212:
197:
105:
786:, PADESM) was formed. It attracted membership from members of coastal communities formerly subjugated by the Merina empire, as well as highland-based descendants of former Merina slaves. Initially a non-nationalist party, PADESM eventually favored a gradual process toward independence that would preserve close ties to France and prevent the reemergence of the precolonial Merina hegemony. The French authorities tacitly supported PADESM, which accused MDRM of launching the uprising to re-establish Merina rule. By aligning itself with PADESM, Socialist-dominated French politicians sought to cast themselves as champions of the oppressed masses against the exploitative Hova elites. Though the uprising indeed remained geographically limited, it enjoyed broad support among several ethnic groups, not just Merina.
716:
their organizations were obliged to attack after the signal to take action was transmitted to them by a group that was later discovered to have secret ties to the national police. Researchers have documented reports of nationalists whose member organizations joined the conflict upon commands issued by the colonial police and French settlers living in
Madagascar. Despite the role of the militants in leading the uprising, the colonial authorities immediately held MDRM responsible for the movement and responded by targeting the party's members and supporters. The extent to which the MDRM was actually involved in the uprising is disputed; most leaders of the party later claimed that they were innocent, whereas French intelligence maintained that the party had forged links with foreign powers like
965:
725:
nationalist activities. Morris was eventually expelled from the island as a result. There also circulated rumours about
American support for the rebels, though no evidence emerged to support these claims. In fact, the rebels were almost completely isolated from outside aid, and extremely poorly supplied with modern weaponry. They likely never possessed more than 150 rifles and three machine guns. Most rebels had to resort to spears, and had minimal protection from the firearms of the French military. Nevertheless, the rebels invented encirclement, ambush and
856:
124:
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organizing the rebellion, which the French alleged was secretly launched by way of an encoded MDRM telegram. Deputies
Ravoahangy and Rabemananjara were arrested and imprisoned on 12 April 1947, followed two months later by Raseta (who was in Paris when the Uprising began), in violation of their right to diplomatic immunity. Debates about the Malagasy Uprising in the French National Assembly on 1 August 1947 concluded with the decision to revoke this immunity for all three deputies, who were tortured in prison.
1086:
1078:
868:
Malagasy believe this to be an underestimate of the actual number killed. The population of
Madagascar at the time of the Uprising was approximately four million, and these estimated losses represented nearly two percent of the population. In 1950, the colonial administration revised the casualty number to 11,342 "known dead". According to official French figures 4,928 of these had been killed in rioting while the remainder had died of starvation or exhaustion after fleeing the fighting.
174:
1097:. The annual commemorations under his administration brought together perpetrators of war crimes, their surviving victims, former nationalist guerrillas and leaders, and family members of those killed, and characterized the Uprising as a tragic mistake. In the late 1970s under the Ratsiraka administration, the commemorations took on a new tone of pride and gratitude to nationalist fighters who sacrificed for their ideals and paved the way for later nationalist leaders.
487:
43:
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its leadership. It also radicalized the leadership of the militant nationalist groups in
Madagascar. Sensing the worsening mood in the country, on 27 March 1947 deputies Raseta, Ravoahangy and Rabemananjara jointly issued a statement, urging the public to "maintain absolute calm and coolness in the face of manoeuvrings and provocations of all kind destined to stir up troubles among the Malagasy population and to sabotage the peaceful policy of the MDRM."
245:
1070:
665:
814:, the first governor of the island (1896–1905) to root out, demoralize and crush the guerrilla fighters. In addition, the security forces adopted a strategy of terror and psychological warfare involving torture, collective punishment, the burning of villages, mass arrests and executions, and war rape. Many of these practices were later employed by the French military during the
912:, the leftist publication that would become considered the leading anti-colonial advocate after the launch of the French offensive in Indochina. Other private publications served as forums for the Francophone intelligentsia to express their condemnation of the French government's response to the Uprising. The most commentary appeared in the left-leaning Catholic monthly
843:, however, the French launched a large-scale offensive and overran the rebel territories. Between July and September 1948, most of the key leaders of the Uprising were captured or killed. Radaoroson died in combat on 20 July, Razafindrabe was captured on 2 September and died shortly afterwards, while Lehoaha surrendered on 11 November. The last rebel stronghold, named
1001:
The trial, which was held from 22 July to 4 October 1948, was marked by numerous irregularities. The principal witness for the prosecution was shot dead three days before the trial, and much of the evidence against the defendants was obtained through torture. All three were found guilty of conspiracy
412:
began to counter the nationalists. The French tripled the number of troops on the island to 18,000, primarily by transferring soldiers from French colonies elsewhere in Africa. The colonial authorities sought to fight on the physical and psychological fronts and engaged in a variety of terror tactics
838:
in August 1947, while
Radaoroson was usurped as leader of the southern insurgents by another rebel leader, Lehoaha, whose forces were better armed than those of Radaoroson. The rebels further fragmented in the next months. The French counter-attacks remained rather limited until April 1948, however,
650:
Moutet responded stridently, declaring a "war against the
Malagasy autonomy movement". The refusal of the French government to support a democratic process toward independence for Madagascar drew criticism from the United States government, which strongly denounced the French reaction and criticized
1030:
According to historian
Philippe Leymarie, the French crushing of the Uprising resulted in the near annihilation of the managerial class in Madagascar, with consequences that continued to reverberate for decades after the country's independence. Many of the leading figures in the Uprising went on to
867:
The French government's first official estimate of the number of
Malagasy killed in the conflict was 89,000. In 1949 the High Commissioner of Madagascar added to this figure the estimated number who fled into the forest and were believed dead, declaring the true number of dead at over 100,000. Many
833:
The rebels had expected that the United States might intervene in their favor, but no such action was taken by
Washington. In addition, the majority of the population did not rise up to join them in their fight. The rebels were thus steadily pushed back by the superior French military. Razafindrabe
762:. At the height of the movement, nationalist insurgents gained control of one third of the island. The rebel territory was home to about 1,600,000 people, and a provisional government was set up: The head of the northern zone was Victorien Razafindrabe, a Merina and low-ranking ex-official, whereas
440:
The violent repression of the nationalist insurgency left deep scars in Malagasy society. A generation of the managerial class was wiped out, creating challenges for the country when it achieved independence in 1960. Madagascar's first three deputies were arrested, tortured and kept in prison until
436:
The estimated number of Malagasy casualties varies from a low of 11,000 to a high of over 100,000. The nationalists killed approximately 550 French nationals, as well as 1,900 Malagasy auxiliary men of the French army. By August 1948, the majority of the nationalist leaders were killed or captured,
997:
From July to October 1948 in Antananarivo, the French organized a large public trial of the uprising, charging 77 officials of the MDRM. The French authorities claimed that MDRM appeals for calm immediately prior to the outbreak of violence had been a diversion tactic to mask their involvement in
794:
French security forces were initially taken by surprise and were unable to organize an effective response to contain the uprising. By May 1947, however, the French military had begun to counter the nationalists' attacks. Five North African battalions arrived in Madagascar at the end of July 1947,
529:
The Menalamba rebellion was only the first manifestation of ongoing opposition to French rule that occasionally erupted in violent clashes between the Malagasy and the colonial authorities in Madagascar. Secret nationalist societies began to form in the 1910s. Conscription of Malagasy soldiers to
1026:
The uprising and its repression caused trauma that continues to manifest in the Malagasy population. Many Malagasy nationals fought each other and struggle to reconcile themselves to the remorse and guilt. Healing at the national level is further complicated by the fact that the same leaders who
943:
Over the decades that followed independence the French government and news sources in France remained largely silent on the issue of the Malagasy Uprising. In 1997, a Malagasy official criticized the French for never having had a diplomat present at the annual commemoration ceremonies. The first
715:
Most historians share the view that the militants escalated the conflict toward violence on the basis of false information transmitted by duplicitous individuals or groups attempting to neutralize the nationalist influence. Members of VVS and Jiny involved in the initial attacks have stated that
1017:
Beside this "trial of the parliamentarians", military courts relayed by civilian courts condemned 5,765 Malagasy nationals (865 by military courts and 4,891 by civilians). The military courts delivered 44 death penalties but carried out only eight executions, while 16 of the 129 death penalties
744:
Two guerrilla zones were established in the eastern rainforest and the fighters extended their control from these points. The nationalists grouped together under various established or new configurations, including several militias with their own leadership structure, including generals and war
724:
The French generally suspected that the rebellion was secretly supported by foreign powers, most significantly by the United Kingdom. Two British nationals, namely ex-Major John Morris, and Major Nicholson who worked at the British consulate in Antananarivo, were accused of stirring up Malagasy
732:
The attacks in the east were immediately followed by similar actions in the south of the island before rapidly spreading throughout the country. By early April, when violence first erupted in Antananarivo, the number of nationalist fighters was estimated at around 2,000. Attacks against French
847:("That which is inaccessible to Europeans"), fell in November 1948. Defeated, most of the remaining nationalist fighters disappeared into the eastern rainforest in December 1948. The last senior rebel leader, Ralaivao, was captured in February 1949, effectively ending the armed resistance.
871:
Historians continue to disagree over the number of casualties during the Malagasy Uprising. The original figure of 89,000 casualties is often quoted. Historian Jean Fremigacci contested the 89,000 estimate, noting that losses of this magnitude normally should have manifested on the
514:, who the British government officially recognized as the sovereign over the entire island of Madagascar. After several failed attempts to impose its authority over the island, France used military force to capture the royal palace in September 1894 and exiled Prime Minister
1104:
at Moramanga, 100 kilometers east of Antananarivo. The town has long been the site of the national monument to the conflict, as well as a mausoleum at the town entrance near Ampanihifana containing the remains of an estimated 2,500 local nationalists killed in the conflict.
904:
Although the MDRM leadership consistently maintained its innocence, the party was outlawed by the French colonial rulers. The French government classified the Malagasy Uprising documentation of the military, the Ministry of Foreign Affairs and the Ministry of the Colonies.
777:
that were linked to precolonial history and politics. Merina Hova elites founded the MDRM not only in the interest of ending French rule, but also in regaining the political dominance of the Merina upon independence. In reaction to the founding of the MDRM, in 1946 the
770:, and instructed all civilians under its control to assist the war effort by producing weapons, uniforms, and food for the rebels, to build air shelters to protect insurgents from air strikes and air reconnaissance, and to gather intelligence for the rebellion.
880:
began again and even accelerated from 1946 to 1949. He estimates 30–40,000 Malagasy deaths, of which 30,000 were violent and the remainder attributable to disease and starvation in the conflict areas. Fremigacci's interpretation was challenged by demographer
818:. The intensity and cruelty of the French response was then unprecedented in the colonial history of France. On 6 May 1947, in Moramanga, soldiers machine-gunned MDRM officials detained in wagons, killing between 124 and 160 mostly unarmed MDRM activists. In
569:, and promised citizenship rights to residents of its overseas colonies. Despite the partial implementation of these reforms, forced labor on French-owned plantations and other rights abuses in Madagascar continued unabated. The nationalist secret society
795:
enabling the French to take the initiative. However, French army strength remained modest with soldiers numbering 18,000 in April 1947. The number of troops increased to about 30,000 in 1948. The French forces now included paratroopers, soldiers of the
720:
to channel arms and ammunition to militants. Later appraisals suggest that the MDRM was infiltrated by members of militant secret societies before the rebellion, and that though members of the party aided the insurgency, the party as whole did not.
753:
returning from World War II and frustrated with the limited recognition and opportunity afforded them by the French colonial government. Numerous others were railway workers who hid themselves in the dense eastern rainforest and made use of
392:
On the evening of 29 March 1947, coordinated surprise attacks were launched by Malagasy nationalists, armed mainly with spears, against military bases and French-owned plantations in the eastern part of the island concentrated around
685:
new year's festival, historically celebrated by a ritual period of anarchy followed by the Merina sovereign's reestablishment of order. Malagasy nationalists, chief among them the members of the nationalist secret societies
1613:
449:
Party (MONIMA), which has had considerable influence on Malagasy politics. France classified most documents related to the Uprising, and the French government maintained silence on the subject until French president
615:
who had been politically prominent in the former Merina royal court. The movement was pacifist, and while it sought independence for Madagascar, it embraced the French vision of the island as part of the global
1027:
proclaimed Madagascar's independence in 1960 were those who had been major players in the PADESM political party, which had been favored by the colonial administration after the crushing of the revolt.
1010:. In July 1949, the convicts' death sentences were commuted to life in prison, and the trio remained imprisoned until they were granted amnesty in 1958. Few individuals, with the notable exception of
635:, and the Minister of the Colonies, Marius Moutet. The French had humiliatingly had to ask Britain to yield Madagascar after World War II ended, and French political leaders suspected that Britain or
1093:
The Malagasy government has organized official annual commemorations of the Uprising since 1967, when 29 March was first declared a day of mourning by President Tsiranana. It is now observed as
458:
have set films in the period of the Uprising. In 1967, the Malagasy government declared 29 March an annual holiday, and in 2012, a museum dedicated to the Uprising was inaugurated in Moramanga.
839:
as their forces were hindered by disease, the weather, and the unfamiliarity of the imported troops with local conditions, with over a thousand men hospitalized. With the end of the
639:
would attempt to wrest Madagascar from France. The MDRM quest for independence was therefore received as a blow to French prestige and authority, and it raised the specter of the
1621:
584:
Following the end of the Second World War, several key Malagasy nationalist leaders attempted to achieve independence for Madagascar through legal means. At the first post-war
620:. Their platform garnered mass support that cut across geographic, ethnic and class divisions, and in November 1946 the trio were elected to represent Madagascar as deputies (
382:(MDRM) political party, led an effort to achieve independence for Madagascar through legal channels. The failure of this initiative and the harsh response it drew from the
978:
367:
624:) in the French National Assembly. The Malagasy deputies submitted a bill to grant independence for Madagascar from French rule, but French deputies rejected it.
3217:
822:, hundreds of Malagasy were killed, among them 18 women and a group of prisoners thrown alive out of an airplane. Other massacres of 35 to 50 people occurred in
896:
An estimated 550 French nationals died during the conflict, of whom 350 were soldiers. In addition 1,900 Malagasy auxiliary men of the French army were killed.
741:. The movement enjoyed particularly strong support in the south, where the revolt attracted as many as one million peasants to fight for the nationalist cause.
581:
after a type of local red bird. Both organizations, which sought to achieve independence by force if necessary, saw their membership swell during this period.
1710:
602:
378:
160:
2656:
668:
A nationalist fighter from the rural southeast. The rebels were poorly armed, as only a few had rifles. Most faced the modern French military with spears.
2307:
358:
3197:
2531:
1742:
952:
and qualified the repression of the Malagasy uprising as "unacceptable". On the 65th anniversary of the Uprising in 2012, Malagasy Prime Minister
1053:, Tsiranana's successor, in 1992 Jaona led demonstrations against it and in favor of federalism, being severely wounded in the process. His son,
628:
383:
2788:
510:. Although the kingdom had existed since the early 16th century, it expanded its control beyond its traditional borders in the 1820s under King
964:
956:
issued a request to the French government to declassify their archival materials related to the Uprising, but the request was not approved.
885:, who suggested the trauma to population growth that would normally be observed by these casualties may have been masked by improvements in
3222:
969:
2377:
2367:
889:
survival rates resulting from a major colonial anti-malaria campaign undertaken in the same period. According to Fremigacci, "There were
3232:
1248:
1222:
1018:
pronounced by the civilian courts were enacted. Through amnesties and remissions, all prisoners (except the leaders) were freed in 1957.
908:
The French media reported little on the event as it happened, and relatively little mention of the nationalist struggle was mentioned in
3127:
779:
2778:
389:
administration radicalized elements of the Malagasy population, including leaders of several militant nationalist secret societies.
3137:
2591:
2300:
1002:
against the state and endangering national security. Although these points were raised at the trial, Ravoahangy was sentenced to
690:(VVS) and Jiny, coordinated surprise attacks in the eastern part of the island at the Tristani police camp near the rail line at
437:
and the Uprising was effectively put down by December 1948, though the last armed resistance was only defeated in February 1949.
3227:
3192:
2646:
565:
in 1944, where de Gaulle announced all colonies were thereafter French overseas territories entitled to representation in the
2276:
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2213:
2192:
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ex-teacher Michel Radaoroson served as insurgent leader in the south. The rebel provisional government followed a policy of
534:
strengthened resentment of foreign rule, and in the interwar period these nationalist organizations proliferated. Germany's
47:
The Malagasy Uprising against French colonial rule, which began on 29 March 1947, is commemorated by a national monument in
2793:
481:
974:
363:
2661:
2464:
2293:
3132:
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1122:, relates the experience of the insurrection through the eyes of an adolescent boy named Solo. It won awards at the
3202:
3072:
2927:
2773:
2651:
2596:
2459:
1720:
596:, Madagascar was represented by two doctors named Joseph Raseta and Joseph Ravoahangy. Together with future writer
546:
in 1942 further tarnished the colonial government's image. Popular anger was especially aroused by its policies of
1146:. In 1994, French directors Danièle Rousselier and Corinne Godeau produced a documentary on the Uprising entitled
944:
official condemnation of the Uprising's suppression by the French colonial authorities was expressed by president
3187:
3167:
526:, for which the queen was held responsible. The rebellion was harshly crushed, and the queen was exiled in 1897.
401:. The nationalist cause was rapidly adopted in the south and spread to the central highlands and the capital of
3237:
1143:
773:
The eruption of the conflict provided the pretext for violence between highland Merina and coastal Malagasy of
562:
1746:
3242:
3212:
2885:
2838:
2828:
2813:
2636:
2429:
2424:
2419:
2337:
1684:
3077:
2823:
2743:
2626:
2474:
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by director Solo Randrasana also depicts the Uprising, and was remade in 2011 to include references to the
1014:, the founder of Jiny in the south, have claimed responsibility for a leadership role in the insurrection.
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3102:
1049:
which brought down his neo-colonial administration the following year. After initially supporting Admiral
3182:
3177:
3172:
2753:
2723:
1036:
774:
446:
30:
733:
military bases multiplied over the course of the month throughout the central highlands as far south as
405:
by the following month, with the number of Malagasy nationalist fighters estimated at over one million.
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3152:
3147:
3142:
2932:
2895:
2843:
2738:
2718:
2713:
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2504:
2409:
3062:
3027:
3022:
2733:
2581:
1614:"Madagascar se souvient de l'insurrection de 1947 et des massacres du corps expéditionnaire français"
940:. Very few details of the rising and subsequent repression were reported at the time outside France.
936:
penned a seething rebuke of the French colonial administration that was published on 10 May 1947 in
664:
758:
to attack French interests along the rail line connecting Antananarivo to the eastern port town of
566:
350:
34:
3057:
863:. The memorial reads: "In memory of the Malagasy who died in 1947 for the love of their homeland."
3032:
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Les reliques royales à Madagascar: source de légitimation et enjeu de pouvoir, XVIIIe-XXe siècles
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during his official visit to Madagascar on 21 July 2005, when he met with Malagasy president
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was allowed to remain as a figurehead until the emergence of a popular uprising, termed the
216:
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2414:
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Paysans, intellectuels et populisme à Madagascar: de Monja Jaona à Ratsimandrava, 1960–1975
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8:
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Les gens du pouvoir à Madagascar: État postcolonial, légitimités et territoire, 1956–2002
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dramatically shape the political and social landscape of Madagascar after independence.
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tactics that allowed them to defeat their better armed opponents on several occasions.
606:(MDRM) political party, whose platform was built on national independence from France.
499:
1006:, along with Raseta and four other nationalists, while Rabemananjara was sentenced to
349:, lasting from March 1947 to February 1949. Starting in late 1945, Madagascar's first
3037:
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Accommodation and Resistance: The French Left, Indochina, and the Cold War, 1944–1954
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Uprising crushed by French forces, various Malagasy participants tried and executed.
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1490:
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Party (MONIMA) in 1958 shortly after his release. His party was key in leading the
803:(colonial infantry) brought in from the French territories of Comoros and Senegal.
687:
644:
535:
473:
234:
226:
142:
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By the close of the 19th century, Madagascar was largely under the control of the
244:
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A national museum dedicated to the Uprising was inaugurated in 2012 by President
1058:
811:
676:. The timing had additional significance as the historic date of the traditional
617:
515:
454:
termed it "unacceptable" during an official visit to Madagascar in 2005. Several
409:
338:
322:
308:
261:
250:
749:) of local communities. Many of the insurgents were demobilized soldiers of the
672:
The Malagasy Uprising began on the evening of 29 March 1947, the evening before
557:
Malagasy hopes for greater sovereignty were stirred by remarks given by General
429:
and other atrocities such as throwing live Malagasy prisoners out of airplanes (
2992:
2942:
2606:
2571:
2561:
2342:
2142:
The Sacrificed Generation: Youth, History, and the Colonized Mind in Madagascar
1085:
1054:
945:
717:
677:
554:, and the required contribution of large quantities of rice per head annually.
519:
451:
414:
179:
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Madagascar et l'Afrique: entre identité insulaire et appartenances historiques
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1995:
Encyclopedia of Insurgency and Counterinsurgency: A New Era of Modern Warfare
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designed to demoralize the population. The French military force carried out
386:
354:
2285:
2977:
2972:
933:
882:
815:
738:
734:
636:
551:
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they were given amnesty in 1958. Another leader who survived the conflict,
402:
2982:
2449:
1032:
1011:
873:
823:
800:
709:
673:
531:
442:
257:
1057:, is also an active member of MONIMA and served as Prime Minister under
42:
2783:
1932:
The Global Coffee Economy in Africa, Asia, and Latin America, 1500–1989
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726:
491:
486:
346:
72:
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where key French plantations were located. Furthermore, a unit of the
2937:
2922:
1778:
890:
767:
759:
691:
681:
394:
48:
1138:, and remains a common euphemism to refer to the Uprising. The film
916:, with criticisms also published in other leftist publications like
547:
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1463:
1461:
1459:
1457:
1069:
860:
835:
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French Colonialism Unmasked: The Vichy Years in French West Africa
1869:
L'insurrection malgache de 1947: essai d'interprétation historique
1553:
Jean Fremigacci, "La vérité sur la grande révolte de Madagascar,"
1491:"Painful memories of the revolt of 1947: Nationalism or survival?"
1372:
1370:
2952:
2040:(in French). Louvain, France: Presses universitaires de Louvain.
2016:
L'insurrection des menalamba: une révolte à Madagascar, 1895–1898
1267:
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418:
1454:
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ministers. Militias were sometimes led by traditional leaders (
128:
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upon officially colonizing the island in February 1895. Queen
2079:
Société et luttes anticoloniales à Madagascar: de 1896 à 1946
2037:Économie populaire, territoires et développement a Madagascar
2033:
1817:
Oliver, Roland; Fage, John Donnelly; Sanderson, G.N. (1985).
307:
11,342 to 89,000 (Quasi-Median estimate of 30,000 to 40,000)
2184:
Madagascar revisitée: en voyage avec Françoise Raison-Jourde
2058:
The First Vietnam War: Colonial Conflict and Cold War Crisis
311:
civilians and combatants killed; 240 French civilians killed
1444:
1442:
1440:
1438:
1035:, who was jailed by the French for nine years, founded the
1205:
1203:
1201:
1199:
1197:
1195:
893:
in Madagascar in 1947 but without intent to exterminate."
577:) was founded in 1941, followed in 1943 by another called
1349:"Pour Chirac, la répression de 1947 était "inacceptable""
1108:
The Malagasy Uprising has been commemorated in print and
1641:
1639:
1591:
1589:
1587:
1572:
1518:
1516:
1514:
1512:
1435:
1192:
2247:
Une école protestante à Madagascar Ambositra 1861–2011
1823:. Vol. 6. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
538:
and occupation of France in 1940, the imposition of a
445:, was also jailed for nine years and then founded the
1636:
1584:
1560:
1509:
859:
Monument for the Malagasy Uprising in the village of
550:, involuntary conscription into the army to fight in
1279:
1928:
1816:
1273:
627:The deputies attracted the disapproval of France's
2034:Andrianjafy-Andriamanindrisoa, Emmanuelle (2004).
1795:
1685:"Massacre de 1947: les Malgaches toujours divisés"
1469:
1376:
2055:Lawrence, Mark Atwood; Logevall, Fredrik (2007).
1890:General History of Africa VIII: Africa since 1935
1682:
3119:
2222:
2054:
1956:. Washington, DC: University of Nebraska Press.
1887:Mazrui, Ali AlʼAmin; Wondji, Christophe (1993).
603:Mouvement démocratique de la rénovation malgache
588:convened in Paris in November 1945 to draft the
379:Mouvement démocratique de la rénovation malgache
2201:
3218:Paramilitary organisations based in Madagascar
2223:Raison-Jourde, Françoise; Roy, Gérard (2010).
2202:Nativel, Didier; Rajaonah, Faranirina (2007).
1711:"SADC 'rejects, condemns' new Madagascar govt"
1656:
1654:
1418:"Deafening silence on a horrifying repression"
1148:L'Insurrection de l'île rouge, Madagascar 1947
2315:
2301:
2096:
2013:Ellis, Stephen; Rajaonah, Faranirina (1998).
2012:
1974:Historical Dictionary of European Imperialism
1929:Clarence-Smith, W. G.; Topik, Steven (2003).
1683:Randrianarimanana, Philippe (30 March 2011).
1620:(in French). 28 February 1989. Archived from
1549:
1547:
1545:
1543:
1541:
1539:
1537:
1535:
1533:
1531:
2330:
2264:
2145:. Berkeley: University of California Press.
1971:Olson, James Stuart; Shadle, Robert (1991).
1935:. Cambridge UK: Cambridge University Press.
1886:
289:initially 2,000, later hundreds of thousands
2271:. Westport CT: Greenwood Publishing Group.
1970:
1651:
1608:
1606:
1604:
1484:
1482:
1480:
1478:
618:Francophone economic and cultural community
2308:
2294:
2075:
1977:. Wesport CT: Greenwood Publishing Group.
1528:
1411:
1409:
1407:
1405:
834:was forced to give up his headquarters at
609:All three leaders were the descendants of
41:
2100:La nation malgache au défi de l'ethnicité
1837:
1796:Masson, Antoine; O'Connor, Kevin (2007).
1448:
1403:
1401:
1399:
1397:
1395:
1393:
1391:
1389:
1387:
1385:
1342:
1340:
1338:
1336:
1334:
1332:
1330:
1328:
1326:
1324:
1322:
1320:
1318:
1316:
1314:
1209:
659:
3198:Resistance to the French colonial empire
2159:
1907:
1865:
1678:
1676:
1674:
1672:
1601:
1488:
1475:
1415:
1312:
1310:
1308:
1306:
1304:
1302:
1300:
1298:
1296:
1294:
1168:
1166:
1164:
1162:
1084:
1076:
1068:
963:
959:
854:
780:Party for the Disinherited of Madagascar
663:
654:
485:
16:1947–49 anti-French revolt in Madagascar
2250:(in French). Paris: Karthala Editions.
2229:(in French). Paris: Karthala Editions.
2208:(in French). Paris: Karthala Editions.
2187:(in French). Paris: Karthala Editions.
2180:
2166:(in French). Paris: Karthala Editions.
2124:(in French). Paris: Karthala Editions.
2103:(in French). Paris: Karthala Editions.
2082:(in French). Paris: Karthala Editions.
2019:(in French). Paris: Karthala Editions.
1914:(in French). Paris: Karthala Editions.
1872:(in French). Paris: Karthala Editions.
1770:
1745:. Embassy of Madagascar. Archived from
1645:
1595:
1578:
1566:
1522:
1285:
708:(Malagasy colonial troops) mutinied at
643:launched by Vietnamese nationalists in
494:(highlighted) within modern-day Africa.
262:
251:
3120:
2243:
2117:
2061:. New York: Harvard University Press.
1991:
1382:
1172:
698:and at several points along the lower
227:
183:(disputed; French intelligence claims)
2915:
2681:
2524:
2397:
2289:
2265:Rice-Maximin, Edward Francis (1986).
2138:
1949:
1669:
1291:
1159:
2739:Second Franco-Dahomean War (1892–94)
1844:(in French). Paris: Editions Bréal.
1089:Cemetery of the victims in Moramanga
1081:Cemetery of the victims in Moramanga
544:capture of the island by the British
3223:Cold War military history of France
2754:Voulet–Chanoine Mission (1898–1900)
2744:Second Madagascar expedition (1895)
1841:100 fiches d'histoire du XXe siècle
1660:
1346:
1175:"Revolt in Madagascar, 70 Years On"
1134:means "noise" or "troubles" in the
1045:peasant uprising against President
206:(High Commissioner until Dec. 1947)
13:
3233:20th-century mass murder in Africa
1859:
1719:. 8 September 2009. Archived from
1021:
806:The French strategy followed the "
789:
784:Parti des déshérités de Madagascar
221:(High Commissioner from Feb. 1948)
14:
3254:
3128:African resistance to colonialism
2714:French conquest of Senegal (1854)
2097:Raison-Jourde, Françoise (2002).
1774:The Wars of French Decolonization
1489:Leymarie, Philippe (March 1997).
1416:Leymarie, Philippe (March 1997).
1274:Oliver, Fage & Sanderson 1985
575:Patriotes nationalistes malgaches
542:in Madagascar and the subsequent
3103:Ouvéa cave hostage taking (1988)
2794:Intervention in Mexico (1861–67)
2734:First Franco-Dahomean War (1890)
2627:Burma–France relations (1729–56)
2139:Sharp, Lesley Alexandra (2002).
1064:
600:, in early 1946 they formed the
482:1904–1905 uprising in Madagascar
243:
210:
195:
172:
122:
103:
3138:French war crimes in Madagascar
2968:Tunisian independence (1952–56)
2749:Menalamba rebellion (1895-1903)
2587:French and Indian War (1754–60)
2160:Ballarin, Marie-Pierre (2000).
1820:The Cambridge History of Africa
1735:
1703:
425:, torching of entire villages,
3018:Holy Man's Rebellion (1901–36)
2958:Kongo-Wara rebellion (1928–31)
2849:Cochinchina Campaign (1858–62)
2602:Haitian Revolution (1791–1804)
1998:. Santa Barbara CA: ABC-CLIO.
1764:
1241:
1215:
1173:Howard, R.T. (29 March 2017).
1144:2009 Malagasy political crisis
341:nationalist rebellion against
1:
3228:Massacres committed by France
3193:National liberation movements
3083:First Indochina War (1946–54)
2834:Franco-Tahitian War (1844–47)
1347:Mas, Monique (22 July 2005).
1153:
850:
548:forced labor in lieu of taxes
461:
225:Victorien Razafindrabe (
63:29 March 1947 – February 1949
2896:Franco-Siamese crisis (1893)
2480:King William's War (1689–97)
899:
712:and defected to the rebels.
335:Tolom-bahoaka tamin' ny 1947
7:
2963:Malagasy Uprising (1947–48)
2789:Argentina–Uruguay (1845–50)
2662:Egypt and Syria (1798–1801)
2577:King George's War (1744–48)
2076:Randrianja, Solofo (2001).
1037:Madagascar for the Malagasy
447:Madagascar for the Malagasy
31:wars of national liberation
10:
3259:
2844:French conquest of Vietnam
2557:Queen Anne's War (1702–13)
2118:Bonnet, Véronique (2004).
1866:Tronchon, Jacques (1986).
1838:Quemeneur, Tramor (2004).
1799:Representations of Justice
1771:Clayton, Anthony (2013) .
1470:Masson & O'Connor 2007
1377:Masson & O'Connor 2007
1353:Radio France International
471:
465:
299:590 French soldiers killed
217:Pierre Gabriel de Chevigné
137:Malagasy secret societies
3095:
3068:Franco-Thai War (1940–41)
3005:
2908:
2864:Sino-French War (1884–85)
2859:Tonkin Campaign (1883–86)
2806:
2779:Río de la Plata (1838–40)
2766:
2674:
2619:
2607:Santo Domingo (1795–1809)
2549:
2517:
2497:
2442:
2390:
2360:
2323:
2317:French colonial conflicts
1908:Galibert, Didier (2009).
968:Trial of former deputies
876:curve, but in Madagascar
694:, in the coastal town of
536:defeat of the French army
306:
293:
272:
188:
95:
55:
40:
28:
23:
3133:Rebellions in Madagascar
2943:Volta-Bani War (1915–16)
2807:Asia & Pacific Ocean
2562:Chickasaw Wars (1721–52)
2181:Nativel, Didier (2009).
1992:Tucker, Spencer (2013).
1802:. Brussels: Peter Lang.
567:French National Assembly
351:French National Assembly
35:decolonisation of Africa
3203:20th-century rebellions
3078:South Vietnam (1945–46)
2948:Kaocen revolt (1916–17)
2876:Second Opium War (1860)
2869:North Vietnam (1886–96)
2854:North Vietnam (1873–74)
2657:East Indies (1793–1801)
2592:North America (1778–83)
2460:North America (1627–29)
2450:Beaver Wars (1609–1701)
2244:Martel, Robert (2011).
233:Michel Radaoroson
3188:Insurgencies in Africa
3168:French Fourth Republic
3013:Boxer Rebellion (1901)
2978:Cameroon War (1955–64)
2973:Algerian War (1954–62)
2891:Leewards War (1888–97)
2689:Indian Ocean (1809–11)
2567:Dummer's War (1721–25)
2470:Carib Expulsion (1660)
1777:. Abingdon-on-Thames:
1128:Carthage Film Festival
1090:
1082:
1074:
994:
864:
669:
660:Nationalist insurgency
594:French Fourth Republic
563:Brazzaville Conference
495:
334:
326:
202:Jules Marcel de Coppet
189:Commanders and leaders
117:French colonial empire
3238:Wars involving France
2993:Bizerte crisis (1961)
2824:Philippines (1844–45)
2774:West Indies (1804–10)
2729:Ivory Coast (1883–98)
2652:East Indies (1778–83)
2582:Nova Scotia (1749–55)
2572:Natchez revolt (1729)
2532:West Africa (1758–63)
2465:West Indies (1635–59)
2338:South Carolina (1562)
1495:Le Monde Diplomatique
1422:Le Monde Diplomatique
1120:Raymond Rajaonarivelo
1088:
1080:
1073:Memorial in Moramanga
1072:
967:
960:Trials and executions
858:
797:French Foreign Legion
751:Tirailleurs Malgaches
705:Tirailleurs Malgaches
667:
655:Independence movement
598:Jacques Rabemananjara
489:
472:Further information:
427:collective punishment
374:Jacques Rabemananjara
327:Insurrection malgache
294:Casualties and losses
164:(limited involvement)
132:(limited involvement)
3243:Wars of independence
3213:Malagasy nationalism
2485:Santo Domingo (1691)
1950:Ginio, Ruth (2006).
1716:Agence France-Presse
1557:, n°318, March 2007.
1124:Cannes Film Festival
1118:(1989), directed by
810:" method of General
737:and as far north as
586:constituent assembly
530:fight for France in
343:French colonial rule
2938:Zaian War (1914–21)
2923:Wadai War (1906–11)
2699:Algeria (1835–1903)
2647:Vietnam (1777–1820)
2597:Caribbean (1778–83)
2121:Conflits de mémoire
1624:on 15 December 2013
1249:"Malagasy Uprising"
1223:"Malagasy Uprising"
1047:Philibert Tsiranana
992:(far left to right)
930:Témoignage Chrétien
775:other ethnic groups
524:Menalamba rebellion
478:Menalamba rebellion
268:Samuel Rakotondrabe
3183:1949 in Madagascar
3178:1948 in Madagascar
3173:1947 in Madagascar
2988:Ifni War (1957–58)
2983:Suez Crisis (1956)
1091:
1083:
1075:
995:
910:Les Temps Modernes
865:
670:
647:the month before.
506:at its capital in
500:Kingdom of Imerina
496:
456:Malagasy directors
3208:French Madagascar
3163:Massacres in 1948
3158:Massacres in 1947
3153:Conflicts in 1949
3148:Conflicts in 1948
3143:Conflicts in 1947
3115:
3114:
3111:
3110:
3091:
3090:
3058:Vietnam (1930–31)
3043:Cilicia (1920–21)
3033:Vietnam (1918–21)
3028:Vietnam (1917–18)
3001:
3000:
2953:Rif War (1920–26)
2933:Morocco (1911–12)
2928:Casablanca (1907)
2904:
2903:
2802:
2801:
2762:
2761:
2724:Madagascar (1883)
2694:Algeria (1830–47)
2670:
2669:
2615:
2614:
2545:
2544:
2513:
2512:
2493:
2492:
2438:
2437:
2410:Senegal (1659–77)
2386:
2385:
2356:
2355:
2343:Florida (1562–65)
2278:978-0-313-25355-3
2257:978-2-8111-0523-5
2236:978-2-8111-0395-8
2215:978-2-84586-871-7
2194:978-2-8111-0174-9
2173:978-2-84586-065-0
2152:978-0-520-93588-4
2131:978-2-84586-534-1
2110:978-2-84586-304-0
2089:978-2-84586-136-7
2068:978-0-674-02371-0
2047:978-2-930344-74-4
2026:978-2-86537-796-1
2005:978-1-61069-280-9
1984:978-0-313-26257-9
1963:978-0-8032-5380-3
1942:978-1-139-43839-1
1921:978-2-8111-0213-5
1900:978-92-3-102758-1
1893:. Paris: UNESCO.
1879:978-2-86537-156-3
1851:978-2-7495-0341-7
1830:978-0-521-22803-9
1809:978-90-5201-349-7
1743:"Public Holidays"
1581:, pp. 83–84.
1136:Malagasy language
950:Marc Ravalomanana
878:population growth
756:guerrilla tactics
559:Charles de Gaulle
468:French Madagascar
408:By May 1947, the
359:Joseph Ravoahangy
319:Malagasy Uprising
315:
314:
91:
90:
24:Malagasy Uprising
3250:
3093:
3092:
3073:Indochina (1945)
3003:
3002:
2913:
2912:
2804:
2803:
2784:Mexico (1838–39)
2764:
2763:
2679:
2678:
2617:
2616:
2547:
2546:
2522:
2521:
2495:
2494:
2455:Brazil (1612–15)
2440:
2439:
2415:Djidjelli (1664)
2395:
2394:
2378:Brazil (1590–04)
2373:Brazil (1555–67)
2358:
2357:
2328:
2327:
2310:
2303:
2296:
2287:
2286:
2282:
2261:
2240:
2219:
2198:
2177:
2156:
2135:
2114:
2093:
2072:
2051:
2030:
2009:
1988:
1967:
1946:
1925:
1904:
1883:
1855:
1834:
1813:
1792:
1759:
1758:
1756:
1754:
1749:on 28 March 2014
1739:
1733:
1732:
1730:
1728:
1707:
1701:
1700:
1698:
1696:
1689:SlateAfrique.com
1680:
1667:
1666:
1658:
1649:
1643:
1634:
1633:
1631:
1629:
1610:
1599:
1593:
1582:
1576:
1570:
1564:
1558:
1551:
1526:
1520:
1507:
1506:
1504:
1502:
1486:
1473:
1467:
1452:
1446:
1433:
1432:
1430:
1428:
1413:
1380:
1374:
1365:
1364:
1362:
1360:
1344:
1289:
1283:
1277:
1271:
1265:
1264:
1262:
1260:
1255:on 30 March 2017
1251:. Archived from
1245:
1239:
1238:
1236:
1234:
1229:on 30 March 2017
1225:. Archived from
1219:
1213:
1207:
1190:
1189:
1187:
1185:
1170:
1051:Didier Ratsiraka
982:
826:, Manakara, and
688:Vy Vato Sakelika
645:French Indochina
641:violent conflict
631:Prime Minister,
474:Franco-Hova Wars
371:
286:
281:
264:
253:
247:
239:
229:
222:
215:
214:
213:
207:
200:
199:
198:
184:
178:
176:
175:
165:
143:Vy Vato Sakelika
133:
127:
126:
125:
109:
107:
106:
57:
56:
45:
21:
20:
3258:
3257:
3253:
3252:
3251:
3249:
3248:
3247:
3118:
3117:
3116:
3107:
3087:
3048:Syria (1925–27)
3038:Syria (1919–21)
2997:
2900:
2881:Japan (1863–64)
2814:Moluccas (1810)
2798:
2758:
2666:
2642:India (1756–63)
2637:India (1749–54)
2632:India (1746–48)
2611:
2541:
2509:
2489:
2475:Texas (1685–89)
2434:
2382:
2352:
2319:
2314:
2279:
2258:
2237:
2216:
2195:
2174:
2153:
2132:
2111:
2090:
2069:
2048:
2027:
2006:
1985:
1964:
1943:
1922:
1901:
1880:
1862:
1860:Further reading
1852:
1831:
1810:
1789:
1767:
1762:
1752:
1750:
1741:
1740:
1736:
1726:
1724:
1723:on 2 March 2014
1709:
1708:
1704:
1694:
1692:
1681:
1670:
1661:Gunther, John.
1659:
1652:
1644:
1637:
1627:
1625:
1612:
1611:
1602:
1594:
1585:
1577:
1573:
1565:
1561:
1552:
1529:
1521:
1510:
1500:
1498:
1487:
1476:
1468:
1455:
1447:
1436:
1426:
1424:
1414:
1383:
1375:
1368:
1358:
1356:
1345:
1292:
1284:
1280:
1272:
1268:
1258:
1256:
1247:
1246:
1242:
1232:
1230:
1221:
1220:
1216:
1208:
1193:
1183:
1181:
1171:
1160:
1156:
1102:Andry Rajoelina
1067:
1059:Andry Rajoelina
1024:
1022:National trauma
972:
962:
902:
853:
812:Joseph Gallieni
792:
790:French response
662:
657:
516:Rainilaiarivony
484:
470:
464:
361:
284:
282:
279:
267:
256:
249:Ralaivao (
248:
241:
235:
232:
220:
219:
211:
209:
208:
205:
204:
196:
194:
182:
173:
171:
170:
166:
163:
159:
131:
123:
121:
104:
102:
75:
46:
17:
12:
11:
5:
3256:
3246:
3245:
3240:
3235:
3230:
3225:
3220:
3215:
3210:
3205:
3200:
3195:
3190:
3185:
3180:
3175:
3170:
3165:
3160:
3155:
3150:
3145:
3140:
3135:
3130:
3113:
3112:
3109:
3108:
3106:
3105:
3099:
3097:
3089:
3088:
3086:
3085:
3080:
3075:
3070:
3065:
3063:Vietnam (1940)
3060:
3055:
3053:Vietnam (1930)
3050:
3045:
3040:
3035:
3030:
3025:
3023:Vietnam (1916)
3020:
3015:
3009:
3007:
2999:
2998:
2996:
2995:
2990:
2985:
2980:
2975:
2970:
2965:
2960:
2955:
2950:
2945:
2940:
2935:
2930:
2925:
2919:
2917:
2910:
2906:
2905:
2902:
2901:
2899:
2898:
2893:
2888:
2883:
2878:
2873:
2872:
2871:
2866:
2861:
2856:
2851:
2841:
2839:Tourane (1856)
2836:
2831:
2829:Tourane (1847)
2826:
2821:
2816:
2810:
2808:
2800:
2799:
2797:
2796:
2791:
2786:
2781:
2776:
2770:
2768:
2760:
2759:
2757:
2756:
2751:
2746:
2741:
2736:
2731:
2726:
2721:
2719:Tunisia (1881)
2716:
2711:
2706:
2704:Morocco (1844)
2701:
2696:
2691:
2685:
2683:
2676:
2672:
2671:
2668:
2667:
2665:
2664:
2659:
2654:
2649:
2644:
2639:
2634:
2629:
2623:
2621:
2613:
2612:
2610:
2609:
2604:
2599:
2594:
2589:
2584:
2579:
2574:
2569:
2564:
2559:
2553:
2551:
2543:
2542:
2540:
2539:
2537:Morocco (1765)
2534:
2528:
2526:
2519:
2515:
2514:
2511:
2510:
2508:
2507:
2505:Siam (1687–90)
2501:
2499:
2491:
2490:
2488:
2487:
2482:
2477:
2472:
2467:
2462:
2457:
2452:
2446:
2444:
2436:
2435:
2433:
2432:
2430:Algiers (1688)
2427:
2425:Algiers (1683)
2422:
2420:Algiers (1682)
2417:
2412:
2407:
2405:Morocco (1629)
2401:
2399:
2392:
2388:
2387:
2384:
2383:
2381:
2380:
2375:
2370:
2364:
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2354:
2353:
2351:
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2348:Florida (1568)
2345:
2340:
2334:
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2321:
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2199:
2193:
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2136:
2130:
2115:
2109:
2094:
2088:
2073:
2067:
2052:
2046:
2031:
2025:
2010:
2004:
1989:
1983:
1968:
1962:
1947:
1941:
1926:
1920:
1905:
1899:
1884:
1878:
1861:
1858:
1857:
1856:
1850:
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1829:
1814:
1808:
1793:
1787:
1766:
1763:
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1734:
1702:
1668:
1665:. p. 588.
1650:
1635:
1600:
1583:
1571:
1559:
1527:
1508:
1474:
1453:
1451:, p. 206.
1449:Quemeneur 2004
1434:
1381:
1366:
1290:
1278:
1276:, p. 532.
1266:
1240:
1214:
1212:, p. 207.
1210:Quemeneur 2004
1191:
1157:
1155:
1152:
1066:
1063:
1055:Monja Roindefo
1023:
1020:
1008:life in prison
961:
958:
946:Jacques Chirac
901:
898:
852:
849:
791:
788:
718:United Kingdom
678:Merina Kingdom
661:
658:
656:
653:
520:Ranavalona III
490:A map showing
466:Main article:
463:
460:
452:Jacques Chirac
415:mass execution
313:
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296:
295:
291:
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287:
275:
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223:
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180:United Kingdom
158:Local militias
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134:
120:
119:
98:
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9:
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2376:
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2369:
2368:Brazil (1531)
2366:
2365:
2363:
2361:South America
2359:
2349:
2346:
2344:
2341:
2339:
2336:
2335:
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2331:North America
2329:
2326:
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2169:
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2059:
2053:
2049:
2043:
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2032:
2028:
2022:
2018:
2017:
2011:
2007:
2001:
1997:
1996:
1990:
1986:
1980:
1976:
1975:
1969:
1965:
1959:
1955:
1954:
1948:
1944:
1938:
1934:
1933:
1927:
1923:
1917:
1913:
1912:
1906:
1902:
1896:
1892:
1891:
1885:
1881:
1875:
1871:
1870:
1864:
1863:
1853:
1847:
1843:
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1836:
1832:
1826:
1822:
1821:
1815:
1811:
1805:
1801:
1800:
1794:
1790:
1788:9781317894865
1784:
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1722:
1718:
1717:
1712:
1706:
1690:
1686:
1679:
1677:
1675:
1673:
1664:
1663:Inside Africa
1657:
1655:
1648:, p. 85.
1647:
1642:
1640:
1623:
1619:
1615:
1609:
1607:
1605:
1598:, p. 84.
1597:
1592:
1590:
1588:
1580:
1575:
1569:, p. 86.
1568:
1563:
1556:
1550:
1548:
1546:
1544:
1542:
1540:
1538:
1536:
1534:
1532:
1525:, p. 83.
1524:
1519:
1517:
1515:
1513:
1496:
1492:
1485:
1483:
1481:
1479:
1472:, p. 65.
1471:
1466:
1464:
1462:
1460:
1458:
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1445:
1443:
1441:
1439:
1423:
1419:
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1406:
1404:
1402:
1400:
1398:
1396:
1394:
1392:
1390:
1388:
1386:
1379:, p. 64.
1378:
1373:
1371:
1354:
1350:
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1341:
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1337:
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1315:
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1311:
1309:
1307:
1305:
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1301:
1299:
1297:
1295:
1288:, p. 79.
1287:
1282:
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1228:
1224:
1218:
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1198:
1196:
1180:
1179:History Today
1176:
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1125:
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1079:
1071:
1065:Commemoration
1062:
1060:
1056:
1052:
1048:
1044:
1043:
1038:
1034:
1028:
1019:
1015:
1013:
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1005:
999:
993:
990:
989:Rabemananjara
986:
980:
976:
971:
966:
957:
955:
954:Omer Beriziky
951:
947:
941:
939:
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906:
897:
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862:
857:
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845:Tsiazombazaha
842:
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817:
813:
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748:
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719:
713:
711:
707:
706:
701:
700:Faraony River
697:
693:
689:
684:
683:
679:
675:
666:
652:
648:
646:
642:
638:
634:
633:Paul Ramadier
630:
625:
623:
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605:
604:
599:
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591:
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582:
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541:
537:
533:
527:
525:
521:
517:
513:
509:
505:
504:royal palaces
501:
493:
488:
483:
479:
475:
469:
459:
457:
453:
448:
444:
438:
434:
432:
431:death flights
428:
424:
420:
416:
411:
406:
404:
400:
396:
390:
388:
385:
381:
380:
375:
369:
365:
360:
356:
355:Joseph Raseta
352:
348:
344:
340:
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332:
328:
324:
320:
310:
305:
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297:
292:
288:
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246:
242:Lehoaha
240:
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181:
169:
168:Supported by:
162:
155:
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118:
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62:
59:
58:
54:
50:
44:
39:
36:
32:
27:
22:
19:
2962:
2909:20th century
2886:Korea (1866)
2675:19th century
2518:18th century
2391:17th century
2324:16th century
2267:
2246:
2225:
2204:
2183:
2162:
2141:
2120:
2099:
2078:
2057:
2036:
2015:
1994:
1973:
1952:
1931:
1910:
1889:
1868:
1840:
1819:
1798:
1773:
1751:. Retrieved
1747:the original
1737:
1725:. Retrieved
1721:the original
1714:
1705:
1693:. Retrieved
1688:
1662:
1646:Clayton 2013
1626:. Retrieved
1622:the original
1617:
1596:Clayton 2013
1579:Clayton 2013
1574:
1567:Clayton 2013
1562:
1554:
1523:Clayton 2013
1499:. Retrieved
1494:
1425:. Retrieved
1421:
1357:. Retrieved
1352:
1286:Clayton 2013
1281:
1269:
1257:. Retrieved
1253:the original
1243:
1231:. Retrieved
1227:the original
1217:
1182:. Retrieved
1178:
1147:
1140:Ilo Tsy Very
1139:
1131:
1113:
1107:
1099:
1095:Martyrs' Day
1092:
1040:
1029:
1025:
1016:
1000:
996:
991:
942:
937:
934:Albert Camus
929:
926:Franc-tireur
925:
921:
917:
913:
909:
907:
903:
895:
883:Alfred Sauvy
870:
866:
844:
832:
816:Algerian War
805:
793:
783:
772:
750:
746:
743:
739:Lake Alaotra
735:Fianarantsoa
731:
723:
714:
710:Diego-Suarez
703:
680:
671:
649:
637:South Africa
626:
621:
610:
608:
601:
590:constitution
583:
578:
574:
570:
556:
552:World War II
540:Vichy regime
528:
508:Antananarivo
497:
439:
435:
407:
403:Antananarivo
391:
377:
318:
316:
236:
167:
153:
148:
141:
136:
101:
96:Belligerents
29:Part of the
18:
2819:Java (1811)
2709:Salé (1851)
1765:Works cited
1727:15 December
1695:13 December
1691:(in French)
1628:13 December
1501:14 December
1497:(in French)
1427:13 December
1359:13 December
1355:(in French)
1130:. The term
1112:. The film
1033:Monja Jaona
1012:Monja Jaona
973: [
874:demographic
824:Farafangana
801:tirailleurs
674:Palm Sunday
532:World War I
502:, with its
443:Monja Jaona
362: [
258:Monja Jaona
3122:Categories
1555:L'Histoire
1184:22 January
1154:References
970:Ravoahangy
891:war crimes
851:Casualties
841:wet season
727:human wave
492:Madagascar
462:Background
353:deputies,
347:Madagascar
73:Madagascar
1779:Routledge
900:Aftermath
820:Mananjary
768:total war
760:Toamasina
692:Moramanga
682:fandroana
629:Socialist
395:Moramanga
384:Socialist
49:Moramanga
2767:Americas
2550:Americas
2443:Americas
1753:28 March
1618:Le Monde
1259:29 March
1233:29 March
1132:tabataba
1126:and the
1115:Tabataba
918:Humanité
914:L'Esprit
861:Antoetra
836:Beparasy
828:Mahanoro
808:oil spot
764:Betsileo
747:mpanjaka
696:Manakara
512:Radama I
423:war rape
399:Manakara
387:Ramadier
339:Malagasy
337:) was a
331:Malagasy
309:Malagasy
273:Strength
68:Location
3096:Pacific
887:malaria
622:députés
592:of the
561:at the
419:torture
376:of the
302:Unknown
283:30,000
278:18,000
260: (
237:†
2916:Africa
2682:Africa
2525:Africa
2398:Africa
2275:
2254:
2233:
2212:
2191:
2170:
2149:
2128:
2107:
2086:
2065:
2044:
2023:
2002:
1981:
1960:
1939:
1918:
1897:
1876:
1848:
1827:
1806:
1785:
1110:cinema
1042:rotaka
985:Raseta
938:Combat
922:Combat
799:, and
571:Panama
480:, and
410:French
323:French
285:(1948)
280:(1947)
177:
154:Panama
129:PADESM
111:France
108:
80:Result
1004:death
981:]
370:]
3006:Asia
2620:Asia
2498:Asia
2273:ISBN
2252:ISBN
2231:ISBN
2210:ISBN
2189:ISBN
2168:ISBN
2147:ISBN
2126:ISBN
2105:ISBN
2084:ISBN
2063:ISBN
2042:ISBN
2021:ISBN
2000:ISBN
1979:ISBN
1958:ISBN
1937:ISBN
1916:ISBN
1895:ISBN
1874:ISBN
1846:ISBN
1825:ISBN
1804:ISBN
1783:ISBN
1755:2014
1729:2013
1697:2013
1630:2013
1503:2013
1429:2013
1361:2013
1261:2017
1235:2017
1186:2019
987:and
928:and
612:Hova
579:Jiny
397:and
372:and
317:The
161:MDRM
149:Jiny
60:Date
33:and
433:).
345:in
263:POW
252:POW
228:DOW
3124::
1781:.
1713:.
1687:.
1671:^
1653:^
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1603:^
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1384:^
1369:^
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1293:^
1194:^
1177:.
1161:^
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1061:.
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2176:.
2155:.
2134:.
2113:.
2092:.
2071:.
2050:.
2029:.
2008:.
1987:.
1966:.
1945:.
1924:.
1903:.
1882:.
1854:.
1833:.
1812:.
1791:.
1757:.
1731:.
1699:.
1632:.
1505:.
1431:.
1363:.
1263:.
1237:.
1188:.
782:(
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321:(
266:)
255:)
231:)
51:.
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.
