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358:, and they would become the center of Soviet propaganda for years to come. The Soviets wanted a quick and sudden transformation through party policy. The Zhenotdel now spoke of de-veiling as an urgent issue and increasingly spent their efforts organizing large demonstrations where they would hold speeches proclaiming female liberation and end the meetings with these women ridding themselves of their
426:, a former Zhenotdel leader, plead the party to allow the Zhenotdel to take a more active role in getting peasant women to support collectivization. Fearing the peasant women were supporting kulaks the party sent out a decree that emphasized The Zhenotdel to continue their work in the countryside by educating these peasant women on leadership and administrative skills.
446:
Zhenotdel was shut down by Stalin as he was establishing his power in 1930, he believed that women's issues in the Soviet Union had been "solved" by the eradication of private property and the nationalization of the means of production. After the
Zhenotdel was disbanded many of the gendered social rules that had been fought against returned.
334:
Zhenotdel and even believed it was a distraction from the important work that they were doing to bring economic and political independence to
Central Asian women. Most Central Asian women did not de-veil. If they did it would have been in large demonstrations far away from home, and would put on their veil again on the way home.
228:. They developed a plan to create a separate women's organization based upon local delegates. This program would include: ending domestic slavery, communalize households to free women from domestic work, end prostitution, protect women's labor and maternity, and bring about a class consciousness to the women of the
398:
created a decree that transferred the work of organizing women from the
Zhenotdel to the local factory unions. The unions did nothing to educate women or move them up to higher positions. 33 percent of women workers in textile factories were illiterate much less actively participating in unions. Most
390:
Former
Zhenotdel workers ended up being the strongest advocates for the collapse of the Zhenotdel. Local party members began to assume that women should take responsibility for areas associated with social services. Several women wanted, instead to be involved in general party work and felt that this
297:
These women, on the other hand, believed that more decentralized and small scale programs would create a communist state. The
Zhenotdel wanted to build daycare centers, cafeterias, and laundries in order to liberate women from the double burden of domestic and industrial work. In order to reeducate
236:
gave a speech in response, later entitled "The Family and the
Communist State", going in detail about how the traditional family structure has already drastically changed and it is up to us to acknowledge this reality and embrace communalized changes that will bring about liberation for all working
406:
assumed the
Zhenotdel was merely copying the work of the rest of the party and wasting valuable resources. In order to combat this, the party established rationalization committees and they advised local party organizations to take down local Zhenotdels. The Politburo deflected opposition to these
341:
began in 1926, the veil acting as a stark contrast between the ‘primitive’ and traditional East with the new promise of socialist progress. The
Zhenotdel became the mechanism through which the Soviet Union was able to consolidate its power over its neighboring regions. These Bolshevik women viewed
333:
to reach its dream of instilling a class consciousness among the working classes and reach a world social revolution, they had to liberate these ‘backward’ women and transform them into free individuals who will be active political participants. Before 1926, de-veiling was not a priority for the
289:
The main idea in a
Utopian society for Zhenotdel women is the creation of a liberated and independent woman—a woman that is free and equal to men in every aspect of life. Both men and women believed in freeing women and transforming the family, but their ideas on how to achieve it differed. Male
445:
The leaders of the
Zhenotdel were committed communists, and worked as part of the Soviet state apparatus. Historian Elizabeth Wood has argued that the organization took an active interest in women's problems, and initially served as a conduit for women's issues from the people to the state. The
249:, and would have two to three month terms where they would develop into independent women that would be committed to educating and liberating women throughout the Soviet Union. This would give women a chance to be promoted into government positions and grow into conscious political activists.
386:
would lead to the communal housing and socialized childcare they had been fighting for. Although the party officially supported the work of the Zhenotdel they could not settle on how exactly they should organize since hostile tensions between these women and local party members strained the
414:
met in 1928 voted to transfer women Zhenotdel workers to join the work of unions. There were now no women to support and address workplace discrimination as the hundreds of thousands of women workers are now infiltrating the workforce because of the rapid industrialization taking place.
232:. This was the first time these women were involved in anything resembling a political space. Although most of these women wanted to be liberated from the double burden all working women experience, they were also afraid that the revolution would strip away traditional family life.
149:
that only through socialism and joining their husbands and brothers in the proletariat revolution, would bring about their liberation. Because of her radical beliefs at the time, she was forced to flee and the beginning of a women's movement she was attempting to create, dissolved.
407:
committees and ignored demands to reinstate a separate women's organization by promoting women to higher positions. This did not solve the tensions between Zhenotdel workers and local party members as women still only comprised 5 percent of overall party membership.
362:. They believed that by transforming the oppressive conditions under which these women lived, it would completely change the social and cultural order that prevented a Soviet revolution from happening. These women would then become the face of propaganda as the
28:
269:
created mass famine and poverty in the countryside and severe unemployment among women. The Zhenotdel began to evolve away from working towards specific women’s issues, into a tool the party utilized to forward its policies.
139:, to discuss the issues they faced at home and in the workplace. This was met with hostility as most employers viewed female workers as "backward", and were only utilized as cheap labor to be abused at will in the workplace.
290:
leadership believed that once capitalism is replaced with a socialist state and capital is redistributed to the masses, every person would automatically be rid of their prejudices and an egalitarian society would flourish.
224:, only 40 delegates showed up. However, almost immediately the leaders started to receive telegrams from all over the country telling them that they were delayed but were going to make it. 1,200 women managed to get to
219:
agreed to establish the First All Russian Congress of Women where there would be an election to select delegates. Because this was planned during the civil war and transportation was widely unreliable throughout the
122:
The Zhenotdel persuaded the Bolsheviks to legalise abortion in Russia, the first country to do so, in November 1920. This was the first time in history that women had the right to free abortions in state hospitals.
115:, in 1919. It was devoted to improving the conditions of women's lives throughout the Soviet Union, fighting illiteracy, and educating women about the new marriage, education, and working laws put in place by the
298:
the population, these women in the Zhenotdel believed that it was up to them to change their circumstances or else it would never happen. In order to eliminate the capitalist state and the exploitation of the
441:
and it would be unnecessary to continue to promote women to higher positions because they were now seen as equal to their male comrades. Instead, Stalin called the party to take up the work of the Zhenotdel.
244:
approved of the plan and created a separate women’s department, the Zhenotdel. The party then instructed local party committees to establish elections for female delegates. These women would be called,
145:
wanted to stray these working women away from the Russian feminist suffrage movements that she felt were superficial and lacked the essence of revolution. She began to teach factory women in
350:
propaganda showcased these Muslim women covered head to toe and prohibited from engaging with men outside of their family. The Zhenotdel mainly focused their de-veiling efforts throughout
119:. In Soviet Central Asia, the Zhenotdel also spearheaded efforts to improve the lives of Muslim women through literacy and educational campaigns, and through "de-veiling" campaigns.
265:. They made women’s issues a secondary priority because the male leadership felt domestic work did not benefit industry. The party made drastic cuts on social spending because the
433:
disbanded the Zhenotdel. This was part of a larger effort to rapidly industrialize the country. Stalin wanted all resources to be aimed towards collectivization to get ready for
329:
believed that it would be easier to convince the working classes of the developed Western nations if they created a successful socialist revolution in the East. In order for the
204:
for better working conditions. The journal was instrumental in instructing women to organize themselves and arrange meetings to spread knowledge and "agitation". Before the
422:. Peasant women were joining farm organizers refusing to give up their grain as the party began doubling down on requisitions of food crops to feed the industrial workers.
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brought no clarity to how exactly their society would be organized. The party believed that the revolution would destroy anything resembling czarist Russia.
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in 1915 and 1916. The harsh living conditions and famines that erupted during the war made the second stage of the women’s movement impossible to maintain.
403:
208:, this organization already had every aspect of mobilization necessary. All that was left was to legitimize a separate women’s department within the
23:
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believed that forming a separate women's organization would promote feminist ideas and spend insufficient resources. This hindered several old
196:, and used it to organize and start a campaign of women workers in the cities and female textile workers in the neighboring Russian towns.
261:
in the early 1920s created a shift in party concern towards industrialization and to create highly skilled workers that were loyal to the
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Ruthchild, Rochelle Goldberg (2010). "Women's Suffrage and Revolution in the Russian Empire, 1905-1917". In Offen, Karen M. (ed.).
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women from agreeing with the formation of the Zhenotdel because they thought it would prevent a unified proletariat Revolution.
136:
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and Lenin’s sister, Anna Elizarova. The editors were all arrested as czarist Russia continued to reign. The introduction of
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In 1929, The work of the Zhenotdel was redirected towards the peasant rebellions as a result of organizing the
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local party officials interpreted this decree as an end to all work among women instead of taking on the role.
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302:, the Zhenotdel felt that it was essential for women to be liberated and equal to their male comrades.
19:
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The Surrogate Proletariat: Moslem Women and Revolutionary Strategies in Soviet Central Asia, 1919-1929
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637:"Industrial Politics, Peasant Rebellion and the Death of the Proletarian Women's Movement in the USSR"
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The Surrogate Proletariat: Moslem Women and Revolutionary Strategies in Soviet Central Asia, 1919-1929
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brought women workers and soldiers wives together to actively strike against the war and the food
85:, was the section of the Russian Communist party devoted to women's affairs in the 1920s. It gave
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891:"Five-Year Plan for Women's Labour: Constructing Socialism and the 'Double Burden', 1930-1932"
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The Women's Liberation Movement in Russia: Feminism, Nihilism, and Bolshevism, 1860-1930
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spread their de-veiled faces to showcase the world the promise of the Socialist state.
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believed in a centralized economy that would eventually create a communist society.
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Women, the State and Revolution: Soviet Family Policy and Social Life, 1917-1936
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In 1913, the movement reappeared when the Bolshevik's founded a journal called
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Stites, Richard (1976). "Zhenotdel: Bolshevism and Russian Women, 1917-1930".
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Equality and Revolution: Women's Rights in the Russian Empire, 1905-1917
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was merely the same division of labor that was practiced in the home.
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The Baba and the Comrade: Gender and Politics in Revolutionary Russia
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attempted to organize women into a separate organization within the
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437:. The party felt that women had achieved liberation under the
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454:
Zhenotdel had five leaders during its 11 years of existence:
338:
346:, as a symbol of their seclusion from society. The use of
1039:"Under A Red Veil: Staging Afghan Emancipation in Moscow"
946:
Veiled Empire: Gender and Power in Stalinist Central Asia
325:
could exist in only one state became mainstream, the
16:
Women's department in the Bolsheviks' communist party
694:"Zhenotdel: Bolshevism and Russian Women, 1917-1930"
1445:
Early Bolshevik Work Among Women of the Soviet East
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89:new opportunities until it was dissolved in 1930.
1476:Bodies of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union
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995:Tribal Nation: The Making of Soviet Turkmenistan
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382:, Zhenotdel workers were at first hopeful that
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1220:] (in German). Pano Verlag. p. 13.
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200:also organized a strike of laundresses in
1447:(details the work of Zhenotdel activists)
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33:- "Women, Go into the Cooperative" (1918)
1250:The Women's Revolution: Russia 1905–1917
1076:Hayden, Carol Eubanks (1 January 1976).
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784:"The Yiddish Experiment in Soviet Minsk"
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83:All-Russian Communist Party (Bolsheviks)
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1128:. 26 November 2013. pp. 102–120.
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41:Zhenotdel meeting in Amur Region, 1920
1310:Ruthchild, Rochelle Goldberg (2010).
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735:"V. I. Lenin on the "Woman Question""
521:Antifascist Committee of Soviet Women
97:The Zhenotdel was established by two
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889:Schrand, Thomas G. (December 1999).
378:came into power and facilitated the
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117:Communist Party of the Soviet Union
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1491:Women's rights in the Soviet Union
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1122:Women and Transformation in Russia
321:came into power and the idea that
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1471:Organizations established in 1920
1466:Organizations established in 1919
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1043:The Soviet and Post-Soviet Review
834:"The Utopianism of the Zhenotdel"
77:), the women's department of the
1481:Feminist organizations in Russia
1347:Globalizing Feminisms, 1789-1945
832:Clements, Barbara Evans (1992).
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782:Bemporad, Elissa (April 2007).
511:Communist Women's International
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1218:Children, Kitchen, Communism
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215:In the summer of 1918, the
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1413:Princeton University Press
1285:Princeton University Press
1214:Kinder, Küche, Kommunismus
1199:Cambridge University Press
1193:Goldman, Wendy Z. (1993).
999:Princeton University Press
943:Northrop, Douglas (2016).
753:10.1521/siso.2021.85.3.302
733:Pateman, Joe (July 2021).
635:Goldman, Wendy Z. (1996).
597:Cambridge University Press
576:Princeton University Press
548:for "women's department" (
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387:organization’s existence.
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412:VIII Trade Union Congress
186:returned to Russia after
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61:Chuvash Autonomous Oblast
1407:Stites, Richard (1978).
1212:Scheide, Carmen (2002).
1170:Indiana University Press
1164:Wood, Elizabeth (1997).
1134:10.4324/9780203766484-12
1055:10.1163/187633211x564265
951:Cornell University Press
692:Stites, Richard (1976).
1392:10.1163/187633176X00107
1096:10.1163/187633176X00099
1037:Nunan, Timothy (2011).
712:10.1163/187633176x00107
429:On January 5, 1930 the
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63:Zhenotdel members, 1925
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589:Porter, Cathy (1987).
240:In September 1919 the
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740:Science & Society
546:syllabic abbreviation
484:Aleksandra Artyukhina
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1353:. pp. 257–274.
1001:. pp. 221–260.
257:The creation of the
896:Europe-Asia Studies
516:Polina Zhemchuzhina
478:Klavdiya Nikolayeva
466:Alexandra Kollontai
109:Alexandra Kollontai
1318:. Pittsburgh, PA:
1248:Cox, Judy (2019).
206:October Revolution
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1411:. Princeton, NJ:
1283:. Princeton, NJ:
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