2576:, after Obregón's assassination when Calles was not formally president but was the power behind the presidency. Amaro's orders were to reduce the military budget, challenged officers to justify their rank, reduced the number of regular troops, and mustered out irregular troops. He significantly reduced the military's budget from 36% of the national budget to 25%. He oversaw the revision of military laws, which codified practices for the postrevolutionary period. A general organic law laid out the mission of the military; the law of promotions created procedures for advancement in rank that did not rest on battlefield promotions or favoritism and ended automatic promotions. Promotions dependent on a space opening up and candidates passing competitive examinations, having professional training, and field experience. Retirement ages were specified for enlisted men and officers. Amaro also pursued creating a professional officer corps of younger men who had not risen to high rank during the Revolution. Young officers were sent abroad for military training, and then on their return to Mexico, to instill in them the idea of the military as a nonpolitical institution, subordinate to civil authority.
739:, a settler in Cuba who was well-connected locally. He received a license to lead an expedition of exploration only. As was standard practice for an expedition, those joining it brought their own weapons and armor, and if wealthy enough, a horse. If an entrada of conquest was successful, participants would receive shares of the spoils, with each man receiving one share, and if he was a horseman, an additional share. These expeditions were not organized armies of salaried troops funded by the crown, but groups of settlers turned bands of men in combat or soldiers of fortune, who joined with the expectation that their valor and skill in combat would be rewarded. The term "soldier" was not used by participants themselves. The leader was often called "captain,", but this was not a military rank. Cortés did not want to be restricted by the license limiting him solely to exploration of Mexico's coast, and left Cuba before officials realized his ambition. For that reason, once the Spanish would-be conquerors landed on the mainland, they needed to find way to constitute themselves as a legal entity. They did so by founding the town of Villa Rica de la Vera Cruz (today's
2775:. Cárdenas cracked down on sources of revenue for generals by closing casinos. Although revolutionary generals were increasingly concerned by Cárdenas's moves, he began winning over the junior officer corps by creating better schools, housing, and pensions. Calles was alarmed at Cárdenas's independence and seeming radicalism and attempted to rein him in. Cárdenas openly broke with Calles, counting on the support of some army generals, labor, and peasants. He removed Calles's men from the cabinet; he purged Calles's men from the PNR. In the end in April 1936, Cárdenas put Calles put him on an airplane to exile in the U.S. Consolidating his position further, Cárdenas invited back from exile those generals driven out by Obregón and Calles. These included participants in the 1923 Delahuertista rebellion. Also returning from exile were military participants in the 1929 Escobar rebellion, including Escobar himself. Porfirio Díaz, Junior,
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detention centers, where guerrillas would be sent before being transferred to a legal prison, to keep the state's activities hidden from outside sources. Hundreds of people tied to the left were illegally detained, tortured and disappeared at the hands of
Mexican security forces. The military detained Pablo Cabañas, Lucio’s younger brother, in January 1972. As he stated," my life changed completely." As the soldiers questions him about his brother Lucio's whereabouts, the soldiers chose violence to get him talking they, "slapped us (prisoners) across the face with a club, kicked, electric shocks all over the body, inside the underpants, almost naked, stuck us in a barrel of cold water, submerged our heads, hands and feet tied up, thrown on the floor to be kicked wherever we fell.” After almost spending six years in prison Pablo was released in 1977.
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opponents. Which culminated in the
Tlatelolco massacre on October 2, 1968, a student rally in Mexico City turned sideways. With the death toll still in question to this day some estimated the toll in the thousands, but most sources report the toll between 200 and 300 student deaths. The shocking part was the government trying to cover up the massacre by claiming that extremists and communists' agitators initiated the violence. With many eyewitnesses pointing the finger at the President’s security forces who had entered the plaza fully armed with weapons and backed up by armored vehicles. Another massacre took place in Corpus Christi, which also involved student demonstrators in Mexico City on June 10, 1971. During this time, there were several unconnected groups fighting against the government.
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427:(1862–65). The Mexican army loyal to the liberal republic were unable to stop the French army's invasion, briefly halting it with a victory at Puebla on 5 May 1862. Mexican Conservatives supported the installation of Maximilian Hapsburg as Emperor of Mexico, propped up by the French and Mexican armies. With the military aid of the U.S. flowing to the republican government in exile of Juárez, the French withdrew its military supporting the monarchy and Maximilian was caught and executed. The Mexican army that emerged in the wake of the French Intervention was young and battle tested, not part of the military tradition dating to the colonial and early independence eras.
751:, the dominant power in central Mexico at the time of European Contact, had conquered indigenous city-states, many of which were chafing under Aztec rule and sought independent status themselves. Cortés quickly realized that he needed indigenous allies for successful conquest and found various indigenous city-states willing to take their chances with these newcomers. From the Spaniards' point of view, the standard strategy of divide-and-conquer was a workable—and winning—strategy. From the indigenous allies' point of view, they formed this alliance with the expectation of bettering their own circumstances. The most important of these allies was the city-state (
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3142:", a research group at George Washington University, posted the document on their Web site. An early version of the report was leaked in February to the Mexican press against the wishes of Fox and Carrillo, who felt it was biased against the military and left out important facts. With the government being pressured they issued out the much-awaited final draft. The report included the names of 645 people who disappeared by the state security apparatus, along with the circumstances under which some of them vanished. It also includes the names of 99 people who were victims of extrajudicial executions and more than 2,141 cases of torture.
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government over use of power, the state enacted suppression acts on
Guerrero people to keep the numerous political reform movements quiet. As citizens became more determined to speak out against the government, the PRI increased its terror tactics in the region. With the state’s lengthy coast and rugged but fertile inland mountains, as well as its high poverty rates, made it ideal for drug production and trafficking. Which also increased rates of violence in the state. The tactics continued being done to keep the people under its control, the constant barrage of violence also prompted many guerrillas to consider joining the PRI.
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3201:(Operations against drug trafficking), for example, describes its purpose in regards to "the performance of the Mexican Army and Air Force in the permanent campaign against the drug trafficking is sustained properly in the faculties that the Executive of the Nation grants to him, the 89 Art. Fracc. VI of the Constitution of the Mexican United States, when indicating that it is faculty of the President of the Republic to have the totality of the permanent Armed Forces, that is of the terrestrial Army, Navy military and the Air Force for the inner and outer security of the federation."
3163:, released the official archives of the Federal Security Directorate which showed how'd intelligence agencies targeted activists and opposition groups during the country's "Dirty War." Lopez Obrador stated," we lived for decades under an authoritarian regime that limited freedoms and persecuted those who struggled for social change." Furthermore, he added an official apology on behalf of the Mexican State to victims of repression and said surviving perpetrators of the repression will face legal action, and that surviving victims will be able to see compensation under the law.
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2917:(1934–40) served the Avila Camacho administration as Minister of Defense. Cárdenas was the key negotiator with the U.S. military about "radar surveillance, landing rights, naval patrols, and chains of command." The Mexican population was indifferent or hostile to the war. The institution of conscription led to violent protests, prompting the Mexican government to exempt conscripts from service overseas, helping to quell the civil unrest. However, Mexican citizens living in the United States were drafted in the U.S. Army, sustaining a high casualty rate.
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3103:, a prominent PRI leader. Echeverría's security apparatus took part in a manhunt, to secure a staged rescue of the senator. Reason being, Pablo Cabanas leader of the (PDLP) had a secret payout which was part of his demand for Figueroa's liberation. The army began to start closing in on Cabanas after the successful capture of Senator Figueroa. With the governments eyes on the (PDLP) they seized this was the best opportunity to capture and or kill their leader. Cabanas was later found dead in a shoot-out with soldiers in December 1974.
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Cárdenas also created an office to monitor accounting and fiscal management, increased oversight of military justice to make sure regulations were followed and established an office of procurement for war materiel. These measures undercut the ways generals had been able to pad budgets and divert funds into their own pockets. The military in this period "became more professional and less political" during the
Maximato, particularly for junior officers. Generals who participated in the Revolution continued to pursue politics.
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2194:, along with bands of bandits. Carranza's insistence on the complete dissolution of the Federal Army before revolutionary forces were organized sufficiently for a peace-keeping role meant that disorder prevailed. Revolutionary generals held more than half of the state governorships, with only half of those elected to the office. The other half seized power without confirmation by an election. Military men turned governors were not subordinate to Carranza's government, most notably General
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resistance. The revolutionary armies were huge, with 200,000 soldiers and some 50,000 officers, of whom 500 claimed the rank of general. Carranza's
Minister of War, General Obregón was tasked in 1916 with creating a national army. He had commanded the Army of the Northwest, bringing those forces under the control of the government, and persuading the commander of the Army of the Northeast, General González; the commander of the Army of the East; commander of the Army of the Northeast,
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1055:, to the north and northwest of Mexico City. Some regional forces were caught up with the rebels in Querétaro and Michoacán. "Militiamen with their arms and wearing their Spanish uniforms marched with Hidalgo's masses. Some criollo officers, mostly provincial sublieutenants, lieutenants, and captains, attempted to discipline and organize the inchoate popular movement." The larger story, however, was that the vast majority of the royalist army remained loyal to the crown. When
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2025:, became president of Mexico. In 1884, Díaz returned to the presidency, where he remained in continuous power until 1911. Díaz saw the regular army as a potential threat to his vision of Mexico and his own regime; its budget absorbed a huge amount of the national budget. "He reduced the size of the officer corps and the total strength of the army from a theoretical 30,000 to 20,000." He began to expand the size and role of the elite rural military police, the
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2623:), was the last large-scale uprising in Mexico after the end of the military phase of the Mexican Revolution in 1920. There was serious fighting in the states of Michoacán, Guanajuato, Jalisco, and Colima. There are estimates of 100,000 Mexican army troops combating 50,000 Cristeros, with nearly 57,000 government troops killed and 30–50,000 Cristeros killed. An estimated 250,000, largely noncombatants, fled, many to the U.S. An experienced general in the
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disappearances at the hands of state forces in the municipality of Atoyac during the 1970s. Despite evidence of numerous human rights violations, ex-President
Echeverria and several other PRI officials had their cases dismissed and were released. The government's failure to address these past problems has caused tension in Mexico at times, as citizens have grown distrustful of a state that does not address the old regime and its reign of terror.
1360:(1773–1850). Coming to its citizen's aid, France demanded 600,000 pesos in damages. This amount was extremely high when compared to an average workman's daily pay, which was about one peso. In addition to this amount, Mexico had defaulted on millions of dollars worth of loans from France. Diplomat Baron Beffaudis gave Mexico an ultimatum of paying, or the French would demand satisfaction. When the payment was not forthcoming from president
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3118:(1975). Operation Intercept was launched along the Mexico border to halt the flow of marijuana, heroin, and dangerous drugs. Operation Condor was the first war on drugs in Mexican history, its main purpose was to wipe out the actors involved in the illegal drug industry. The judicial investigation into state crimes against political movements did not begin until the end of the 71-year-long PRI regime and the election of
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trend of decreasing the size of the military budget as a percentage of national income, now down to 19% in 1938. He was determined to create a military whose soldiers were not separate from larger
Mexican society. In a speech to cadets at the military academy he stated that "We should not think of ourselves as professional soldiers ... but rather as armed auxiliaries organized from the humble classes."
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934:, the privilege of being tried before a military rather than a civilian or criminal court, no matter what the offense. Viceroy Branciforte saw the fuero as a way of attracting wealthy American-born Spaniards to the military. Many of them donated large sums to create militias, with themselves as the ranking member, funding the purchase of arms, uniforms, and equipment. The local city councils
2957:(1942-1964) between the two countries sought to supply American plantations and factories with Mexican workers. The Bracero Program is the largest foreign worker program in U.S. history, and the subsequent pattern of mass migration of millions of Mexicans to the United States can be traced back to this policy. Around 5 million worker visas were granted to fill up vacancies in 24 U.S. states.
402:. The royalist military had to decide whether to support newly independent Mexico. With the collapse of the Spanish state and the establishment of first a monarchy under Iturbide and then a republic, the state was a weak institution. The Roman Catholic Church and the military weathered independence better. Military men dominated Mexico's nineteenth-century history, most particularly General
2421:. The U.S. occupation of the port of Veracruz lasted seven months. The U.S. withdrew, leaving munitions that Carranza's Constitutionalist Army utilized against the Huerta regime. Following the break between Pancho Villa and Carranza's Constitutionalists, and Obregón's 1915 victory over Villa, Villa began waging guerrilla warfare against the U.S. in border raids, prompting the U.S. Army to
2031:, placing them under his direct control. The Army remained, but it was increasingly an aging and less efficient or effective fighting force. Díaz was a modernizing, liberal authoritarian, who sought Mexico's development through "order and progress." Peace in Mexico was the key to attracting foreign investment. A major infrastructure project that facilitated that was the construction of a
3028:. Mexican army convoys and a navy ship laden with food, supplies and specialists traveled to the United States including military specialists, doctors, nurses and engineers carrying water treatment plants, mobile kitchens, food and blankets. The convoy represents the first Mexican military unit to operate on U.S. soil since 1846, when Mexican troops briefly marched into
719:(1519–1521) is the most famous episode of Spanish conquest history. It is documented in the sixteenth century by both Spaniards, their indigenous allies, and indigenous opponents shortly after the events. With arrival of Spaniards in the Caribbean in 1492, they developed patterns of conquest and settlement. From the Caribbean, they went on expeditions (
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developing organized support of worker and peasant groups. Compared to Madero and
Carranza, elite landowning civilians, Obregón had worked with his hands and during the Revolution found that he was a brilliant military leader and became a skilled politician. He began creating a power base that would enable him to reform the revolutionary military.
876:) was not effective enough and the Spanish turned to a strategy of "peace by purchase," followed by peaceful Christian evangelization of the indigenous. The frontier institutions of the presidio and the Christian mission complex became standard crown-supported ways to establish and maintain Spanish control in northern Mexico.
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election. Shortly after the win and before he took the oath of office, Obregón was assassinated by a
Catholic fanatic before taking office. Calles could not directly serve as president, but he brokered a solution to presidential succession by founding the Partido Nacional Revolucionario (PNR), the precursor of the
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loyal. Generals supporting
Carranza purged and De la Huerta replaced military governors who Carranza loyalists. De la Huerta's most successful action was to grant amnesty to Pancho Villa, who had remained a threat, purchasing a landed estate for him in exchange for his laying down arms and generous cash payments.
938:, nominated wealthy and socially prominent estate owners to be officers. What was unusual about the fuero militar from fueros of other groups was its extension to enlisted men and not just officers. The crown was concerned that such an extension to the lower ranks would the military a haven for miscreants.
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In 1892 the Federal Law started making changes and brought in four new elite special forces into Mexico. While having to reorganize police forces five times the very tempting bribery to pay off police forces had come to an end. Drug wholesales had sky rocketed in the early (2000s) jumping from $ 13.6
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The protests of 1968 were unprecedented in Mexico and saw hundreds of thousands take to the streets demanding an end to political repression and the freeing of political prisoners. The violent governmental response also was unmatched and signaled the beginning of Mexico 's dirty war against political
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led Cristeros. As President, Obregón was no friend of the Catholic Church, but he did not see a reason to provoke conflict with it when there were pressing issues for his presidency, such as securing U.S. diplomatic recognition and reining in regional revolutionary generals. But Calles underestimated
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of Sonora, who ignored Carranza's orders that he disagreed with. Mexico entered a period of what has been called "predatory militarism", where revolutionary strongmen were "venal, cruel, and corrupt", taking on the worst characteristics of the ousted Federal Army. Carranza was in no position to stop
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became increasingly bloody and polarized the nation's politics. Many of the Moderados came over to the side of the Liberales, convinced that the great political power of the Church needed to be curbed. For some time the Liberals and Conservatives had their own governments, the Conservatives in Mexico
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turned to guerrilla warfare. Royal troops were less able to win decisive victories and the insurgency remained at a stalemale until the end of the decade. The political situation changed in Spain with a major impact on the situation in New Spain. Spanish liberals staged a coup against the absolutist
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by the Aztecs became fierce and effective warriors against the Spanish once they acquired horses. With the expansion of Spanish exploration northward, these northern indigenous groups were not quickly or permanently subdued and block northern settlement until the discovery of large deposits of silver
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required the awardees to keep "their Indians" peaceful and to promote their conversion to Christianity. The status of indigenous nobles was recognized by the Spanish crown and were granted the right to carry Spanish arms and ride on horseback, prohibited to commoners. In general, once conquered, the
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Several factors contributed to Spanish victory against the Aztecs. Their alliances with indigenous city-states discontented with Aztec rule were crucial to their victory, vastly swelling the number of warriors that could be mobilized in combat. The Aztec empire was fragile politically and militarily,
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1917: The Constitution of 1917 maintains republican and liberal features of the 1824 and 1857 constitutions but also guarantees social rights such as a living wage. It nationalizes mineral resources and prohibits foreign businessmen from appealing to their home governments to protect their property.
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Cárdenas continued the push for a smaller, professionalized army. The criterion for promotion became their performance on competitive examinations. Another way to reshape the top ranks was his reduction of time in service from 35 years to 25, forcing the retirement of many officers. He continued the
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as Minister of War. From a humble indigenous background, Amaro distinguished himself on the battlefield during the Revolution and then picked the right side in the coup against Carranza and in the failed De la Huerta rebellion. Amaro's tenure as Minister of War lasted six years, spanning the Calles
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The huge task of forging a regime that held effective power meant bringing the revolutionary armies of the Constitutionalist coalition and their officers under the control of the civilian central government. The armies had been created as regional entities, so that creating a national army met with
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1862. He revolted against the civilian liberal government in 1876, and remained continuously in the presidency from 1880 to 1911. Over the course of his presidency, Díaz began professionalizing the army that had emerged. By the time he turned 80 years old in 1910, the Mexican military was an aging,
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is replete with small-scale revolts, foreign invasions, civil wars, indigenous uprisings, and coups d'état by disgruntled military leaders. Mexico's colonial-era military was not established until the eighteenth century. After the Spanish conquest of the Aztec Empire in the early sixteenth century,
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1862–1867: The French emperor Napoleon III, in alliance with conservative and proclerical Mexicans, installs Maximilian of Habsburg as emperor of Mexico. On May 5, 1862, loyalist troops defeat Napoleon III's troops at Puebla. Porfirio Díaz, maintains the liberal economic policies and secularization
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ended two weeks after the uprising and there have been no full-scale confrontations ever since. The federal government instead pursued a policy of low-intensity warfare with para-military groups in an attempt to control the rebellion, while the Zapatistas developed a media campaign through numerous
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being Cárdenas's choice. Calles had expected Cárdenas to become a puppet president like his immediate predecessors, but increasing he forged his own more independent and radical path of social reform. As a counterpoise to the army, Cárdenas proposed arming peasants and he was close to Marxist labor
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With the 1934 presidential election looming at the end of the six years that would have been Obregón's term as president, generals who were part of Calles's ruling group now began to show their presidential ambitions. Cárdenas resigned his post as Minister of War and ran for the presidency with the
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Implementing draconian changes to a large ad hoc fighting force with many distinguished and battle-hardened officers was no easy task. Calles followed practices of Porfirio Díaz and Alvaro Obregón, allowing generals to enrich themselves, and Calles himself accumulated a huge fortune. After Obregón
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publicly supported Carranza and formed the Liberal Constitutionalist Party to ensure his election. Zapata remained in rebellion in Morelos, and Carranza ordered his assassination in 1919. Obregón had returned to his home state of Sonora, to await developments when elections were to be held in 1920.
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was less straightforward than the independence movements in most of Spanish South America. In 1808 Peninsulares in Mexico City ousted the viceroy, Iturrigaray, whom they considered too accommodating to creoles' demands. In 1810 a conspiracy of creoles for independence, plotted a rising against the
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Not until the Spanish empire was by foreign conquest in the eighteenth century did the Spanish crown establish a standing military. Conquests of the central Mexican indigenous civilizations was basically final in the sixteenth century, with the conquest of the Maya region more protracted. Spaniards
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that had engaged in conquest of rival powers. As civilizations arose, traditional raiding to plunder resources evolved into full-scale conquests between 300 BCE and 150 BCE, with occupying forces that could direct tribute from the conquered to the conquerors. Conquest on a grand scale only occurred
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had ambitions to be president and entered Mexico City with 20,000 men in May. A larger army of Obregonistas forced González to withdraw. He was arrested and sentenced to death, but De la Huerta pardoned, allowing him to go into exile. De la Huerta then offered enticements to González's army to be
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In 1920, Sonoran generals rebelled against Carranza, initiating a twenty-five year period of revolutionary generals in the presidency. Each one systematically curtailed the power of the military, bringing revolutionary armies and their generals under central government control. The period was also
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With the forces of reaction defeated and the Federal Army gone, the revolutionary winners failed to reach agreement on how power would exercised. Civil war was the result, with the Constitutionalist Army loyal to Carranza and commanded by Obregón fought the army commanded by Villa, who had broken
2021:, was a self-proclaimed era of "Order and Progress." Díaz brought order, sometimes through brutal suppression of uprisings, that gave entrepreneurs confidence to invest in Mexico's modernization. In 1880 at the end of his term, Díaz stepped away from the presidency, and his fellow liberal general,
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and enthroned Maximilian as Emperor of Mexico. Maximilian of Habsburg favored the establishment of a limited monarchy sharing powers with a democratically elected congress. This was too liberal to please the Conservatives, while the liberals refused to accept a monarch, leaving Maximilian with few
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had prepared a decree for the evacuation of Mérida, but was apparently delayed in publishing it by the lack of suitable paper in the besieged capital. The decree became unnecessary when the republican troops suddenly broke the siege and took the offensive with major advances. The majority of the
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that had denounced bad government touched off a massive uprising by mixed-race castas and indigenous tens of thousands of unorganized followers of Hidalgo. Creole elites who had toyed with the idea of political independence rapidly withdrew their support as their property and persons were targeted
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1810–c. 1821: During wars of independence that pit Mexicans against one another as well as the forces of Spain, over 12 percent of the Mexican population dies. Independence is achieved under the 1821 Plan of Iguala, which promises equality for citizens and preserves the privileges of the Catholic
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has conducted some local investigations since the early 2000s, providing insight into the tactics and dynamics of the war and the scale of crimes. In one case, the "Association of Relatives of Victims of Disappearance, Detention, and Human Rights Violations in Mexico" (AFADEM) documented over 470
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revolt in 1952. There were no more rebellions or attempted coups. The long history of the Mexican military as a political force was over. "The armed forces had been disciplined, unified, and subordinated to the civilian power... The consolidation of civilian supremacy over the armed forces in the
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Calles is known for provoking an armed conflict with the Roman Catholic Church and its supporters, seeing them as a threat to the revolutionary regime. Using anticlerical provisions in the 1917 constitution, Calles mandated that secular education be implemented, the number of priests limited, and
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Obregón had started the process when he served as Carranza's Minister of War and continued it when he was elected President following the coup against Carranza. Obregón achieved a level of success by broadening the base of support for the central government, reining in local military strongmen by
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In 1850, the Maya of the south east were inspired to continue the struggle by the apparition of the "Talking Cross". This apparition, believed to be a way in which God communicated with the Maya, dictated that the War continue. Chan Santa Cruz (Small Holy Cross) became the religious and political
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seized the presidency of Madero in 1913, with Madero murdered in the coup d'état. Civil war broke out in the wake of the coup. Huerta's Federal Army racked up one defeat after another by the revolutionary armies, with Huerta resigning in 1914. The Federal Army ceased to exist. A new generation of
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In 1936, Cárdenas reorganized the dominant party, renaming it the Partido Revolucionario Mexicano, with sectors of members by occupation. The Mexican National Army became of the four sectors, making it dependent on the PRM for patronage and privilege. Cárdenas implemented some radical policies,
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When Obregón chose Calles rather than De la Huerta as his successor, De la Huerta led an unsuccessful rebellion in 1923. De la Huerta had been an old comrade in arms, but the rebellion was serious, having significant army support to challenge Obregón and the central government's power. A hundred
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and rose up against Carranza. Carranza fled the capital in a train, filled with his supporters and much of the gold in the treasury. Carranza died while trying to flee the country, and De la Huerta was installed as interim president, pending elections. Obregón was elected in 1920, serving a full
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In the fall of 1916, Carranza called for a constituent convention to draft a new constitution. Carranza hadd envisioned a civilian government pursuing moderate reforms, the many revolutionary generals were unwilling to subordinate themselves to civilians, since they had won the revolution on the
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had introduced practices and reforms that systematically excluded elite American-born Spaniards from holding high civil or ecclesiastical office. There were fewer visible routes to status and privilege for these men. The establishment of the military provided such a route to recognition with the
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were the victors in 1915. The revolutionary military men were to continue to dominate Mexico's postrevolutionary period, but the military men who became presidents of Mexico brought the military under civilian control, systematically reining in the power of the military and professionalizing the
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During the Maximato, Gen. Lázaro Cárdenas became Minister of War, replacing Amaro, he put soldiers to work building infrastructure, particularly paving roads and maintaining them. The push to professionalize the officer corps through education continued even in this era of economic difficulty.
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General Amaro remained as Minister of War during the entire period, continuing to pursue the reform of the military that Calles had instigated when president. Presidential cabinets were replete with military men; they held governorships. "The military was supreme both in the government and the
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When Juárez repudiated the debts incurred by the rival conservative Mexican government in 1861, Mexican conservatives and European powers, especially France took the opportunity to place a European monarch as head of state in Mexico. The French sent an invading army in 1862, while the U.S. was
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While Mexico's Dirty War has been over for several years, little is known about the number of victims the war claimed due to its elusive nature throughout its duration. Part of the reason was people getting fed lies and not hearing the truth and leaving many victims' families without closure.
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was one of many tools used by the PRI group to keep the numerous guerrilla groups and political dissidents under control. Torture was used by the Mexican state to obtain information about attacks and plans from captured rebels and guerrillas. Torture would be done at any number of clandestine
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by establishing a standing military. The external military threat was real, but in order to establish a military, Spanish and colonial elites had to overcome the fear of arming large numbers of lower-class non-whites. Given the small number of Spaniards available for military service and the
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For many years, scholars depicted the Maya as peaceful, but there is ample evidence of Maya warfare in glyphic written texts and pictorials, as well as archeological evidence of "fortifications, mass graves, and militaristic iconography," indicating warfare's importance. In the 6th century, a
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aspired to the presidency but, realizing that they could not win an election with the Calles government in charge of the election machinery, they rose in rebellion in 1927. Serrano, Gómez, and a number of their followers were captured and executed, and Obregón won the presidency in the 1928
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enshrined the Mexican government's power over land and natural resources as well as labor rights. It also included stringent measures against the Roman Catholic Church. Despite some articles appearing to be antimilitary, civilian attempts to abolish military courts judging cases dealing with
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The conquest of Mexico unfolded along established principles worked out by the Spanish in their twenty years of settlement and expeditions around the Caribbean. Seizing the leader of an indigenous group during a friendly parley was typical, quickly giving Spaniards the advantage. Some groups
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It all began in 1960, when Echeverría wanted to take over the Guerrero region with his "dirty war tactics" that involved his desire to tamp down military dissatisfaction by giving the army and the security forces the green light to attack the left. As the local people grew agitated with the
2543:. Others went into exile. Officers loyal to Obregón were promoted. The rebellion was costly, with 7,000 deaths and 100 million pesos spent, but it importantly "sealed the supremacy of the military power of the central government over that of the outlying regions, spell the doom of regional
386:(1756–63). The regular army units and militias had a short history when in the early 19th century, the unstable situation in Spain with the Napoleonic invasion gave rise to an insurgency for independence, propelled by militarily untrained men fighting for the independence of Mexico. The
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This period was the only one in the nineteenth century with civilian control of the government, but it was not a peaceful era, with a civil war and the foreign invasion of the French and monarchy supported by Mexico's Conservatives, followed by the restoration of the Liberal Republic.
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and had learned a Maya language in captivity. She quickly became essential in the Spaniards' ability to negotiate with potential allies and advise the Spaniards about indigenous military strategy and tactics. In sixteenth-century indigenous pictorial accounts of the conquest, such as
533:, the first Mesoamerican states, there is evidence of local conquests of defensive walls around urban cores and conflicts resulting in large-scale sacrifice of warriors. There were cycles of conquests over many hundreds of years, resulting in the rise and decline of civilizations.
1951:
enthusiastic allies within Mexico. When the Civil War ended in 1865, the United States sent military aid to Juárez's government. In 1867, the French withdrew their military support of Maximilian, who refused the opportunity to return to Europe. He was captured and executed on the
3122:
in 2000, when the Special Prosecutor's Office for Social and Political Movements of the Past was established (FEMOSPP). Despite realigning much about the conflict's history the (FEMOSPP) has been unable to complete prosecutions against their main perpetrators of the Dirty War.
1308:. In defending Mexico's independence, Santa Anna lost a leg in battle, which became the visible symbol of his sacrifices for the nation. He capitalized on this reputation to forward his political career. The early post-independence period is often called the Age of Santa Anna.
1728:
Yucatán had considered itself an independent nation, but during the crisis of the revolt had offered sovereignty to any nation that would aid in defeating the Indians. The Mexican government was in a rare position of being cash rich from payment by the United States under the
787:, bringing about the Aztecs' total defeat in 1521. Despite their metal weapons, horses, dogs, cannons, and thousands of indigenous allies, the Spanish were unable to subdue the Mexica for seven full months. It was one of the longest continuous sieges in world history.
2817:
ran for the presidency, but in violent and likely fraudulent election, Avila Camacho was declared the winner. Almazán sought support from the U.S. and considered fomenting a rebellion, but in the end he attended Avila Camacho's inauguration. In 1946, the party chose
2228:
battlefield. Many generals were of modest social backgrounds, as opposed to Carranza, a wealthy landowner and professional politician, and the military men were ideologically more radical concerning the changes they envisioned for post-revolutionary Mexico. The new
1142:
3078:
government records, photographs, and details about individuals who were killed under the rule of the PRI. Also, Echeverria is known as," the master of illusion, the magician of deceit." According to prosecutor Carrillo who tried to charge him. He explains how their
3312:
1854–1861: Benito Juárez and other liberals overthrow Santa Anna (Revolution of Ayutla). The liberal reforms they inaugurate encourage division of Indian and church lands into private holdings, subject clergy and military to regular courts, and establish religious
2523:, and official statistics showed that 2,500 officers (20%) rebelled as well as 23,000 troops (40%), joined by 24,000 civilians. Despite their numbers, the rebels were not unified or well-led. De la Huerta was nominally the head of the rebellion, but generals
418:
sought to curtail the power of the military and the church and wrote a new constitution in 1857 enshrining these principles. Conservatives comprised large landowners, the Catholic Church, and most of the regular army revolted against the Liberals, fighting a
1195:
In 1821 Agustín de Iturbide, a former Spanish general who switched sides to fight for Mexican independence, proclaimed himself emperor – officially as a temporary measure until a member of European royalty could be persuaded to become monarch of Mexico (see
2997:
and over time a set of six "Declarations of the Lacandonian Jungle", with no further military or terrorist actions on their part. A strong international Internet presence has prompted the adherence to the movement of numerous leftist international groups.
723:) of exploration, trade, conquest, and settlement. The Spanish crown issued a license for a particular leader to head an expedition, a mature man with wealth, social standing, and ambition to better his position. Explorers probed Mexico's east coast, with
1879:. The war ended with Liberal victory on the battlefield, and Liberal president Benito Juárez moved his administration to Mexico City. But that was not the end of the conflict between Liberals and Conservatives, which was to carry on through another seven
1114:
2428:
Germany hoped to capitalize on Carranza's fervent Mexican nationalism and anti-Americanism to aid its own geopolitical aims in World War I. Germany sent a coded communication to Mexico, promising the restoration of the region lost to the U.S. in the
2766:, the radical strongman of the state of San Luis Potosí and other generals. Unlike previous elections, that of Cárdenas did not provoke a military revolt by disgruntled generals. Cárdenas accepted the cabinet that Calles proposed, with only General
2632:
the continuing power of religion in Mexico. Calles mobilized army troops to fight the Cristeros, which held their own against the federal armed forces. The rebellion was ended by diplomatic means, in large part due to the efforts of U.S. Ambassador
3354:
1916: Villa's attacks on border towns. United States President Woodrow Wilson orders Gen. John Pershing to capture guerrilla leader Pancho Villa after Villa's attack on Columbus, New Mexico. For nine months 4,000 American troops search in vain for
766:
or more politely called Doña Marina, who became Cortés's cultural translator. Sent into slavery as a child by her family, she was given as a gift to the Spaniards by a Maya indigenous ally. Malinche was a native speaker of language of the Aztecs,
2437:
was intercepted by the British. Carranza was attempting to consolidate his own regime and gain central control over revolutionary armies, so he held fast to Mexican neutrality in the larger conflict rather than risk an escalation with the U.S.
581:
had a role in initiating the first war. There is also evidence of conquests in the region of the Mixtecs, Zapotecs, and Purépecha (or Tarascans), which were not as extensive as the Aztec empire, but followed the same pattern on a smaller scale.
2672:
Under pressure from Obregón, Calles pushed through a change to the constitution, allowing the re-election of a president if the terms were not continuous. This permitted Obregón to run again in the 1928 election. Generals Francisco Serrano and
1737:, and accepted Yucatán's offer. Yucatán was officially reunited with Mexico on 17 August 1848. European Yucateco forces rallied, aided by fresh guns, money, and troops from Mexico, and pushed back the Maya from more than half of the state.
747:
capitulated immediately and of those some became active allies of the Spanish. The small group of Spaniards realized immediately that the mainland had indigenous populations that were far denser and hierarchically organized societies. The
2106:
to power, Madero dismissed them and retained the Federal Army that had just been defeated. The Federal Army suppressed a number of rebellions against Madero, following his election as president in November 1911, by revolutionary general
2455:
Carranza could not run for re-election when his presidential term ended in 1920, but he expected to play a role in choosing his successor. Instead of endorsing his best and most loyal general, Alvaro Obregón, Carranza chose civilian
1071:
sought to implement the liberal constitution of 1812. In Mexico, conservatives saw this turn of events as highly unsettling and considered political independence now an option. Royalist army officer Agustín de Iturbide drafted the
3316:
1857: Constitution re-establishes a federal republic and, moving beyond the Constitution of 1824, guarantees the individual rights of free speech, assembly, and press. In 1858–1861 supporters and opponents of the reforms fight the
613:
state that small pieces of meat were offered as gifts to important people in exchange for presents and slaves, but it was rarely eaten, since they considered it had no value; instead it was replaced by turkey, or just thrown away.
864:. The high value of the silver mines and the need to secure the mining zone and the overland routes to transport silver south and supplies north meant the crown had to create a viable solution. A fifty-year long conflict, the
2531:, and Guadalupe Sánchez were the real leaders. On the government side, initially they had only 35,000 men, but workers and peasants volunteered for the cause. The disorganized rebellion was crushed, with Obregón, Calles, and
5220:
5190:
5095:
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were the only Latin American nations that sent troops to fight overseas. The cooperation of Mexico and the United States in World War II helped bring about reconciliation between the two countries at the leadership level.
2738:
official party"(the PNR). The military held the upper hand in power, but the divisional generals understood that army was too large and put too much stress on the national budget, particularly during the Great Depression.
2147:, rose to command armies that soundly defeated Huerta's Federal Army in 1914. Huerta resigned in July 1914, and Carranza insisted on the dissolution of the Federal Army. Zapata had continued guerrilla warfare in Morelos.
1042:
The viceroy was slow to mobilize a military response to the Hidalgo revolt. Troops had been moved to Mexico City and units suspected of sympathies for independence were demobilized. The followers of Hidalgo rapidly took
3369:
1926-29: Conflict over the 1917 Constitution's provisions for separation of church and state leads to nationalization of church property and armed rebellion, which the government suppresses. This period is known as the
2584:, who became president of Mexico during the Maximato, created a vast fortune as an entrepreneur in border towns, owning race tracks, casinos, and brothels and then diversified into real estate and financial services.
1535:(September 13, 1847). Ever since this war many Mexicans have resented the loss of much territory, some by means of coercion, and more territory sold cheaply by the dictator Santa Anna (allegedly) for personal profit.
5215:
2111:. The army failed to suppress an on-going rebellion in the south, led by Zapata. Army generals increasingly saw the Madero regime as weak and ineffective, and intervened, staging a coup in February 1913. General
1751:
The government of Yucatán first declared the war over in 1855, but hopes for peace were premature. There were regular skirmishes, and occasional deadly major assaults into each other's territory, by both sides. The
2199:
victorious generals from their abuses and had to entice them through bribes to remain loyal to him. Revolutionary generals closed ranks behind Carranza after Villa was defeated in 1915, and top generals Obregón,
776:, Malinche is shown as an out-sized figure in a leadership position. With their indigenous allies, the Spanish defeated the Aztec empire in a two-year long struggle. They were aided by the outbreak of a smallpox
5145:
2988:, which is an armed rebel group that claims to work to promote the rights of the country's indigenous peoples. The Zapatistas had the initial goal of overthrowing the federal government. Short armed clashes in
5195:
3073:
With the release of “Historical Report to the Mexican Society” Mexico accepted full responsibility for starting a dirty war against leftist guerrillas, university students, and activists. The report included
1269:. The insurrectionists sent their proposal to the provincial delegations and requested their adhesion to the plan. In the course of only six weeks the Plan de Casa Mata had arrived at remote places, like
5035:
5085:
2082:. The outbreak of the Revolution was a protest against the three-decade regime of Porfirio Díaz. It was unexpectedly successful in ousting Díaz in 1911, a surprise even to the revolutionary forces.
5100:
1084:, which triumphantly marched into Mexico City in 1821. Independence from Spain was first proclaimed by Hidalgo in 1810, but it was not a political reality until 1821, when the last Spanish viceroy
5185:
912:
large-scale external threat, there was no alternative to enlisting dark-skinned plebeians into part-time militias or a standing military. Indians were exempt from military service, but mixed-race
791:
once it became clear that they were beatable. Spanish military technology was superior in many ways, with horses giving Spaniards the advantage in open-field warfare. Iron and steel weapons and
382:
the Spanish crown did not establish on a standing military, but the crown responded to the external threat of a British invasion by creating a standing military for the first time following the
1740:
In the 1850s a stalemate developed, with the Yucatecan government in control of the north-west, and the Maya in control of the south-east, with a sparsely populated jungle frontier in between.
3205:
to $ 49.4 billion. With that happening on June (2008) legislation was passed and Mexico was granted $ 1.6 billion in efforts to upgrade the National Justice System and stop the war on drugs.
1204:
became the first president of the new country; his given name was actually Félix Fernández but he chose his new name for symbolic significance: Guadalupe to give thanks for the protection of
2425:, from March 1916 to February 1917. It was an unsuccessful attempt to capture him, ending when the U.S. entered World War I, but it raised tensions between the U.S. and the Carranza regime.
2098:(right), who defeated Diaz's Federal Army in Ciudad Juárez in 1911 and helped bring and civilian Francisco I. Madero (left) to the presidency in 1911. Orozco revolted against Madero in 1912.
451:, on whose political behalf rebels rose against Díaz, demobilized the rebel forces and kept the Federal Army in place. "This single decision cost the presidency and his life." Army General
5205:
2615:
that they register with civilian authorities. The church hierarchy responded by ceasing saying mass, performing baptisms, marriages, and burials, and called for Catholics to resist. The
5200:
4543:
2264:
against the conservative Díaz regime to fight for freedoms. Many of these women led ordinary lives, but had taken arms during the time to seek better conditions and rights. Among the
1469:
led the Texas army to victory over a portion of the Mexican Army led by Santa Anna, who was captured shortly after the battle. The conclusion of the war resulted in the creation of the
1102:
5210:
1312:
831:
who had participated in the conquest of central Mexico were rewarded with grants of labor and tribute from city-states which was facilitated by indigenous nobles. The institution of
5090:
5040:
5000:
895:
In the eighteenth century, the rise of rival European empires, particularly the British, threatened Spanish control of its lucrative overseas colonies. The 1762 British capture of
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5170:
5165:
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2665:
5155:
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5075:
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3295:, Mexico recognizes the loss of Texas and cedes parts or all of what are now the U.S. states of New Mexico, Arizona, Utah, Colorado, Nevada, and California to the United States.
1767:
by a Chan Santa Cruz general and the vice-Governor of Yucatán recognizing Mexican sovereignty over Chan Santa Cruz in exchange for Mexican recognition of Chan Santa Cruz leader
2563:
General Plutarco Elías Calles, as with Obregón and other revolutionary generals, became a military leader during the Revolution. He allied with organized labor movement led by
2035:, with telegraph lines built along track beds. Rural policemen and their horses could be put on trains and sent to remote areas to suppress rebellions and re-establish order.
5125:
5060:
5030:
2309:
1380:, and to seize the port of Veracruz. Virtually the entire Mexican Navy was captured at Veracruz by December 1838. Mexico declared war on France. The French withdrew in 1839.
724:
5140:
5135:
5045:
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1994: The Zapatista rebellion in Chiapas protests the PRI's dominance of political power and the government's indifference to the fate of peasants and indigenous peoples.
3100:
1130:
5130:
2447:
characterized by major unsuccessful rebellions, resulting in much loss of life, evidence that power struggles continued well after the Constitutionalists came to power.
2417:, 1914–1918. The period 1914–15 was the height of the civil war to oust the Huerta regime. Both Huerta and Carranza opposed the U.S. naval incursion into Mexico in 1914
2178:
in 1915, with his Villa's Northern Division shrinking to practically nothing. But both Villa and Zapata were able to wage guerrilla warfare against the Carranza regime.
3050:
began in 1964 and ended in 1982. It was produced by the Mexican governments who killed, tortured, and disappeared dissidents and political opponents. It involved the
1678:, a colloquial name for people of non-Maya ancestry that settled in the region. Nowadays "Yucatecos" is the demonym given to people who live in the state of Yucatán.
1148:
Agustín de Iturbide, royalist officer turned insurgent leader. Author of the Plan of Iguala, Emperor Agustín I, forced to abdicate and later shot returning to Mexico
2953:
Military participation was very limited in the end, but Mexico proved a key ally to sustain the domestic economy and industry of the United States during war. The
2734:
played an important role in crushing the rebellion. The U.S. supported the Mexican government in the conflict, allowing it to buy war materiel against the rebels.
780:
unintentionally introduced to the mainland by a black slave; the disease disproportionately affected the indigenous populations, since they had no immunity to it.
3718:
473:
being military generals since 1946. The fact of Mexico's civilian control of the military is in contrast the situation in many other countries in Latin America.
1748:
also became the name of the largest of the independent Maya states, as well as the name of the capital town. The followers of the Cross were known as "Cruzob".
410:(1846–48). With the overthrow of Santa Anna in 1855 and the installation of a government of political liberals, Mexico briefly had civilian heads of state. The
4593:
1562:
might also attempt to occupy the area. He linked up with Anglo colonists in Northern California controlled by the U.S. Army. Meanwhile, U.S. army troops under
1265:
By agreement of both heads the Plan de Casa Mata was proclaimed on February 1, 1823. This plan did not recognize the Empire and requested the meeting of a new
994:
and indigenous peoples were legally lower in standing with unequal access to justice and usually lived in dire poverty. Spain's debility at the start of the
2237:
at the constituent convention. The constitution was more radical than Carranza and his civilian advisors wanted, but it was promulgated on 5 February 1917.
2913:. Manuel Ávila Camacho called Congress for an extraordinary session and Mexico officially declared war on the Axis powers on 22 May 1942. Former President
1725:
Maya troops, not realizing the unique strategic advantage of their situation, had left the lines to plant their crops, planning to return after planting.
597:. In the Flower wars the primary objective was to injure or capture the enemy, rather than killing as in Western warfare. Prisoners-of-war were ritually
2885:
condemned the German invasions of 1939 and 1940 across Europe and extended its recognition to the governments in exile. Mexico broke relations with the
1858:
sought to establish equality before the law, so that the abolition of fueros, the special privileges of corporate groups, were abolished, including the
1154:
456:
fighting men, most of whom with no formal military training but were natural soldiers, now fought against each other in a civil war of the winners. The
1515:. During this period, many of the territories in the north were lost to the United States. Santa Anna was the nation's leader during the conflict with
390:(1810–21) saw royalist and insurgent armies battling to a stalemate in 1820. That stalemate ended with the royalist military officer turned insurgent,
3058:. The authoritarian party that ruled the country for 71 years before being removed in 2000. The presidencies that took place during the time were of
1597:
on February 22, 1847. Meanwhile, rather than reinforce Taylor's army for a continued advance, President Polk sent a second army under U.S. general
525:, which coalesced in the fifteenth century C.E., but smaller-scale conquests affected the rise and fall of civilizations before that. As early as
1304:. Spain initiated military efforts to reconquer it during the 1820s. A criollo military officer who emerged as a hero of Mexican nationalism was
585:
Prior to Spanish colonization, in the 15th century, several wars ensued between the Aztecs and several other native tribes. Alliances between the
4262:
3281:
1837–1841: Revolts favoring federalism over the centralizing constitution imposed by Antonio López de Santa Anna in 1836 occur in much of Mexico.
1854:
tried to find a middle ground between the nation's Liberals and Conservatives. During Comonfort's presidency a new Constitution was drafted. The
2297:
4313:
4972:
2489:
Adolfo de la Huerta held the presidency from May to December 1920. He took significant action regarding the military in this period. General
2017:
General Díaz came to the presidency by coup, and then there was an election after the fact. The thirty years of his presidency, known as the
836:
indigenous were incorporated into the Spanish colonial empire as vassals of the crown. There were few rebellions. An exception was the 1541
3348:
1914: Constitutionalist Army defeats Huerta's Federal Army, which is then dissolved. Villa breaks with Carranza, loosely allies with Zapata.
2893:
on 7 December 1941. Mexico extended rights of the U.S. Navy and participated in a Joint Defense Commission with the U.S. On May 1942 German
2636:, who negotiated an accord between the Catholic Church and the government, with the Church no longer backing armed rebellion. When General
439:
largely ineffective fighting force. When revolts broke out in 1910–11 against his regime, a rebel forces scored decisive victories over the
1636:, signed on February 2, 1848, ended the war and gave the USA undisputed control of Texas as well as California, Nevada, Utah, and parts of
3083:
chose violence to maintain the status quo when given the choices between repression and negotiation, political stasis, or transformation.
1445:, when Santa Anna ordered troops to go there and disarm the militia. The war leaned heavily in favor of the rebels after they had won the
1170:
1862:. Such reforms were unacceptable to the leadership of the clergy and the Conservatives, Comonfort and members of his administration were
1820:
led a provisional government after Santa Anna's final resignation, and the Revolution of Ayutla became one of the leading factors in the
1311:
The attempts to reconquer Mexico were not successful, but not until 28 December 1836 did Spain recognize the independence of Mexico. The
356:
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and Pancho Villa in Ciudad Juárez. Madero demobilizes the revolutionary forces that brought him to power and retains the Federal Army.
692:
depicting the Spanish-Tlaxcalan army, with Cortés and La Malinche, along with an African slave in front the meeting with Aztec emperor
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with Carranza. Villa had a loose alliance with Zapata, with each operating in their own military zones. Obregón defeated Villa in the
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Serrano, Mónica. "The Armed Branch of the State: Civil-Military Relations in Mexico." Journal of Latin American Studies vol 27. 1995.
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recognized the Chan Santa Cruz Maya as a de facto independent nation, in part because of the major trade between Chan Santa Cruz and
1080:, equality, and Catholicism as its core principles. He persuaded insurgent leader Guerrero to join them. Together they formed the
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960:
enters Mexico City. The Army was formed out of the Spanish troops led by Agustín de Iturbide and the Mexican insurgent troops of
3278:
1835: Rebels seeking independence for Texas fight the regular army at the Alamo. In 1836 the Texas Republic becomes independent.
2360:
280:
5150:
4889:, David Roonfeldt, ed. La Jolla CA: Center for United States-Mexican Studies. University of California, San Diego, 1984, 33-49.
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1816:. The revolution sustained much support among intellectuals. This tension led to the final resignation of Santa Anna in 1855.
1062:
The large-scale insurgency for independence in the north was suppressed, but insurgents in southern Mexico, particularly under
5105:
4594:"Remembering Mexico's Dirty War 50 Years After Tlatelolco/Recordando la Guerra Sucia de México 50 años después de Tlatelolco"
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had become central to these pre colonial wars. Several of these conflicts were evolved to an organized warfare, known as the
489:
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1854: Mexico sells 77,700 km (nearly 30,000 square miles) of northern Sonora and Chihuahua to the United States in the
1652:. In return, Mexico received $ 18,250,000, equivalent to $ 643 million in 2023 dollars, total for the cost of the war.
4945:
2947:
1888:
1570:, and Kearny led a small force to California where, after some initial reverses, he united with naval reinforcements under
1287:
1255:, initiating his government in fight with the Congress. Later he dissolved Congress and ordered opposing deputies to jail.
716:
680:
424:
220:
165:
83:
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4544:""Killing Two Condors with One Stone: The War on Drugs, Counterinsurgency, and the State of Siege in Northwestern Mexico""
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After the declaration of war, U.S. forces invaded Mexican territory on several fronts. In the Pacific, the U.S. Navy sent
976:
Events in the late 18th and early 19th centuries may be best summed as to have caused the fight against the Spanish. The
5241:
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of Maximilian Hapsburg that had been propped up by the French government. After Juárez died in office of a heart attack,
1918:
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was signed in Madrid by the Mexican Commissioner Miguel Santa María and the Spanish state minister José María Calatrava.
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left the presidency, he borrowed state funds that enabled him to expand his agricultural enterprises in Sonora. General
4228:
3055:
2881:, but this would quickly change with the outbreak of World War II. While still neutral, President and military general
1938:
Although the French, then considered one of the most efficient armies of the world, suffered an initial defeat in the
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762:, which the Aztecs had been unable to conquer. The Spanish benefited from another type of ally, an indigenous woman,
146:
2813:, wryly known as the "unknown soldier," for his undistinguished revolutionary record. Retired revolutionary general
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1910–11: Challenge of multiple revolutionary groups to the Díaz regime and the Federal Army; victory of Maderistas
3232:
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2186:
Although Carranza held the capital, local revolutionary generals controlled a number of regions of Mexico, such as
295:
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2567:. Calles sought to reorganize the army and downsize its huge proportion of the national budget, choosing General
1901:
in 1862. The battle was an inspirational event for wartime Mexico, and slowed the French advanced to Mexico City.
844:
was suppressed by armed Spaniards and their loyal Tlaxcalan allies led by the highest Spanish administrator, the
349:
377:
within that nation's territory, dating from before the arrival of Europeans in 1519 to the present era. Mexican
3032:, which had separated from Mexico and joined the United States. All of the convoy's participants were unarmed.
2287:(folk songs) to come out of the Revolution, in which an unnamed revolutionary sang of his undying love for the
2090:
423:. The Conservative military lost on the battlefield. But Conservatives sought another solution, supporting the
1590:
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1305:
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403:
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3110:
During the war, there were an estimated 1,200 disappearances without a trace. Mexico, pressured into joining
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Although most countries in the Western Hemisphere eventually entered the war on the Allies' side, Mexico and
1441:
Revolts erupted throughout several states after Santa Anna's rise to power. The revolution in Texas began in
118:
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discipline of soldiers and other matters, the military court was retained following the argument of General
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took command of the royal forces, he won a series of decisive victories against Hidalgo's insurgent forces.
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during the French Intervention, challenged civilian liberal president Benito Juárez following fall of the
1329:
406:, under whom the Mexican military were defeated by Texas insurgents for independence in 1836 and then the
5065:
4885:
Nunn, Frederick M. "On the role of the Military in Twentieth-Century Latin America: The Mexican Case" in
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2950:; where Australian, Filipino and more American personnel also participated on the ground and in the sea.
1730:
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317:
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also returned. It was the end of dominance of the Sonoran revolutionary generals from Mexican politics.
2727:
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1701:
The Maya revolt reached its peak of success in the spring of 1848 by driving the Europeans from all the
1200:
for more information). A revolt against Iturbide in 1823 established the United Mexican States. In 1824
508:
Depictions of one of the first battles in the war between Bonampak and Yaxchilan during the 6th century
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prevailing. Many rebel generals were executed, including Alvarado, Estrada, Maycotte, Manuel Diéguez,
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forced Madero to resign and he was subsequently murdered. General Huerta became president of Mexico.
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2878:
2819:
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1333:
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In May 1822, using military riots and pressures, Iturbide had taken the power and designated himself
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253:
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Foreign relations with the United States and the United Kingdom reached a critical low in 1938 when
2536:
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2022:
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was spared due to an agreement between Antonio López de Santa Anna and the rebel general Echávarri.
660:, the traditional capital of the Aztec Empire, gradually became the dominant power in the alliance.
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This group comprised more than 300 volunteers who trained in the United States and fought against
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19:
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1950s established conditions for a particularly stable pattern of civilian-military relations."
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center of the Maya resistance and the rebellion came to be infused with religious significance.
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1473:, a nation that teetered between collapse and invasion from Mexico until it was annexed by the
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Spain did not reconcile itself to the loss of its valuable colony, refusing to acknowledge the
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to place soldiers permanently to protect the trunk lines. The Spanish "war of blood and fire" (
743:), and constituting themselves as the city council. They chose Hernán Cortés as their captain.
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111:
59:
4568:
2814:
2803:
2731:
2707:
2674:
1245:
391:
2792:
2715:
2706:
revolted against Calles and interim president Portes Gil. Five generals, Escobar (Coahuila),
2633:
2380:
1976:
1952:
1618:
1614:
1594:
1575:
1543:
1532:
1458:
1435:
1399:
1205:
1044:
504:
183:
3059:
2851:
2581:
2516:
2217:
2204:
2131:
The reaction to this was an uprising in the north of Mexico, with the Governor of Coahuila,
1352:
district of Mexico City had been ruined by looting Mexican officers in 1828. He appealed to
4930:
3423:
2974:
2914:
2903:
2810:
2755:
2637:
1801:
1710:
1567:
1361:
1266:
1242:
1197:
470:
98:
68:
4434:
4410:
4363:"Mexican students protest for greater democracy, 1968 | Global Nonviolent Action Database"
1702:
1108:
Father Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla, "father of Mexican independence" for his 1810 insurgency
1093:
1089:
671:
groups that inhabited the north of modern-day Mexico, were never conquered by the Aztecs.
274:
8:
4338:
4233:
3656:
3438:
3363:
3268:
3111:
3001:
2826:
in 1946, no longer having a sector for the army. No military men sought office after the
2723:
2687:
2469:
2461:
2434:
2392:
2158:
2132:
2103:
2075:
1586:
1523:(1846–48). One of the memorable battles of the U.S. invasion of 1847 was when a group of
1427:
1002:
allowed several creole rebels to take advantage of the situation. Thus, leaders such as
904:
783:
The Spaniards surrounded and laid siege to the inhabitants of the Aztec's island capital
538:
509:
465:
461:
448:
383:
290:
4289:
2780:
2767:
2405:
during the Mexican Revolution. The city was the site of two separate engagements in the
2234:
1983:
became president. Díaz then challenged him when Lerdo ran for election; Díaz issued the
1377:
1085:
4914:
4648:
4522:
4514:
4386:
3611:
3443:
3253:
3249:
2719:
2711:
2628:
2524:
2261:
2063:
2044:
2032:
1876:
1805:
1706:
1625:
1602:
1571:
1446:
1414:
The Texan struggle for independence marked the beginning of a conflict with the modern
1259:
1234:
1201:
1161:
1121:
1003:
990:
been passed over for high posts in the civil and ecclesiastical structures; mixed-race
884:
849:
740:
736:
609:
was also a center feature to this type of warfare. Historical accounts such as that of
590:
444:
434:
was part of the new Mexican military, a hero of the Mexican victory over the French on
198:
4940:
3063:
2191:
1369:
570:
516:
Before the arrival of Europeans in 1492, there were many large-scale civilizations in
4855:
4652:
4640:
4526:
4506:
4238:
4170:
4057:
3722:
3428:
3413:
3381:
3342:
3318:
3047:
3041:
3022:
2863:
2763:
2699:
2690:(1930-32); and Abelardo Rodríguez (1932–34), with the real power held by Calles, the
2683:
2624:
2520:
2221:
2187:
2166:
2120:
1893:
1847:
1721:
1606:
1563:
1524:
1500:
1470:
1301:
1252:
1217:
1190:
935:
606:
452:
420:
263:
210:
48:
24:
4950:
2144:
1931:
1772:
1771:
as "Governor" of the "State" of Chan Santa Cruz, but the following year there was a
1714:
700:
488:. Recent developments in the Mexican military include their suppression of the 1994
4630:
4498:
4435:"TLATELOLCO MASSACRE: DECLASSIFIED U.S. DOCUMENTS ON MEXICO AND THE EVENTS OF 1968"
4411:"TLATELOLCO MASSACRE: DECLASSIFIED U.S. DOCUMENTS ON MEXICO AND THE EVENTS OF 1968"
3433:
3306:
3194:
3190:
3172:
3115:
3075:
2921:
2540:
2502:
2457:
2200:
2175:
1984:
1972:
1947:
1939:
1927:
1898:
1423:
1394:
1389:
1292:
1063:
1035:
961:
826:
Indians battle with the Caxcanes in the 1541 Mixtón War. Source: Lienzo de Tlaxcala
773:
728:
708:
689:
653:
493:
485:
395:
378:
300:
285:
123:
2926:
2568:
1968:
1923:
1809:
1056:
888:
431:
415:
4935:
4838:
Popular Politics and Rebellion in Mexico: Manuel Lozada and La Reforma, 1855–1876
4619:"The Last Door: Political Prisoners and the Use of Torture in Mexico's Dirty War"
4263:"Luis Echeverria, a Mexican leader who was blamed for massacres, dies at age 100"
3004:
2954:
2943:
2682:(PRI). Three men held the presidency during what would have been Obregón's term:
2564:
2528:
2414:
2272:
2162:
2079:
1863:
1768:
1745:
1442:
1258:
Several insurrections arose in the provinces and were later crushed by the army.
1068:
995:
987:
924:
806:) they brought with them, to which the natives had no immunity, and which became
602:
598:
258:
204:
3257:
2555:
2054:
1817:
648:, breaking the balance of power between city states. Tenochtitlan, Texcoco, and
4922:, Center for Greater Southwestern Studies, the University of Texas at Arlington
3663:. Berkeley, California: University of California Press, 1952 (republished 1969)
3552:
3488:
3332:
3214:
3177:
2935:
2898:
2418:
2388:
2135:
declaring the Huerta regime illegitimate and becoming the "First Chief" of the
2112:
2108:
2095:
1907:
1753:
1598:
1559:
1462:
1365:
1073:
1034:
called to his rural parishioners in the pueblo of Dolores for an uprising. The
999:
978:
968:
865:
626:
469:
force. The Mexican military has been under civilian government control with no
215:
4502:
3661:
Soldiers, Indians, & Silver: The Northward Advance of New Spain, 1550–1600
3351:
1915: Civil war. Obregón defeats Villa in 1915, Constitutionalists take power.
3341:
1913-14: Military coup against Madero. Revolutionary forces forming to oppose
2822:, the son of a revolutionary general, to be its candidate. The PRM became the
2640:
became president of Mexico in 1940, he declared himself a Christian believer (
1787:
Miguel Negrete part of the military, during the civil wars of the 19th century
554:
530:
5235:
4644:
4510:
4242:
2547:. It also strengthened the labor and peasant counterpoises to the military."
2402:
2154:
2070:
pitted against the coalition of revolutionary forces in northern Mexico, the
2027:
2009:
1943:
1833:
1551:
1474:
1450:
1015:
795:
provided advantages. The Spanish were further aided in their conquest by the
645:
481:
435:
332:
2750:
2652:
2397:
2303:
Federal Army General Victoriano, President of Mexico following the 1913 coup
1962:
1946:
holiday) they eventually defeated loyalist government forces led by General
1795:
837:
3645:
The War for Mexico's West: Indians and Spaniards in New Galicia, 1524–1550.
3392:
3371:
3021:
In September 2005 Mexican army convoys traveled to the U.S. to help in the
2890:
2871:
2859:
2798:
2616:
2591:
Map of the Cristero War, showing regions where Cristero outbreaks occurred.
2413:
With the Revolution still being fought, Mexico remained neutral during the
2384:
2140:
2067:
1671:
1593:
personally marched north to fight Taylor but was defeated at the battle of
1019:
952:
917:
784:
748:
732:
693:
657:
634:
622:
618:
522:
440:
225:
2409:, a series of military engagements along the border during the Revolution.
1585:
The main force led by Taylor continued across the Rio Grande, winning the
1531:) fought to the death against a large army of experienced soldiers in the
4925:
4873:
Mexican Militarism: The Political Rise and Fall of the Revolutionary Army
3182:
3119:
2909:
2886:
2855:
Mexican boats attacked and sunk by German submarines during World War II.
1764:
1690:
1610:
1538:
1466:
1454:
1052:
891:, Spanish general, won victories against insurgents of the Hidalgo revolt
641:
594:
526:
517:
4667:"Rosendo Radilla case: new investigations in Atoyac de Álvarez | Mexico"
4635:
4618:
3054:(PRI) which was supported by the US government, left-wing students, and
2001:
637:
to the west. Between them, they controlled the whole Lake Texcoco area.
574:
4518:
4486:
3640:
3591:
2730:
joined the rebellion. Calles himself led troops against the rebels and
2366:
2276:
2249:
2058:
Porfirio Díaz ca. 1910 when he was 80 years old and in power since 1876
2018:
1996:
1867:
1821:
1645:
1629:
1605:
by sea, to begin an invasion of the country's heartland. Scott won the
1555:
1415:
1373:
1324:
1048:
916:
men were part of companies and there were some light- and dark-skinned
856:
832:
664:
411:
193:
160:
154:
128:
4919:
2481:
2150:
1838:
1694:
1136:
Vicente Guerrero, insurgent general who signed onto the Plan of Iguala
685:
550:
4814:
4284:
4282:
3299:
2275:
are often considered heroines to Mexico today. Today, references to "
1871:
1850:, leader of the self-described Moderates, was elected president. The
1667:
908:
861:
796:
578:
562:
88:
27:, military cadets who died in 1847, defending Mexico City during the
4387:"Tlatelolco Massacre | 1968: A Global Year of Student Driven Change"
2497:
1913:
1546:
in 1847. The battle saw American soldiers outflank Mexican soldiers.
1184:
1120:
Father José María Morelos, Mexican insurgent. 1812 portrait, now in
3338:
1911-13: Federal Army suppresses revolts against the Madero regime.
3264:
2695:
2573:
2544:
2284:
2257:
1681:
1637:
1496:
1349:
1337:
1226:
1222:
869:
823:
813:
807:
803:
792:
777:
763:
759:
752:
704:
649:
546:
243:
4279:
2984:
One recent event in the military history of Mexico is that of the
2587:
1763:
Negotiations in 1883 led to a treaty signed on 11 January 1884 in
1457:(commonly called Béxar at the time). The war ended in 1836 at the
4787:"IContributors to UN Peacekeeping Operations by Country and Post"
4167:
Inside the state: the bracero program, immigration, and the I.N.S
4131:"World War II: Mexican Air Force Helped Liberate the Philippines"
4083:, Leslie Bethell, ed. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press 1991.
3453:
3131:
2989:
1783:
1649:
1641:
845:
841:
799:
768:
566:
4054:
La política exterior de México durante la Segunga Guerra Mundial
2664:
1842:
Sóstenes Rocha the most conspicuous soldier in the liberal army.
1281:
879:
4897:
Disorder and Progress: Bandits, Police, and Mexican Development
4761:"In historic U-turn, Mexico to join U.N. peacekeeping missions"
4056:. Política. Oaxaca México: Universidad del Mar Plaza y Valdés.
3773:
Disorder and Progress: Bandits, Police, and Mexican Development
3555:. New York: Oxford University Press, 2001, vol. 1, pp. 251–254.
3080:
2961:
2894:
2181:
1757:
1508:
1353:
1345:
900:
896:
2795:
as well as expropriation of foreign-owned petroleum in 1938.
2550:
1241:
on February 1, 1823, as a start of their efforts to overthrow
855:
The indigenous groups in northern Mexico, collectively called
398:, to join in a unified movement for independence, forming the
4487:"Operation Intercept: The International Politics of Pressure"
4229:"Details of Mexico's Dirty Wars From 1960s to 1980s Released"
3955:
Yesterday in Mexico: A Chronicle of the Revolution, 1919-1936
3029:
2254:
1516:
1419:
1407:
1270:
991:
929:
913:
818:
668:
586:
558:
542:
3582:
Marcus, Joyce. "Conquests: Pre-Hispanic Period", pp. 252–53.
1519:, which declared itself independent in 1836, and during the
1273:, and almost all the provinces had been united to the plan.
617:
Perhaps the most famous of the Native Mexican states is the
4569:"Mexico opening memorials to 'dirty war' torture, killings"
1775:
in Chan Santa Cruz, and the treaty was declared cancelled.
1528:
2694:(maximum chief). The period is now generally known as the
2126:
1507:
The dominant figure of the second quarter of 19th century
1426:. Battles associated with the conflict with Texas include
1030:
royal government. When it was discovered, secular priest
4314:"Mexico's Everyday War: Guerrero and the Trials of Peace"
3271:, stimulating political unrest throughout Spain's empire.
2450:
1967:
Juárez's republic was restored. However, liberal General
1963:
Restored Republic under Juárez and the overthrow of Lerdo
1796:
Overthrow of Santa Anna in the Revolution of Ayutla, 1855
941:
374:
4716:"Mexico's president opens archives on 'dirty war period"
4079:. "The rise and fall of Cardenismo, c. 1930– c.1946" in
3377:
1928: Unsuccessful revolt by Generals Gómez and Serrano.
3325:
achieved under Juárez and encourages foreign investment.
2441:
982:, or American-born rather than Spaniards born in Spain (
553:. The Mayan conflict also included vassal states in the
3618:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press 1982, pp. 79–80
3359:
Amended many times, this constitution remains in force.
3239:
in 2019, which has been involved with border security.
3007:(1994–2000) refused most of the demands of the rebels.
2668:
General Joaquín Amaro, who implemented military reforms
4845:
Generals in the Palacio: The Military in Modern Mexico
4691:"Mexico: Ex-President Charged in 'Dirty War' Killings"
3384:, unsuccessful revolt by a number of generals against
3181:
Mexican soldiers raid a house reportedly owned by the
2979:
1364:(1780–1853), the king sent a fleet under Rear Admiral
907:, prompted the Spanish crown to protect its colony of
4980:
4155:
Knight, "The rise and fall of Cardenismo" pp. 302–03.
3672:
Archer, Christon I. "Military: Bourbon New Spain" in
3473:
Archer, Christon I. “Military: Bourbon New Spain” in
2476:
2401:
American and Mexican soldiers guarding the border in
2279:" are made as a symbol of pride among Mexican women.
2224:
also to have their forces under the Ministry of War.
652:
formed a "Triple Alliance" that came to dominate the
4854:. Westport CT: Praeger Security International 2005.
3717:
Orozco, Fernando; Orozco, Orozco Linares L. (1996).
1670:
lasted from 1847 to 1901, and began as a war of the
1628:, signed on January 13, 1847, ended the fighting in
1422:, and its independence from Mexico and the state of
4882:. Gainesville: University of Florida Press 1957 M..
4875:. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press 1968.
4833:. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press 1977.
3547:Marcus, Joyce. "Conquests: Pre-Hispanic Period" in
3256:. In 1521 Cortés and his indigenous allies conquer
2745:
2460:to succeed him. Revolutionary generals in Sonora,
2085:
2049:
1558:and claim it for the U.S. because of concerns that
1402:in 1836, was a decisive battle that saw the end of
810:, killing large portions of the native population.
394:persuading the guerrilla leader of the insurgency,
4459:"A Victory for the Truth about Mexico's Dirty War"
4189:Knight, "The rise and fall of Cardenismo," p. 305.
4119:Knight, "The rise and fall of Cardenismo," p. 303.
3564:Marcus, "Conquests: Pre-Hispanic Period", p. 252.
2897:torpedoed and sank two Mexican oil tankers in the
2644:), and armed conflict over religion was at an end.
1959:, by the forces loyal to President Benito Juárez.
1713:and a stronghold between the road from Mérida and
1655:
1480:
3957:. Austin: University of Texas Press 1961, 436-444
3743:"Tratado Definitivo de Paz entre Mexico y España"
3685:Archer, "Military: Bourbon New Spain", pp. 901–02
3573:Marcus: "Conquests: Pre-Hispanic Period", p. 252.
2498:Postrevolutionary military under Obregón, 1920-24
1882:
1348:cook, Monsieur Remontel, claimed his shop in the
1185:First Mexican Empire and its overthrow, 1822–1823
5233:
4128:
4051:
3698:. Gainesville: University of Florida Press 1957.
3647:Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press 2010
3549:The Oxford Encyclopedia of Mesoamerican Cultures
1368:to declare a blockade of all Mexican ports from
814:Colonial-era control without a standing military
727:exploring southeast Mexico in 1517, followed by
499:
4868:. College Station TX: Texas A&M Press 1997.
2879:Mexico seized and nationalized its oil industry
2722:(Chihuahua), led some 17,000 troops in revolt.
2342:General Alvaro Obregón, Carranza's best general
2078:, and the armed peasantry in the south, led by
2038:
1601:in March, which was transported to the port of
3676:. Chicago: Fitzroy Dearborn 1997, pp. 898–900.
2515:generals supported the rebel cause, including
2369:, women participants in the Mexican Revolution
2220:, and commander of the Army of the Southeast,
1383:
629:, the most powerful of these city states were
484:nations to send combat troops to serve in the
4966:
4899:. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press 1981.
4840:. Nashville: Vanderbilt University Press 2015
4815:National Guard of Mexico website (in Spanish)
4738:
3775:. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press 1981.
3758:Archer, Christon I. "Military: 1821–1914" in
3707:Archer, "Military: Bourbon New Spain", p. 903
3504:Archer, Christon I. “Military: 1821–1914” in
1705:, with the exception of the walled cities of
1282:Spanish attempts to reconquer Mexico, 1821–29
880:Establishment of a standing military, 18th c.
674:
350:
16:Armed conflicts within the nation's territory
3716:
2647:
2182:Carranza and the revolutionary army, 1916-18
1827:
1778:
1296:Capitulation of San Juan de Ulua, anonymous.
447:(1910–1920). Díaz resigned in May 1911, but
4880:The "Fuero Militar" in New Spain, 1764–1800
3696:The "Fuero Militar" in New Spain, 1764–1800
3159:On March 1, 2019, the President of Mexico,
2551:Calles presidency and the military, 1924-28
2330:General Pancho Villa, Division of the North
1930:, left, Maximiian, center, Mexican General
1870:, from December 1857 to January 1861. This
1866:and a revolt was declared. This led to the
1164:, first president of the Republic of Mexico
4973:
4959:
4920:A Continent Divided: The U.S. – Mexico War
4031:Serrano, Mónica. "Military: 1914–1996" in
3519:Serrano, Mónica. "Military: 1914–1996" in
3208:
3010:
2315:Venustiano Carranza, "First Chief" of the
2157:of rebel soldiers in the coup against the
357:
343:
4852:Mexico's Military on the Democratic Stage
4847:. New York: Oxford University Press 1992.
4634:
4616:
4222:
4220:
3762:. Chicago: Fitzroy Dearborn 1997, p. 909.
2889:following its attack on the U.S. base at
2240:
1990:
1987:, successfully overthrowing him in 1876.
1438:, which allowed secession to take place.
711:(1576) account of the conquest of Mexico.
621:. In the 13th and 14th centuries, around
4164:
4035:. Chicago: Fitzroy Dearborn 1997, p. 911
3176:
2858:
2850:
2797:
2749:
2663:
2651:
2586:
2554:
2501:
2480:
2396:
2283:was the title of one of the most famous
2260:sent to combat among the men during the
2149:
2089:
2053:
2008:
2000:
1942:on May 5, 1862 (now commemorated as the
1912:
1892:
1837:
1782:
1680:
1537:
1490:
1393:
1328:
1291:
1179:came to dominate Mexico for thirty years
1076:, calling for political independence, a
967:
964:, fought for independence against Spain.
951:
883:
817:
707:depicted by an indigenous scribe in the
699:
684:
503:
18:
4093:Minster, Christopher (April 16, 2018).
4092:
3598:. Prentice Hall 2003, p. 53, pp. 73–96
3495:. New York: HarperCollins 1997, p. 510.
2127:Formation of the Constitutionalist Army
2119:, President Díaz's nephew, and General
1875:City and the Liberals headquartered in
464:and the military leadership of General
5234:
4226:
4217:
4169:. After the law. New York: Routledge.
3284:1845: The United States annexes Texas.
2451:The last successful military coup 1920
2102:Although revolutionary forces brought
942:Mexican War of Independence, 1810–1821
696:. The facing page is no longer extant.
656:, and then extended its power beyond.
4954:
4831:The Army in Bourbon Mexico, 1760–1810
4538:
4536:
4484:
4480:
4478:
4095:"Mexican Involvement in World War II"
4047:
4045:
4043:
4041:
3017:Mexican response to Hurricane Katrina
2986:Zapatista Army of National Liberation
2468:, and Alvaro Obregón promulgated the
2442:Era of the Post Revolution, 1920–1946
1376:, to bombard the coastal fortress of
998:, and an inability to control itself
490:Zapatista Army of National Liberation
4866:The Mexican National Army, 1822–1852
3193:has participated in efforts against
3035:
2968:
2938:in the Pacific theatre. The Mexican
1889:Second French intervention in Mexico
1288:Spanish attempts to reconquer Mexico
972:Flag of the Army of Three Guarantees
717:Spanish conquest of the Aztec empire
681:Spanish conquest of the Aztec empire
4982:Military history of North America
3596:The Early History of Greater Mexico
3213:Mexico has deployed troops for the
3166:
2980:1994 Zapatista Rebellion in Chiapas
2870:flying over the Philippines during
2013:Ruralan policeman on board a train.
1919:The Execution of Emperor Maximilian
1461:(about 20 miles east of modern-day
1318:
868:initially used the construction of
840:, where an uprising in what is now
640:The Aztecs hired themselves out as
13:
4823:
4617:McCormick, Gladys (January 2017).
4533:
4475:
4129:Aviation History (June 12, 2006).
4038:
3328:1901: End of Caste War of Yucatán.
3220:
3199:Operaciones contra el narcotrafico
2477:Interim President and the military
2374:
2139:. Two brilliant natural soldiers,
1804:was an 1854 plan to overthrow the
1124:in the Museo Nacional de Historia.
14:
5253:
4903:
4052:Velázquez Flores, Rafael (2007).
3052:Institutional Revolutionary Party
2847:Latin America during World War II
2824:Institutional Revolutionary Party
2779:, former governor of Sonora, and
2680:Institutional Revolutionary Party
1685:An oil painting depiction of the
1495:American military forces bombard
1276:
986:) had since the eighteen-century
460:under the civilian leadership of
5096:Saint Vincent and the Grenadines
4887:The Modern Mexican Military: A -
4796:. United Nations. April 30, 2018
4339:"The Dawn of Mexico's Dirty War"
4290:"The Dawn of Mexico's Dirty War"
3321:, which ends in liberal victory.
2946:of the United States during the
2845:For additional information, see
2746:Lázaro Cárdenas and the military
2359:
2347:
2335:
2323:
2308:
2296:
2086:Military and the Madero, 1911-13
2062:The decade-long conflict of the
2050:Revolutionary forces defeat Díaz
1169:
1153:
1141:
1129:
1113:
1101:
326:
58:
4808:
4779:
4753:
4732:
4708:
4683:
4659:
4610:
4586:
4561:
4451:
4427:
4403:
4379:
4355:
4331:
4306:
4255:
4192:
4183:
4158:
4149:
4122:
4113:
4086:
4070:
4025:
4012:
3999:
3986:
3973:
3960:
3947:
3934:
3921:
3908:
3895:
3882:
3869:
3856:
3843:
3830:
3817:
3804:
3791:
3778:
3765:
3752:
3735:
3710:
3701:
3688:
3679:
3666:
3650:
3634:
3621:
3601:
3585:
2834:
1733:for the territory taken in the
1689:. The conflict was between the
1656:Caste War of Yucatán, 1847–1901
1481:Mexican–American War, 1846–1848
1334:Bombardment of San Juan de Ulúa
1014:started revolutions throughout
923:In the eighteenth century, the
822:Viceroy Antonio de Mendoza and
4200:"What Was Mexico's Dirty War?"
3576:
3567:
3558:
3541:
3528:
3513:
3498:
3482:
3467:
2660:led a failed rebellion in 1929
1883:French Intervention, 1862–1867
1430:, where federal troops led by
1221:was formulated to abolish the
725:Francisco Hernández de Córdoba
443:in the opening chapter of the
1:
4767:. Reuters. September 24, 2014
3719:"Fechas históricas de México"
3460:
3419:List of wars involving Mexico
3362:1923: Unsuccessful revolt by
3140:The National Security Archive
2948:liberation of the Philippines
2207:, Carranza's son-in-law, and
2005:General Porfirio Díaz in 1867
1589:in September 1846. President
1525:young Military College cadets
1434:defeated the Texans, and the
500:Pre-Hispanic era, before 1519
425:French intervention in Mexico
5221:United States Virgin Islands
4741:"Military history of Mexico"
3267:dethrones the Spanish king,
3145:
2809:Cárdenas chose the moderate
2039:Mexican Revolution 1910–1920
1808:regime by the revolutionary
1453:, and successfully captured
1313:Santa María–Calatrava Treaty
1082:Army of the Three Guarantees
1000:during its French occupation
958:Army of the Three Guarantees
731:in 1518. The most important
400:Army of the Three Guarantees
7:
4910:William Lamport's Rebellion
4794:United Nations Peacekeeping
4227:Forero, Juan (2006-11-22).
3406:
3366:against Obregón and Calles.
3293:Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo
3242:
3233:Andrés Manuel López Obrador
3161:Andres Manuel Lopez Obrador
2597: Large-scale outbreaks
1731:Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo
1634:Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo
1621:and occupying the capital.
1591:Antonio López de Santa Anna
1513:Antonio López de Santa Anna
1432:Antonio López de Santa Anna
1384:Texas Revolution, 1835–1836
1306:Antonio López de Santa Anna
1231:Antonio López de Santa Anna
1177:Antonio López de Santa Anna
948:Mexican War of Independence
404:Antonio López de Santa Anna
388:Mexican War of Independence
10:
5258:
5242:Military history of Mexico
4485:Craig, Richard B. (1980).
4391:1968.blackstudies.ucsb.edu
3536:Mexico: Biography of Power
3493:Mexico: Biography of Power
3224:
3170:
3126:
3039:
3014:
2972:
2844:
2841:Mexico during World War II
2838:
2702:broke out, led by General
2559:Gen. Plutarco Elías Calles
2378:
2042:
1994:
1886:
1831:
1659:
1484:
1387:
1322:
1285:
1188:
945:
678:
675:Spanish conquest of Mexico
371:military history of Mexico
5196:Saint Pierre and Miquelon
5114:
4988:
4503:10.1017/S0034670500031995
4463:www.justiceinitiative.org
4367:nvdatabase.swarthmore.edu
4081:Mexico Since Independence
3099:(PDLP) kidnapped senator
3086:
2773:Vicente Lombardo Toledano
2648:Maximato and the military
2161:during the February 1913
2033:railway network in Mexico
1981:Sebastián Lerdo de Tejada
1828:The Reform War, 1857–1860
1779:Era of the Liberal Reform
1613:, winning the battles of
1527:(now considered national
903:, the Philippines in the
254:Petroleum nationalization
5216:Turks and Caicos Islands
4165:Calavita, Kitty (1992).
3235:established the Mexican
2609: Sporadic outbreaks
2603: Moderate outbreaks
1697:, and the Mexican state.
874:guerra de sangre y fuego
414:that were instituted by
269:Mexican Movement of 1968
89:Viceroyalty of New Spain
4864:DePalo, William A. Jr.
3627:Lockhart and Schwartz,
3298:1847: The start of the
3227:National Guard (Mexico)
3209:U.N. Peacekeeping, 2014
3101:Rubén Figueroa Figueroa
3011:Hurricane Katrina, 2005
2828:Miguel Henríquez Guzmán
2354:General Emiliano Zapata
1720:The Yucatecan governor
1212:, which means Victory.
1078:constitutional monarchy
496:, and border security.
492:in Chiapas, control of
476:Mexico stood among the
408:U.S. invasion of Mexico
147:Second Federal Republic
5146:British Virgin Islands
4491:The Review of Politics
4033:Encyclopedia of Mexico
3760:Encyclopedia of Mexico
3674:Encyclopedia of Mexico
3522:Encyclopedia of Mexico
3507:Encyclopedia of Mexico
3476:Encyclopedia of Mexico
3449:Mexican National Guard
3217:peacekeeping efforts.
3186:
2874:
2868:201st Fighter Squadron
2856:
2806:
2758:
2669:
2661:
2611:
2560:
2507:
2486:
2423:invade northern Mexico
2410:
2317:Constitutionalist Army
2269:Dolores Jiménez y Muro
2170:
2137:Constitutionalist Army
2099:
2072:Constitutionalist Army
2059:
2014:
2006:
1991:Porfiriato (1876–1911)
1935:
1926:1868. Mexican General
1902:
1843:
1814:New Orleans, Louisiana
1788:
1698:
1547:
1504:
1411:
1341:
1297:
973:
965:
892:
827:
712:
697:
611:Juan Bautista de Pomar
513:
478:Allies of World War II
458:Constitutionalist Army
221:Occupation of Veracruz
31:
5086:Saint Kitts and Nevis
4137:. World History Group
3395:, on the side of the
3386:Plutarco Elías Calles
3180:
2924:contributed with the
2862:
2854:
2801:
2793:land reform in Mexico
2753:
2698:. In March 1929, the
2667:
2655:
2634:Dwight Whitney Morrow
2590:
2558:
2505:
2484:
2466:Plutarco Elías Calles
2400:
2381:Mexico in World War I
2196:Plutarco Elías Calles
2165:that brought General
2153:
2093:
2057:
2012:
2004:
1953:Cerro de las Campanas
1916:
1896:
1841:
1786:
1684:
1544:Battle of Cerro Gordo
1541:
1533:Battle of Chapultepec
1494:
1459:Battle of San Jacinto
1436:Battle of San Jacinto
1400:Battle of San Jacinto
1397:
1332:
1295:
1206:Our Lady of Guadalupe
1012:Antonio José de Sucre
971:
955:
928:establishment of the
887:
821:
703:
688:
507:
184:Second Mexican Empire
22:
4936:Mexican Independence
4931:Wars of Independence
4926:Mexican–American War
4829:Archer, Christon I.
3657:Powell, Philip Wayne
3424:Mexican Armed Forces
3391:1942: Mexico enters
3289:Mexican–American War
3260:, the Aztec capital.
2975:Mexican Armed Forces
2940:201 Fighter Squadron
2930:, also known as the
2883:Manuel Ávila Camacho
2820:Miguel Alemán Valdés
2811:Manuel Avila Camacho
2777:José María Maytorena
2704:José Gonzalo Escobar
2658:José Gonzalo Escobar
2638:Manuel Avila Camacho
2431:Mexican–American War
2230:constitution in 1917
1856:Constitution of 1857
1812:during his exile in
1802:Revolution of Ayutla
1735:Mexican–American War
1687:Caste War of Yucatán
1662:Caste War of Yucatán
1568:Santa Fe, New Mexico
1521:Mexican–American War
1499:in 1847, during the
1487:Mexican–American War
1449:, captured the fort
1362:Anastasio Bustamante
1267:Constituent Congress
1229:. In December 1822,
1198:First Mexican Empire
644:in wars between the
306:Coronavirus pandemic
281:1982 economic crisis
134:Mexican–American War
5101:Trinidad and Tobago
4996:Antigua and Barbuda
4878:McAlister, Lyle C.
4836:Brittsan, Zachary.
4739:profilpelajar.com.
4636:10.1017/tam.2016.80
4318:www.crisisgroup.org
4234:The Washington Post
4018:quoted in Lieuwen,
4007:Yesterday in Mexico
3953:Dulles, John W.F.,
3694:McAlister, Lyle C.
3629:Early Latin America
3616:Early Latin America
3439:Mexican Indian Wars
3364:Adolfo de la Huerta
3291:. In the resulting
3112:Operation Intercept
3068:Jose Lopez Portillo
2815:Juan Andreu Almazán
2804:Juan Andreu Almazán
2732:Juan Andreu Almazán
2724:Francisco I. Madero
2688:Pascual Ortiz Rubio
2572:presidency and the
2537:Manuel García Vigil
2485:Adolfo de la Huerta
2470:Plan of Agua Prieta
2462:Adolfo de la Huerta
2435:Zimmermann Telegram
2393:Zimmermann Telegram
2133:Venustiano Carranza
2104:Francisco I. Madero
2076:Venustiano Carranza
1609:and marched toward
1587:Battle of Monterrey
1246:Agustín de Iturbide
1225:and to establish a
1027:War of Independence
510:Tikal-Calakmul wars
480:and was one of two
471:President of Mexico
462:Venustiano Carranza
449:Francisco I. Madero
392:Agustín de Iturbide
291:Mexican peso crisis
166:French intervention
119:Centralist Republic
94:War of Independence
5036:Dominican Republic
4915:Mexican Revolution
4895:Vanderwood, Paul.
4850:Camp, Roderic Ai.
4843:Camp, Roderic Ai.
4695:Human Rights Watch
4439:nsarchive2.gwu.edu
4415:nsarchive2.gwu.edu
4343:nsarchive2.gwu.edu
4294:nsarchive2.gwu.edu
4020:Mexican Militarism
3994:Mexican Militarism
3981:Mexican Militarism
3968:Mexican Militarism
3942:Mexican Militarism
3929:Mexican Militarism
3916:Mexican Militarism
3903:Mexican Militarism
3890:Mexican Militarism
3877:Mexican Militarism
3864:Mexican Militarism
3851:Mexican Militarism
3838:Mexican Militarism
3825:Mexican Militarism
3812:Mexican Militarism
3799:Mexican Militarism
3786:Mexican Militarism
3771:Vanderwood, Paul.
3612:Stuart B. Schwartz
3444:Mexican Revolution
3231:The government of
3187:
3060:Gustavo Diaz Ordaz
2944:5th Air Force unit
2875:
2857:
2807:
2759:
2716:Francisco Urbalejo
2712:Francisco R. Manzo
2670:
2662:
2629:Enrique Gorostieta
2612:
2582:Abelardo Rodríguez
2561:
2525:Fortunato Maycotte
2508:
2487:
2411:
2262:Mexican Revolution
2218:Jacinto B. Treviño
2171:
2100:
2064:Mexican Revolution
2060:
2045:Mexican Revolution
2015:
2007:
1936:
1903:
1844:
1789:
1699:
1626:Treaty of Cahuenga
1572:Robert F. Stockton
1548:
1505:
1447:Battle of Gonzales
1412:
1406:Mexican-rule over
1342:
1298:
1235:Guadalupe Victoria
1202:Guadalupe Victoria
1162:Guadalupe Victoria
1122:Chapultepec Castle
1092:, 16 September in
1051:, Valladolid, and
1008:José de San Martín
974:
966:
893:
850:Antonio de Mendoza
828:
713:
698:
667:, a wide range of
633:to the south, and
514:
445:Mexican Revolution
32:
5229:
5228:
5118:other territories
4176:978-0-9827504-8-3
4063:978-970-722-614-2
3429:Mexican Dirty War
3414:History of Mexico
3382:Escobar Rebellion
3343:Victoriano Huerta
3319:War of the Reform
3097:Party of the Poor
3095:In May 1974, the
3048:Mexican Dirty War
3042:Mexican Dirty War
3036:Mexican Dirty War
3023:Hurricane Katrina
2969:Post World War II
2904:Potrero del Llano
2864:P-47D Thunderbolt
2764:Saturnino Cedillo
2700:Escobar Rebellion
2684:Emilio Portes Gil
2625:Victoriano Huerta
2533:Francisco Serrano
2521:Salvador Alvarado
2433:(1846–1848). The
2222:Salvador Alvarado
2188:Saturnino Cedillo
2167:Victoriano Huerta
2159:Madero government
2121:Victoriano Huerta
1848:Ignacio Comonfort
1722:Miguel Barbachano
1703:Yucatán Peninsula
1607:Siege of Veracruz
1564:Stephen W. Kearny
1511:was the dictator
1501:siege of the city
1471:Republic of Texas
1344:In 1838 a French
1302:Treaty of Cordoba
1239:Plan de Casa Mata
1218:Plan de Casa Mata
1191:Plan de Casa Mata
1094:Córdoba, Veracruz
1090:Treaty of Córdoba
453:Victoriano Huerta
367:
366:
333:Mexico portal
275:La Década Perdida
264:Mexican Dirty War
248:(1928–1934)
211:Plan of Guadalupe
205:La decena trágica
189:Restored Republic
84:Spanish-Aztec War
5249:
5186:Saint Barthélemy
5116:Dependencies and
4989:Sovereign states
4975:
4968:
4961:
4952:
4951:
4946:Battle of Puebla
4817:
4812:
4806:
4805:
4803:
4801:
4791:
4783:
4777:
4776:
4774:
4772:
4757:
4751:
4750:
4748:
4747:
4736:
4730:
4729:
4727:
4726:
4712:
4706:
4705:
4703:
4702:
4687:
4681:
4680:
4678:
4677:
4663:
4657:
4656:
4638:
4614:
4608:
4607:
4605:
4604:
4590:
4584:
4583:
4581:
4580:
4565:
4559:
4558:
4556:
4555:
4540:
4531:
4530:
4482:
4473:
4472:
4470:
4469:
4455:
4449:
4448:
4446:
4445:
4431:
4425:
4424:
4422:
4421:
4407:
4401:
4400:
4398:
4397:
4383:
4377:
4376:
4374:
4373:
4359:
4353:
4352:
4350:
4349:
4335:
4329:
4328:
4326:
4325:
4310:
4304:
4303:
4301:
4300:
4286:
4277:
4276:
4274:
4273:
4259:
4253:
4252:
4250:
4249:
4224:
4215:
4214:
4212:
4211:
4196:
4190:
4187:
4181:
4180:
4162:
4156:
4153:
4147:
4146:
4144:
4142:
4126:
4120:
4117:
4111:
4110:
4108:
4106:
4090:
4084:
4074:
4068:
4067:
4049:
4036:
4029:
4023:
4016:
4010:
4003:
3997:
3990:
3984:
3977:
3971:
3964:
3958:
3951:
3945:
3938:
3932:
3925:
3919:
3912:
3906:
3899:
3893:
3886:
3880:
3873:
3867:
3860:
3854:
3847:
3841:
3834:
3828:
3821:
3815:
3808:
3802:
3795:
3789:
3782:
3776:
3769:
3763:
3756:
3750:
3749:
3747:
3739:
3733:
3732:
3714:
3708:
3705:
3699:
3692:
3686:
3683:
3677:
3670:
3664:
3654:
3648:
3638:
3632:
3625:
3619:
3605:
3599:
3589:
3583:
3580:
3574:
3571:
3565:
3562:
3556:
3545:
3539:
3532:
3526:
3517:
3511:
3502:
3496:
3486:
3480:
3471:
3434:Mexican Drug War
3307:Gadsden Purchase
3195:drug trafficking
3191:Mexican military
3173:Mexican Drug War
3167:Mexican Drug War
3116:Operation Condor
3066:(1970-1976) and
3056:Guerrilla groups
2922:Mexican airforce
2781:José Vasconcelos
2768:Francisco Múgica
2708:Jesús M. Aguirre
2608:
2602:
2596:
2473:four-year term.
2458:Ignacio Bonillas
2363:
2351:
2339:
2327:
2312:
2300:
2235:Francisco Múgica
2201:Benjamin G. Hill
2176:Battle of Celaya
2066:saw the Mexican
1985:Plan of Tuxtepec
1973:Battle of Puebla
1971:, a hero of the
1948:Ignacio Zaragoza
1940:Battle of Puebla
1899:Battle of Puebla
1758:British Honduras
1465:) where General
1424:Coahuila y Tejas
1390:Texas Revolution
1378:San Juan de Ulúa
1319:Pastry War, 1838
1173:
1157:
1145:
1133:
1117:
1105:
1067:monarch and for
1064:Vicente Guerrero
1036:Grito de Dolores
962:Vicente Guerrero
905:Seven Years' War
774:Codex Azcatitlan
729:Juan de Grijalva
709:Florentine Codex
690:Codex Azcatitlan
654:Valley of Mexico
494:narcotrafficking
486:Second World War
430:Liberal General
396:Vicente Guerrero
384:Seven Years' War
379:military history
359:
352:
345:
331:
330:
329:
301:Mexican drug war
286:Chiapas conflict
249:
124:Texas Revolution
62:
52:
34:
33:
23:Monument to the
5257:
5256:
5252:
5251:
5250:
5248:
5247:
5246:
5232:
5231:
5230:
5225:
5119:
5117:
5110:
4984:
4979:
4906:
4871:Liewen, Edwin.
4826:
4824:Further reading
4821:
4820:
4813:
4809:
4799:
4797:
4789:
4785:
4784:
4780:
4770:
4768:
4759:
4758:
4754:
4745:
4743:
4737:
4733:
4724:
4722:
4714:
4713:
4709:
4700:
4698:
4689:
4688:
4684:
4675:
4673:
4665:
4664:
4660:
4615:
4611:
4602:
4600:
4592:
4591:
4587:
4578:
4576:
4567:
4566:
4562:
4553:
4551:
4542:
4541:
4534:
4483:
4476:
4467:
4465:
4457:
4456:
4452:
4443:
4441:
4433:
4432:
4428:
4419:
4417:
4409:
4408:
4404:
4395:
4393:
4385:
4384:
4380:
4371:
4369:
4361:
4360:
4356:
4347:
4345:
4337:
4336:
4332:
4323:
4321:
4312:
4311:
4307:
4298:
4296:
4288:
4287:
4280:
4271:
4269:
4261:
4260:
4256:
4247:
4245:
4225:
4218:
4209:
4207:
4198:
4197:
4193:
4188:
4184:
4177:
4163:
4159:
4154:
4150:
4140:
4138:
4127:
4123:
4118:
4114:
4104:
4102:
4091:
4087:
4075:
4071:
4064:
4050:
4039:
4030:
4026:
4017:
4013:
4004:
4000:
3991:
3987:
3978:
3974:
3965:
3961:
3952:
3948:
3939:
3935:
3926:
3922:
3913:
3909:
3900:
3896:
3887:
3883:
3874:
3870:
3861:
3857:
3848:
3844:
3835:
3831:
3822:
3818:
3809:
3805:
3796:
3792:
3783:
3779:
3770:
3766:
3757:
3753:
3745:
3741:
3740:
3736:
3729:
3715:
3711:
3706:
3702:
3693:
3689:
3684:
3680:
3671:
3667:
3655:
3651:
3639:
3635:
3626:
3622:
3608:Lockhart, James
3606:
3602:
3590:
3586:
3581:
3577:
3572:
3568:
3563:
3559:
3546:
3542:
3533:
3529:
3518:
3514:
3503:
3499:
3489:Krauze, Enrique
3487:
3483:
3472:
3468:
3463:
3458:
3409:
3245:
3229:
3223:
3221:Border security
3211:
3175:
3169:
3148:
3129:
3089:
3064:Luis Echeverria
3044:
3038:
3019:
3013:
3005:Ernesto Zedillo
2982:
2977:
2971:
2955:Bracero Program
2915:Lázaro Cárdenas
2866:of the Mexican
2849:
2843:
2837:
2756:Lázaro Cárdenas
2748:
2720:Marcelo Caraveo
2718:(Durango), and
2650:
2619:(also known as
2610:
2606:
2604:
2600:
2598:
2594:
2592:
2565:Luis N. Morones
2553:
2529:Enrique Estrada
2517:Cándido Aguilar
2500:
2479:
2453:
2444:
2415:First World War
2395:
2377:
2375:World War I era
2370:
2364:
2355:
2352:
2343:
2340:
2331:
2328:
2319:
2313:
2304:
2301:
2273:Hermila Galindo
2246:
2205:Cándido Aguilar
2192:San Luis Potosí
2184:
2163:Ten Tragic Days
2129:
2088:
2080:Emiliano Zapata
2052:
2047:
2041:
2023:Manuel González
1999:
1993:
1965:
1906:engaged in its
1891:
1885:
1836:
1830:
1798:
1781:
1769:Crescencio Poot
1746:Chan Santa Cruz
1664:
1658:
1489:
1483:
1443:Gonzales, Texas
1392:
1386:
1327:
1321:
1290:
1284:
1279:
1193:
1187:
1180:
1174:
1165:
1158:
1149:
1146:
1137:
1134:
1125:
1118:
1109:
1106:
996:Napoleonic Wars
988:Bourbon reforms
950:
944:
882:
816:
683:
677:
549:erupted on the
502:
412:Liberal Reforms
375:armed conflicts
363:
327:
325:
311:
310:
259:Mexican miracle
247:
239:
231:
230:
179:
171:
170:
149:
139:
138:
114:
104:
103:
79:
71:
50:
43:
17:
12:
11:
5:
5255:
5245:
5244:
5227:
5226:
5224:
5223:
5218:
5213:
5208:
5206:Sint Eustatius
5203:
5198:
5193:
5188:
5183:
5178:
5173:
5168:
5163:
5158:
5153:
5151:Cayman Islands
5148:
5143:
5138:
5133:
5128:
5122:
5120:
5115:
5112:
5111:
5109:
5108:
5103:
5098:
5093:
5088:
5083:
5078:
5073:
5068:
5063:
5058:
5053:
5048:
5043:
5038:
5033:
5028:
5023:
5018:
5013:
5008:
5003:
4998:
4992:
4990:
4986:
4985:
4978:
4977:
4970:
4963:
4955:
4949:
4948:
4943:
4938:
4933:
4928:
4923:
4917:
4912:
4905:
4904:External links
4902:
4901:
4900:
4893:
4890:
4883:
4876:
4869:
4862:
4848:
4841:
4834:
4825:
4822:
4819:
4818:
4807:
4778:
4752:
4731:
4720:news.yahoo.com
4707:
4682:
4671:pbi-mexico.org
4658:
4609:
4585:
4560:
4532:
4497:(4): 556–580.
4474:
4450:
4426:
4402:
4378:
4354:
4330:
4305:
4278:
4254:
4216:
4191:
4182:
4175:
4157:
4148:
4135:HistoryNet.com
4121:
4112:
4085:
4069:
4062:
4037:
4024:
4011:
3998:
3985:
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3959:
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3855:
3842:
3829:
3816:
3803:
3790:
3777:
3764:
3751:
3734:
3727:
3721:(in Spanish).
3709:
3700:
3687:
3678:
3665:
3649:
3633:
3620:
3600:
3584:
3575:
3566:
3557:
3553:David Carrasco
3540:
3527:
3512:
3497:
3481:
3465:
3464:
3462:
3459:
3457:
3456:
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3410:
3408:
3405:
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3403:
3400:
3389:
3378:
3375:
3367:
3360:
3356:
3352:
3349:
3346:
3339:
3336:
3333:Pascual Orozco
3329:
3326:
3322:
3314:
3310:
3303:
3296:
3285:
3282:
3279:
3276:
3272:
3261:
3244:
3241:
3237:National Guard
3225:Main article:
3222:
3219:
3215:United Nations
3210:
3207:
3171:Main article:
3168:
3165:
3147:
3144:
3138:Published on "
3128:
3125:
3088:
3085:
3040:Main article:
3037:
3034:
3015:Main article:
3012:
3009:
2981:
2978:
2970:
2967:
2936:Imperial Japan
2839:Main article:
2836:
2833:
2747:
2744:
2649:
2646:
2605:
2599:
2593:
2552:
2549:
2506:Alvaro Obregón
2499:
2496:
2478:
2475:
2452:
2449:
2443:
2440:
2419:Tampico Affair
2389:Tampico Affair
2376:
2373:
2372:
2371:
2365:
2358:
2356:
2353:
2346:
2344:
2341:
2334:
2332:
2329:
2322:
2320:
2314:
2307:
2305:
2302:
2295:
2245:
2239:
2209:Pablo González
2183:
2180:
2145:Alvaro Obregón
2128:
2125:
2113:Bernardo Reyes
2109:Pascual Orozco
2096:Pascual Orozco
2087:
2084:
2051:
2048:
2043:Main article:
2040:
2037:
1995:Main article:
1992:
1989:
1964:
1961:
1932:Miguel Miramón
1887:Main article:
1884:
1881:
1864:excommunicated
1832:Main article:
1829:
1826:
1797:
1794:
1780:
1777:
1754:United Kingdom
1660:Main article:
1657:
1654:
1599:Winfield Scott
1485:Main article:
1482:
1479:
1388:Main article:
1385:
1382:
1366:Charles Baudin
1358:Louis-Philippe
1323:Main article:
1320:
1317:
1286:Main article:
1283:
1280:
1278:
1277:Early Republic
1275:
1189:Main article:
1186:
1183:
1182:
1181:
1175:
1168:
1166:
1159:
1152:
1150:
1147:
1140:
1138:
1135:
1128:
1126:
1119:
1112:
1110:
1107:
1100:
1074:Plan of Iguala
1039:for violence.
1032:Miguel Hidalgo
946:Main article:
943:
940:
925:Bourbon regime
881:
878:
866:Chichimeca War
815:
812:
733:Conquistadores
679:Main article:
676:
673:
627:Anahuac Valley
577:, and briefly
539:series of wars
501:
498:
482:Latin American
466:Álvaro Obregón
365:
364:
362:
361:
354:
347:
339:
336:
335:
322:
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313:
312:
309:
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283:
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271:
266:
261:
256:
251:
240:
237:
236:
233:
232:
229:
228:
223:
218:
216:Tampico Affair
213:
208:
201:
196:
194:The Porfiriato
191:
186:
180:
177:
176:
173:
172:
169:
168:
163:
158:
150:
145:
144:
141:
140:
137:
136:
131:
126:
121:
115:
112:First Republic
110:
109:
106:
105:
102:
101:
96:
91:
86:
80:
77:
76:
73:
72:
67:
64:
63:
55:
54:
45:
44:
37:
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
5254:
5243:
5240:
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5237:
5222:
5219:
5217:
5214:
5212:
5209:
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5182:
5179:
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5174:
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5157:
5154:
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5147:
5144:
5142:
5139:
5137:
5134:
5132:
5129:
5127:
5124:
5123:
5121:
5113:
5107:
5106:United States
5104:
5102:
5099:
5097:
5094:
5092:
5089:
5087:
5084:
5082:
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5007:
5004:
5002:
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4997:
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4993:
4991:
4987:
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4969:
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4957:
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4953:
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4898:
4894:
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4884:
4881:
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4861:
4860:0-275-98810-4
4857:
4853:
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4392:
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4309:
4295:
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4236:
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4230:
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4195:
4186:
4178:
4172:
4168:
4161:
4152:
4136:
4132:
4125:
4116:
4100:
4099:ThoughtCo.com
4096:
4089:
4082:
4078:
4073:
4065:
4059:
4055:
4048:
4046:
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4042:
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4028:
4021:
4015:
4008:
4002:
3995:
3989:
3982:
3976:
3969:
3963:
3956:
3950:
3943:
3937:
3930:
3924:
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3872:
3865:
3859:
3852:
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3826:
3820:
3813:
3807:
3800:
3794:
3787:
3781:
3774:
3768:
3761:
3755:
3748:(in Spanish).
3744:
3738:
3730:
3728:9789683802958
3724:
3720:
3713:
3704:
3697:
3691:
3682:
3675:
3669:
3662:
3658:
3653:
3646:
3642:
3637:
3630:
3624:
3617:
3613:
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3516:
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3494:
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3432:
3430:
3427:
3425:
3422:
3420:
3417:
3415:
3412:
3411:
3401:
3398:
3397:Allied Powers
3394:
3390:
3387:
3383:
3379:
3376:
3373:
3368:
3365:
3361:
3357:
3353:
3350:
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3327:
3323:
3320:
3315:
3311:
3308:
3304:
3301:
3297:
3294:
3290:
3286:
3283:
3280:
3277:
3273:
3270:
3266:
3262:
3259:
3255:
3251:
3250:Hernán Cortés
3247:
3246:
3240:
3238:
3234:
3228:
3218:
3216:
3206:
3202:
3200:
3196:
3192:
3184:
3179:
3174:
3164:
3162:
3157:
3154:
3143:
3141:
3136:
3133:
3124:
3121:
3117:
3113:
3108:
3104:
3102:
3098:
3093:
3084:
3082:
3077:
3071:
3070:(1976-1982).
3069:
3065:
3062:(1964-1970),
3061:
3057:
3053:
3049:
3043:
3033:
3031:
3027:
3026:relief effort
3024:
3018:
3008:
3006:
3003:
2999:
2996:
2991:
2987:
2976:
2966:
2963:
2958:
2956:
2951:
2949:
2945:
2941:
2937:
2933:
2932:Aztec Eagles.
2929:
2928:
2923:
2918:
2916:
2912:
2911:
2906:
2905:
2900:
2896:
2892:
2888:
2884:
2880:
2873:
2869:
2865:
2861:
2853:
2848:
2842:
2832:
2829:
2825:
2821:
2816:
2812:
2805:
2800:
2796:
2794:
2788:
2784:
2782:
2778:
2774:
2769:
2765:
2757:
2752:
2743:
2739:
2735:
2733:
2729:
2725:
2721:
2717:
2713:
2709:
2705:
2701:
2697:
2693:
2689:
2685:
2681:
2676:
2675:Arnulfo Gómez
2666:
2659:
2654:
2645:
2643:
2639:
2635:
2630:
2626:
2622:
2618:
2589:
2585:
2583:
2577:
2575:
2570:
2569:Joaquín Amaro
2566:
2557:
2548:
2546:
2542:
2541:Rafael Buelna
2538:
2534:
2530:
2526:
2522:
2518:
2512:
2504:
2495:
2492:
2483:
2474:
2471:
2467:
2463:
2459:
2448:
2439:
2436:
2432:
2426:
2424:
2420:
2416:
2408:
2404:
2403:Ambos Nogales
2399:
2394:
2390:
2386:
2382:
2368:
2362:
2357:
2350:
2345:
2338:
2333:
2326:
2321:
2318:
2311:
2306:
2299:
2294:
2293:
2292:
2290:
2286:
2282:
2278:
2274:
2270:
2267:
2263:
2259:
2256:
2252:
2251:
2244:
2238:
2236:
2231:
2225:
2223:
2219:
2213:
2210:
2206:
2202:
2197:
2193:
2189:
2179:
2177:
2168:
2164:
2160:
2156:
2155:Urban warfare
2152:
2148:
2146:
2142:
2138:
2134:
2124:
2122:
2118:
2114:
2110:
2105:
2097:
2092:
2083:
2081:
2077:
2073:
2069:
2065:
2056:
2046:
2036:
2034:
2030:
2029:
2024:
2020:
2011:
2003:
1998:
1988:
1986:
1982:
1978:
1977:French empire
1974:
1970:
1969:Porfirio Díaz
1960:
1958:
1954:
1949:
1945:
1944:Cinco de Mayo
1941:
1933:
1929:
1925:
1924:Édouard Manet
1921:
1920:
1915:
1911:
1909:
1900:
1895:
1890:
1880:
1878:
1873:
1869:
1868:War of Reform
1865:
1861:
1860:fuero militar
1857:
1853:
1849:
1840:
1835:
1834:War of Reform
1825:
1823:
1819:
1815:
1811:
1810:Benito Juárez
1807:
1803:
1793:
1785:
1776:
1774:
1770:
1766:
1761:
1759:
1755:
1749:
1747:
1741:
1738:
1736:
1732:
1726:
1723:
1718:
1716:
1712:
1708:
1704:
1696:
1692:
1688:
1683:
1679:
1677:
1673:
1669:
1663:
1653:
1651:
1647:
1643:
1639:
1635:
1631:
1627:
1622:
1620:
1616:
1612:
1608:
1604:
1600:
1596:
1592:
1588:
1583:
1581:
1577:
1573:
1569:
1565:
1561:
1557:
1553:
1552:John D. Sloat
1545:
1540:
1536:
1534:
1530:
1526:
1522:
1518:
1514:
1510:
1502:
1498:
1493:
1488:
1478:
1476:
1475:United States
1472:
1468:
1464:
1460:
1456:
1452:
1448:
1444:
1439:
1437:
1433:
1429:
1425:
1421:
1417:
1409:
1405:
1401:
1396:
1391:
1381:
1379:
1375:
1371:
1367:
1363:
1359:
1355:
1351:
1347:
1339:
1335:
1331:
1326:
1316:
1314:
1309:
1307:
1303:
1294:
1289:
1274:
1272:
1268:
1263:
1261:
1256:
1254:
1249:
1247:
1244:
1240:
1236:
1232:
1228:
1224:
1220:
1219:
1213:
1211:
1207:
1203:
1199:
1192:
1178:
1172:
1167:
1163:
1156:
1151:
1144:
1139:
1132:
1127:
1123:
1116:
1111:
1104:
1099:
1098:
1097:
1095:
1091:
1087:
1086:Juan O'Donojú
1083:
1079:
1075:
1070:
1065:
1060:
1058:
1057:Félix Calleja
1054:
1050:
1046:
1040:
1037:
1033:
1028:
1023:
1021:
1017:
1016:Latin America
1013:
1009:
1005:
1004:Simón Bolívar
1001:
997:
993:
989:
985:
981:
980:
970:
963:
959:
954:
949:
939:
937:
933:
932:
931:fuero militar
926:
921:
919:
915:
910:
906:
902:
898:
890:
889:Félix Calleja
886:
877:
875:
871:
867:
863:
858:
853:
851:
847:
843:
839:
834:
825:
820:
811:
809:
805:
801:
798:
794:
788:
786:
781:
779:
775:
770:
765:
761:
757:
756:
750:
744:
742:
738:
737:Hernán Cortés
734:
730:
726:
722:
718:
715:The two-year
710:
706:
702:
695:
691:
687:
682:
672:
670:
666:
661:
659:
655:
651:
647:
643:
638:
636:
632:
628:
624:
620:
615:
612:
608:
604:
600:
596:
592:
588:
583:
580:
576:
572:
568:
564:
560:
556:
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548:
544:
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534:
532:
528:
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519:
511:
506:
497:
495:
491:
487:
483:
479:
474:
472:
467:
463:
459:
454:
450:
446:
442:
437:
436:Cinco de Mayo
433:
432:Porfirio Díaz
428:
426:
422:
417:
416:Benito Juárez
413:
409:
405:
401:
397:
393:
389:
385:
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117:
116:
113:
108:
107:
100:
97:
95:
92:
90:
87:
85:
82:
81:
78:The New Spain
75:
74:
70:
69:Pre-Columbian
66:
65:
61:
57:
56:
53:
47:
46:
41:
36:
35:
30:
29:U.S. invasion
26:
21:
5211:Sint Maarten
5191:Saint Martin
5070:
4896:
4886:
4879:
4872:
4865:
4851:
4844:
4837:
4830:
4810:
4798:. Retrieved
4793:
4781:
4769:. Retrieved
4764:
4755:
4744:. Retrieved
4734:
4723:. Retrieved
4719:
4710:
4699:. Retrieved
4697:. 2004-07-22
4694:
4685:
4674:. Retrieved
4670:
4661:
4629:(1): 57–81.
4626:
4623:The Americas
4622:
4612:
4601:. Retrieved
4597:
4588:
4577:. Retrieved
4575:. 2019-06-11
4572:
4563:
4552:. Retrieved
4550:. 2018-11-01
4547:
4494:
4490:
4466:. Retrieved
4462:
4453:
4442:. Retrieved
4438:
4429:
4418:. Retrieved
4414:
4405:
4394:. Retrieved
4390:
4381:
4370:. Retrieved
4366:
4357:
4346:. Retrieved
4342:
4333:
4322:. Retrieved
4320:. 2020-05-04
4317:
4308:
4297:. Retrieved
4293:
4270:. Retrieved
4266:
4257:
4246:. Retrieved
4232:
4208:. Retrieved
4206:. 2019-03-11
4203:
4194:
4185:
4166:
4160:
4151:
4139:. Retrieved
4134:
4124:
4115:
4103:. Retrieved
4098:
4088:
4080:
4077:Knight, Alan
4072:
4053:
4032:
4027:
4019:
4014:
4006:
4001:
3993:
3988:
3980:
3975:
3967:
3962:
3954:
3949:
3941:
3936:
3928:
3923:
3915:
3910:
3902:
3897:
3889:
3884:
3876:
3871:
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3858:
3850:
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3824:
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3806:
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3772:
3767:
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3754:
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3690:
3681:
3673:
3668:
3660:
3652:
3644:
3636:
3628:
3623:
3615:
3603:
3595:
3587:
3578:
3569:
3560:
3548:
3543:
3535:
3530:
3520:
3515:
3505:
3500:
3492:
3484:
3474:
3469:
3393:World War II
3372:Cristero War
3258:Tenochtitlán
3230:
3212:
3203:
3198:
3188:
3158:
3149:
3137:
3130:
3109:
3105:
3094:
3090:
3076:declassified
3072:
3045:
3020:
3000:
2994:
2983:
2959:
2952:
2931:
2927:201 Squadron
2925:
2919:
2908:
2902:
2891:Pearl Harbor
2876:
2872:World War II
2835:World War II
2808:
2789:
2785:
2760:
2740:
2736:
2710:(Veracruz),
2691:
2671:
2642:soy creyente
2641:
2621:La Cristiada
2620:
2617:Cristero War
2613:
2578:
2562:
2513:
2509:
2488:
2454:
2445:
2427:
2412:
2385:Pancho Villa
2288:
2280:
2265:
2248:
2247:
2242:
2241:Role of the
2226:
2214:
2185:
2172:
2141:Pancho Villa
2130:
2101:
2068:Federal Army
2061:
2026:
2016:
1966:
1937:
1917:
1904:
1859:
1851:
1845:
1818:Juan Álvarez
1799:
1790:
1762:
1750:
1742:
1739:
1727:
1719:
1700:
1675:
1674:against the
1665:
1623:
1584:
1549:
1506:
1440:
1413:
1403:
1343:
1310:
1299:
1264:
1257:
1250:
1238:
1216:
1214:
1209:
1194:
1061:
1041:
1024:
1020:independence
984:Peninsulares
983:
977:
975:
930:
922:
918:Afro-Mexican
894:
873:
854:
829:
789:
785:Tenochtitlan
782:
754:
749:Aztec Empire
745:
720:
714:
694:Moctezuma II
662:
658:Tenochtitlan
639:
635:Azcapotzalco
623:Lake Texcoco
619:Aztec Empire
616:
584:
541:between the
535:
523:Aztec Empire
515:
475:
441:Federal Army
429:
373:encompasses
370:
368:
316:
296:PRI downfall
273:
244:
226:Cristero War
203:
153:
99:First Empire
5181:Puerto Rico
5091:Saint Lucia
5041:El Salvador
4941:Mexican War
4101:. ThoughtCo
3641:Altman, Ida
3592:Altman, Ida
3302:of Yucatan.
3287:1846–1848:
3183:Gulf Cartel
3120:Vicente Fox
3114:(1969) and
2995:comunicados
2942:joined the
2910:Faja de Oro
2887:Axis Powers
2762:support of
2728:Raúl Madero
2726:'s brother
2692:jefe máximo
2686:(1928–30),
1928:Tomás Mejía
1910:(1861–65).
1773:coup d'état
1765:Belize City
1691:Maya people
1619:Chapultepec
1615:Cerro Gordo
1611:Mexico City
1595:Buena Vista
1580:Los Angeles
1467:Sam Houston
1455:San Antonio
1237:signed the
1088:signed the
1069:three years
1053:Guadalajara
920:companies.
899:, Cuba and
802:(primarily
793:harquebuses
642:mercenaries
607:Cannibalism
595:Flower wars
555:Petén Basin
531:Monte Albán
527:Teotihuacan
518:Mesoamerica
49:History of
5176:Montserrat
5171:Martinique
5166:Guadeloupe
5021:Costa Rica
4746:2022-11-14
4725:2022-11-14
4701:2022-11-14
4676:2022-11-14
4603:2022-11-14
4579:2022-11-14
4554:2022-11-14
4468:2022-11-14
4444:2022-11-14
4420:2022-11-14
4396:2022-11-14
4372:2022-11-14
4348:2022-11-14
4324:2022-11-14
4299:2022-11-14
4272:2022-11-14
4248:2022-11-14
4210:2022-11-14
4204:WorldAtlas
3918:, p. 92-93
3461:References
3345:'s regime.
3269:Charles IV
2993:newspaper
2973:See also:
2791:including
2714:(Sonora),
2545:caudillism
2407:Border War
2379:See also:
2367:Soldaderas
2281:La Adelita
2277:La Adelita
2266:soldaderas
2250:Soldaderas
2243:soldaderas
2117:Félix Díaz
2115:, General
2019:Porfiriato
1997:Porfiriato
1822:Reform War
1806:Santa Anna
1646:New Mexico
1630:California
1574:to occupy
1556:California
1554:to occupy
1416:U.S. state
1374:Rio Grande
1325:Pastry War
1049:Guanajuato
1045:San Miguel
1018:to attain
857:Chichimeca
838:Mixtón war
833:encomienda
665:Chichimeca
603:Aztec gods
599:sacrificed
589:state and
199:Revolution
161:Reform War
155:La Reforma
129:Pastry War
25:Boy Heroes
5161:Greenland
5076:Nicaragua
5051:Guatemala
4653:151546388
4645:0003-1615
4527:145434552
4511:0034-6705
4243:0190-8286
4009:, 680-681
3992:Lieuwen,
3979:Lieuwen,
3966:Lieuwen,
3940:Lieuwen,
3927:Lieuwen,
3914:Lieuwen,
3901:Lieuwen,
3888:Lieuwen,
3875:Lieuwen,
3862:Lieuwen,
3849:Lieuwen,
3836:Lieuwen,
3823:Lieuwen,
3810:Lieuwen,
3797:Lieuwen,
3784:Lieuwen,
3594:, et al.
3538:, p. 510.
3510:, 904–910
3479:, 898–904
3300:Caste War
3252:lands at
3146:Aftermath
3002:President
2291:Adelita.
2289:soldadera
1957:Querétaro
1908:civil war
1872:civil war
1852:Moderados
1676:Yucatecos
1668:Caste War
1576:San Diego
1566:occupied
1477:in 1845.
1428:the Alamo
1025:Mexico's
870:presidios
862:Zacatecas
824:Tlaxcalan
797:Old World
753:Nahuatl:
631:Culhuacan
579:Yaxchilan
563:Dos Pilas
521:with the
421:civil war
178:1864–1928
5236:Category
5126:Anguilla
5061:Honduras
5031:Dominica
5006:Barbados
4005:Dulles,
3996:, 113-18
3970:, 106-07
3866:, 61-62.
3534:Krauze,
3407:See also
3313:freedom.
3265:Napoleon
3254:Veracruz
3243:Timeline
3185:in 2012.
2907:and the
2696:Maximato
2627:regime,
2574:Maximato
2491:González
2285:corridos
2258:soldiers
2094:General
1877:Veracruz
1846:In 1855
1707:Campeche
1638:Colorado
1603:Veracruz
1497:Veracruz
1451:La Bahía
1404:de facto
1356:'s King
1350:Tacubaya
1340:in 1838.
1338:Veracruz
1260:Veracruz
1227:republic
1223:monarchy
1210:Victoria
1160:General
979:Criollos
936:cabildos
808:pandemic
804:smallpox
800:diseases
778:epidemic
764:Malinche
760:Tlaxcala
755:altepetl
741:Veracruz
721:entradas
705:Smallpox
650:Tlacopan
575:Quiriguá
557:such as
547:Calakmul
318:Timeline
245:Maximato
40:a series
38:Part of
5156:Curaçao
5141:Bonaire
5136:Bermuda
5066:Jamaica
5046:Grenada
5001:Bahamas
4800:June 5,
4771:June 5,
4765:Reuters
4573:AP NEWS
4519:1406640
4141:June 4,
4105:June 4,
3944:, 97-98
3931:, 91-92
3905:, 86-87
3892:, 85-86
3879:, 75-78
3853:, 40-45
3840:, 45-47
3827:, 40-41
3814:, 37-39
3801:, 36-37
3631:, p. 80
3454:Rurales
3275:Church.
3197:. The
3132:Torture
3127:Torture
2990:Chiapas
2895:U-boats
2771:leader
2074:led by
2028:rurales
1695:Yucatán
1693:of the
1650:Wyoming
1642:Arizona
1560:Britain
1463:Houston
1372:to the
1370:Yucatán
1253:Emperor
1243:Emperor
846:viceroy
842:Jalisco
769:Nahuatl
669:nomadic
625:in the
591:Texcoco
567:Naranjo
551:Yucatán
5081:Panama
5071:Mexico
5016:Canada
5011:Belize
4858:
4651:
4643:
4525:
4517:
4509:
4241:
4173:
4060:
3725:
3551:, ed.
3380:1929:
3355:Villa.
3263:1808:
3248:1519:
3087:Events
3081:regime
2962:Brazil
2901:: the
2607:
2601:
2595:
2539:, and
2391:, and
1934:right.
1711:Mérida
1648:, and
1632:. The
1529:heroes
1509:Mexico
1354:France
1346:pastry
1208:, and
992:castas
909:Mexico
901:Manila
897:Havana
848:, Don
646:Nahuas
238:Modern
51:Mexico
42:on the
5131:Aruba
5056:Haiti
4790:(PDF)
4649:S2CID
4598:NACLA
4548:LACIS
4523:S2CID
4515:JSTOR
4022:, 120
3983:, 111
3788:, 8-9
3746:(PDF)
3525:, 911
3030:Texas
2802:Gen.
2754:Gen.
2656:Gen.
2255:women
2253:were
1715:Sisal
1517:Texas
1420:Texas
1408:Texas
1271:Texas
914:casta
758:) of
587:Aztec
571:Sacul
559:Copan
543:Tikal
5201:Saba
5026:Cuba
4856:ISBN
4802:2018
4773:2018
4641:ISSN
4507:ISSN
4267:WAMU
4239:ISSN
4171:ISBN
4143:2018
4107:2018
4058:ISBN
3723:ISBN
3610:and
3189:The
3153:NGOs
3046:The
2920:The
2899:Gulf
2519:and
2271:and
2143:and
1897:The
1800:The
1709:and
1672:Maya
1666:The
1624:The
1617:and
1578:and
1542:The
1398:The
1336:off
1233:and
1215:The
1010:and
956:The
735:was
663:The
545:and
529:and
369:The
4631:doi
4499:doi
2190:in
1418:of
860:in
601:to
5238::
4792:.
4763:.
4718:.
4693:.
4669:.
4647:.
4639:.
4627:74
4625:.
4621:.
4596:.
4571:.
4546:.
4535:^
4521:.
4513:.
4505:.
4495:42
4493:.
4489:.
4477:^
4461:.
4437:.
4413:.
4389:.
4365:.
4341:.
4316:.
4292:.
4281:^
4265:.
4237:.
4231:.
4219:^
4202:.
4133:.
4097:.
4040:^
3659:.
3643:.
3614:,
3491:,
2527:,
2464:,
2387:,
2383:,
2203:,
1955:,
1922:,
1824:.
1760:.
1717:.
1644:,
1640:,
1582:.
1248:.
1096:.
1047:,
1022:.
1006:,
852:.
605:.
573:,
569:,
565:,
561:,
4974:e
4967:t
4960:v
4804:.
4775:.
4749:.
4728:.
4704:.
4679:.
4655:.
4633::
4606:.
4582:.
4557:.
4529:.
4501::
4471:.
4447:.
4423:.
4399:.
4375:.
4351:.
4327:.
4302:.
4275:.
4251:.
4213:.
4179:.
4145:.
4109:.
4066:.
3731:.
3399:.
3388:.
3374:.
3309:.
2169:.
1503:.
1410:.
512:.
358:e
351:t
344:v
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.