
181:
176:
171:
170:
169:
159:
154:
149:
144:
139:
134:
129:
124:
123:
122:
117:
112:
102:
101:
100:
90:
85:
80:
75:
70:
65:
60:
55:
47:
46:
38:
37:
31:
30:
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
2113:
2102:
2099:
2097:
2094:
2092:
2089:
2087:
2084:
2082:
2079:
2077:
2074:
2073:
2071:
2056:
2053:
2052:
2049:
2043:
2040:
2038:
2035:
2033:
2030:
2028:
2025:
2024:
2022:
2020:
2016:
2008:
2005:
2003:
2000:
1999:
1998:
1995:
1993:
1990:
1988:
1985:
1983:
1980:
1978:
1975:
1973:
1970:
1968:
1965:
1963:
1960:
1958:
1955:
1954:
1952:
1948:
1942:
1939:
1937:
1934:
1933:
1931:
1929:Biofuel cells
1927:
1921:
1918:
1916:
1913:
1911:
1908:
1906:
1903:
1901:
1898:
1896:
1893:
1891:
1888:
1886:
1883:
1882:
1880:
1876:
1870:
1867:
1865:
1862:
1860:
1857:
1855:
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1850:
1847:
1846:
1844:
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1836:
1829:
1824:
1822:
1817:
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1810:
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1806:
1794:
1786:
1784:
1779:
1774:
1772:
1767:
1762:
1760:
1755:
1750:
1749:
1746:
1740:
1739:Osmotic power
1737:
1735:
1732:
1730:
1727:
1725:
1722:
1720:
1717:
1716:
1714:
1710:
1704:
1701:
1699:
1696:
1694:
1693:Tidal barrage
1691:
1689:
1686:
1685:
1683:
1681:
1677:
1672:
1662:
1659:
1657:
1656:United States
1654:
1652:
1649:
1647:
1644:
1642:
1639:
1637:
1634:
1633:
1631:
1629:
1625:
1621:
1620:Marine energy
1614:
1609:
1607:
1602:
1600:
1595:
1594:
1591:
1584:
1581:
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1549:
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1482:
1476:
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1402:
1398:
1392:
1386:
1381:
1373:
1369:
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1353:
1349:
1345:
1341:
1334:
1328:
1323:
1315:
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1303:
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1297:1721.1/118349
1293:
1289:
1285:
1281:
1277:
1273:
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1250:
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1238:
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963:
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771:
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720:
719:Marine energy
717:
714:
711:
708:
705:
703:
700:
693:
690:
687:
684:
683:
678:
672:
667:
664:
663:Energy portal
658:
653:
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644:
639:
635:
632:
623:
613:
603:
601:
596:
593:
589:
580:
578:
574:
570:
565:
563:
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555:
551:
547:
537:
535:
532:
531:thermodynamic
528:
524:
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494:
490:
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482:
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296:
293:
288:
284:
282:
278:
274:
270:
266:
262:
258:
254:
250:
246:
245:Osmotic power
235:
230:
228:
223:
221:
216:
215:
213:
212:
207:
204:
202:
199:
198:
197:
196:
191:
188:
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186:
185:
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177:
175:
172:
168:
165:
164:
163:
160:
158:
155:
153:
150:
148:
145:
143:
142:Osmotic power
140:
138:
137:Ocean thermal
135:
133:
132:Marine energy
130:
128:
125:
121:
118:
116:
113:
111:
108:
107:
106:
103:
99:
96:
95:
94:
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86:
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51:
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39:
36:
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32:
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27:
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1967:Flow battery
1956:
1738:
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1500:
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1475:
1464:. Retrieved
1455:
1446:
1435:. Retrieved
1426:
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1391:
1380:
1347:
1344:Desalination
1343:
1333:
1322:
1271:
1268:Desalination
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813:
780:
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636:
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609:
597:
594:
590:
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566:
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350:
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311:difference.
301:polyethylene
297:
289:
285:
252:
248:
244:
243:
147:Solar energy
141:
2096:Water power
1957:Blue energy
1680:Tidal power
1651:New Zealand
1456:www.mrs.org
534:heat engine
493:capacitance
292:Sidney Loeb
261:river water
253:blue energy
162:Tidal power
152:Solar power
120:Small hydro
110:Micro hydro
2076:Fuel cells
2070:Categories
1835:Fuel cells
1628:Wave power
1491:2017-01-28
1466:2019-12-06
1437:2019-12-06
1407:2013-03-15
1217:2017-01-18
1180:2009-11-27
874:US 3906250
863:US 3906250
763:References
755:Solar pond
554:solar pond
546:solar pond
540:Solar pond
513:salinity.
508:Open cycle
463:electrodes
359:Efficiency
267:(RED) and
179:Wind power
174:Wave power
115:Pico hydro
105:Hydropower
21:blueEnergy
1646:Australia
1372:0011-9164
1327:Saltpower
1314:105934538
1306:0011-9164
1253:1754-5692
1107:206955094
1009:0036-8075
958:0031-9007
409:Statkraft
403:Norwegian
277:membranes
2055:Glossary
2019:Hydrogen
1793:Category
1661:Scotland
1539:Archived
1516:"Tethys"
1485:Archived
1460:Archived
1431:Archived
1401:Archived
1211:Archived
1174:Archived
1154:Archived
1099:22463483
1025:45143260
1017:17809370
966:19792539
848:17838753
740:Fugacity
649:See also
434:REDstack
257:seawater
2042:Vehicle
2037:Storage
2032:Station
2027:Economy
1878:By fuel
1522:. PNNL.
1505:703-717
1352:Bibcode
1276:Bibcode
1079:Bibcode
989:Bibcode
981:Science
938:Bibcode
828:Bibcode
820:Science
805:4144672
785:Bibcode
536:cycle.
476:voltage
406:utility
368:Methods
273:osmosis
63:Biomass
53:Biofuel
1950:Others
1520:Tethys
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801:S2CID
569:could
275:with
1368:ISSN
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641:The
489:work
468:ions
259:and
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Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.
