Communication protocol

1844:, which assumes a connectionless network, RM/OSI assumed a connection-oriented network. Connection-oriented networks are more suitable for wide area networks and connectionless networks are more suitable for local area networks. Connection-oriented communication requires some form of session and (virtual) circuits, hence the (in the TCP/IP model lacking) session layer. The constituent members of ISO were mostly concerned with wide area networks, so the development of RM/OSI concentrated on connection-oriented networks and connectionless networks were first mentioned in an addendum to RM/OSI and later incorporated into an update to RM/OSI. 1022:. BSC is an early link-level protocol used to connect two separate nodes. It was originally not intended to be used in a multinode network, but doing so revealed several deficiencies of the protocol. In the absence of standardization, manufacturers and organizations felt free to enhance the protocol, creating incompatible versions on their networks. In some cases, this was deliberately done to discourage users from using equipment from other manufacturers. There are more than 50 variants of the original bi-sync protocol. One can assume, that a standard would have prevented at least some of this from happening. 913: 1906:

research are affected by metadata encryption; protocol designers must balance observability for operability and research against ossification resistance and end-user privacy. The IETF announced in 2014 that it had determined that large-scale surveillance of protocol operations is an attack due to the ability to infer information from the wire image about users and their behaviour, and that the IETF would "work to mitigate pervasive monitoring" in its protocol designs; this had not been done systematically previously. The

821: 888: 6636: 5623: 1039:). They can hold a market in a very negative grip, especially when used to scare away competition. From a historical perspective, standardization should be seen as a measure to counteract the ill-effects of de facto standards. Positive exceptions exist; a de facto standard operating system like Linux does not have this negative grip on its market, because the sources are published and maintained in an open way, thus inviting competition. 6646: 5633: 6656: 5612: 1006:, which initiates the standardization process. The members of the standards organization agree to adhere to the work result on a voluntary basis. Often the members are in control of large market shares relevant to the protocol and in many cases, standards are enforced by law or the government because they are thought to serve an important public interest, so getting approval can be very important for the protocol. 5643: 477:. The functionalities are mapped onto the layers, each layer solving a distinct class of problems relating to, for instance: application-, transport-, internet- and network interface-functions. To transmit a message, a protocol has to be selected from each layer. The selection of the next protocol is accomplished by extending the message with a protocol selector for each layer. 1755:. To communicate, two peer entities at a given layer use a protocol specific to that layer which is implemented by using services of the layer below. For each layer, there are two types of standards: protocol standards defining how peer entities at a given layer communicate, and service standards defining how a given layer communicates with the layer above it. 1902:), which can influence protocol operation. Even if authenticated, if a portion is not encrypted, it will form part of the wire image, and intermediate parties may intervene depending on its content (e.g., dropping packets with particular flags). Signals deliberately intended for intermediary consumption may be left authenticated but unencrypted. 2120: 1792:

may provide the following services to the presentation layer: establishment and release of session connections, normal and expedited data exchange, a quarantine service which allows the sending presentation entity to instruct the receiving session entity not to release data to its presentation entity

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International standards organizations are supposed to be more impartial than local organizations with a national or commercial self-interest to consider. Standards organizations also do research and development for standards of the future. In practice, the standards organizations mentioned, cooperate

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In modern protocol design, protocols are layered to form a protocol stack. Layering is a design principle that divides the protocol design task into smaller steps, each of which accomplishes a specific part, interacting with the other parts of the protocol only in a small number of well-defined ways.

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had proven to be a successful design approach for both compiler and operating system design and, given the similarities between programming languages and communication protocols, the originally monolithic networking programs were decomposed into cooperating protocols. This gave rise to the concept of

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The authors wish to thank a number of colleagues for helpful comments during early discussions of international network protocols, especially R. Metcalfe, R. Scantlebury, D. Walden, and H. Zimmerman; D. Davies and L. Pouzin who constructively commented on the fragmentation and accounting issues; and

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In the early 1970s Mr Pouzin created an innovative data network that linked locations in France, Italy and Britain. Its simplicity and efficiency pointed the way to a network that could connect not just dozens of machines, but millions of them. It captured the imagination of Dr Cerf and Dr Kahn, who

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of a protocol is the information that a non-participant observer is able to glean from observing the protocol messages, including both information explicitly given meaning by the protocol, but also inferences made by the observer. Unencrypted protocol metadata is one source making up the wire image,

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To send a message on system A, the top-layer software module interacts with the module directly below it and hands over the message to be encapsulated. The lower module fills in the header data in accordance with the protocol it implements and interacts with the bottom module which sends the message

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is some kind of message flow diagram. To visualize protocol layering and protocol suites, a diagram of the message flows in and between two systems, A and B, is shown in figure 3. The systems, A and B, both make use of the same protocol suite. The vertical flows (and protocols) are in-system and the

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As Kahn recalls: ... Paul Baran's contributions ... I also think Paul was motivated almost entirely by voice considerations. If you look at what he wrote, he was talking about switches that were low-cost electronics. The idea of putting powerful computers in these locations hadn't quite occurred to

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recommended in 2023 that disclosure of information by a protocol to the network should be intentional, performed with the agreement of both recipient and sender, authenticated to the degree possible and necessary, only acted upon to the degree of its trustworthiness, and minimised and provided to a

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may provide the following services to the application layer: a request for the establishment of a session, data transfer, negotiation of the syntax to be used between the application layers, any necessary syntax transformations, formatting and special purpose transformations (e.g., data compression

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is the synchronization of software for receiving and transmitting messages of communication in proper sequencing. Concurrent programming has traditionally been a topic in operating systems theory texts. Formal verification seems indispensable because concurrent programs are notorious for the hidden

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To implement a networking protocol, the protocol software modules are interfaced with a framework implemented on the machine's operating system. This framework implements the networking functionality of the operating system. When protocol algorithms are expressed in a portable programming language

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does the setup, maintenance and release of network paths between transport peer entities. When relays are needed, routing and relay functions are provided by this layer. The quality of service is negotiated between network and transport entities at the time the connection is set up. This layer is

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may provide the following services to the application processes: identification of the intended communication partners, establishment of the necessary authority to communicate, determination of availability and authentication of the partners, agreement on privacy mechanisms for the communication,

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The literature presents numerous analogies between computer communication and programming. In analogy, a transfer mechanism of a protocol is comparable to a central processing unit (CPU). The framework introduces rules that allow the programmer to design cooperating protocols independently of one

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Error detection is necessary on networks where data corruption is possible. In a common approach, a CRC of the data area is added to the end of packets, making it possible for the receiver to detect differences caused by corruption. The receiver rejects the packets on CRC differences and arranges

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Addresses are used to identify both the sender and the intended receiver(s). The addresses are carried in the header area of the bitstrings, allowing the receivers to determine whether the bitstrings are of interest and should be processed or should be ignored. A connection between a sender and a

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For communication to occur, protocols have to be selected. The rules can be expressed by algorithms and data structures. Hardware and operating system independence is enhanced by expressing the algorithms in a portable programming language. Source independence of the specification provides wider

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Although the use of protocol layering is today ubiquitous across the field of computer networking, it has been historically criticized by many researchers as abstracting the protocol stack in this way may cause a higher layer to duplicate the functionality of a lower layer, a prime example being

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The modules below the application layer are generally considered part of the operating system. Passing data between these modules is much less expensive than passing data between an application program and the transport layer. The boundary between the application layer and the transport layer is

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Paul Baran ... focused on the routing procedures and on the survivability of distributed communication systems in a hostile environment, but did not concentrate on the need for resource sharing in its form as we now understand it; indeed, the concept of a software switch was not present in his

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The wire image can be deliberately engineered, encrypting parts that intermediaries should not be able to observe and providing signals for what they should be able to. If provided signals are decoupled from the protocol's operation, they may become untrustworthy. Benign network management and

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In the OSI model, communicating systems are assumed to be connected by an underlying physical medium providing a basic transmission mechanism. The layers above it are numbered. Each layer provides service to the layer above it using the services of the layer immediately below it. The top layer

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In the ISO, the standardization process starts off with the commissioning of a sub-committee workgroup. The workgroup issues working drafts and discussion documents to interested parties (including other standards bodies) in order to provoke discussion and comments. This will generate a lot of

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If long bitstrings are divided into pieces and then sent on the network individually, the pieces may get lost or delayed or, on some types of networks, take different routes to their destination. As a result, pieces may arrive out of sequence. Retransmissions can result in duplicate pieces. By

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combines both function and domain of use. The dominant layering schemes are the ones developed by the IETF and by ISO. Despite the fact that the underlying assumptions of the layering schemes are different enough to warrant distinguishing the two, it is a common practice to compare the two by

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principles have been applied to create a set of common network protocol design principles. The design of complex protocols often involves decomposition into simpler, cooperating protocols. Such a set of cooperating protocols is sometimes called a protocol family or a protocol suite, within a

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Communicating systems use well-defined formats for exchanging various messages. Each message has an exact meaning intended to elicit a response from a range of possible responses predetermined for that particular situation. The specified behavior is typically independent of how it is to be

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Failure to receive an acknowledgment indicates that either the original transmission or the acknowledgment was lost. The sender has no means to distinguish these cases and therefore, to ensure all data is received, must make the conservative assumption that the original transmission was

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Multiple standards bodies may be involved in the development of a protocol. If they are uncoordinated, then the result may be multiple, incompatible definitions of a protocol, or multiple, incompatible interpretations of messages; important invariants in one definition (e.g., that

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Protocol layering forms the basis of protocol design. It allows the decomposition of single, complex protocols into simpler, cooperating protocols. The protocol layers each solve a distinct class of communication problems. Together, the layers make up a layering scheme or model.

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Papastergiou, Giorgos; Fairhurst, Gorry; Ros, David; Brunstrom, Anna; Grinnemo, Karl-Johan; Hurtig, Per; Khademi, Naeem; Tüxen, Michael; Welzl, Michael; Damjanovic, Dragana; Mangiante, Simone (2017). "De-Ossifying the Internet Transport Layer: A Survey and Future Perspectives".

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At the time, the IETF had to cope with this and the fact that the Internet needed protocols that simply were not there. As a result, the IETF developed its own standardization process based on "rough consensus and running code". The standardization process is described by

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Getting the data across a network is only part of the problem for a protocol. The data received has to be evaluated in the context of the progress of the conversation, so a protocol must include rules describing the context. These kinds of rules are said to express the

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provides reliable and transparent data transfer in a cost-effective way as required by the selected quality of service. It may support the multiplexing of several transport connections on to one network connection or split one transport connection into several network

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Operating systems usually contain a set of cooperating processes that manipulate shared data to communicate with each other. This communication is governed by well-understood protocols, which can be embedded in the process code itself. In contrast, because there is no

1067:(IETF). The IETF maintains the protocols in use on the Internet. The IEEE controls many software and hardware protocols in the electronics industry for commercial and consumer devices. The ITU is an umbrella organization of telecommunication engineers designing the 916:

Figure 5: Protocol and software layering. The software modules implementing the protocols are represented by cubes. The information flow between the modules is represented by arrows. The (top two horizontal) red arrows are virtual. The blue lines mark the layer

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does the setup, maintenance and release of data link connections. Errors occurring in the physical layer are detected and may be corrected. Errors are reported to the network layer. The exchange of data link units (including flow control) is defined by this

1739:(such as layered protocols) and their standardization. This would prevent protocol standards with overlapping functionality and would allow clear definition of the responsibilities of a protocol at the different levels (layers). This gave rise to the 1859:

Nowadays, the IETF has become a standards organization for the protocols in use on the Internet. RM/OSI has extended its model to include connectionless services and because of this, both TCP and IP could be developed into international standards.

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without permission, interaction management so presentation entities can control whose turn it is to perform certain control functions, resynchronization of a session connection, reporting of unrecoverable exceptions to the presentation entity.

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responsible for the reliable delivery of data on a packet-switched network, rather than this being a service of the network itself. His team was the first to tackle the highly complex problem of providing user applications with a reliable

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s address could be taken to mean an addressing of all stations on the network, so sending to this address would result in a broadcast on the local network. The rules describing the meanings of the address value are collectively called an

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The information exchanged between devices through a network or other media is governed by rules and conventions that can be set out in communication protocol specifications. The nature of communication, the actual data exchanged and any

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Packets may be lost on the network or be delayed in transit. To cope with this, under some protocols, a sender may expect an acknowledgment of correct reception from the receiver within a certain amount of time. Thus, on

726:, the sender may need to retransmit the information. In case of a permanently broken link, the retransmission has no effect, so the number of retransmissions is limited. Exceeding the retry limit is considered an error. 904:

horizontal message flows (and protocols) are between systems. The message flows are governed by rules, and data formats specified by protocols. The blue lines mark the boundaries of the (horizontal) protocol layers.

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Sometimes protocols need to map addresses of one scheme on addresses of another scheme. For instance, to translate a logical IP address specified by the application to an Ethernet MAC address. This is referred to as

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him as being cost effective. So the idea of computer switches was missing. The whole notion of protocols didn't exist at that time. And the idea of computer-to-computer communications was really a secondary concern.

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protocol metadata, and ensuring that extension points are exercised and wire image variability is exhibited as fully as possible; remedying existing ossification requires coordination across protocol participants.

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was developed internationally based on experience with networks that predated the internet as a reference model for general communication with much stricter rules of protocol interaction and rigorous layering.

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Flow control is needed when the sender transmits faster than the receiver or intermediate network equipment can process the transmissions. Flow control can be implemented by messaging from receiver to sender.

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Messages are sent and received on communicating systems to establish communication. Protocols should therefore specify rules governing the transmission. In general, much of the following should be addressed:

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Communicating processes or state machines employ queues (or "buffers"), usually FIFO queues, to deal with the messages in the order sent, and may sometimes have multiple queues with different prioritization.

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Strictly adhering to a layered model, a practice known as strict layering, is not always the best approach to networking. Strict layering can have a negative impact on the performance of an implementation.

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over the communications channel to the bottom module of system B. On the receiving system B the reverse happens, so ultimately the message gets delivered in its original form to the top module of system B.

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encoding. Binary protocols are intended to be read by a machine rather than a human being. Binary protocols have the advantage of terseness, which translates into speed of transmission and interpretation.

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Digital message bitstrings are exchanged. The bitstrings are divided in fields and each field carries information relevant to the protocol. Conceptually the bitstring is divided into two parts called the

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that are sensitive to the wire image of the protocol, and which can interrupt or interfere with messages that are valid but which the middlebox does not correctly recognize. This is a violation of the

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is divided into subproblems. As a result, the translation software is layered as well, allowing the software layers to be designed independently. The same approach can be seen in the TCP/IP layering.

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F. Buschmann, K. Henney, and D. C. Schmidt, Pattern-Oriented Software Architecture Volume 4: A Pattern Language for Distributed Computing, Volume 4 edition. Chichester England; New York: Wiley, 2007.

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protocol design and deployment, as it can prevent new protocols or extensions from being deployed on the Internet, or place strictures on the design of new protocols; new protocols may have to be

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Network applications have various methods of encapsulating data. One method very common with Internet protocols is a text oriented representation that transmits requests and responses as lines of

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Multiple protocols often describe different aspects of a single communication. A group of protocols designed to work together is known as a protocol suite; when implemented in software they are a

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in the Internet. Packet relaying across networks happens over another layer that involves only network link technologies, which are often specific to certain physical layer technologies, such as

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to the intended receiver(s) need to forward messages on behalf of the sender. On the Internet, the networks are connected using routers. The interconnection of networks through routers is called

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In addition to the NPL Network and the ARPANET, CYCLADES, an academic and research experimental network, also played an important role in the development of computer networking technologies

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are designed to function in diverse and complex settings. Internet protocols are designed for simplicity and modularity and fit into a coarse hierarchy of functional layers defined in the

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marking the pieces with sequence information at the sender, the receiver can determine what was lost or duplicated, ask for necessary retransmissions and reassemble the original message.

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for transport. In the common case of TCP and UDP, services are distinguished by port numbers. Conformance to these port numbers is voluntary, so in content inspection systems the term

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Text-based protocols are typically optimized for human parsing and interpretation and are therefore suitable whenever human inspection of protocol contents is required, such as during

808:. Mealy and Moore machines are in use as design tools in digital electronics systems encountered in the form of hardware used in telecommunication or electronic devices in general. 1836:

describes details like the electrical characteristics of the physical connection, the transmission techniques used, and the setup, maintenance and clearing of physical connections.

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Figure 3. Message flows using a protocol suite. Black loops show the actual messaging loops, red loops are the effective communication between layers enabled by the lower layers.

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minimum number of entities. Engineering the wire image and controlling what signals are provided to network elements was a "developing field" in 2023, according to the IAB.

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Typically, application software is built upon a robust data transport layer. Underlying this transport layer is a datagram delivery and routing mechanism that is typically

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In fact, CYCLADES, unlike ARPANET, had been explicitly designed to facilitate internetworking; it could, for instance, handle varying formats and varying levels of service

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of the communication. Other rules determine whether the data is meaningful for the context in which the exchange takes place. These kinds of rules are said to express the

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The immediate human readability stands in contrast to native binary protocols which have inherent benefits for use in a computer environment (such as ease of mechanical

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text, terminated by a newline character (and usually a carriage return character). Examples of protocols that use plain, human-readable text for its commands are FTP (

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Comer 2000, Sect. 11.3 - The Conceptual Layers Of Protocol Software, p. 179, the first two paragraphs describe the sending of a message through successive layers.

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Marsden 1986, Section 6.1 - Why are standards necessary?, p. 64-65, uses BSC as an example to show the need for both standard protocols and a standard framework.

2869: 2510: 647:. The actual message is carried in the payload. The header area contains the fields with relevance to the operation of the protocol. Bitstrings longer than the 852:(IP) resulted from the decomposition of the original Transmission Control Program, a monolithic communication protocol, into this layered communication suite. 2923:

Comer 2000, Sect. 11.2 - The Need For Multiple Protocols, p. 177, explains this by drawing analogies between computer communication and programming languages.

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Comer 2000, Sect. 11.10 - The Disadvantage Of Layering, p. 192, explains why "strict layering can be extremely inefficient" giving examples of optimizations.

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Marsden 1986, Section 3.3 - Acknowledgement, p. 28-33, explains the advantages of positive only acknowledgment and mentions datagram protocols as exceptions.

2111:, Hilpisch, Robert E.; Duchscher, Rob & Seel, Mark et al., "Wireless communication protocol", published 2009-05-05, assigned to 2837: 1883:

including packet timing also contribute. Different observers with different vantages may see different wire images. The wire image is relevant to end-user

4887: 2003:, which is used to encapsulate packets in a high-level protocol so that the packets can be passed across a transport system using the high-level protocol. 2594: 2167:

Comer 2000, Sect. 11.2 - The Need For Multiple Protocols, p. 177, "They (protocols) are to communication what programming languages are to computation"

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Comer 2000, Sect. 7.7.4 - Datagram Size, Network MTU, and Fragmentation, p. 104, Explains fragmentation and the effect on the header of the fragments.

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Comer 2000, Sect. 11.3 - The Conceptual Layers Of Protocol Software, p. 178, "Each layer takes responsibility for handling one part of the problem."

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Comer 2000, Sect. 11.2 - The need for multiple protocols, p. 178, explains similarities protocol software and compiler, assembler, linker, loader.

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This Basic Reference Model of Open Systems Interconnection is based on the assumption that a connection is required for the transfer of data.

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Systems typically do not use a single protocol to handle a transmission. Instead they use a set of cooperating protocols, sometimes called a

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Describes TCP/IP to the implementors of protocolsoftware. In particular the introduction gives an overview of the design goals of the suite.

1743:(OSI model), which is used as a framework for the design of standard protocols and services conforming to the various layer specifications. 5595: 5567: 5562: 4587: 5679: 4489: 2144: 3234: 3060: 84:. Communication protocols have to be agreed upon by the parties involved. To reach an agreement, a protocol may be developed into a 3543:"X.225 : Information technology – Open Systems Interconnection – Connection-oriented Session protocol: Protocol specification" 485:

There are two types of communication protocols, based on their representation of the content being carried: text-based and binary.

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In some cases, protocols gain market dominance without going through a standardization process. Such protocols are referred to as

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Marsden 1986, Section 3.5 - Direction of information flow, p. 34-35, explains master/slave and the negotiations to gain control.

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IETF 1989, Sect 1.3.1 - Organization, p. 15, 2nd paragraph: many design choices involve creative "breaking" of strict layering.

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The software supporting protocols has a layered organization and its relationship with protocol layering is shown in figure 5.

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Comer 2000, Section 1.9 - Internet Protocols And Standardization, p. 12, explains why the IETF did not use existing protocols.

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Considerations around Transport Header Confidentiality, Network Operations, and the Evolution of Internet Transport Protocols

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ISO 7498:1984/ADD 1:1987 – Information processing systems — Open Systems Interconnection — Basic Reference Model — Addendum 1

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and sophisticated bugs they contain. A mathematical approach to the study of concurrency and communication is referred to as

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Marsden 1986, Section 3.2 - Detection and transmission errors, p. 27, explains the advantages of backward error correction.

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on the Internet, and TCP itself has significantly ossified, making extension or modification of the protocol difficult.

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provides services to the application process. The layers communicate with each other by means of an interface, called a

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models are used to formally describe the possible interactions of the protocol. and communicating finite-state machines

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in 1975 but was not adopted by the CCITT nor by the ARPANET. Separate international research, particularly the work of

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In particular Ch.11 Protocol layering. Also has a RFC guide and a Glossary of Internetworking Terms and Abbreviations.

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Classification schemes for protocols usually focus on the domain of use and function. As an example of domain of use,

871:. Layering provides opportunities to exchange technologies when needed, for example, protocols are often stacked in a 399:-dependent behaviors, is defined by these specifications. In digital computing systems, the rules can be expressed by 6680: 6571: 6399: 5936: 5445: 4253: 4231: 4212: 4193: 4169: 4114: 4092: 4064: 3852: 3410: 3398: 3187:

Marsden 1986, Section 3.6 - Sequence control, p. 35-36, explains how packets get lost and how sequencing solves this.

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Marsden 1986, Chapter 3 - Fundamental protocol concepts and problem areas, p. 26-42, explains much of the following.

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Comer 2000, Sect. 1.3 - Internet Services, p. 3, "Protocols are to communication what algorithms are to computation"

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is produced by the working group. After feedback, modification, and compromise the proposal reaches the status of a

419:. Transmission is not necessarily reliable, and individual systems may use different hardware or operating systems. 6659: 5760: 5230: 4778: 4580: 1630: 1510: 1173: 17: 4555: 6047: 5341: 2830: 1525: 1064: 749: 382:, published in 1984. For a period in the late 1980s and early 1990s, engineers, organizations and nations became 115: 2219: 6338: 6300: 5964: 5672: 5336: 2563: 2491: 1999:

are used on connection-oriented networks and connectionless networks respectively. An example of function is a

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Marsden 1986, Section 6.4 - Some problems with standardisation, p. 67, follows HDLC to illustrate the process.

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Computations deal with algorithms and data; Communication involves protocols and messages; So the analog of a

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describes the same for computations, so there is a close analogy between protocols and programming languages:

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Commonly recurring problems in the design and implementation of communication protocols can be addressed by

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arrangement to accommodate the connection of dissimilar networks. For example, IP may be tunneled across an

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to connect across the ARPANET by implementing higher-level communication protocols, an early example of the

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in an already-deployed protocol or mimic the wire image of another protocol. Because of ossification, the

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Marsden 1986, Section 14.3 - Layering concepts and general definitions, p. 183-185, explains terminology.

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Comer 2000, Sect. 11.2 - The Need For Multiple Protocols, p. 177, introduces the decomposition in layers.

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Marsden 1986, Section 14.3 - Layering concepts and general definitions, p. 187, explains address mapping.

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Comer 2000, Sect. 11.11 - The Basic Idea Behind Multiplexing And Demultiplexing, p. 192, states the same.

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Sect. 11.10 - The Disadvantage Of Layering, p. 192, states: layering forms the basis for protocol design.

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relating common protocols to the layers of the two schemes. The layering scheme from the IETF is called

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Marsden 1986, Section 6.1 - Why are standards necessary?, p. 65, explains lessons learned from ARPANET.

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Rybczynski, Tony (2009). "Commercialization of packet switching (1975-1985): A Canadian perspective ".

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Schwartz, Mischa (2010). "X.25 Virtual Circuits - TRANSPAC IN France - Pre-Internet Data Networking ".

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Comer 2000, Sect. 11.9.1 - Operating System Boundary, p. 192, describes the operating system boundary.

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questions, much discussion and usually some disagreement. These comments are taken into account and a

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ISO 7498:1994 – Information processing systems - Open Systems Interconnection - Basic Reference Model

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ISO 7498:1984 – Information processing systems - Open Systems Interconnection - Basic Reference Model

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The protocols can be arranged based on functionality in groups, for instance, there is a group of

122:(Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers) handles wired and wireless networking and the 6551: 6485: 6376: 6192: 5859: 5455: 5440: 5284: 5235: 5158: 5058: 4736: 4622: 4617: 2360: 1996: 1711: 1650: 1640: 1565: 957: 841: 830: 732:

Direction needs to be addressed if transmissions can only occur in one direction at a time as on

352: 6616: 6447: 6328: 6095: 6085: 6080: 5163: 4978: 4923: 4918: 4731: 4696: 3888: 2423:"Designed for Change: End-to-End Arguments, Internet Innovation, and the Net Neutrality Debate" 1960: 1371: 1183: 1048: 1003: 788: 548: 407:. Protocols are to communication what algorithms or programming languages are to computations. 2902:

Ben-Ari 1982, Section 2.7 - Summary, p. 27, summarizes the concurrent programming abstraction.

2752: 2623:

McKenzie, Alexander (2011). "INWG and the Conception of the Internet: An Eyewitness Account".

2451: 2375: 2281: 2192: 6586: 6556: 6546: 6442: 6356: 6232: 6172: 6139: 6129: 6019: 5984: 5974: 5911: 5780: 5755: 5750: 5715: 5279: 5083: 5048: 4968: 4948: 4870: 4758: 4679: 2481: 2134: 1925: 1920: 1540: 1469: 1208: 502: 337: 275: 37: 4612: 3385:

Service Design Patterns: Fundamental Design Solutions for SOAP/WSDL and RESTful Web Services

2893:

Ben-Ari 1982, chapter 2 - The concurrent programming abstraction, p. 18-19, states the same.

2298:

Baran had put more emphasis on digital voice communications than on computer communications.

6346: 6318: 6290: 6285: 6114: 6090: 6042: 6027: 6009: 5999: 5994: 5956: 5906: 5901: 5818: 5764: 5193: 5153: 5123: 4880: 4815: 4637: 4448: 4420: 4392: 4364: 4336: 4308: 4280: 4145: 2353: 1941: 1535: 987: 797: 741: 537: 325: 240: 221: 89: 3240: 3064: 2422: 2032:

In networking equipment configuration, a term-of-art distinction is often drawn: The term

8: 6611: 6536: 6452: 6437: 6202: 5989: 5946: 5941: 5838: 5828: 5800: 5203: 5143: 4902: 4864: 4662: 4647: 4241: 4072: 2263:

Entrepreneurial Capitalism and Innovation: A History of Computer Communications 1968–1988

1880: 1758:

In the OSI model, the layers and their functionality are (from highest to lowest layer):

1296: 1203: 1100: 928: 780: 723: 416: 253: 2809: 2354:

Interface Message Processor: Specifications for the Interconnection of a Host and an IMP

1031:. De facto standards are common in emerging markets, niche markets, or markets that are 6576: 6475: 6351: 6308: 6217: 6159: 6144: 6134: 5926: 5725: 5430: 5387: 5318: 5188: 5118: 5093: 5028: 4875: 4596: 4529: 4516: 4078: 4038:

Comer 2000, Sect. 11.5.1 - The TCP/IP 5-Layer Reference Model, p. 183, states the same.

3494: 3461:

Comer 2000, Glossary of Internetworking Terms and Abbreviations, p. 704, term protocol.

2734: 2691: 2648: 2239: 2000: 1983:

transport protocol to have been designed with deliberate anti-ossification properties.

1964: 1814: 1778: 1704: 1264: 1178: 1076: 872: 824:

The TCP/IP model or Internet layering scheme and its relation to some common protocols.

474: 131: 85: 6596: 6526: 6505: 6467: 6275: 6242: 6222: 5921: 5833: 5707: 5470: 5392: 5306: 5289: 5252: 5098: 4928: 4897: 4763: 4657: 4535: 4249: 4227: 4208: 4189: 4165: 4110: 4088: 4060: 3948: 3912: 3511:

Marsden 1986, Section 6.3 - Advantages of standardization, p. 66-67, states the same.

3448: 3406: 2758: 2726: 2683: 2652: 2640: 2586: 2518: 2487: 2457: 2331: 2287: 2198: 1933: 1764: 1412: 1188: 1156: 1145: 1027: 900: 849: 439: 313: 182: 69: 45: 5138: 3692:

Marsden 1986, Section 14.11 - Connectionless mode and RM/OSI, p. 195, mentions this.

3498: 2738: 2695: 281:

Research in the early 1970s by Bob Kahn and Vint Cerf led to the formulation of the

6429: 6313: 6280: 6075: 6004: 5893: 5879: 5874: 5823: 5810: 5735: 5688: 5475: 5435: 5415: 5382: 5311: 5269: 5183: 5038: 5023: 4998: 4973: 4933: 4783: 4642: 4627: 4520: 4506: 4498: 4472: 4464: 4438: 4410: 4382: 4354: 4326: 4298: 4270: 4135: 4102: 3960: 3484: 3444: 2718: 2675: 2632: 2578: 2323: 2243: 2231: 2066: 1944:. Secondary causes include inflexibility in endpoint implementations of protocols. 1884: 1849: 518: 424: 364: 356: 286: 174: 165:

in a modern data-commutation context occurs in April 1967 in a memorandum entitled

4020: 3542: 2947:

Comer 2000, Sect. 11.2 - The Need For Multiple Protocols, p. 177, states the same.

1002:

Protocol standards are commonly created by obtaining the approval or support of a

594:

Binary have been used in the normative documents describing modern standards like

6500: 6394: 6366: 6260: 6212: 6197: 6182: 6037: 6032: 5979: 5869: 5843: 5795: 5740: 5103: 4958: 4726: 4701: 4689: 3936: 3924: 3169:

Marsden 1986, Section 3.4 - Loss of information - timeouts and retries, p. 33-34.

1822: 1798: 1483: 1359: 912: 694: 560: 321: 263: 249: 197: 57: 4451: 4432: 4423: 4404: 4395: 4376: 4367: 4348: 4339: 4320: 4311: 4292: 4283: 4264: 4148: 4129: 3037: 3010: 1853: 1014:

The need for protocol standards can be shown by looking at what happened to the

368: 360: 6606: 6510: 6409: 6255: 6227: 5301: 5173: 5148: 5108: 5078: 4953: 4788: 4741: 4716: 4674: 4502: 2377:

UGC -NET/JRF/SET PTP & Guide Teaching and Research Aptitude: UGC -NET By HD

2311: 1832: 1770: 1598: 864: 447: 404: 378:

International work on a reference model for communication standards led to the

290: 267: 244: 108: 81: 2722: 2679: 2582: 2052:

is often used to refer to protocols identified through inspection signatures.

6674: 6495: 5790: 5450: 5223: 5213: 5128: 5018: 5013: 5003: 4988: 4810: 4669: 4052: 3767: 3765: 2814: 2730: 2687: 2644: 2590: 2522: 2335: 1929: 1895: 1888: 1808: 1788: 1405: 1310: 1104: 805: 801: 737: 412: 383: 209: 170: 156: 94:

protocols are to communication what programming languages are to computations

61: 4468: 3435:

Bochmann, G. (1978). "Finite state description of communication protocols".

2778: 2535:

included aspects of its design in the protocols that now power the internet.

2483:

Internationalising the Internet the Co-evolution of Influence and Technology

2327: 2235: 829:

Layering allows the parts of a protocol to be designed and tested without a

297:

and Carl Sunshine in December 1974, still a monolithic design at this time.

6591: 6250: 5328: 5168: 5113: 5043: 5008: 4943: 4842: 4832: 4684: 4082: 4057:

Interconnections: Bridges, Routers, Switches, and Internetworking Protocols

3603:

Marsden 1986, Section 14.5 - The presentation layer, p. 189, explains this.

2447: 1769:

agreement on responsibility for error recovery and procedures for ensuring

1218: 1096: 752:

where two parties respectively simultaneously transmit or wish to transmit.

715:. Acknowledgments are sent from receivers back to their respective senders. 428: 415:, communicating systems have to communicate with each other using a shared 324:, which was adopted by the CCITT in 1976. Computer manufacturers developed 236: 4560: 3762: 3702: 3677: 3658: 3594:

Marsden 1986, Section 14.4 - The application layer, p. 188, explains this.

3489: 3472: 2391: 351:

in 1982 and on the ARPANET in January 1983. The development of a complete

6581: 6207: 6119: 5528: 5178: 5088: 5073: 5033: 4993: 4852: 2611:

S. Crocker who commented on the creation and destruction of associations.

1899: 1670: 1665: 1660: 1584: 1555: 733: 294: 186: 41: 4434:

Considerations on Application - Network Collaboration Using Path Signals

3648:

Marsden 1986, Section 14.10 - The physical layer, p. 195, explains this.

3639:

Marsden 1986, Section 14.9 - The data link layer, p. 194, explains this.

3621:

Marsden 1986, Section 14.7 - The transport layer, p. 191, explains this.

3223:

Hoare 1985, Chapter 4 - Communication, p. 133, deals with communication.

2636: 688:

When systems are not directly connected, intermediary systems along the

343:

TCP software was redesigned as a modular protocol stack, referred to as

6601: 6531: 6124: 5864: 5720: 5533: 5240: 4938: 4847: 4803: 4773: 4751: 4179: 4157: 4125: 1971: 1655: 1550: 1530: 1317: 506: 213: 4477: 4431:

Arkko, Jari; Hardie, Ted; Pauly, Tommy; Kühlewind, Mirja (July 2023).

4008: 3630:

Marsden 1986, Section 14.8 - The network layer, p. 192, explains this.

3612:

Marsden 1986, Section 14.6 - The session layer, p. 190, explains this.

2831:"Rough Consensus and Running Code' and the Internet-OSI Standards War" 6106: 6067: 5518: 4983: 4798: 4565: 4511: 4443: 4415: 4387: 4359: 4331: 4303: 4275: 4140: 2220:"Data Communications at the National Physical Laboratory (1965-1975)" 1937: 1869: 1690: 1675: 1459: 1139: 1036: 856: 567: 467: 443:

layered protocols which nowadays forms the basis of protocol design.

432: 400: 379: 217: 99: 4107:

Internetworking with TCP/IP - Principles, Protocols and Architecture

820: 196:, the starting point for host-to-host communication in 1969 was the 6167: 5657: 5513: 5503: 5420: 5245: 5068: 4561:

Overview of protocols in telecontrol field with OSI Reference Model

4071:. In particular Ch. 18 on "network design folklore", which is also 3972: 1948: 1032: 868: 837: 787:

Communicating systems operate concurrently. An important aspect of

372: 305: 271: 232: 201: 73: 4461:

Implementing Real-Time Transport Services over an Ossified Network

3740: 3738: 3725: 3723: 3576:

Marsden 1986, Section 14.1 - Introduction, p. 181, introduces OSI.

3387:(1 ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Addison-Wesley Professional. 2428:. Information Technology and Innovation Foundation. pp. 7, 11 5508: 5493: 4711: 4485: 3984: 3966: 3954: 3942: 3930: 3830: 3828: 3801: 3133:

Comer 2000, Chapter 4 - Classful Internet Addresses, p. 64-67;71.

2069: – Programming tool to build network connectivity components 1732: 1391: 1322: 1243: 948:

error recovery on both a per-link basis and an end-to-end basis.

533: 455: 193: 3370:

A Pattern Language for Application-level Communication Protocols

887: 711:

Acknowledgement of correct reception of packets is required for

610:. An interface in UML may also be considered a binary protocol. 5538: 5498: 4820: 4459:

McQuistin, Stephen; Perkins, Colin; Fayed, Marwan (July 2016).

3789: 3777: 3750: 3735: 3720: 2116: 1898:, it is subject to modification by intermediate parties (i.e., 1610: 1605: 1433: 1233: 1197: 603: 599: 451: 348: 333: 49: 3825: 3813: 968:

Popular formal methods of describing communication syntax are

5523: 5460: 4768: 1625: 1620: 1454: 1439: 1342: 1286: 1281: 1087:(W3C) produces protocols and standards for Web technologies. 1072: 662:. Usually, some address values have special meanings. An all- 595: 587: 544: 514: 510: 463: 309: 127: 204:, which defined the transmission of messages to an IMP. The 5465: 2107: 1980: 1976: 1894:

If some portion of the wire image is not cryptographically

1680: 1574: 1570: 1560: 1464: 1422: 1417: 1386: 1271: 981: 583: 556: 526: 459: 317: 220:, was first implemented in 1970. The NCP interface allowed 142:, the standards are also being driven towards convergence. 119: 36:

is a system of rules that allows two or more entities of a

4531:

History of the Internet: A Chronology, 1843 to the Present

4183: 3343:"Communication-protocol Design Patterns (CommDP) - COMMDP" 3311:

Wakeman, I (January 1992). "Layering considered harmful".

744:. Arrangements have to be made to accommodate the case of 167:

A Protocol for Use in the NPL Data Communications Network.

4430: 3918: 3906: 3894: 3882: 3870: 3858: 3846: 3514: 2976:"Data Communication - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics" 1685: 1019: 522: 4263:

Bryant, Stewart; Morrow, Monique, eds. (November 2009).

27:

System for exchanging messages between computing systems

4131:

Requirements for Internet Hosts -- Communication Layers

3086: 2754:

The "Hidden" Prehistory of European Research Networking

1970:

Recommended methods of preventing ossification include

3996: 3252: 3250: 114:

Internet communication protocols are published by the

4458: 4266:

Uncoordinated Protocol Development Considered Harmful

3978: 2036:

strictly refers to the transport layer, and the term

570:

and during early protocol development design phases.

4406:

Long-Term Viability of Protocol Extension Mechanisms

4248:(10th Print ed.). Prentice Hall International. 4207:(10th Print ed.). Prentice Hall International. 4188:(10th Print ed.). Prentice Hall International. 4164:(10th Print ed.). Prentice Hall International. 4240: 3405:(1 ed.). Boston: Addison-Wesley Professional. 3247: 3196:

Marsden 1986, Section 3.7 - Flow control, p. 36-38.

4318: 4077: 3861:, 2.2. Control of the Distribution of Information. 3807: 3795: 3783: 3756: 3744: 3729: 3341:Lascano, Jorge Edison; Clyde, Stephen; Raza, Ali. 2564:"A Protocol for Packet Network Intercommunication" 1009: 239:in the early 1970s was the first to implement the 4319:Trammell, Brian; Kuehlewind, Mirja (April 2019). 4291:Farrell, Stephen; Tschofenig, Hannes (May 2014). 4290: 3873:, 2.3. Protecting Information and Authentication. 3834: 3819: 2807: 2312:"Principles and lessons in packet communications" 1751:. Corresponding layers at each system are called 1061:Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers 1051:of relevance for communication protocols are the 833:of cases, keeping each design relatively simple. 658:receiver can be identified using an address pair 6672: 4374: 4101: 3771: 2540: 651:(MTU) are divided in pieces of appropriate size. 4403:Thomson, Martin; Pauly, Tommy (December 2021). 4221: 3470: 3403:Patterns of Enterprise Application Architecture 2910: 2908: 509:encoded in a machine-readable encoding such as 427:independent. The best-known frameworks are the 4375:Fairhurst, Gorry; Perkins, Colin (July 2021). 4134:. Internet Engineering Task Force abbr. IETF. 2943: 2941: 2931: 2929: 2048:strictly refers to port numbers, and the term 1110: 1053:International Organization for Standardization 517:, or in structured text-based formats such as 124:International Organization for Standardization 5697:Note: This template roughly follows the 2012 5673: 4581: 4463:. 2016 Applied Networking Research Workshop. 4051: 2217: 1712: 796:(CSP). Concurrency can also be modeled using 450:. Some of the best-known protocol suites are 4402: 4262: 4202: 4178: 4026: 4014: 3990: 3520: 3367: 3340: 3268: 2905: 2896: 2887: 256:, an early contribution to what will be the 5596:Global telecommunications regulation bodies 4527: 4490:IEEE Communications Surveys & Tutorials 4084:Design and Validation of Computer Protocols 2950: 2938: 2926: 2836:. IEEE Annals of the History of Computing. 2801: 2546: 2414: 2163: 2161: 844:. The first two cooperating protocols, the 736:links or from one sender at a time as on a 5680: 5666: 5632: 4588: 4574: 4156: 3325: 2708: 2177: 2175: 2173: 1719: 1705: 1042: 836:The communication protocols in use on the 718:Loss of information - timeouts and retries 384:polarized over the issue of which standard 4510: 4476: 4442: 4414: 4386: 4358: 4330: 4302: 4274: 4139: 4124: 3488: 3471:Brand, Daniel; Zafiropulo, Pitro (1983). 3232: 2309: 2259:"6.1 The Communications Subnet: BBN 1969" 2250: 2021:. The layering scheme from ISO is called 1963:(UDP) are the only practical choices for 181:in the United Kingdom, it was written by 3473:"On Communicating Finite-State Machines" 3434: 3382: 3328:Computer Networking: A Top-Down Approach 2665: 2622: 2561: 2190: 2158: 911: 886: 819: 438:At the time the Internet was developed, 316:, contributed to the development of the 145: 3310: 2771: 2625:IEEE Annals of the History of Computing 2473: 2420: 2279: 2170: 993: 963: 332:(SNA), Digital Equipment Corporation's 293:specification was written by Cerf with 96:. An alternate formulation states that 14: 6673: 6390:Knowledge representation and reasoning 4595: 4346: 4002: 3885:, 2.5. Limiting Impact of Information. 3397: 3205:Ben-Ari 1982, in his preface, p. xiii. 3097:from the original on 30 September 2019 2446: 2147:from the original on 12 September 2012 2007: 1841: 1131: 935:called the operating system boundary. 212:and other graduate students including 6415:Philosophy of artificial intelligence 5661: 4569: 3214:Ben-Ari 1982, in his preface, p. xiv. 3058: 3031: 3004: 2875:from the original on 24 February 2021 2843:from the original on 17 November 2019 2789:from the original on 1 September 2022 2384: 1057:International Telecommunication Union 613: 5741:Energy consumption (Green computing) 5687: 5642: 4528:Moschovitis, Christos J. P. (1999). 4322:The Wire Image of a Network Protocol 4162:Principles of concurrent programming 3549:from the original on 1 February 2021 2757:. Trafford Publishing. p. 354. 2191:Naughton, John (24 September 2015). 907: 882: 308:standard which was presented to the 208:(NCP) for the ARPANET, developed by 98:protocols are to communication what 6420:Distributed artificial intelligence 5699:ACM Computing Classification System 4205:Principles of programming languages 3979:McQuistin, Perkins & Fayed 2016 3326:Kurose, James; Ross, Keith (2005). 2828: 2600:from the original on 6 January 2017 2571:IEEE Transactions on Communications 2479: 2421:Bennett, Richard (September 2009). 1107:) may not be respected in another. 302:International Network Working Group 24: 5932:Integrated development environment 4185:Communicating sequential processes 3368:Lascano, J. E.; Clyde, S. (2016). 2808:Andrew L. Russell (30 July 2013). 2616: 2503: 2402:from the original on 7 August 2022 2273: 2256: 2224:Annals of the History of Computing 1741:Open Systems Interconnection model 951: 938: 794:communicating sequential processes 775: 660:(sender address, receiver address) 423:the protocol software may be made 68:. Protocols may be implemented by 48:. The protocol defines the rules, 25: 6702: 6400:Automated planning and scheduling 5937:Software configuration management 4549: 4294:Pervasive Monitoring Is an Attack 4226:(2nd ed.). Chartwell Bratt. 3061:"Binary Representation Protocols" 3034:"Binary Representation Protocols" 2373: 1947:Ossification is a major issue in 1069:public switched telephone network 1016:Binary Synchronous Communications 713:connection-oriented communication 654:Address formats for data exchange 138:(PSTN). As the PSTN and Internet 136:public switched telephone network 6654: 6644: 6635: 6634: 5641: 5631: 5622: 5621: 5610: 5231:Free-space optical communication 4246:Structured computer organization 4059:(2nd ed.). Addison-Wesley. 4032: 3849:, 2.1. Intentional Distribution. 2986:from the original on 31 May 2022 2486:. Edward Elgar. pp. 51–55. 2040:refers to protocols utilizing a 701:Detection of transmission errors 6645: 6048:Computational complexity theory 4350:Transport Protocol Path Signals 4347:Hardie, Ted, ed. (April 2019). 4224:Communication network protocols 4109:(4th ed.). Prentice Hall. 4045: 3909:, 2.6. Minimum Set of Entities. 3711: 3695: 3686: 3670: 3651: 3642: 3633: 3624: 3615: 3606: 3597: 3588: 3579: 3570: 3561: 3535: 3526: 3505: 3464: 3455: 3428: 3419: 3391: 3376: 3361: 3334: 3319: 3304: 3295: 3286: 3277: 3259: 3239:, NPTEL courses, archived from 3226: 3217: 3208: 3199: 3190: 3181: 3172: 3163: 3154: 3145: 3136: 3127: 3118: 3109: 3079: 3059:Kirch, Olaf (16 January 2002). 3052: 3032:Kirch, Olaf (16 January 2002). 3025: 3005:Kirch, Olaf (16 January 2002). 2998: 2968: 2959: 2917: 2855: 2822: 2810:"OSI: The Internet That Wasn't" 2745: 2702: 2659: 2555: 2456:. MIT Press. pp. 124–127. 2440: 2392:"NCP – Network Control Program" 2367: 2346: 2080: 1914: 1065:Internet Engineering Task Force 1010:The need for protocol standards 126:(ISO) handles other types. The 116:Internet Engineering Task Force 5839:Network performance evaluation 3808:Trammell & Kuehlewind 2019 3796:Trammell & Kuehlewind 2019 3784:Trammell & Kuehlewind 2019 3757:Trammell & Kuehlewind 2019 3745:Trammell & Kuehlewind 2019 3730:Trammell & Kuehlewind 2019 2303: 2218:Cambell-Kelly, Martin (1987). 2211: 2184: 2127: 2101: 635:Data formats for data exchange 538:improved bandwidth utilization 134:protocols and formats for the 13: 1: 6203:Multimedia information system 6188:Geographic information system 6178:Enterprise information system 5774:Computer systems organization 3835:Farrell & Tschofenig 2014 3820:Farrell & Tschofenig 2014 2286:. Stripe Press. p. 286. 2280:Waldrop, M. Mitchell (2018). 2194:A Brief History of the Future 2094: 1993:connection-oriented protocols 1986: 1957:Transmission Control Protocol 1863: 846:Transmission Control Protocol 729:Direction of information flow 553:Simple Mail Transfer Protocol 488: 258:Transmission Control Protocol 6562:Computational social science 6150:Theoretical computer science 5970:Software development process 5746:Electronic design automation 5731:Very Large Scale Integration 5617:Telecommunication portal 5398:Telecommunications equipment 4556:Javvin's Protocol Dictionary 4029:, 3.5. Restoring Active Use. 3897:, 2.4. Minimize Information. 3772:Fairhurst & Perkins 2021 3449:10.1016/0376-5075(78)90015-6 3236:Digital Circuits and Systems 2711:IEEE Communications Magazine 2668:IEEE Communications Magazine 1928:is the loss of flexibility, 1122:draft international standard 970:Abstract Syntax Notation One 330:Systems Network Architecture 283:Transmission Control Program 179:National Physical Laboratory 76:, or a combination of both. 7: 6385:Natural language processing 6173:Information storage systems 5134:Alexander Stepanovich Popov 2818:. Vol. 50, no. 8. 2562:Cerf, V.; Kahn, R. (1974). 2055: 1908:Internet Architecture Board 1111:The standardization process 1075:communication systems. For 1018:(BSC) protocol invented by 815: 705:somehow for retransmission. 557:Hypertext Transfer Protocol 555:), early versions of HTTP ( 304:agreed on a connectionless 278:(PUP) for internetworking. 185:and Keith Bartlett for the 10: 6707: 6301:Human–computer interaction 6271:Intrusion detection system 6183:Social information systems 6168:Database management system 4838:Telecommunications history 4503:10.1109/COMST.2016.2626780 3087:"Welcome To UML Web Site!" 2779:"TCP/IP Internet Protocol" 2511:"The internet's fifth man" 2062:Lists of network protocols 1918: 1867: 978:augmented Backus–Naur form 877:Asynchronous Transfer Mode 501:represents its content in 389: 161:The first use of the term 154: 150: 6630: 6567:Computational engineering 6542:Computational mathematics 6519: 6466: 6428: 6375: 6337: 6299: 6241: 6158: 6104: 6066: 6018: 5955: 5888: 5852: 5809: 5773: 5706: 5695: 5605: 5547: 5484: 5446:Public Switched Telephone 5406: 5370: 5327: 5268: 5258:telecommunication circuit 5219:Fiber-optic communication 5202: 4964:Francis Blake (telephone) 4911: 4759:Optical telecommunication 4603: 2723:10.1109/MCOM.2009.5350364 2680:10.1109/MCOM.2010.5621965 2583:10.1109/TCOM.1974.1092259 2113:Starkey Laboratories Inc. 1936:. This is largely due to 1091:closely with each other. 1085:World Wide Web Consortium 649:maximum transmission unit 582:utilizes all values of a 573: 6681:Communications protocols 6577:Computational healthcare 6572:Differentiable computing 6491:Graphics processing unit 5917:Domain-specific language 5786:Computational complexity 5357:Orbital angular-momentum 4794:Satellite communications 4633:Communications satellite 4222:Brian W Marsden (1986). 4027:Thomson & Pauly 2021 4015:Thomson & Pauly 2021 3991:Thomson & Pauly 2021 3967:Papastergiou et al. 2017 3955:Papastergiou et al. 2017 3943:Papastergiou et al. 2017 3931:Papastergiou et al. 2017 3521:Bryant & Morrow 2009 2480:Kim, Byung-Keun (2005). 2380:. High Definition Books. 2374:BOOKS, HIGH DEFINITION. 2073: 1997:connectionless protocols 1083:standards are used. The 1071:(PSTN), as well as many 958:software design patterns 480: 355:by 1989, as outlined in 6552:Computational chemistry 6486:Photograph manipulation 6377:Artificial intelligence 6193:Decision support system 5236:Molecular communication 5059:Gardiner Greene Hubbard 4888:Undersea telegraph line 4623:Cable protection system 4469:10.1145/2959424.2959443 2363:(BBN). Report No. 1822. 2361:Bolt Beranek and Newman 2328:10.1109/PROC.1978.11143 2316:Proceedings of the IEEE 2236:10.1109/MAHC.1987.10023 2141:Encyclopædia Britannica 1049:standards organizations 1043:Standards organizations 842:Internet Protocol Suite 831:combinatorial explosion 353:Internet protocol suite 206:Network Control Program 169:Under the direction of 44:via any variation of a 6617:Educational technology 6448:Reinforcement learning 6198:Process control system 6096:Computational geometry 6086:Algorithmic efficiency 6081:Analysis of algorithms 5736:Systems on Chip (SoCs) 5378:Communication protocol 5164:Charles Sumner Tainter 4979:Walter Houser Brattain 4924:Edwin Howard Armstrong 4732:Information revolution 3007:"Text Based Protocols" 2453:Inventing the Internet 2310:Kleinrock, L. (1978). 1961:User Datagram Protocol 1842:TCP/IP layering scheme 1731:A lesson learned from 1126:international standard 1004:standards organization 918: 892: 825: 789:concurrent programming 784:conceptual framework. 627:of the communication. 549:File Transfer Protocol 347:This was installed on 252:service while using a 66:error recovery methods 34:communication protocol 6587:Electronic publishing 6557:Computational biology 6547:Computational physics 6443:Unsupervised learning 6357:Distributed computing 6233:Information retrieval 6140:Mathematical analysis 6130:Mathematical software 6020:Theory of computation 5985:Software construction 5975:Requirements analysis 5853:Software organization 5781:Computer architecture 5751:Hardware acceleration 5716:Printed circuit board 5352:Polarization-division 5084:Narinder Singh Kapany 5049:Erna Schneider Hoover 4969:Jagadish Chandra Bose 4949:Alexander Graham Bell 4680:online video platform 4203:R.D. Tennent (1981). 3490:10.1145/322374.322380 3383:Daigneau, R. (2011). 2980:www.sciencedirect.com 1926:Protocol ossification 1921:protocol ossification 1813:also responsible for 1783:and data encryption). 915: 890: 823: 798:finite state machines 503:human-readable format 338:Xerox Network Systems 326:proprietary protocols 276:PARC Universal Packet 270:outlined the idea of 235:network, designed by 155:Further information: 146:Communicating systems 38:communications system 6347:Concurrent computing 6319:Ubiquitous computing 6291:Application security 6286:Information security 6115:Discrete mathematics 6091:Randomized algorithm 6043:Computability theory 6028:Model of computation 6000:Software maintenance 5995:Software engineering 5957:Software development 5907:Programming language 5902:Programming paradigm 5819:Network architecture 5194:Vladimir K. Zworykin 5154:Almon Brown Strowger 5124:Charles Grafton Page 4779:Prepaid mobile phone 4707:Electrical telegraph 2517:. 30 November 2013. 1942:end-to-end principle 1932:and evolvability of 1749:service access point 1737:structured protocols 1124:, and ultimately an 994:Protocol development 988:Finite-state machine 964:Formal specification 742:media access control 440:abstraction layering 241:end-to-end principle 222:application software 90:programming language 6622:Document management 6612:Operations research 6537:Enterprise software 6453:Multi-task learning 6438:Supervised learning 6160:Information systems 5990:Software deployment 5947:Software repository 5801:Real-time computing 5144:Johann Philipp Reis 4903:Wireless revolution 4865:The Telephone Cases 4722:Hydraulic telegraph 4242:Andrew S. Tanenbaum 3243:on 27 December 2009 2829:Russell, Andrew L. 2637:10.1109/MAHC.2011.9 1965:transport protocols 1840:In contrast to the 1132:OSI standardization 1101:monotone decreasing 929:Program translation 781:Systems engineering 740:. This is known as 499:plain text protocol 495:text-based protocol 475:transport protocols 417:transmission medium 320:standard, based on 254:best-effort service 6405:Search methodology 6352:Parallel computing 6309:Interaction design 6218:Computing platform 6145:Numerical analysis 6135:Information theory 5927:Software framework 5890:Software notations 5829:Network components 5726:Integrated circuit 5342:Frequency-division 5319:Telephone exchange 5189:Charles Wheatstone 5119:Jun-ichi Nishizawa 5094:Innocenzo Manzetti 5029:Reginald Fessenden 4764:Optical telegraphy 4597:Telecommunications 4079:Gerard J. Holzmann 3957:, p. 620-621. 3921:, 3. Further Work. 3477:Journal of the ACM 2001:tunneling protocol 1815:network congestion 1779:presentation layer 1265:Presentation layer 1103:to prevent stable 1077:marine electronics 1028:de facto standards 999:interoperability. 919: 893: 826: 614:Basic requirements 132:telecommunications 102:are to computation 86:technical standard 6691:Network protocols 6686:Data transmission 6668: 6667: 6597:Electronic voting 6527:Quantum Computing 6520:Applied computing 6506:Image compression 6276:Hardware security 6266:Security services 6223:Digital marketing 6010:Open-source model 5922:Modeling language 5834:Network scheduler 5655: 5654: 5393:Store and forward 5388:Data transmission 5302:Network switching 5253:Transmission line 5099:Guglielmo Marconi 5064:Internet pioneers 4929:Mohamed M. Atalla 4898:Whistled language 4541:978-1-57607-118-2 4087:. Prentice Hall. 3919:Arkko et al. 2023 3907:Arkko et al. 2023 3895:Arkko et al. 2023 3883:Arkko et al. 2023 3871:Arkko et al. 2023 3859:Arkko et al. 2023 3847:Arkko et al. 2023 3774:, 7. Conclusions. 3437:Computer Networks 2764:978-1-4669-3935-6 2463:978-0-262-51115-5 2322:(11): 1320–1329. 2293:978-1-953953-36-0 2283:The Dream Machine 2257:Pelkey, James L. 2204:978-1-4746-0277-8 2015:Internet layering 1934:network protocols 1891:of the protocol. 1765:Application layer 1729: 1728: 1157:Application layer 908:Software layering 901:data flow diagram 883:Protocol layering 850:Internet Protocol 669:addressing scheme 226:protocol layering 183:Roger Scantlebury 46:physical quantity 16:(Redirected from 6698: 6658: 6657: 6648: 6647: 6638: 6637: 6458:Cross-validation 6430:Machine learning 6314:Social computing 6281:Network security 6076:Algorithm design 6005:Programming team 5965:Control variable 5942:Software library 5880:Software quality 5875:Operating system 5824:Network protocol 5689:Computer science 5682: 5675: 5668: 5659: 5658: 5645: 5644: 5635: 5634: 5625: 5624: 5615: 5614: 5613: 5486:Notable networks 5476:Wireless network 5416:Cellular network 5408:Types of network 5383:Computer network 5270:Network topology 5184:Thomas A. Watson 5039:Oliver Heaviside 5024:Philo Farnsworth 4999:Daniel Davis Jr. 4974:Charles Bourseul 4934:John Logie Baird 4643:Data compression 4638:Computer network 4590: 4583: 4576: 4567: 4566: 4545: 4524: 4514: 4482: 4480: 4455: 4446: 4444:10.17487/RFC9419 4427: 4418: 4416:10.17487/RFC9170 4399: 4390: 4388:10.17487/RFC9065 4371: 4362: 4360:10.17487/RFC8558 4343: 4334: 4332:10.17487/RFC8546 4315: 4306: 4304:10.17487/RFC7258 4287: 4278: 4276:10.17487/RFC5704 4259: 4237: 4218: 4199: 4175: 4152: 4143: 4141:10.17487/RFC1122 4120: 4103:Douglas E. Comer 4098: 4073:available online 4070: 4039: 4036: 4030: 4024: 4018: 4017:, 3. Active Use. 4012: 4006: 4000: 3994: 3988: 3982: 3976: 3970: 3969:, p. 623-4. 3964: 3958: 3952: 3946: 3940: 3934: 3928: 3922: 3916: 3910: 3904: 3898: 3892: 3886: 3880: 3874: 3868: 3862: 3856: 3850: 3844: 3838: 3832: 3823: 3817: 3811: 3805: 3799: 3793: 3787: 3781: 3775: 3769: 3760: 3754: 3748: 3742: 3733: 3727: 3718: 3715: 3709: 3708: 3699: 3693: 3690: 3684: 3683: 3674: 3668: 3667: 3655: 3649: 3646: 3640: 3637: 3631: 3628: 3622: 3619: 3613: 3610: 3604: 3601: 3595: 3592: 3586: 3583: 3577: 3574: 3568: 3565: 3559: 3558: 3556: 3554: 3539: 3533: 3530: 3524: 3518: 3512: 3509: 3503: 3502: 3492: 3468: 3462: 3459: 3453: 3452: 3443:(4–5): 361–372. 3432: 3426: 3423: 3417: 3416: 3395: 3389: 3388: 3380: 3374: 3373: 3365: 3359: 3358: 3356: 3354: 3349:on 18 March 2017 3345:. Archived from 3338: 3332: 3331: 3323: 3317: 3316: 3308: 3302: 3299: 3293: 3290: 3284: 3281: 3275: 3272: 3266: 3263: 3257: 3254: 3245: 3244: 3230: 3224: 3221: 3215: 3212: 3206: 3203: 3197: 3194: 3188: 3185: 3179: 3176: 3170: 3167: 3161: 3158: 3152: 3149: 3143: 3140: 3134: 3131: 3125: 3122: 3116: 3113: 3107: 3106: 3104: 3102: 3083: 3077: 3076: 3074: 3072: 3063:. Archived from 3056: 3050: 3049: 3047: 3045: 3036:. Archived from 3029: 3023: 3022: 3020: 3018: 3009:. Archived from 3002: 2996: 2995: 2993: 2991: 2972: 2966: 2963: 2957: 2954: 2948: 2945: 2936: 2933: 2924: 2921: 2915: 2912: 2903: 2900: 2894: 2891: 2885: 2884: 2882: 2880: 2874: 2867: 2863:"Standards Wars" 2859: 2853: 2852: 2850: 2848: 2842: 2835: 2826: 2820: 2819: 2805: 2799: 2798: 2796: 2794: 2775: 2769: 2768: 2749: 2743: 2742: 2706: 2700: 2699: 2663: 2657: 2656: 2620: 2614: 2613: 2607: 2605: 2599: 2568: 2559: 2553: 2547:Moschovitis 1999 2544: 2538: 2537: 2531: 2529: 2507: 2501: 2500: 2477: 2471: 2470: 2444: 2438: 2437: 2435: 2433: 2427: 2418: 2412: 2411: 2409: 2407: 2388: 2382: 2381: 2371: 2365: 2364: 2358: 2350: 2344: 2343: 2307: 2301: 2300: 2277: 2271: 2270: 2254: 2248: 2247: 2230:(3/4): 221–247. 2215: 2209: 2208: 2188: 2182: 2179: 2168: 2165: 2156: 2155: 2154: 2152: 2131: 2125: 2124: 2123: 2119: 2105: 2088: 2084: 2067:Protocol Builder 1721: 1714: 1707: 1148: 1136: 1135: 1063:(IEEE), and the 755:Sequence control 708:Acknowledgements 519:Intel hex format 425:operating system 322:virtual circuits 175:packet switching 173:, who pioneered 21: 18:Network protocol 6706: 6705: 6701: 6700: 6699: 6697: 6696: 6695: 6671: 6670: 6669: 6664: 6655: 6626: 6607:Word processing 6515: 6501:Virtual reality 6462: 6424: 6395:Computer vision 6371: 6367:Multiprocessing 6333: 6295: 6261:Security hacker 6237: 6213:Digital library 6154: 6105:Mathematics of 6100: 6062: 6038:Automata theory 6033:Formal language 6014: 5980:Software design 5951: 5884: 5870:Virtual machine 5848: 5844:Network service 5805: 5796:Embedded system 5769: 5702: 5691: 5686: 5656: 5651: 5611: 5609: 5601: 5543: 5480: 5402: 5366: 5323: 5272: 5264: 5205: 5198: 5104:Robert Metcalfe 4959:Tim Berners-Lee 4907: 4727:Information Age 4599: 4594: 4552: 4542: 4256: 4234: 4215: 4196: 4172: 4117: 4095: 4067: 4048: 4043: 4042: 4037: 4033: 4025: 4021: 4013: 4009: 4001: 3997: 3989: 3985: 3977: 3973: 3965: 3961: 3953: 3949: 3941: 3937: 3929: 3925: 3917: 3913: 3905: 3901: 3893: 3889: 3881: 3877: 3869: 3865: 3857: 3853: 3845: 3841: 3833: 3826: 3818: 3814: 3806: 3802: 3794: 3790: 3782: 3778: 3770: 3763: 3755: 3751: 3743: 3736: 3728: 3721: 3716: 3712: 3701: 3700: 3696: 3691: 3687: 3676: 3675: 3671: 3657: 3656: 3652: 3647: 3643: 3638: 3634: 3629: 3625: 3620: 3616: 3611: 3607: 3602: 3598: 3593: 3589: 3584: 3580: 3575: 3571: 3566: 3562: 3552: 3550: 3541: 3540: 3536: 3531: 3527: 3519: 3515: 3510: 3506: 3469: 3465: 3460: 3456: 3433: 3429: 3424: 3420: 3413: 3396: 3392: 3381: 3377: 3366: 3362: 3352: 3350: 3339: 3335: 3324: 3320: 3309: 3305: 3300: 3296: 3291: 3287: 3282: 3278: 3273: 3269: 3264: 3260: 3255: 3248: 3233:S. Srinivasan, 3231: 3227: 3222: 3218: 3213: 3209: 3204: 3200: 3195: 3191: 3186: 3182: 3177: 3173: 3168: 3164: 3159: 3155: 3150: 3146: 3141: 3137: 3132: 3128: 3123: 3119: 3114: 3110: 3100: 3098: 3085: 3084: 3080: 3070: 3068: 3067:on 5 March 2006 3057: 3053: 3043: 3041: 3030: 3026: 3016: 3014: 3003: 2999: 2989: 2987: 2974: 2973: 2969: 2964: 2960: 2955: 2951: 2946: 2939: 2934: 2927: 2922: 2918: 2913: 2906: 2901: 2897: 2892: 2888: 2878: 2876: 2872: 2865: 2861: 2860: 2856: 2846: 2844: 2840: 2833: 2827: 2823: 2806: 2802: 2792: 2790: 2783:Living Internet 2777: 2776: 2772: 2765: 2751: 2750: 2746: 2707: 2703: 2664: 2660: 2621: 2617: 2603: 2601: 2597: 2566: 2560: 2556: 2545: 2541: 2527: 2525: 2509: 2508: 2504: 2494: 2478: 2474: 2464: 2445: 2441: 2431: 2429: 2425: 2419: 2415: 2405: 2403: 2396:Living Internet 2390: 2389: 2385: 2372: 2368: 2356: 2352: 2351: 2347: 2308: 2304: 2294: 2278: 2274: 2255: 2251: 2216: 2212: 2205: 2189: 2185: 2180: 2171: 2166: 2159: 2150: 2148: 2133: 2132: 2128: 2121: 2106: 2102: 2097: 2092: 2091: 2085: 2081: 2076: 2058: 2019:TCP/IP layering 2009:layering scheme 1989: 1923: 1917: 1872: 1866: 1823:data link layer 1799:transport layer 1725: 1696: 1695: 1601: 1590: 1589: 1486: 1484:Data link layer 1475: 1474: 1408: 1397: 1396: 1362: 1360:Transport layer 1351: 1350: 1313: 1302: 1301: 1267: 1256: 1255: 1159: 1143: 1142: 1134: 1113: 1045: 1012: 996: 966: 954: 952:Design patterns 941: 939:Strict layering 910: 885: 879:(ATM) network. 818: 778: 776:Protocol design 695:internetworking 680:address mapping 674:Address mapping 616: 580:binary protocol 576: 561:finger protocol 491: 483: 405:data structures 392: 250:virtual circuit 243:, and make the 159: 153: 148: 58:synchronization 28: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 6704: 6694: 6693: 6688: 6683: 6666: 6665: 6663: 6662: 6652: 6642: 6631: 6628: 6627: 6625: 6624: 6619: 6614: 6609: 6604: 6599: 6594: 6589: 6584: 6579: 6574: 6569: 6564: 6559: 6554: 6549: 6544: 6539: 6534: 6529: 6523: 6521: 6517: 6516: 6514: 6513: 6511:Solid modeling 6508: 6503: 6498: 6493: 6488: 6483: 6478: 6472: 6470: 6464: 6463: 6461: 6460: 6455: 6450: 6445: 6440: 6434: 6432: 6426: 6425: 6423: 6422: 6417: 6412: 6410:Control method 6407: 6402: 6397: 6392: 6387: 6381: 6379: 6373: 6372: 6370: 6369: 6364: 6362:Multithreading 6359: 6354: 6349: 6343: 6341: 6335: 6334: 6332: 6331: 6326: 6321: 6316: 6311: 6305: 6303: 6297: 6296: 6294: 6293: 6288: 6283: 6278: 6273: 6268: 6263: 6258: 6256:Formal methods 6253: 6247: 6245: 6239: 6238: 6236: 6235: 6230: 6228:World Wide Web 6225: 6220: 6215: 6210: 6205: 6200: 6195: 6190: 6185: 6180: 6175: 6170: 6164: 6162: 6156: 6155: 6153: 6152: 6147: 6142: 6137: 6132: 6127: 6122: 6117: 6111: 6109: 6102: 6101: 6099: 6098: 6093: 6088: 6083: 6078: 6072: 6070: 6064: 6063: 6061: 6060: 6055: 6050: 6045: 6040: 6035: 6030: 6024: 6022: 6016: 6015: 6013: 6012: 6007: 6002: 5997: 5992: 5987: 5982: 5977: 5972: 5967: 5961: 5959: 5953: 5952: 5950: 5949: 5944: 5939: 5934: 5929: 5924: 5919: 5914: 5909: 5904: 5898: 5896: 5886: 5885: 5883: 5882: 5877: 5872: 5867: 5862: 5856: 5854: 5850: 5849: 5847: 5846: 5841: 5836: 5831: 5826: 5821: 5815: 5813: 5807: 5806: 5804: 5803: 5798: 5793: 5788: 5783: 5777: 5775: 5771: 5770: 5768: 5767: 5758: 5753: 5748: 5743: 5738: 5733: 5728: 5723: 5718: 5712: 5710: 5704: 5703: 5696: 5693: 5692: 5685: 5684: 5677: 5670: 5662: 5653: 5652: 5650: 5649: 5639: 5629: 5619: 5606: 5603: 5602: 5600: 5599: 5592: 5587: 5582: 5577: 5572: 5571: 5570: 5565: 5557: 5551: 5549: 5545: 5544: 5542: 5541: 5536: 5531: 5526: 5521: 5516: 5511: 5506: 5501: 5496: 5490: 5488: 5482: 5481: 5479: 5478: 5473: 5468: 5463: 5458: 5453: 5448: 5443: 5438: 5433: 5428: 5423: 5418: 5412: 5410: 5404: 5403: 5401: 5400: 5395: 5390: 5385: 5380: 5374: 5372: 5368: 5367: 5365: 5364: 5359: 5354: 5349: 5344: 5339: 5337:Space-division 5333: 5331: 5325: 5324: 5322: 5321: 5316: 5315: 5314: 5309: 5299: 5298: 5297: 5287: 5282: 5276: 5274: 5266: 5265: 5263: 5262: 5261: 5260: 5250: 5249: 5248: 5238: 5233: 5228: 5227: 5226: 5216: 5210: 5208: 5200: 5199: 5197: 5196: 5191: 5186: 5181: 5176: 5174:Camille Tissot 5171: 5166: 5161: 5156: 5151: 5149:Claude Shannon 5146: 5141: 5139:Tivadar Puskás 5136: 5131: 5126: 5121: 5116: 5111: 5109:Antonio Meucci 5106: 5101: 5096: 5091: 5086: 5081: 5079:Charles K. Kao 5076: 5071: 5066: 5061: 5056: 5054:Harold Hopkins 5051: 5046: 5041: 5036: 5031: 5026: 5021: 5016: 5011: 5006: 5001: 4996: 4991: 4986: 4981: 4976: 4971: 4966: 4961: 4956: 4954:Emile Berliner 4951: 4946: 4941: 4936: 4931: 4926: 4921: 4915: 4913: 4909: 4908: 4906: 4905: 4900: 4895: 4893:Videotelephony 4890: 4885: 4884: 4883: 4878: 4868: 4861: 4856: 4850: 4845: 4840: 4835: 4830: 4829: 4828: 4823: 4818: 4808: 4807: 4806: 4796: 4791: 4789:Radiotelephone 4786: 4781: 4776: 4771: 4766: 4761: 4756: 4755: 4754: 4744: 4739: 4734: 4729: 4724: 4719: 4714: 4709: 4704: 4699: 4694: 4693: 4692: 4687: 4682: 4677: 4675:Internet video 4667: 4666: 4665: 4660: 4655: 4650: 4640: 4635: 4630: 4625: 4620: 4615: 4609: 4607: 4601: 4600: 4593: 4592: 4585: 4578: 4570: 4564: 4563: 4558: 4551: 4550:External links 4548: 4547: 4546: 4540: 4525: 4483: 4456: 4428: 4400: 4372: 4344: 4316: 4288: 4260: 4254: 4238: 4232: 4219: 4213: 4200: 4194: 4176: 4170: 4154: 4128:, ed. (1989). 4122: 4115: 4099: 4093: 4075: 4065: 4047: 4044: 4041: 4040: 4031: 4019: 4007: 4005:, p. 7-8. 3995: 3983: 3971: 3959: 3947: 3945:, p. 620. 3935: 3933:, p. 619. 3923: 3911: 3899: 3887: 3875: 3863: 3851: 3839: 3824: 3812: 3810:, p. 7-8. 3800: 3788: 3776: 3761: 3749: 3734: 3719: 3710: 3694: 3685: 3669: 3650: 3641: 3632: 3623: 3614: 3605: 3596: 3587: 3578: 3569: 3560: 3534: 3525: 3513: 3504: 3463: 3454: 3427: 3418: 3411: 3390: 3375: 3360: 3333: 3318: 3303: 3294: 3285: 3276: 3267: 3258: 3246: 3225: 3216: 3207: 3198: 3189: 3180: 3171: 3162: 3153: 3144: 3135: 3126: 3117: 3108: 3078: 3051: 3040:on 30 May 2010 3024: 3013:on 30 May 2010 2997: 2967: 2958: 2949: 2937: 2925: 2916: 2904: 2895: 2886: 2854: 2821: 2800: 2770: 2763: 2744: 2701: 2658: 2615: 2577:(5): 637–648. 2554: 2539: 2502: 2492: 2472: 2462: 2439: 2413: 2383: 2366: 2345: 2302: 2292: 2272: 2249: 2210: 2203: 2183: 2169: 2157: 2126: 2099: 2098: 2096: 2093: 2090: 2089: 2078: 2077: 2075: 2072: 2071: 2070: 2064: 2057: 2054: 1988: 1985: 1919:Main article: 1916: 1913: 1868:Main article: 1865: 1862: 1838: 1837: 1833:physical layer 1828: 1818: 1804: 1794: 1784: 1774: 1771:data integrity 1727: 1726: 1724: 1723: 1716: 1709: 1701: 1698: 1697: 1694: 1693: 1688: 1683: 1681:ITU-T G.hn PHY 1678: 1673: 1668: 1663: 1658: 1653: 1648: 1643: 1638: 1633: 1628: 1623: 1618: 1616:ITU-T V-Series 1613: 1608: 1602: 1599:Physical layer 1596: 1595: 1592: 1591: 1588: 1587: 1582: 1577: 1568: 1563: 1561:ITU-T G.hn DLL 1558: 1553: 1548: 1543: 1538: 1533: 1528: 1523: 1518: 1513: 1508: 1503: 1498: 1493: 1487: 1481: 1480: 1477: 1476: 1473: 1472: 1467: 1462: 1457: 1452: 1447: 1442: 1437: 1427: 1426: 1425: 1420: 1409: 1403: 1402: 1399: 1398: 1395: 1394: 1389: 1384: 1379: 1374: 1369: 1363: 1357: 1356: 1353: 1352: 1349: 1348: 1345: 1340: 1335: 1330: 1325: 1320: 1314: 1308: 1307: 1304: 1303: 1300: 1299: 1294: 1289: 1284: 1279: 1274: 1268: 1262: 1261: 1258: 1257: 1254: 1253: 1246: 1241: 1236: 1231: 1226: 1221: 1216: 1211: 1206: 1201: 1191: 1186: 1181: 1176: 1171: 1166: 1160: 1154: 1153: 1150: 1149: 1133: 1130: 1118:draft proposal 1112: 1109: 1044: 1041: 1011: 1008: 995: 992: 976:standard) and 965: 962: 953: 950: 940: 937: 909: 906: 884: 881: 865:connectionless 848:(TCP) and the 817: 814: 806:Moore machines 777: 774: 773: 772: 769: 766: 763: 760: 756: 753: 730: 727: 719: 716: 709: 706: 702: 699: 686: 683: 675: 672: 655: 652: 636: 615: 612: 575: 572: 490: 487: 482: 479: 448:protocol suite 391: 388: 328:such as IBM's 266:and others at 152: 149: 147: 144: 109:protocol stack 26: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 6703: 6692: 6689: 6687: 6684: 6682: 6679: 6678: 6676: 6661: 6653: 6651: 6643: 6641: 6633: 6632: 6629: 6623: 6620: 6618: 6615: 6613: 6610: 6608: 6605: 6603: 6600: 6598: 6595: 6593: 6590: 6588: 6585: 6583: 6580: 6578: 6575: 6573: 6570: 6568: 6565: 6563: 6560: 6558: 6555: 6553: 6550: 6548: 6545: 6543: 6540: 6538: 6535: 6533: 6530: 6528: 6525: 6524: 6522: 6518: 6512: 6509: 6507: 6504: 6502: 6499: 6497: 6496:Mixed reality 6494: 6492: 6489: 6487: 6484: 6482: 6479: 6477: 6474: 6473: 6471: 6469: 6465: 6459: 6456: 6454: 6451: 6449: 6446: 6444: 6441: 6439: 6436: 6435: 6433: 6431: 6427: 6421: 6418: 6416: 6413: 6411: 6408: 6406: 6403: 6401: 6398: 6396: 6393: 6391: 6388: 6386: 6383: 6382: 6380: 6378: 6374: 6368: 6365: 6363: 6360: 6358: 6355: 6353: 6350: 6348: 6345: 6344: 6342: 6340: 6336: 6330: 6329:Accessibility 6327: 6325: 6324:Visualization 6322: 6320: 6317: 6315: 6312: 6310: 6307: 6306: 6304: 6302: 6298: 6292: 6289: 6287: 6284: 6282: 6279: 6277: 6274: 6272: 6269: 6267: 6264: 6262: 6259: 6257: 6254: 6252: 6249: 6248: 6246: 6244: 6240: 6234: 6231: 6229: 6226: 6224: 6221: 6219: 6216: 6214: 6211: 6209: 6206: 6204: 6201: 6199: 6196: 6194: 6191: 6189: 6186: 6184: 6181: 6179: 6176: 6174: 6171: 6169: 6166: 6165: 6163: 6161: 6157: 6151: 6148: 6146: 6143: 6141: 6138: 6136: 6133: 6131: 6128: 6126: 6123: 6121: 6118: 6116: 6113: 6112: 6110: 6108: 6103: 6097: 6094: 6092: 6089: 6087: 6084: 6082: 6079: 6077: 6074: 6073: 6071: 6069: 6065: 6059: 6056: 6054: 6051: 6049: 6046: 6044: 6041: 6039: 6036: 6034: 6031: 6029: 6026: 6025: 6023: 6021: 6017: 6011: 6008: 6006: 6003: 6001: 5998: 5996: 5993: 5991: 5988: 5986: 5983: 5981: 5978: 5976: 5973: 5971: 5968: 5966: 5963: 5962: 5960: 5958: 5954: 5948: 5945: 5943: 5940: 5938: 5935: 5933: 5930: 5928: 5925: 5923: 5920: 5918: 5915: 5913: 5910: 5908: 5905: 5903: 5900: 5899: 5897: 5895: 5891: 5887: 5881: 5878: 5876: 5873: 5871: 5868: 5866: 5863: 5861: 5858: 5857: 5855: 5851: 5845: 5842: 5840: 5837: 5835: 5832: 5830: 5827: 5825: 5822: 5820: 5817: 5816: 5814: 5812: 5808: 5802: 5799: 5797: 5794: 5792: 5791:Dependability 5789: 5787: 5784: 5782: 5779: 5778: 5776: 5772: 5766: 5762: 5759: 5757: 5754: 5752: 5749: 5747: 5744: 5742: 5739: 5737: 5734: 5732: 5729: 5727: 5724: 5722: 5719: 5717: 5714: 5713: 5711: 5709: 5705: 5700: 5694: 5690: 5683: 5678: 5676: 5671: 5669: 5664: 5663: 5660: 5648: 5640: 5638: 5630: 5628: 5620: 5618: 5608: 5607: 5604: 5597: 5593: 5591: 5588: 5586: 5583: 5581: 5578: 5576: 5573: 5569: 5566: 5564: 5561: 5560: 5558: 5556: 5553: 5552: 5550: 5546: 5540: 5537: 5535: 5532: 5530: 5527: 5525: 5522: 5520: 5517: 5515: 5512: 5510: 5507: 5505: 5502: 5500: 5497: 5495: 5492: 5491: 5489: 5487: 5483: 5477: 5474: 5472: 5469: 5467: 5464: 5462: 5459: 5457: 5454: 5452: 5449: 5447: 5444: 5442: 5439: 5437: 5434: 5432: 5429: 5427: 5424: 5422: 5419: 5417: 5414: 5413: 5411: 5409: 5405: 5399: 5396: 5394: 5391: 5389: 5386: 5384: 5381: 5379: 5376: 5375: 5373: 5369: 5363: 5362:Code-division 5360: 5358: 5355: 5353: 5350: 5348: 5347:Time-division 5345: 5343: 5340: 5338: 5335: 5334: 5332: 5330: 5326: 5320: 5317: 5313: 5310: 5308: 5305: 5304: 5303: 5300: 5296: 5293: 5292: 5291: 5288: 5286: 5283: 5281: 5278: 5277: 5275: 5273:and switching 5271: 5267: 5259: 5256: 5255: 5254: 5251: 5247: 5244: 5243: 5242: 5239: 5237: 5234: 5232: 5229: 5225: 5224:optical fiber 5222: 5221: 5220: 5217: 5215: 5214:Coaxial cable 5212: 5211: 5209: 5207: 5201: 5195: 5192: 5190: 5187: 5185: 5182: 5180: 5177: 5175: 5172: 5170: 5167: 5165: 5162: 5160: 5157: 5155: 5152: 5150: 5147: 5145: 5142: 5140: 5137: 5135: 5132: 5130: 5129:Radia Perlman 5127: 5125: 5122: 5120: 5117: 5115: 5112: 5110: 5107: 5105: 5102: 5100: 5097: 5095: 5092: 5090: 5087: 5085: 5082: 5080: 5077: 5075: 5072: 5070: 5067: 5065: 5062: 5060: 5057: 5055: 5052: 5050: 5047: 5045: 5042: 5040: 5037: 5035: 5032: 5030: 5027: 5025: 5022: 5020: 5019:Lee de Forest 5017: 5015: 5014:Thomas Edison 5012: 5010: 5007: 5005: 5004:Donald Davies 5002: 5000: 4997: 4995: 4992: 4990: 4989:Claude Chappe 4987: 4985: 4982: 4980: 4977: 4975: 4972: 4970: 4967: 4965: 4962: 4960: 4957: 4955: 4952: 4950: 4947: 4945: 4942: 4940: 4937: 4935: 4932: 4930: 4927: 4925: 4922: 4920: 4917: 4916: 4914: 4910: 4904: 4901: 4899: 4896: 4894: 4891: 4889: 4886: 4882: 4879: 4877: 4874: 4873: 4872: 4869: 4867: 4866: 4862: 4860: 4857: 4854: 4851: 4849: 4846: 4844: 4841: 4839: 4836: 4834: 4833:Smoke signals 4831: 4827: 4824: 4822: 4819: 4817: 4814: 4813: 4812: 4811:Semiconductor 4809: 4805: 4802: 4801: 4800: 4797: 4795: 4792: 4790: 4787: 4785: 4782: 4780: 4777: 4775: 4772: 4770: 4767: 4765: 4762: 4760: 4757: 4753: 4750: 4749: 4748: 4745: 4743: 4740: 4738: 4735: 4733: 4730: 4728: 4725: 4723: 4720: 4718: 4715: 4713: 4710: 4708: 4705: 4703: 4700: 4698: 4695: 4691: 4688: 4686: 4683: 4681: 4678: 4676: 4673: 4672: 4671: 4670:Digital media 4668: 4664: 4661: 4659: 4656: 4654: 4651: 4649: 4646: 4645: 4644: 4641: 4639: 4636: 4634: 4631: 4629: 4626: 4624: 4621: 4619: 4616: 4614: 4611: 4610: 4608: 4606: 4602: 4598: 4591: 4586: 4584: 4579: 4577: 4572: 4571: 4568: 4562: 4559: 4557: 4554: 4553: 4543: 4537: 4533: 4532: 4526: 4522: 4518: 4513: 4508: 4504: 4500: 4496: 4492: 4491: 4484: 4479: 4474: 4470: 4466: 4462: 4457: 4453: 4450: 4445: 4440: 4436: 4435: 4429: 4425: 4422: 4417: 4412: 4408: 4407: 4401: 4397: 4394: 4389: 4384: 4380: 4379: 4373: 4369: 4366: 4361: 4356: 4352: 4351: 4345: 4341: 4338: 4333: 4328: 4324: 4323: 4317: 4313: 4310: 4305: 4300: 4296: 4295: 4289: 4285: 4282: 4277: 4272: 4268: 4267: 4261: 4257: 4255:0-13-854605-3 4251: 4247: 4243: 4239: 4235: 4233:0-86238-106-1 4229: 4225: 4220: 4216: 4214:0-13-709873-1 4210: 4206: 4201: 4197: 4195:0-13-153271-5 4191: 4187: 4186: 4181: 4177: 4173: 4171:0-13-701078-8 4167: 4163: 4159: 4155: 4150: 4147: 4142: 4137: 4133: 4132: 4127: 4123: 4118: 4116:0-13-018380-6 4112: 4108: 4104: 4100: 4096: 4094:0-13-539925-4 4090: 4086: 4085: 4080: 4076: 4074: 4068: 4066:0-201-63448-1 4062: 4058: 4054: 4053:Radia Perlman 4050: 4049: 4035: 4028: 4023: 4016: 4011: 4004: 3999: 3992: 3987: 3980: 3975: 3968: 3963: 3956: 3951: 3944: 3939: 3932: 3927: 3920: 3915: 3908: 3903: 3896: 3891: 3884: 3879: 3872: 3867: 3860: 3855: 3848: 3843: 3836: 3831: 3829: 3821: 3816: 3809: 3804: 3797: 3792: 3785: 3780: 3773: 3768: 3766: 3758: 3753: 3746: 3741: 3739: 3731: 3726: 3724: 3714: 3706: 3705: 3698: 3689: 3681: 3680: 3673: 3666: 3663:. p. 5. 3662: 3661: 3654: 3645: 3636: 3627: 3618: 3609: 3600: 3591: 3582: 3573: 3564: 3548: 3544: 3538: 3529: 3522: 3517: 3508: 3500: 3496: 3491: 3486: 3482: 3478: 3474: 3467: 3458: 3450: 3446: 3442: 3438: 3431: 3422: 3414: 3412:0-321-12742-0 3408: 3404: 3400: 3394: 3386: 3379: 3371: 3364: 3348: 3344: 3337: 3329: 3322: 3314: 3307: 3298: 3289: 3280: 3271: 3262: 3253: 3251: 3242: 3238: 3237: 3229: 3220: 3211: 3202: 3193: 3184: 3175: 3166: 3157: 3148: 3139: 3130: 3121: 3112: 3096: 3092: 3088: 3082: 3066: 3062: 3055: 3039: 3035: 3028: 3012: 3008: 3001: 2985: 2981: 2977: 2971: 2962: 2953: 2944: 2942: 2932: 2930: 2920: 2911: 2909: 2899: 2890: 2871: 2864: 2858: 2839: 2832: 2825: 2817: 2816: 2815:IEEE Spectrum 2811: 2804: 2788: 2784: 2780: 2774: 2766: 2760: 2756: 2755: 2748: 2740: 2736: 2732: 2728: 2724: 2720: 2717:(12): 26–31. 2716: 2712: 2705: 2697: 2693: 2689: 2685: 2681: 2677: 2674:(11): 40–46. 2673: 2669: 2662: 2654: 2650: 2646: 2642: 2638: 2634: 2630: 2626: 2619: 2612: 2596: 2592: 2588: 2584: 2580: 2576: 2572: 2565: 2558: 2552: 2548: 2543: 2536: 2524: 2520: 2516: 2515:The Economist 2512: 2506: 2499: 2495: 2489: 2485: 2484: 2476: 2469: 2465: 2459: 2455: 2454: 2449: 2448:Abbate, Janet 2443: 2424: 2417: 2401: 2397: 2393: 2387: 2379: 2378: 2370: 2362: 2355: 2349: 2342: 2337: 2333: 2329: 2325: 2321: 2317: 2313: 2306: 2299: 2295: 2289: 2285: 2284: 2276: 2269: 2264: 2260: 2253: 2245: 2241: 2237: 2233: 2229: 2225: 2221: 2214: 2206: 2200: 2196: 2195: 2187: 2178: 2176: 2174: 2164: 2162: 2146: 2142: 2138: 2137: 2130: 2118: 2114: 2110: 2104: 2100: 2083: 2079: 2068: 2065: 2063: 2060: 2059: 2053: 2051: 2047: 2043: 2039: 2035: 2030: 2028: 2024: 2023:the OSI model 2020: 2016: 2011: 2010: 2004: 2002: 1998: 1994: 1984: 1982: 1979:is the first 1978: 1973: 1968: 1966: 1962: 1958: 1954: 1950: 1945: 1943: 1939: 1935: 1931: 1930:extensibility 1927: 1922: 1912: 1909: 1903: 1901: 1897: 1896:authenticated 1892: 1890: 1889:extensibility 1886: 1882: 1881:side-channels 1877: 1871: 1861: 1857: 1855: 1851: 1845: 1843: 1835: 1834: 1829: 1825: 1824: 1819: 1816: 1811: 1810: 1809:network layer 1805: 1801: 1800: 1795: 1791: 1790: 1789:session layer 1785: 1781: 1780: 1775: 1772: 1767: 1766: 1761: 1760: 1759: 1756: 1754: 1753:peer entities 1750: 1744: 1742: 1738: 1734: 1722: 1717: 1715: 1710: 1708: 1703: 1702: 1700: 1699: 1692: 1689: 1687: 1684: 1682: 1679: 1677: 1674: 1672: 1669: 1667: 1664: 1662: 1659: 1657: 1654: 1652: 1649: 1647: 1644: 1642: 1639: 1637: 1634: 1632: 1629: 1627: 1624: 1622: 1619: 1617: 1614: 1612: 1609: 1607: 1604: 1603: 1600: 1594: 1593: 1586: 1583: 1581: 1578: 1576: 1572: 1569: 1567: 1564: 1562: 1559: 1557: 1554: 1552: 1549: 1547: 1544: 1542: 1539: 1537: 1534: 1532: 1529: 1527: 1524: 1522: 1519: 1517: 1514: 1512: 1509: 1507: 1504: 1502: 1499: 1497: 1494: 1492: 1489: 1488: 1485: 1479: 1478: 1471: 1468: 1466: 1463: 1461: 1458: 1456: 1453: 1451: 1448: 1446: 1443: 1441: 1438: 1435: 1431: 1428: 1424: 1421: 1419: 1416: 1415: 1414: 1411: 1410: 1407: 1406:Network layer 1401: 1400: 1393: 1390: 1388: 1385: 1383: 1380: 1378: 1375: 1373: 1370: 1368: 1365: 1364: 1361: 1355: 1354: 1346: 1344: 1341: 1339: 1336: 1334: 1331: 1329: 1326: 1324: 1321: 1319: 1316: 1315: 1312: 1311:Session layer 1306: 1305: 1298: 1295: 1293: 1290: 1288: 1285: 1283: 1280: 1278: 1275: 1273: 1270: 1269: 1266: 1260: 1259: 1252: 1251: 1247: 1245: 1242: 1240: 1237: 1235: 1232: 1230: 1227: 1225: 1222: 1220: 1217: 1215: 1212: 1210: 1207: 1205: 1202: 1199: 1195: 1192: 1190: 1187: 1185: 1182: 1180: 1177: 1175: 1172: 1170: 1167: 1165: 1162: 1161: 1158: 1152: 1151: 1147: 1141: 1138: 1137: 1129: 1127: 1123: 1119: 1108: 1106: 1105:routing loops 1102: 1098: 1092: 1088: 1086: 1082: 1078: 1074: 1070: 1066: 1062: 1058: 1054: 1050: 1040: 1038: 1034: 1030: 1029: 1023: 1021: 1017: 1007: 1005: 1000: 991: 989: 985: 983: 979: 975: 971: 961: 959: 949: 945: 936: 932: 930: 926: 922: 914: 905: 902: 897: 889: 880: 878: 874: 870: 866: 861: 858: 853: 851: 847: 843: 839: 834: 832: 822: 813: 809: 807: 803: 799: 795: 790: 785: 782: 770: 767: 764: 761: 757: 754: 751: 747: 743: 739: 738:shared medium 735: 731: 728: 725: 720: 717: 714: 710: 707: 703: 700: 697: 696: 691: 687: 684: 681: 676: 673: 670: 665: 661: 656: 653: 650: 646: 642: 637: 634: 633: 632: 628: 626: 622: 611: 609: 605: 601: 597: 592: 589: 585: 581: 571: 569: 564: 562: 558: 554: 550: 546: 541: 539: 535: 530: 528: 524: 520: 516: 512: 508: 504: 500: 496: 486: 478: 476: 471: 469: 465: 461: 457: 453: 449: 444: 441: 436: 434: 430: 426: 420: 418: 414: 413:shared memory 408: 406: 402: 398: 387: 385: 381: 376: 374: 370: 366: 362: 358: 354: 350: 346: 341: 339: 335: 331: 327: 323: 319: 315: 311: 307: 303: 298: 296: 292: 288: 284: 279: 277: 273: 269: 265: 261: 259: 255: 251: 246: 242: 238: 234: 229: 227: 223: 219: 215: 211: 210:Steve Crocker 207: 203: 200:, written by 199: 198:1822 protocol 195: 190: 188: 184: 180: 176: 172: 171:Donald Davies 168: 164: 158: 157:Protocol Wars 143: 141: 137: 133: 129: 125: 121: 117: 112: 110: 105: 103: 101: 95: 91: 87: 83: 77: 75: 71: 67: 64:and possible 63: 62:communication 59: 55: 51: 47: 43: 39: 35: 30: 19: 6592:Cyberwarfare 6251:Cryptography 5377: 5329:Multiplexing 5204:Transmission 5169:Nikola Tesla 5159:Henry Sutton 5114:Samuel Morse 5044:Robert Hooke 5009:Amos Dolbear 4944:John Bardeen 4863: 4843:Telautograph 4747:Mobile phone 4702:Edholm's law 4685:social media 4618:Broadcasting 4534:. ABC-CLIO. 4530: 4494: 4488: 4460: 4433: 4405: 4377: 4349: 4321: 4293: 4265: 4245: 4223: 4204: 4184: 4180:C.A.R. Hoare 4161: 4130: 4106: 4083: 4056: 4046:Bibliography 4034: 4022: 4010: 3998: 3986: 3981:, p. 1. 3974: 3962: 3950: 3938: 3926: 3914: 3902: 3890: 3878: 3866: 3854: 3842: 3837:, p. 3. 3822:, p. 2. 3815: 3803: 3798:, p. 6. 3791: 3786:, p. 5. 3779: 3759:, p. 4. 3752: 3747:, p. 3. 3732:, p. 2. 3713: 3703: 3697: 3688: 3678: 3672: 3664: 3659: 3653: 3644: 3635: 3626: 3617: 3608: 3599: 3590: 3581: 3572: 3563: 3551:. Retrieved 3537: 3528: 3523:, p. 4. 3516: 3507: 3480: 3476: 3466: 3457: 3440: 3436: 3430: 3421: 3402: 3393: 3384: 3378: 3369: 3363: 3351:. Retrieved 3347:the original 3336: 3327: 3321: 3313:IEEE Network 3312: 3306: 3297: 3288: 3279: 3270: 3261: 3241:the original 3235: 3228: 3219: 3210: 3201: 3192: 3183: 3174: 3165: 3156: 3147: 3138: 3129: 3120: 3111: 3099:. Retrieved 3090: 3081: 3069:. Retrieved 3065:the original 3054: 3042:. Retrieved 3038:the original 3027: 3015:. Retrieved 3011:the original 3000: 2988:. Retrieved 2979: 2970: 2961: 2952: 2919: 2898: 2889: 2877:. Retrieved 2857: 2845:. Retrieved 2824: 2813: 2803: 2791:. Retrieved 2782: 2773: 2753: 2747: 2714: 2710: 2704: 2671: 2667: 2661: 2631:(1): 66–71. 2628: 2624: 2618: 2609: 2602:. Retrieved 2574: 2570: 2557: 2542: 2533: 2526:. Retrieved 2514: 2505: 2497: 2482: 2475: 2467: 2452: 2442: 2432:11 September 2430:. Retrieved 2416: 2404:. Retrieved 2395: 2386: 2376: 2369: 2348: 2339: 2319: 2315: 2305: 2297: 2282: 2275: 2266: 2262: 2252: 2227: 2223: 2213: 2193: 2186: 2151:24 September 2149:, retrieved 2135: 2129: 2103: 2082: 2049: 2045: 2041: 2037: 2033: 2031: 2027:ISO layering 2026: 2022: 2018: 2014: 2008: 2005: 1990: 1969: 1953:encapsulated 1946: 1924: 1915:Ossification 1904: 1893: 1875: 1873: 1858: 1846: 1839: 1831: 1821: 1807: 1803:connections. 1797: 1787: 1777: 1763: 1757: 1752: 1748: 1745: 1736: 1730: 1248: 1125: 1121: 1117: 1114: 1097:time-to-live 1093: 1089: 1047:Some of the 1046: 1037:oligopolized 1026: 1024: 1013: 1001: 997: 986: 967: 955: 946: 942: 933: 927: 923: 920: 898: 894: 862: 854: 835: 827: 810: 786: 779: 762:Flow control 693: 689: 679: 668: 663: 659: 644: 640: 629: 624: 620: 617: 593: 579: 577: 565: 542: 531: 498: 494: 492: 484: 472: 445: 437: 429:TCP/IP model 421: 409: 393: 377: 344: 342: 314:Rémi Després 299: 280: 264:Bob Metcalfe 262: 237:Louis Pouzin 230: 225: 191: 166: 162: 160: 118:(IETF). The 113: 106: 97: 93: 78: 40:to transmit 33: 31: 29: 6602:Video games 6582:Digital art 6339:Concurrency 6208:Data mining 6120:Probability 5860:Interpreter 5529:NPL network 5241:Radio waves 5179:Alfred Vail 5089:Hedy Lamarr 5074:Dawon Kahng 5034:Elisha Gray 4994:Yogen Dalal 4919:Nasir Ahmed 4853:Teleprinter 4717:Heliographs 4497:: 619–639. 4003:Hardie 2019 3993:, A.5. TCP. 2879:23 February 2847:23 February 2604:23 February 2050:application 1938:middleboxes 1900:middleboxes 1671:IEEE 802.16 1666:IEEE 802.15 1661:IEEE 802.11 1585:IEEE 802.11 1556:Frame Relay 1099:values are 1059:(ITU), the 1055:(ISO), the 1033:monopolized 984:standard). 917:boundaries. 734:half-duplex 559:), and the 505:, often in 295:Yogen Dalal 285:(TCP). Its 187:NPL network 82:implemented 42:information 6675:Categories 6660:Glossaries 6532:E-commerce 6125:Statistics 6068:Algorithms 5865:Middleware 5721:Peripheral 5575:Antarctica 5534:Toasternet 5456:Television 4939:Paul Baran 4871:Television 4855:(teletype) 4848:Telegraphy 4826:transistor 4804:Phryctoria 4774:Photophone 4752:Smartphone 4742:Mass media 4478:1893/26111 4158:M. Ben-ari 3483:(2): 323. 3399:Fowler, M. 3330:. Pearson. 3101:15 January 3017:21 October 2549:, p. 2493:1845426754 2359:(Report). 2109:US 7529565 2095:References 1987:Taxonomies 1972:encrypting 1959:(TCP) and 1876:wire image 1864:Wire image 1656:IEEE 802.3 1580:Q.922 LAPF 1551:IEEE 802.3 1531:IEEE 802.2 1318:Named pipe 800:, such as 750:contention 507:plain text 489:Text-based 401:algorithms 268:Xerox PARC 214:Jon Postel 100:algorithms 6481:Rendering 6476:Animation 6107:computing 6058:Semantics 5756:Processor 5559:Americas 5548:Locations 5519:Internet2 5280:Bandwidth 4984:Vint Cerf 4881:streaming 4859:Telephone 4799:Semaphore 4690:streaming 4512:2164/8317 4126:R. Braden 2793:8 October 2731:1558-1896 2688:1558-1896 2653:206443072 2645:1934-1547 2591:1558-0857 2523:0013-0613 2406:8 October 2336:0018-9219 2197:. 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