528:(GPS) (or other Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS)) positions the soundings with respect to the surface of the earth. Sound speed profiles (speed of sound in water as a function of depth) of the water column correct for refraction or "ray-bending" of the sound waves owing to non-uniform water column characteristics such as temperature, conductivity, and pressure. A computer system processes all the data, correcting for all of the above factors as well as for the angle of each individual beam. The resulting sounding measurements are then processed either manually, semi-automatically or automatically (in limited circumstances) to produce a map of the area. As of 2010 a number of different outputs are generated, including a sub-set of the original measurements that satisfy some conditions (e.g., most representative likely soundings, shallowest in a region, etc.) or integrated
759:
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by powered winches. The wires had less drag and were less affected by current, did not stretch as much, and were strong enough to support their own weight to considerable depths. The winches allowed faster deployment and recovery, necessary when the depths measured were of several kilometers. Wire drag surveys continued to be used until the 1990s due to reliability and accuracy. This procedure involved towing a cable by two boats, supported by floats and weighted to keep a constant depth The wire would snag on obstacles shallower than the cable depth. This was very useful for finding navigational hazards which could be missed by soundings, but was limited to relatively shallow depths.
819:
methods developed from military sonar images produced a more vivid picture of the seafloor. Further development of sonar based technology have allowed more detail and greater resolution, and ground penetrating techniques provide information on what lies below the bottom surface. Airborne and satellite data acquisition have made further advances possible in visualisation of underwater surfaces: high-resolution aerial photography and orthoimagery is a powerful tool for mapping shallow clear waters on continental shelves, and airborne laser bathymetry, using reflected light pulses, is also very effective in those conditions, and
75:
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802:. Computers, with their ability to compute large quantities of data, have made research much easier, include the research of the world's oceans. The development of multibeam systems made it possible to obtain depth information across the width of the sonar swath, to higher resolutions, and with precise position and attitude data for the transducers, made it possible to get multiple high resolution soundings from a single pass.
790:, contoured into isobaths and early bathymetric charts of shelf topography. These provided the first insight into seafloor morphology, though mistakes were made due to horizontal positional accuracy and imprecise depths. Sidescan sonar was developed in the 1950s to 1970s and could be used to create an image of the bottom, but the technology lacked the capacity for direct depth measurement across the width of the scan. In 1957,
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water. When water is clear and the seafloor is sufficiently reflective, depth can be estimated by measuring the amount of reflectance observed by a satellite and then modeling how far the light should penetrate in the known conditions. The
Advanced Topographic Laser Altimeter System (ATLAS) on NASA's Ice, Cloud, and land Elevation Satellite 2 (ICESat-2) is a photon-counting
910:
281:. Various methods have advantages and disadvantages and the specific method used depends upon the scale of the area under study, financial means, desired measurement accuracy, and additional variables. Despite modern computer-based research, the ocean seabed in many locations is less measured than the
677:
High-density airborne laser bathymetry (ALB) is a modern, highly technical, approach to the mapping the seafloor. First developed in the 1960s and 1970s, ALB is a "light detection and ranging (LiDAR) technique that uses visible, ultraviolet, and near infrared light to optically remote sense a contour
635:
The data-sets produced by Hyper-Spectral (HS) Sensors tend to range between 100 and 200 spectral bands of approximately 5–10 nm bandwidths. Hyper-Spectral
Sensing, or imaging spectroscopy, is a combination of continuous remote imaging and spectroscopy producing a single set of data. Two examples
546:
Satellites are also used to measure bathymetry. Satellite radar maps deep-sea topography by detecting the subtle variations in sea level caused by the gravitational pull of undersea mountains, ridges, and other masses. On average, sea level is higher over mountains and ridges than over abyssal plains
717:
There are various LIDAR bathymetry systems that are commercially accessible. Two of these systems are the
Scanning Hydrographic Operational Airborne Lidar Survey (SHOALS) and the Laser Airborne Depth Sounder (LADS). SHOALS was first developed to help the United States Army Corps of Engineers (USACE)
805:
The US Naval
Oceanographic Office developed a classified version of multibeam technology in the 1960s. NOAA obtained an unclassified commercial version in the late 1970s and established protocols and standards. Data acquired with multibeam sonar have vastly increased understanding of the seafloor.
781:
in the 1870s, when similar systems using wires and a winch were used for measuring much greater depths than previously possible, but this remained a one depth at a time procedure which required very low speed for accuracy. Greater depths could be measured using weighted wires deployed and recovered
643:
The application of HS sensors in regards to the imaging of the seafloor is the detection and monitoring of chlorophyll, phytoplankton, salinity, water quality, dissolved organic materials, and suspended sediments. However, this does not provide a great visual interpretation of coastal environments.
770:
The earliest known depth measurements were made about 1800 BCE by
Egyptians by probing with a pole. Later a weighted line was used, with depths marked off at intervals. This process was known as sounding. Both these methods were limited by being spot depths, taken at a point, and could easily miss
708:
ALB generally operates in the form of a pulse of non-visible light being emitted from a low-flying aircraft and a receiver recording two reflections from the water. The first of which originates from the surface of the water, and the second from the seabed. This method has been used in a number of
1493:
Wölfl, Anne-Cathrin; Snaith, Helen; Amirebrahimi, Sam; Devey, Colin W.; Dorschel, Boris; Ferrini, Vicki; Huvenne, Veerle A. I.; Jakobsson, Martin; Jencks, Jennifer; Johnston, Gordon; Lamarche, Geoffroy; Mayer, Larry; Millar, David; Pedersen, Terje Haga; Picard, Kim; Reitz, Anja; Schmitt, Thierry;
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An orthoimage can be created through the combination of a number of photos of the same target. The target is photographed from a number of different angles to allow for the perception of the true elevation and tilting of the object. This gives the viewer an accurate perception of the target area.
818:
Mapping of continental shelf seafloor topography using remotely sensed data has applied a variety of methods to visualise the bottom topography. Early methods included hachure maps, and were generally based on the cartographer's personal interpretation of limited available data. Acoustic mapping
785:
Single-beam echo sounders were used from the 1920s-1930s to measure the distance of the seafloor directly below a vessel at relatively close intervals along the line of travel. By running roughly parallel lines, data points could be collected at better resolution, but this method still left gaps
809:
The U.S. Landsat satellites of the 1970s and later the
European Sentinel satellites, have provided new ways to find bathymetric information, which can be derived from satellite images. These methods include making use of the different depths to which different frequencies of light penetrate the
771:
significant variations in the immediate vicinity. Accuracy was also affected by water movement–current could swing the weight from the vertical and both depth and position would be affected. This was a laborious and time-consuming process and was strongly affected by weather and sea conditions.
662:
MS sensing is used more in the mapping of the seabed due to its fewer spectral bands with relatively larger bandwidths. The larger bandwidths allow for a larger spectral coverage, which is crucial in the visual detection of marine features and general spectral resolution of the images acquired.
49:
48:
53:
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Another form of mapping the seafloor is through the use of satellites. The satellites are equipped with hyper-spectral and multi-spectral sensors which are used to provide constant streams of images of coastal areas providing a more feasible method of visualising the bottom of the seabed.
54:
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or LADAR systems. The amount of time it takes for the sound or light to travel through the water, bounce off the seafloor, and return to the sounder informs the equipment of the distance to the seafloor. LIDAR/LADAR surveys are usually conducted by airborne systems.
827:
satellite sensors can provide a nearly constant stream of benthic environmental information. Remote sensing techniques have been used to develop new ways of visualizing dynamic benthic environments from general geomorphological features to biological coverage.
743:
High resolution orthoimagery is currently being used in the 'terrestrial mapping program', the aim of which is to 'produce high resolution topography data from Oregon to Mexico'. The orthoimagery will be used to provide the photographic data for these regions.
322:, and the way sunlight diminishes when these landforms occupy increasing depths. Tidal networks depend on the balance between sedimentary processes and hydrodynamics however, anthropogenic influences can impact the natural system more than any physical driver.
51:
584:
Occupations or careers related to bathymetry include the study of oceans and rocks and minerals on the ocean floor, and the study of underwater earthquakes or volcanoes. The taking and analysis of bathymetric measurements is one of the core areas of modern
704:
receiver. Airplanes and helicopters are the most commonly used platforms for acquiring LIDAR data over broad areas. One application of LiDAR is bathymetric LiDAR, which uses water-penetrating green light to also measure seafloor and riverbed elevations.
318:) when it interfaces with the ocean. These shapes are obvious along coastlines, but they occur also in significant ways underwater. The effectiveness of marine habitats is partially defined by these shapes, including the way they interact with and shape
736:, a scale image which includes corrections made for feature displacement such as building tilt. These corrections are made through the use of a mathematical equation, information on sensor calibration, and the application of digital elevation models.
441:
or cable lowered over a ship's side. This technique measures the depth only a singular point at a time, and is therefore inefficient. It is also subject to movements of the ship and currents moving the line out of true and therefore is not accurate.
865:
that depicts the submerged bathymetry and physiographic features of ocean and sea bottoms. Their primary purpose is to provide detailed depth contours of ocean topography as well as provide the size, shape and distribution of underwater features.
577:. For deep-water bathymetry, this is typically Mean Sea Level (MSL), but most data used for nautical charting is referenced to Mean Lower Low Water (MLLW) in American surveys, and Lowest Astronomical Tide (LAT) in other countries. Many other
814:
that uses the return time of laser light pulses from the Earth's surface to calculate altitude of the surface. ICESat-2 measurements can be combined with ship-based sonar data to fill in gaps and improve precision of maps of shallow water.
718:
in bathymetric surveying by a company called Optech in the 1990s. SHOALS is done through the transmission of a laser, of wavelength between 530 and 532 nm, from a height of approximately 200 m at speed of 60 m/s on average.
1738:
658:
The other method of satellite imaging, multi-spectral (MS) imaging, tends to divide the EM spectrum into a small number of bands, unlike its partner Hyper-Spectral
Sensors which can capture a much larger number of spectral bands.
511:
and accuracy. In general, a wide swath, which is depth dependent, allows a boat to map more seafloor in less time than a single-beam echosounder by making fewer passes. The beams update many times per second (typically 0.1–50
798:, created the first three-dimensional physiographic map of the world's ocean basins. Tharp's discovery was made at the perfect time. It was one of many discoveries that took place near the same time as the invention of the
880:). A closed shape with increasingly smaller shapes inside of it can indicate an ocean trench or a seamount, or underwater mountain, depending on whether the depths increase or decrease going inward.
678:
target through both an active and passive system." What this means is that airborne laser bathymetry also uses light outside the visible spectrum to detect the curves in underwater landscape.
50:
1370:
Brock & Purkis (2009). "The emerging role of Lidar remote sensing in coastal research and resource management". In: Brock J, Purkis S (eds.). "Coastal applications of airborne lidar".
732:
High resolution orthoimagery (HRO) is the process of creating an image that combines the geometric qualities with the characteristics of photographs. The result of this process is an
876:) and are complementary to bathymetric charts. Bathymeric charts showcase depth using a series of lines and points at equal intervals, called depth contours or isobaths (a type of
1117:
Giovanni Coco, Z. Zhou, B. van Maanen, M. Olabarrieta, R. Tinoco, I. Townend. Morphodynamics of tidal networks: Advances and challenges. Marine
Geology Journal. 1 December 2013.
1396:
Deronde et al. (2008). "Monitoring of the sediment dynamics along a sandy shoreline by means of airborne hyper-spectral remote sensing and LIDAR: a case study in
Belgium".
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representation of whatever the light pulses reflect off, giving an accurate representation of the surface characteristics. A LiDAR system usually consists of a
524:. (Most modern MBES systems use an integrated motion-sensor and position system that measures yaw as well as the other dynamics and position.) A boat-mounted
516:
depending on water depth), allowing faster boat speed while maintaining 100% coverage of the seafloor. Attitude sensors allow for the correction of the boat's
234:
and artificial illumination techniques to illustrate the depths being portrayed. The global bathymetry is sometimes combined with topography data to yield a
2728:
1004:
210:
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1777:
685:
563:
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637:
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532:(DTM) (e.g., a regular or irregular grid of points connected into a surface). Historically, selection of measurements was more common in
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3001:
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200:), are typically produced to support safety of surface or sub-surface navigation, and usually show seafloor relief or
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1994:
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1723:
151:
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503:(MBES) are typically used, which use hundreds of very narrow adjacent beams (typically 256) arranged in a fan-like
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information. Bathymetric maps (a more general term where navigational safety is not a concern) may also use a
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of typically 90 to 170 degrees across. The tightly packed array of narrow individual beams provides very high
134:
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850:
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applications while DTM construction was used for engineering surveys, geology, flow modeling, etc. Since
1411:
Seafloor
Mapping Along Continental Shelves: Research and Techniques for Visualizing Benthic Environments.
1333:
Seafloor Mapping Along Continental Shelves: Research and Techniques for Visualizing Benthic Environments.
449:) mounted beneath or over the side of a boat, "pinging" a beam of sound downward at the seafloor or from
2099:
1564:
Seafloor Mapping Along Continental Shelves: Research and Techniques for Visualizing Benthic Environments
2236:
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between the data points, particularly between the lines. The mapping of the sea floor started by using
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on the ocean surface, and a gyrocompass provides accurate heading information to correct for vessel
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1984:
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562:(NOAA) performs the same role for ocean waterways. Coastal bathymetry data is available from
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Starting in the early 1930s, single-beam sounders were used to make bathymetry maps. Today,
174:), lake floors, or river floors. In other words, bathymetry is the underwater equivalent to
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2489:
2346:
2211:
1922:
989: – Science of measurement and description of features which affect maritime activities
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Seabed topography (ocean topography or marine topography) refers to the shape of the land (
947: – Partitioning of a seabed acoustic image into discrete physical entities or classes
8:
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10 km with a mean depth of 3,682 m, resulting in an estimated volume of 1.332
196:
1566:. Coastal Research Library. Vol. 13 (Internet resource ed.). pp. 3–53.
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2009:
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965: – Interaction of shoreline seafloor topography and fluid hydrodynamic processes
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387:, or about 1/4400 of the total mass of the Earth. The oceans cover an area of 3.618
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The data used to make bathymetric maps today typically comes from an echosounder (
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1967:
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589:, and a fundamental component in ensuring the safe transport of goods worldwide.
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performs or commissions most surveys of navigable inland waterways, while the
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2564:
2499:
2429:
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2029:
1989:
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1714:
WebMapping Application for searching free and open source Bathymetry datasets
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to measure distances". These light pulses, along with other data, generate a
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353:. The submerged surface has mountainous features, including a globe-spanning
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1348:
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) (15 April 2020).
1304:. NOAA National Centers for Environmental Information. 15 September 2020
983: – Model of Earth's relief including elevation and depth underwater
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2624:
2599:
2494:
2474:
2401:
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2371:
2361:
2326:
2246:
2066:
2061:
2024:
2019:
2014:
1912:
950:
873:
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384:
342:
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930:
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2710:
2695:
2609:
2454:
2293:
2288:
2071:
1999:
1927:
1847:
1837:
1794:
1496:"Seafloor Mapping – The Challenge of a Truly Global Ocean Bathymetry"
1177:
1072:"Seafloor Mapping – The Challenge of a Truly Global Ocean Bathymetry"
492:
334:
157:
140:
1733:
261:. Bathymetric measurements are conducted with various methods, from
2943:
2665:
2524:
2416:
2406:
2351:
1827:
1704:
High resolution bathymetry for the Great Barrier Reef and Coral Sea
1385:
Optical properties and remote sensing of inland and coastal waters.
1014: – Vertical and horizontal dimension and shape of land surface
845:
799:
787:
350:
346:
182:. The first recorded evidence of water depth measurements are from
977: – Publicly available bathymetric chart of the world's oceans
882:
Bathymetric surveys and charts are associated with the science of
712:
709:
studies to map segments of the seafloor of various coastal areas.
581:
are used in practice, depending on the locality and tidal regime.
460:
2812:
2802:
1972:
1942:
1204:
1017:
1011:
971: – Instrument that indicates depth below a reference surface
903:
Bathymetric data used to produce charts can also be converted to
484:
358:
330:
201:
1743:
543:–2005, DTMs have become more accepted in hydrographic practice.
2519:
1932:
1494:
Visbeck, Martin; Weatherall, Pauline; Wigley, Rochelle (2019).
1070:
Wölfl, A.C.; Snaith, H.; Amirebrahimi, S.; et al. (2019).
998:
165:
1126:
959: – Map depicting the submerged terrain of bodies of water
2881:
2700:
2479:
2434:
909:
811:
697:
688:, "a remote sensing method that uses light in the form of a
681:
601:
of Earth without liquid water with 20× elevation exaggeration
513:
480:
453:
446:
430:
345:. Further out in the open ocean, they include underwater and
270:
266:
1739:
Coastal Bathymetry Map for US, Canda, Europe & Australia
1492:
573:. Bathymetric data is usually referenced to tidal vertical
100:
2313:
1468:"Underwater Frontiers: A Brief History of Seafloor Mapping"
1148:
1020: – Line of lowest elevation in a watercourse or valley
438:
410:
286:
274:
118:
109:
94:
1719:
Interactive Web Map, Set Negative Elevation for Bathymetry
1129:"Exploring the Ocean Basins with Satellite Altimeter Data"
953: – A scientific instrument for measuring water depth
701:
103:
995: – Shape of the ocean surface relative to the geoid
1709:
A.PO.MA.B.-Academy of Positioning Marine and Bathymetry
1562:
Finkl, Charles W.; Makowski, Christopher, eds. (2016).
1555:
1149:
Charette, Matthew A.; Smith, Walter H. F. (June 2010).
1069:
774:
There were significant improvements with the voyage of
1474:. NCEI: National Centers for Environmental Information
414:
First printed map of oceanic bathymetry, published by
1278:. NOAA National Centers for Environmental Information
164: 'measure') is the study of underwater depth of
1441:
State of California Ocean Protection Council, 2009,
926:
115:
112:
91:
1698:
Overview for underwater terrain, data formats, etc.
1142:
684:(Light Detection and Ranging) is, according to the
429:Originally, bathymetry involved the measurement of
106:
97:
2729:North West Shelf Operational Oceanographic System
16:Study of underwater depth of lake or ocean floors
3026:
1486:
2719:Deep-ocean Assessment and Reporting of Tsunamis
1335:Internet resource edition. Volume 13. pp. 31–35
1127:Sandwell, D. T.; Smith, W. H. F. (2006-07-07).
721:
713:Examples of commercial LIDAR bathymetry systems
686:National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration
560:National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration
1120:
907:which are vertical sections through a feature.
638:Airborne visible/infrared imaging spectrometer
571:National Centers for Environmental Information
489:National Centers for Environmental Information
58:Animation reveals oceanic floors and seabeds.
1771:
1561:
666:
379:The mass of the oceans is approximately 1.35
1413:Internet resource edition. Volume 13. p. 23
437:. Early techniques used pre-measured heavy
1778:
1764:
1251:, New Jersey, USA: Prentice Hall College,
24:Bathymetry of the ocean floor showing the
1785:
1729:Schmidt Ocean Institute: Seafloor Mapping
1534:
1511:
1462:
1460:
1458:
1456:
1454:
1176:
1166:
1087:
647:
624:
1693:Bathymetric Data Viewer from NOAA's NCEI
1063:
908:
895:
844:
757:
591:
474:
459:
409:
305:
242:is the study of past underwater depths.
73:
62:appear mostly by a depth of 140 meters,
44:
18:
1528:
1343:
1341:
1246:
1240:
1201:National Geospatial-Intelligence Agency
975:General Bathymetric Chart of the Oceans
3027:
2050:one-dimensional Saint-Venant equations
1451:
1447:http://www.opc.ca.gov/2009/12/mapping/
1431:https://lta.cr.usgs.gov/high_res_ortho
1194:
1056:, Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott,
1040:, Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott,
226:), and typically also provide surface
1759:
1421:
1419:
1327:
1325:
1323:
1321:
1319:
1217:
1190:
1188:
1102:
556:United States Army Corps of Engineers
2997:
1338:
1211:
1197:"NGA Explains: What is hydrography?"
1195:Audrey, Furlong (November 7, 2018).
900:Bathymetric Map of Medicine Lake, CA
636:of this kind of sensing are AVIRIS (
605:
292:
13:
2877:National Oceanographic Data Center
2304:World Ocean Circulation Experiment
2192:Global Ocean Data Analysis Project
1537:"Sounding the Seafloor with Light"
1427:High Resolution Orthoimagery (HRO)
1416:
1316:
1185:
406:Hydrographic survey § Methods
14:
3061:
2724:Global Sea Level Observing System
1657:
1221:Remote Sensing from Air and Space
569:(NGDC), which is now merged into
493:TerrainBase Digital Terrain Model
349:features such as ocean rises and
3007:
2996:
2987:
2986:
2182:Geochemical Ocean Sections Study
2098:
2087:
1664:
929:
872:display elevation above ground (
837:This section is an excerpt from
754:Bathymetric chart § History
567:National Geophysical Data Center
298:This section is an excerpt from
87:
2912:Ocean thermal energy conversion
2635:Vine–Matthews–Morley hypothesis
1628:
1604:
1435:
1403:
1390:
1377:
1374:, Special Issue No. 53: pp. 1–5
1364:
1290:
1264:
1001: – The bottom of an ocean
894:or other specialized purposes.
853:(formerly Loihi) with isobaths.
592:
310:World map with ocean topography
78:A seafloor map captured by NASA
1443:Mapping California's Resources
1272:"Bathymetry and Global Relief"
1111:
1096:
1047:
1031:
945:Acoustic seabed classification
399:
1:
1425:USGS, Date Last Edited 2015,
1409:Charles W. Finkl, ed., 2016,
1387:CRC Press, Boca Raton, p. 365
1331:Charles W. Finkl, ed., 2016,
1151:"The Volume of Earth's Ocean"
1024:
537:
327:coastal and oceanic landforms
70:at depths beyond 6000 meters.
2172:El Niño–Southern Oscillation
2142:Craik–Leibovich vortex force
1898:Luke's variational principle
722:High resolution orthoimagery
616:Satellite-derived bathymetry
357:system, as well as undersea
325:Marine topographies include
7:
1640:National Geographic Society
1535:Carlowicz, Michael (2020).
1500:Frontiers in Marine Science
1372:Journal of Coastal Research
1076:Frontiers in Marine Science
922:
10:
3066:
2237:Ocean dynamical thermostat
2085:
1298:"Coastal Elevation Models"
836:
751:
747:
725:
670:
651:
628:
609:
403:
297:
150:
133:
2982:
2821:
2795:
2772:Ocean acoustic tomography
2757:
2709:
2648:
2585:Mohorovičić discontinuity
2543:
2415:
2312:
2177:General circulation model
2107:
1813:Benjamin–Feir instability
1793:
1572:10.1007/978-3-319-25121-9
1541:earthobservatory.nasa.gov
1249:Introductory Oceanography
851:Kamaʻehuakanaloa Seamount
831:
673:Airborne lidar bathymetry
667:Airborne laser bathymetry
526:Global Positioning System
194:(not to be confused with
147: 'deep' and
2902:Ocean surface topography
2277:Thermohaline circulation
2267:Subsurface ocean current
2207:Hydrothermal circulation
2040:Wave–current interaction
1818:Boussinesq approximation
1513:10.3389/fmars.2019.00283
1352:. National Ocean Service
1089:10.3389/fmars.2019.00283
993:Ocean surface topography
2939:Sea surface temperature
2922:Outline of oceanography
2117:Atmospheric circulation
2055:shallow water equations
2045:Waves and shallow water
1938:Significant wave height
1616:Encyclopedia Britannica
1398:Earth Surface Processes
1247:Thurman, H. V. (1997),
1168:10.5670/oceanog.2010.51
1058:A Greek-English Lexicon
1042:A Greek-English Lexicon
220:) and selected depths (
36:(yellow-green) and the
2934:Sea surface microlayer
2299:Wind generated current
1103:Jones, E.J.W. (1999).
963:Coastal morphodynamics
917:
901:
892:underwater engineering
854:
767:
648:Multi-spectral sensors
625:Hyper-spectral sensors
602:
530:Digital Terrain Models
501:multibeam echosounders
496:
472:
426:
416:Matthew Fontaine Maury
311:
186:over 3000 years ago.
79:
71:
42:
3050:Topography techniques
2767:Deep scattering layer
2749:World Geodetic System
2257:Princeton Ocean Model
2137:Coriolis–Stokes force
1787:Physical oceanography
1734:Seafloormapping.co.uk
1383:Bukata et al. (1995)
1218:Olsen, R. C. (2007),
913:Bathymetric chart of
912:
899:
848:
761:
726:Further information:
654:Multispectral imaging
631:Hyperspectral imaging
610:Further information:
597:
478:
463:
413:
329:ranging from coastal
309:
232:Digital Terrain Model
77:
57:
22:
2787:Underwater acoustics
2347:Perigean spring tide
2212:Langmuir circulation
1923:Rossby-gravity waves
905:bathymetric profiles
796:Bruce Charles Heezen
762:A three-dimensional
66:by 3000 meters, and
2949:Science On a Sphere
2555:Convergent boundary
2227:Modular Ocean Model
2187:Geostrophic current
1903:Mild-slope equation
1724:NOAA Ocean Explorer
1005:Seabed 2030 Project
987:Hydrographic survey
981:Global relief model
849:Bathymetric map of
339:continental shelves
300:Seabed § Topography
279:satellite altimetry
236:global relief model
197:hydrographic charts
60:Continental shelves
26:continental shelves
2605:Seafloor spreading
2595:Outer trench swell
2560:Divergent boundary
2460:Continental margin
2445:Carbonate platform
2342:Lunitidal interval
1749:2019-06-16 at the
1107:. New York: Wiley.
1105:Marine geophhysics
918:
902:
855:
768:
603:
509:angular resolution
497:
487:). Data from the
473:
470:Puerto Rico Trench
427:
312:
191:Bathymetric charts
80:
72:
43:
3022:
3021:
3014:Oceans portal
2974:World Ocean Atlas
2964:Underwater glider
2907:Ocean temperature
2570:Hydrothermal vent
2535:Submarine volcano
2470:Continental shelf
2450:Coastal geography
2440:Bathymetric chart
2322:Amphidromic point
2010:Wave nonlinearity
1868:Infragravity wave
1612:"Bathymetric map"
1581:978-3-319-25121-9
1302:www.ngdc.noaa.gov
1276:www.ngdc.noaa.gov
1234:978-0-8194-6235-0
957:Bathymetric chart
859:bathymetric chart
839:Bathymetric chart
694:three-dimensional
640:) and HYPERION.
612:Satellite imagery
606:Satellite imagery
367:submarine canyons
293:Seabed topography
245:Synonyms include
171:seabed topography
55:
3057:
3012:
3011:
3000:
2999:
2990:
2989:
2929:Pelagic sediment
2867:Marine pollution
2661:Deep ocean water
2530:Submarine canyon
2465:Continental rise
2357:Rule of twelfths
2272:Sverdrup balance
2202:Humboldt Current
2127:Boundary current
2102:
2091:
1908:Radiation stress
1878:Iribarren number
1853:Equatorial waves
1808:Ballantine scale
1803:Airy wave theory
1780:
1773:
1766:
1757:
1756:
1668:
1667:
1651:
1650:
1648:
1647:
1632:
1626:
1625:
1623:
1622:
1608:
1602:
1601:
1559:
1553:
1552:
1550:
1548:
1532:
1526:
1525:
1515:
1490:
1484:
1483:
1481:
1479:
1464:
1449:
1439:
1433:
1423:
1414:
1407:
1401:
1394:
1388:
1381:
1375:
1368:
1362:
1361:
1359:
1357:
1350:"What is LIDAR?"
1345:
1336:
1329:
1314:
1313:
1311:
1309:
1294:
1288:
1287:
1285:
1283:
1268:
1262:
1261:
1244:
1238:
1237:
1226:
1215:
1209:
1208:
1192:
1183:
1182:
1180:
1170:
1146:
1140:
1139:
1137:
1136:
1124:
1118:
1115:
1109:
1108:
1100:
1094:
1093:
1091:
1067:
1061:
1051:
1045:
1035:
939:
934:
933:
870:Topographic maps
596:
542:
539:
483:bathymetry (and
394:
390:
382:
371:oceanic plateaus
363:oceanic trenches
255:seafloor imaging
247:seafloor mapping
161:
154:
144:
137:
125:
124:
121:
120:
117:
114:
111:
108:
105:
102:
99:
96:
93:
68:oceanic trenches
64:mid-ocean ridges
56:
40:(blue to purple)
34:mid-ocean ridges
30:oceanic plateaus
3065:
3064:
3060:
3059:
3058:
3056:
3055:
3054:
3025:
3024:
3023:
3018:
3006:
2978:
2817:
2791:
2753:
2734:Sea-level curve
2705:
2644:
2630:Transform fault
2580:Mid-ocean ridge
2546:
2539:
2505:Oceanic plateau
2411:
2397:Tidal resonance
2367:Theory of tides
2308:
2217:Longshore drift
2167:Ekman transport
2103:
2097:
2096:
2095:
2094:
2093:
2092:
2083:
2035:Wave turbulence
1968:Trochoidal wave
1893:Longshore drift
1789:
1784:
1751:Wayback Machine
1689:
1688:
1687:
1669:
1665:
1660:
1655:
1654:
1645:
1643:
1634:
1633:
1629:
1620:
1618:
1610:
1609:
1605:
1582:
1560:
1556:
1546:
1544:
1533:
1529:
1491:
1487:
1477:
1475:
1466:
1465:
1452:
1440:
1436:
1424:
1417:
1408:
1404:
1400:33: pp. 280–294
1395:
1391:
1382:
1378:
1369:
1365:
1355:
1353:
1346:
1339:
1330:
1317:
1307:
1305:
1296:
1295:
1291:
1281:
1279:
1270:
1269:
1265:
1259:
1245:
1241:
1235:
1224:
1216:
1212:
1193:
1186:
1147:
1143:
1134:
1132:
1125:
1121:
1116:
1112:
1101:
1097:
1068:
1064:
1052:
1048:
1036:
1032:
1027:
935:
928:
925:
920:
919:
886:, particularly
842:
834:
794:, working with
756:
750:
730:
724:
715:
700:, scanner, and
675:
669:
656:
650:
633:
627:
618:
608:
540:
418:with data from
408:
402:
397:
396:
392:
388:
380:
355:mid-ocean ridge
303:
295:
273:techniques, to
240:Paleobathymetry
90:
86:
45:
41:
17:
12:
11:
5:
3063:
3053:
3052:
3047:
3042:
3037:
3020:
3019:
3017:
3016:
3004:
2994:
2983:
2980:
2979:
2977:
2976:
2971:
2966:
2961:
2956:
2954:Stratification
2951:
2946:
2941:
2936:
2931:
2926:
2925:
2924:
2914:
2909:
2904:
2899:
2894:
2889:
2884:
2879:
2874:
2869:
2864:
2859:
2854:
2846:
2844:Color of water
2841:
2839:Benthic lander
2836:
2831:
2825:
2823:
2819:
2818:
2816:
2815:
2810:
2805:
2799:
2797:
2793:
2792:
2790:
2789:
2784:
2779:
2774:
2769:
2763:
2761:
2755:
2754:
2752:
2751:
2746:
2744:Sea level rise
2741:
2739:Sea level drop
2736:
2731:
2726:
2721:
2715:
2713:
2707:
2706:
2704:
2703:
2698:
2693:
2688:
2683:
2678:
2673:
2668:
2663:
2658:
2652:
2650:
2646:
2645:
2643:
2642:
2637:
2632:
2627:
2622:
2617:
2612:
2607:
2602:
2597:
2592:
2587:
2582:
2577:
2575:Marine geology
2572:
2567:
2562:
2557:
2551:
2549:
2541:
2540:
2538:
2537:
2532:
2527:
2522:
2517:
2515:Passive margin
2512:
2510:Oceanic trench
2507:
2502:
2497:
2492:
2487:
2482:
2477:
2472:
2467:
2462:
2457:
2452:
2447:
2442:
2437:
2432:
2427:
2421:
2419:
2413:
2412:
2410:
2409:
2404:
2399:
2394:
2389:
2384:
2379:
2374:
2369:
2364:
2359:
2354:
2349:
2344:
2339:
2334:
2329:
2324:
2318:
2316:
2310:
2309:
2307:
2306:
2301:
2296:
2291:
2286:
2285:
2284:
2274:
2269:
2264:
2259:
2254:
2249:
2244:
2242:Ocean dynamics
2239:
2234:
2229:
2224:
2219:
2214:
2209:
2204:
2199:
2194:
2189:
2184:
2179:
2174:
2169:
2164:
2159:
2154:
2149:
2144:
2139:
2134:
2132:Coriolis force
2129:
2124:
2119:
2113:
2111:
2105:
2104:
2086:
2084:
2082:
2081:
2080:
2079:
2069:
2064:
2059:
2058:
2057:
2052:
2042:
2037:
2032:
2027:
2022:
2017:
2012:
2007:
2002:
1997:
1992:
1987:
1982:
1981:
1980:
1970:
1965:
1960:
1955:
1953:Stokes problem
1950:
1945:
1940:
1935:
1930:
1925:
1920:
1915:
1910:
1905:
1900:
1895:
1890:
1888:Kinematic wave
1885:
1880:
1875:
1870:
1865:
1860:
1855:
1850:
1845:
1840:
1835:
1830:
1825:
1820:
1815:
1810:
1805:
1799:
1797:
1791:
1790:
1783:
1782:
1775:
1768:
1760:
1754:
1753:
1741:
1736:
1731:
1726:
1721:
1716:
1711:
1706:
1701:
1700:(vterrain.org)
1695:
1670:
1663:
1662:
1661:
1659:
1658:External links
1656:
1653:
1652:
1627:
1603:
1580:
1554:
1527:
1485:
1472:www.arcgis.com
1450:
1434:
1415:
1402:
1389:
1376:
1363:
1337:
1315:
1289:
1263:
1257:
1239:
1233:
1210:
1184:
1161:(2): 112–114.
1141:
1119:
1110:
1095:
1062:
1046:
1029:
1028:
1026:
1023:
1022:
1021:
1015:
1009:
1008:
1007:
996:
990:
984:
978:
972:
966:
960:
954:
948:
941:
940:
924:
921:
888:marine geology
863:isarithmic map
843:
835:
833:
830:
749:
746:
723:
720:
714:
711:
671:Main article:
668:
665:
652:Main article:
649:
646:
629:Main article:
626:
623:
607:
604:
547:and trenches.
518:roll and pitch
451:remote sensing
435:depth sounding
433:depth through
401:
398:
375:abyssal plains
320:ocean currents
304:
296:
294:
291:
263:depth sounding
259:seabed imaging
251:seabed mapping
211:depth contours
38:abyssal plains
23:
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
3062:
3051:
3048:
3046:
3043:
3041:
3040:Geomorphology
3038:
3036:
3033:
3032:
3030:
3015:
3010:
3005:
3003:
2995:
2993:
2985:
2984:
2981:
2975:
2972:
2970:
2967:
2965:
2962:
2960:
2957:
2955:
2952:
2950:
2947:
2945:
2942:
2940:
2937:
2935:
2932:
2930:
2927:
2923:
2920:
2919:
2918:
2915:
2913:
2910:
2908:
2905:
2903:
2900:
2898:
2895:
2893:
2890:
2888:
2885:
2883:
2880:
2878:
2875:
2873:
2870:
2868:
2865:
2863:
2862:Marine energy
2860:
2858:
2855:
2853:
2852:
2847:
2845:
2842:
2840:
2837:
2835:
2832:
2830:
2829:Acidification
2827:
2826:
2824:
2820:
2814:
2811:
2809:
2806:
2804:
2801:
2800:
2798:
2794:
2788:
2785:
2783:
2782:SOFAR channel
2780:
2778:
2775:
2773:
2770:
2768:
2765:
2764:
2762:
2760:
2756:
2750:
2747:
2745:
2742:
2740:
2737:
2735:
2732:
2730:
2727:
2725:
2722:
2720:
2717:
2716:
2714:
2712:
2708:
2702:
2699:
2697:
2694:
2692:
2689:
2687:
2684:
2682:
2679:
2677:
2674:
2672:
2669:
2667:
2664:
2662:
2659:
2657:
2654:
2653:
2651:
2647:
2641:
2638:
2636:
2633:
2631:
2628:
2626:
2623:
2621:
2618:
2616:
2613:
2611:
2608:
2606:
2603:
2601:
2598:
2596:
2593:
2591:
2590:Oceanic crust
2588:
2586:
2583:
2581:
2578:
2576:
2573:
2571:
2568:
2566:
2565:Fracture zone
2563:
2561:
2558:
2556:
2553:
2552:
2550:
2548:
2542:
2536:
2533:
2531:
2528:
2526:
2523:
2521:
2518:
2516:
2513:
2511:
2508:
2506:
2503:
2501:
2500:Oceanic basin
2498:
2496:
2493:
2491:
2488:
2486:
2483:
2481:
2478:
2476:
2473:
2471:
2468:
2466:
2463:
2461:
2458:
2456:
2453:
2451:
2448:
2446:
2443:
2441:
2438:
2436:
2433:
2431:
2430:Abyssal plain
2428:
2426:
2423:
2422:
2420:
2418:
2414:
2408:
2405:
2403:
2400:
2398:
2395:
2393:
2390:
2388:
2385:
2383:
2380:
2378:
2375:
2373:
2370:
2368:
2365:
2363:
2360:
2358:
2355:
2353:
2350:
2348:
2345:
2343:
2340:
2338:
2337:Internal tide
2335:
2333:
2330:
2328:
2325:
2323:
2320:
2319:
2317:
2315:
2311:
2305:
2302:
2300:
2297:
2295:
2292:
2290:
2287:
2283:
2280:
2279:
2278:
2275:
2273:
2270:
2268:
2265:
2263:
2260:
2258:
2255:
2253:
2250:
2248:
2245:
2243:
2240:
2238:
2235:
2233:
2232:Ocean current
2230:
2228:
2225:
2223:
2220:
2218:
2215:
2213:
2210:
2208:
2205:
2203:
2200:
2198:
2195:
2193:
2190:
2188:
2185:
2183:
2180:
2178:
2175:
2173:
2170:
2168:
2165:
2163:
2160:
2158:
2155:
2153:
2150:
2148:
2145:
2143:
2140:
2138:
2135:
2133:
2130:
2128:
2125:
2123:
2120:
2118:
2115:
2114:
2112:
2110:
2106:
2101:
2090:
2078:
2075:
2074:
2073:
2070:
2068:
2065:
2063:
2060:
2056:
2053:
2051:
2048:
2047:
2046:
2043:
2041:
2038:
2036:
2033:
2031:
2030:Wave shoaling
2028:
2026:
2023:
2021:
2018:
2016:
2013:
2011:
2008:
2006:
2003:
2001:
1998:
1996:
1993:
1991:
1990:Ursell number
1988:
1986:
1983:
1979:
1976:
1975:
1974:
1971:
1969:
1966:
1964:
1961:
1959:
1956:
1954:
1951:
1949:
1946:
1944:
1941:
1939:
1936:
1934:
1931:
1929:
1926:
1924:
1921:
1919:
1916:
1914:
1911:
1909:
1906:
1904:
1901:
1899:
1896:
1894:
1891:
1889:
1886:
1884:
1881:
1879:
1876:
1874:
1873:Internal wave
1871:
1869:
1866:
1864:
1861:
1859:
1856:
1854:
1851:
1849:
1846:
1844:
1841:
1839:
1836:
1834:
1831:
1829:
1826:
1824:
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3045:Oceanography
2969:Water column
2917:Oceanography
2892:Observations
2887:Explorations
2857:Marginal sea
2850:
2808:OSTM/Jason-2
2640:Volcanic arc
2615:Slab suction
2332:Head of tide
2222:Loop Current
2162:Ekman spiral
1948:Stokes drift
1858:Gravity wave
1833:Cnoidal wave
1680:
1679:
1678:profile for
1675:
1644:. Retrieved
1642:. 2011-03-24
1639:
1636:"bathymetry"
1630:
1619:. Retrieved
1615:
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1545:. Retrieved
1540:
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1155:Oceanography
1154:
1144:
1133:. Retrieved
1122:
1113:
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1098:
1079:
1075:
1065:
1060:, on Perseus
1057:
1049:
1044:, on Perseus
1041:
1033:
884:oceanography
878:contour line
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690:pulsed laser
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642:
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619:
599:STL 3D model
583:
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534:hydrographic
498:
479:Present-day
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169:
166:ocean floors
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82:
81:
3035:Cartography
2959:Thermocline
2676:Mesopelagic
2649:Ocean zones
2620:Slab window
2485:Hydrography
2425:Abyssal fan
2392:Tidal range
2382:Tidal power
2377:Tidal force
2262:Rip current
2197:Gulf Stream
2157:Ekman layer
2147:Downwelling
2122:Baroclinity
2109:Circulation
2005:Wave height
1995:Wave action
1978:megatsunami
1958:Stokes wave
1918:Rossby wave
1883:Kelvin wave
1863:Green's law
1744:Seabed 2030
1131:. NOAA/NGDC
969:Depth gauge
792:Marie Tharp
788:sound waves
587:hydrography
541: 2003
400:Measurement
395:10 km.
385:metric tons
343:coral reefs
126:; from
32:(red), the
3029:Categories
2897:Reanalysis
2796:Satellites
2777:Sofar bomb
2625:Subduction
2600:Ridge push
2495:Ocean bank
2475:Contourite
2402:Tide gauge
2387:Tidal race
2372:Tidal bore
2362:Slack tide
2327:Earth tide
2247:Ocean gyre
2067:Wind setup
2062:Wind fetch
2025:Wave setup
2020:Wave radar
2015:Wave power
1913:Rogue wave
1843:Dispersion
1682:Bathymetry
1646:2019-12-17
1621:2019-12-17
1135:2007-04-21
1025:References
951:Bathometer
874:topography
778:Challenger
752:See also:
734:orthoimage
728:Orthophoto
466:topography
404:See also:
335:shorelines
316:topography
283:topography
180:topography
176:hypsometry
83:Bathymetry
2759:Acoustics
2711:Sea level
2610:Slab pull
2547:tectonics
2455:Cold seep
2417:Landforms
2294:Whirlpool
2289:Upwelling
2072:Wind wave
2000:Wave base
1928:Sea state
1848:Edge wave
1838:Cross sea
1598:132980629
1590:2211-0585
1522:2296-7745
1178:1912/3862
915:Bear Lake
485:altimetry
468:near the
359:volcanoes
351:seamounts
331:estuaries
223:soundings
2992:Category
2944:Seawater
2671:Littoral
2666:Deep sea
2525:Seamount
2407:Tideline
2352:Rip tide
2282:shutdown
2252:Overflow
1985:Undertow
1828:Clapotis
1747:Archived
1227:, SPIE,
923:See also
800:computer
383:10
347:deep sea
217:isobaths
208:(called
3002:Commons
2872:Mooring
2822:Related
2813:Jason-3
2803:Jason-1
2686:Pelagic
2681:Oceanic
2656:Benthic
1973:Tsunami
1943:Soliton
1672:Scholia
1506:: 283.
1356:21 June
1205:YouTube
1082:: 283.
1018:Thalweg
1012:Terrain
748:History
550:In the
422:Dolphin
202:terrain
2691:Photic
2520:Seabed
1933:Seiche
1674:has a
1596:
1588:
1578:
1547:8 July
1543:. NASA
1520:
1478:8 July
1308:8 July
1282:8 July
1255:
1231:
1054:μέτρον
999:Seabed
890:, and
832:Charts
579:datums
575:datums
564:NOAA's
425:(1853)
159:métron
152:μέτρον
142:bathús
2882:Ocean
2851:Alvin
2701:Swash
2545:Plate
2490:Knoll
2480:Guyot
2435:Atoll
2314:Tides
2077:model
1963:Swell
1795:Waves
1676:topic
1594:S2CID
1225:(PDF)
1038:βαθύς
812:lidar
698:laser
682:LiDAR
505:swath
481:Earth
454:LIDAR
447:sonar
431:ocean
275:buoys
271:Lidar
267:sonar
135:βαθύς
130:
2849:DSV
2834:Argo
2696:Surf
2152:Eddy
1586:ISSN
1576:ISBN
1549:2022
1518:ISSN
1480:2022
1358:2020
1310:2022
1284:2022
1253:ISBN
1229:ISBN
1203:via
823:and
776:HMS
614:and
554:the
439:rope
420:USS
373:and
341:and
333:and
287:Mars
277:and
269:and
257:and
28:and
1568:doi
1508:doi
1173:hdl
1163:doi
1084:doi
766:map
702:GPS
522:yaw
491:'s
337:to
285:of
214:or
204:as
178:or
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