676:
386:
337:
206:
1478:
758:
The materials for multilayers are selected to give the highest possible reflection at each boundary and the smallest absorption or the propagation through the structure. This is usually achieved by light, low-density materials for the spacer layer and a heavier material that produces high contrast.
360:
from a surface and to measure the intensity of X-rays reflected in the specular direction (reflected angle equal to incident angle). It has been shown that a reflection off a parabolic mirror followed by a reflection off a hyperbolic mirror leads to the focusing of X-rays. Since the incoming X-rays
230:
at 100 mm from the X-ray source. Since only X-rays entering the capillaries within a very narrow angle will be totally internally reflected, only X-rays coming from a small spot will be transmitted through the optic. Polycapillary optics cannot image more than one point to another, so they are
217:
on the inside of the tubes. The array is tapered so that one end of the capillaries points at the X-ray source and the other at the sample. Polycapillary optics are achromatic and thus suitable for scanning fluorescence imaging and other applications where a broad X-ray spectrum is useful. They
714:
No material has substantial reflection for X-rays, except at very small grazing angles. Multilayers enhance the small reflectivity from a single boundary by adding the small reflected amplitudes from many boundaries coherently in phase. For example, if a single boundary has a reflectivity of
1180:
Pikuz, T. A.; Faenov, A. Ya.; Fraenkel, M.; Zigler, A.; Flora, F.; Bollanti, S.; Di
Lazzaro, P.; Letardi, T.; Grilli, A.; Palladino, L.; Tomassetti, G.; Reale, A.; Reale, L.; Scafati, A.; Limongi, T.; Bonfigli, F.; Alainelli, L.; Sanchez del Rio, M. (2000).
549:
The total phase difference is derived from the sum of both the path difference and the initial phase difference (if the X-ray waves are generated from two or more different sources). It can then be concluded whether the X-ray waves reaching a point are
372:
law. The deviations can then be analyzed to obtain the density profile of the interface normal to the surface. For films with multiple layers, X-ray reflectivity may show oscillations with wavelength, analogous to the
751:/2. The shortest period that can be used in a multilayer is limited by the size of the atoms to about 2 nm, corresponding to wavelengths above 4 nm. For shorter wavelength a reduction of the incidence angle
245:
Zone plates consist of a substrate with concentric zones of a phase-shifting or absorbing material with zones getting narrower the larger their radius. The zone widths are designed so that a transmitted wave gets
759:
The absorption in the heavier material can be reduced by positioning it close to the nodes of the standing-wave field inside the structure. Good low-absorption spacer materials are Be, C, B, B
423:
Each atom re-radiates a small portion of an incoming beam's intensity as a spherical wave. If the atoms are arranged symmetrically (as is found in a crystal) with a separation
1296:
643:. Although the technology has advanced rapidly, its practical uses outside research are still limited. Efforts are ongoing, however, to introduce X-ray optics in medical
86:
of all materials is very close to 1 for X-rays, they instead tend to initially penetrate and eventually get absorbed in most materials without changing direction much.
462:
in the forward direction; the outgoing X-rays have the same energy, and thus the same wavelength, as the incoming X-rays, only with altered direction. By contrast,
625:
361:
must strike the tilted surface of the mirror, the collecting area is small. It can, however, be increased by nesting arrangements of mirrors inside each other.
596:
956:
94:
There are many different techniques used to redirect X-rays, most of them changing the directions by only minute angles. The most common principle used is
687:
The mirrors can be made of glass, ceramic, or metal foil, coated by a reflective layer. The most commonly used reflective materials for X-ray mirrors are
300:
for a focusing effect. Radii of curvature are typically less than a millimeter, making the usable X-ray beam width at most about 1 mm. To reduce the
727:
close to one. The period Λ of the multilayer that provides the in-phase addition is that of the standing wave produced by the input and output beam, Λ =
1183:
Using spherically bent crystals for obtaining high-resolution, large-field, monochromatic X-ray backlighting imaging for wide range of Bragg angles
792:
space telescope working up 79 keV was made using multilayered coatings, computer-aided manufacturing, and other techniques. The mirrors use a
470:. Such inelastic scattering reduces the energy (or increases the wavelength) of the outgoing beam. Inelastic scattering is useful for probing such
1457:
389:
Symmetrically spaced atoms cause re-radiated X-rays to reinforce each other in the specific directions where their path-length difference 2
185:
all benefit from high X-ray flux densities on the samples being investigated. This is achieved by focusing the divergent beam from the
368:
for the surface. If the interface is not perfectly sharp and smooth, the reflected intensity will deviate from that predicted by the
695:. Even with these the critical reflection angle is energy dependent. For gold at 1 keV, the critical reflection angle is 2.4°.
635:
Most X-ray optical elements (with the exception of grazing-incidence mirrors) are very small and must be designed for a particular
484:) would not have sufficient resolution to determine the atomic positions. At the other extreme, shorter-wavelength photons such as
1293:
153:
based on one or multiple Bragg reflections by crystals. X-ray spectra can also be manipulated by having the X-rays pass through a
301:
194:
1145:
Wolter, H. (1952). "Verallgemeinerte
Schwarzschildsche Spiegelsysteme streifender Reflexion als Optiken für Röntgenstrahlen".
1094:
899:
789:
408:
into many specific directions. The angles and intensities of the diffracted beams indicate a three-dimensional density of
519:
that results in a new wave pattern. X-ray interference usually refers to the interaction of waves that are correlated or
312:
are often used. Lenses from other materials are also on the market: radiation resistant polymer (Epoxy based) such as
1378:
Fredenberg, Erik; Cederström, Björn; Nillius, Peter; Ribbing, Carolina; Karlsson, Staffan; Danielsson, Mats (2009).
374:
855:
182:
566:
There are a variety of techniques used to funnel X-ray photons to the appropriate location on an X-ray detector:
508:
115:
523:
with each other, either because they come from the same source or because they have the same or nearly the same
488:
are difficult to produce in large numbers, difficult to focus, and interact too strongly with matter, producing
1519:
613:
466:
occurs when energy is transferred from the incoming X-ray to an inner-shell electron, exciting it to a higher
1482:
254:
to collect light, but also for direct full-field imaging in e.g. an X-ray microscope. Zone plates are highly
130:
that use many small X-ray lenses in series to compensate by their number for the minute index of refraction,
1071:
1046:
52:
44:
1313:
Fredenberg, Erik; Cederström, Björn; Åslund, Magnus; Nillius, Peter; Danielsson, Mats (27 January 2009).
825:
636:
341:
174:
328:, and the variation of the focal length with wavelength must be taken into account for any application.
31:. It deals with focusing and other ways of manipulating the X-ray beams for research techniques such as
499:. X-rays are usually not diffracted from atomic nuclei, but only from the electrons surrounding them.
74:
energy of X-rays they interact with matter very differently. Visible light is easily redirected using
845:
481:
247:
214:
190:
103:
1453:
1534:
780:
Mo/Si is the material selection used for the near-normal incidence reflectors for EUV lithography.
607:
271:
127:
83:
664:
512:
189:
onto the sample using one out of a range of focusing optical components. This is also useful for
145:
or reduced in size using pinholes or movable slits typically made of tungsten or some other high-
292:
becomes appreciable. Since the refractive index is less than 1 for X-rays, these lenses must be
251:
1281:
859:
63:
36:
213:
Polycapillary lenses are arrays of small hollow glass tubes that guide the X-rays with many
1529:
1391:
1336:
1248:
1213:
1154:
1119:
1012:
928:
463:
369:
353:
325:
324:. Since the refractive index depends strongly on X-ray wavelength, these lenses are highly
255:
157:. This will typically reduce the low-energy part of the spectrum, and possibly parts above
95:
984:. Center for X-ray Optics and Advanced Light Source. Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory
882:
Spiller, E. (2015). "X-Rays: Optical
Elements". In Craig Hoffman; Ronald Driggers (eds.).
763:
C and Si. Some examples of the heavier materials with good contrast are W, Rh, Ru and Mo.
702:
the ability to determine the location of the arrival of an X-ray photon in two dimensions,
663:. Another application is to optimize the energy distribution of the X-ray beam to improve
8:
1314:
647:. For instance, one of the applications showing greater promise is in enhancing both the
535:
520:
471:
452:
285:
173:
Analytical X-ray techniques such as X-ray crystallography, small-angle X-ray scattering,
1395:
1340:
1252:
1217:
1158:
1123:
1016:
932:
1360:
1326:
1264:
851:
570:
459:
417:
365:
340:
Designs based on grazing-incidence reflection used in X-ray telescopes include that by
178:
40:
1409:
1352:
1268:
1239:
Dabagov, SB (2003). "Channeling of neutral particles in micro- and nanocapillaries".
1225:
1110:
Wolter, H. (1952). "Glancing
Incidence Mirror Systems as Imaging Optics for X-rays".
1090:
1028:
895:
723:= 10), then the addition of 100 amplitudes from 100 boundaries can give reflectivity
660:
648:
107:
99:
32:
1364:
1260:
1399:
1344:
1256:
1221:
1186:
1162:
1127:
1020:
936:
887:
835:
813:
652:
580:
576:
345:
227:
162:
131:
48:
1003:
Snigirev, A. (1998). "Focusing high-energy x rays by compound refractive lenses".
377:. These oscillations can be used to infer layer thicknesses and other properties.
1524:
1514:
1461:
1300:
830:
805:
489:
186:
158:
154:
56:
1179:
675:
258:
and usually designed only for a narrow energy span, making it necessary to have
1190:
619:
289:
747:= 90°, or reflection at normal incidence, the period of the multilayer is Λ =
1508:
1166:
1131:
644:
543:
531:
281:
259:
219:
150:
146:
75:
28:
431:(add constructively) only in directions where their path-length difference 2
420:(0.1–10.0 nm) as the spacing between the atomic planes in the crystal.
1490:
1413:
1356:
1032:
977:
770:
normal and grazing-incidence optics for telescopes from EUV to hard X-rays,
603:
467:
293:
277:
1427:
941:
916:
443:. The incoming beam therefore appears to have been deflected by an angle 2
1404:
1379:
1024:
478:
405:
304:
of X-rays in these stacks, materials with very low atomic number such as
297:
111:
495:
Similar diffraction patterns can be produced by scattering electrons or
66:
they propagate in space in the same way, but because of the much higher
841:
586:
539:
474:, but not in determining the distribution of atoms within the crystal.
413:
412:
within the crystal. X-rays produce a diffraction pattern because their
240:
142:
123:
119:
1348:
1204:
Kumakhov, M. A. (1990). "Channeling of photons and new X-ray optics".
385:
336:
1185:. 27th IEEE International Conference on Plasma Science. p. 183.
656:
640:
524:
485:
305:
276:
Since refractive indices at X-ray wavelengths are so close to 1, the
205:
67:
1380:"A low-absorption x-ray energy filter for small-scale applications"
1331:
891:
809:
801:
793:
428:
409:
1377:
288:
are used, and they are stacked in long rows, so that the combined
1312:
838:, a type of X-ray telescope built with glancing-incidence mirrors
797:
692:
496:
321:
309:
296:
to achieve focusing, contrary to visible-light lenses, which are
284:
get impractically long. To overcome this, lenses with very small
149:
material. Narrow parts of an X-ray spectrum can be selected with
135:
1477:
317:
79:
71:
20:
364:
The ratio of reflected intensity to incident intensity is the
1206:
Nuclear
Instruments and Methods in Physics Research Section B
680:
357:
262:
X-rays for efficient collection and high-resolution imaging.
250:
in a single point giving a focus. Zone plates can be used as
24:
538:
with each other if they both have exactly the same range of
1315:"An efficient pre-object collimator based on an x-ray lens"
688:
516:
313:
226:
and can achieve gains of 100 to 10000 in flux over using a
1089:. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. p. 106.
773:
microscopes, beam lines at synchrotron and FEL facilities,
639:
and energy, thus limiting their applications in divergent
223:
917:"Focusing Polycapillary Optics and Their Applications"
546:
differences at each of the constituent wavelengths.
698:The use of X-ray mirrors simultaneously requires:
616:, namely, capillary/polycapillary optical systems.
439:is equal to an integer multiple of the wavelength
404:In X-ray diffraction a beam strikes a crystal and
397:equals an integer multiple of the wavelength
1506:
231:used for illumination and collection of X-rays.
1203:
265:
1238:
848:, orbiting observatories using X-ray optics
670:
667:compared to conventional energy filtering.
1449:
1447:
1144:
1109:
743:the half angle between the two beams. For
1403:
1330:
1047:"Compound refractive X-ray optics (CRLs)"
940:
914:
709:
197:and scanning X-ray fluorescence imaging.
1002:
674:
384:
335:
209:A polycapillary lens for focusing X-rays
204:
62:Since X-rays and visible light are both
1444:
1065:
1063:
957:"Polycapillary Focusing Optics – X-Ray"
881:
595:Normal-incidence mirrors making use of
200:
1507:
1488:
886:(2nd ed.). Taylor & Francis.
195:scanning transmission X-ray microscopy
1428:"CXRO X-Ray interactions with matter"
1084:
1069:
783:
602:A normal-incidence lens much like an
134:from a crystal plane in flat or bent
1078:
1060:
877:
875:
755:toward more grazing has to be used.
884:Encyclopedia of Optical Engineering
477:Longer-wavelength photons (such as
89:
82:, but because the real part of the
13:
705:a reasonable detection efficiency.
168:
14:
1546:
1470:
872:
659:images, compared to conventional
1476:
921:X-Ray Optics and Instrumentation
856:X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy
427:, these spherical waves will be
183:X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy
110:. Other principles used include
1454:NuStar: Instrumentation: Optics
1420:
1371:
1306:
1287:
1282:An introduction to X-Ray Optics
1275:
1261:10.1070/PU2003v046n10ABEH001639
1232:
1197:
1173:
1138:
575:Grazing incidence mirrors in a
561:
554:(constructive interference) or
502:
458:X-ray diffraction is a form of
218:collect X-rays efficiently for
1103:
1039:
996:
970:
949:
915:MacDonald, Carolyn A. (2010).
908:
614:Microstructured optical arrays
380:
234:
1:
865:
331:
1226:10.1016/0168-583X(90)90123-C
558:(destructive interference).
53:X-ray phase-contrast imaging
45:small-angle X-ray scattering
7:
819:
581:X-ray reflection microscope
534:X-ray waves are only fully
490:particle–antiparticle pairs
175:wide-angle X-ray scattering
10:
1551:
1191:10.1109/PLASMA.2000.854969
788:An X-ray mirror optic for
269:
266:Compound refractive lenses
238:
215:total external reflections
128:compound refractive lenses
846:Chandra X-ray Observatory
808:(Pt/SiC) multicoating on
344:, and several by Wolter (
248:constructive interference
104:total external reflection
1167:10.1002/andp.19524450410
1132:10.1002/andp.19524450108
739:is the wavelength, and 2
671:Mirrors for X-ray optics
608:compound refractive lens
579:, or a Kirkpatrick–Baez
272:Compound refractive lens
106:at very small angles or
84:complex refractive index
1460:1 November 2010 at the
1072:"X-ray Imaging Systems"
826:Kirkpatrick–Baez mirror
665:contrast-to-noise ratio
515:) of two or more X-ray
416:typically has the same
766:Applications include:
710:Multilayers for X-Rays
684:
679:One of the mirrors of
626:Modulation collimators
401:
349:
210:
177:, X-ray fluorescence,
141:X-ray beams are often
1520:X-ray instrumentation
860:X-ray crystallography
678:
388:
352:The basic idea is to
339:
208:
165:used for the filter.
102:angles, either using
64:electromagnetic waves
37:X-ray crystallography
1485:at Wikimedia Commons
1405:10.1364/OE.17.011388
1294:Polycapillary Optics
1085:Bradt, Hale (2007).
1025:10.1364/AO.37.000653
464:inelastic scattering
370:Fresnel reflectivity
201:Polycapillary optics
1396:2009OExpr..1711388F
1390:(14): 11388–11398.
1341:2009MedPh..36..626F
1253:2003PhyU...46.1053D
1218:1990NIMPB..48..283K
1159:1952AnP...445..286W
1124:1952AnP...445...94W
1017:1998ApOpt..37..653S
942:10.1155/2010/867049
933:2010XROI.2010E..11M
597:multilayer coatings
472:electron excitation
453:diffraction pattern
193:techniques such as
108:multilayer coatings
1299:2013-12-04 at the
1147:Annalen der Physik
1112:Annalen der Physik
982:X-Ray Data Booklet
852:X-ray spectroscopy
812:glass, allowing a
784:Hard X-ray mirrors
685:
661:anti-scatter grids
571:Lobster-eye optics
460:elastic scattering
418:order of magnitude
402:
375:Fabry–Pérot effect
366:X-ray reflectivity
350:
286:radii of curvature
222:of 0.1 to 30
211:
179:X-ray spectroscopy
41:X-ray fluorescence
1481:Media related to
1349:10.1118/1.3062926
1247:(10): 1053–1075.
1096:978-0-521-53551-9
1087:Astronomy Methods
1049:. X-ray-Optics.de
901:978-1-351-24718-4
683:made of 203 foils
631:X-ray waveguides.
511:is the addition (
100:grazing incidence
33:X-ray diffraction
23:that manipulates
19:is the branch of
1542:
1501:
1499:
1497:
1480:
1464:
1451:
1442:
1441:
1439:
1438:
1424:
1418:
1417:
1407:
1375:
1369:
1368:
1334:
1310:
1304:
1291:
1285:
1279:
1273:
1272:
1236:
1230:
1229:
1212:(1–4): 283–286.
1201:
1195:
1194:
1177:
1171:
1170:
1153:(4–5): 286–295.
1142:
1136:
1135:
1107:
1101:
1100:
1082:
1076:
1075:
1067:
1058:
1057:
1055:
1054:
1043:
1037:
1036:
1000:
994:
993:
991:
989:
974:
968:
967:
965:
964:
953:
947:
946:
944:
912:
906:
905:
879:
836:Wolter telescope
814:Wolter telescope
776:EUV lithography.
719:= 10 (amplitude
577:Wolter telescope
435: sin
393: sin
346:Wolter I–IV
342:Kirkpatrick–Baez
159:absorption edges
132:Bragg reflection
90:X-ray techniques
49:X-ray microscopy
1550:
1549:
1545:
1544:
1543:
1541:
1540:
1539:
1535:X-ray astronomy
1505:
1504:
1495:
1493:
1473:
1468:
1467:
1462:Wayback Machine
1452:
1445:
1436:
1434:
1426:
1425:
1421:
1376:
1372:
1319:Medical Physics
1311:
1307:
1301:Wayback Machine
1292:
1288:
1280:
1276:
1241:Physics-Uspekhi
1237:
1233:
1202:
1198:
1178:
1174:
1143:
1139:
1108:
1104:
1097:
1083:
1079:
1068:
1061:
1052:
1050:
1045:
1044:
1040:
1001:
997:
987:
985:
976:
975:
971:
962:
960:
955:
954:
950:
913:
909:
902:
880:
873:
868:
831:X-ray telescope
822:
806:silicon-carbide
786:
762:
712:
673:
564:
505:
383:
334:
274:
268:
243:
237:
220:photon energies
203:
171:
169:Focusing optics
155:filter (optics)
118:in the form of
92:
57:X-ray astronomy
12:
11:
5:
1548:
1538:
1537:
1532:
1527:
1522:
1517:
1503:
1502:
1491:"X-ray optics"
1486:
1472:
1471:External links
1469:
1466:
1465:
1443:
1419:
1384:Optics Express
1370:
1325:(2): 626–633.
1305:
1286:
1274:
1231:
1196:
1172:
1137:
1102:
1095:
1077:
1059:
1038:
1011:(4): 653–662.
1005:Applied Optics
995:
969:
948:
907:
900:
892:10.1081/E-EOE2
870:
869:
867:
864:
863:
862:
849:
839:
833:
828:
821:
818:
785:
782:
778:
777:
774:
771:
760:
711:
708:
707:
706:
703:
672:
669:
637:incident angle
633:
632:
629:
623:
620:Coded aperture
617:
611:
600:
593:
592:Bent crystals.
590:
584:
573:
563:
560:
504:
501:
447:, producing a
382:
379:
333:
330:
290:focusing power
270:Main article:
267:
264:
239:Main article:
236:
233:
202:
199:
191:scanning probe
170:
167:
151:monochromators
91:
88:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
1547:
1536:
1533:
1531:
1528:
1526:
1523:
1521:
1518:
1516:
1513:
1512:
1510:
1492:
1487:
1484:
1479:
1475:
1474:
1463:
1459:
1455:
1450:
1448:
1433:
1432:henke.lbl.gov
1429:
1423:
1415:
1411:
1406:
1401:
1397:
1393:
1389:
1385:
1381:
1374:
1366:
1362:
1358:
1354:
1350:
1346:
1342:
1338:
1333:
1328:
1324:
1320:
1316:
1309:
1302:
1298:
1295:
1290:
1283:
1278:
1270:
1266:
1262:
1258:
1254:
1250:
1246:
1242:
1235:
1227:
1223:
1219:
1215:
1211:
1207:
1200:
1192:
1188:
1184:
1176:
1168:
1164:
1160:
1156:
1152:
1148:
1141:
1133:
1129:
1125:
1121:
1117:
1113:
1106:
1098:
1092:
1088:
1081:
1073:
1066:
1064:
1048:
1042:
1034:
1030:
1026:
1022:
1018:
1014:
1010:
1006:
999:
983:
979:
978:"Zone Plates"
973:
958:
952:
943:
938:
934:
930:
926:
922:
918:
911:
903:
897:
893:
889:
885:
878:
876:
871:
861:
857:
853:
850:
847:
843:
840:
837:
834:
832:
829:
827:
824:
823:
817:
815:
811:
807:
803:
799:
795:
791:
781:
775:
772:
769:
768:
767:
764:
756:
754:
750:
746:
742:
738:
734:
730:
726:
722:
718:
704:
701:
700:
699:
696:
694:
690:
682:
677:
668:
666:
662:
658:
654:
650:
646:
645:X-ray imaging
642:
638:
630:
627:
624:
621:
618:
615:
612:
609:
605:
601:
598:
594:
591:
588:
585:
582:
578:
574:
572:
569:
568:
567:
559:
557:
553:
547:
545:
542:and the same
541:
537:
533:
532:monochromatic
528:
526:
522:
518:
514:
513:superposition
510:
500:
498:
493:
491:
487:
483:
480:
475:
473:
469:
465:
461:
456:
454:
450:
446:
442:
438:
434:
430:
426:
421:
419:
415:
411:
407:
400:
396:
392:
387:
378:
376:
371:
367:
362:
359:
355:
347:
343:
338:
329:
327:
323:
319:
315:
311:
307:
303:
299:
295:
291:
287:
283:
279:
278:focal lengths
273:
263:
261:
260:monochromatic
257:
253:
249:
242:
232:
229:
225:
221:
216:
207:
198:
196:
192:
188:
184:
180:
176:
166:
164:
160:
156:
152:
148:
144:
139:
137:
133:
129:
125:
121:
117:
113:
109:
105:
101:
97:
87:
85:
81:
77:
73:
69:
65:
60:
58:
54:
50:
46:
42:
38:
34:
30:
29:visible light
26:
22:
18:
1494:. Retrieved
1489:Arndt Last.
1483:X-ray optics
1435:. Retrieved
1431:
1422:
1387:
1383:
1373:
1322:
1318:
1308:
1289:
1277:
1244:
1240:
1234:
1209:
1205:
1199:
1182:
1175:
1150:
1146:
1140:
1115:
1111:
1105:
1086:
1080:
1051:. Retrieved
1041:
1008:
1004:
998:
986:. Retrieved
981:
972:
961:. Retrieved
951:
924:
920:
910:
883:
787:
779:
765:
757:
752:
748:
744:
740:
736:
732:
731:/2 sin
728:
724:
720:
716:
713:
697:
686:
657:mammographic
634:
606:, such as a
604:optical lens
565:
562:Technologies
556:out of phase
555:
551:
548:
529:
509:interference
506:
503:Interference
494:
476:
468:energy level
457:
451:spot in the
448:
444:
440:
436:
432:
424:
422:
403:
398:
394:
390:
363:
351:
275:
244:
212:
187:X-ray source
172:
140:
116:interference
93:
61:
17:X-ray optics
16:
15:
1530:Radiography
1496:19 November
1070:Rob Petre.
587:Zone plates
540:wavelengths
479:ultraviolet
381:Diffraction
235:Zone plates
120:zone plates
112:diffraction
27:instead of
1509:Categories
1437:2016-02-19
1332:2101.07788
1053:2016-12-14
988:13 January
963:2016-12-13
866:References
842:XMM-Newton
800:(W/Si) or
653:resolution
486:gamma rays
449:reflection
414:wavelength
356:a beam of
332:Reflection
302:absorption
280:of normal
252:condensers
241:Zone plate
143:collimated
124:refraction
96:reflection
1269:115277219
1118:(1): 94.
641:radiation
525:frequency
482:radiation
410:electrons
406:diffracts
326:chromatic
306:beryllium
256:chromatic
68:frequency
1458:Archived
1414:19582053
1365:44470446
1357:19292003
1297:Archived
1033:18268637
927:: 1–17.
820:See also
816:design.
802:platinum
794:tungsten
735:, where
649:contrast
622:imaging.
552:in phase
536:coherent
530:Two non-
521:coherent
497:neutrons
429:in phase
163:elements
136:crystals
1392:Bibcode
1337:Bibcode
1249:Bibcode
1214:Bibcode
1155:Bibcode
1120:Bibcode
1074:. NASA.
1013:Bibcode
929:Bibcode
810:slumped
798:silicon
693:iridium
354:reflect
322:silicon
310:lithium
294:concave
228:pinhole
161:of the
80:mirrors
1525:Optics
1515:X-rays
1412:
1363:
1355:
1267:
1093:
1031:
898:
790:NuSTAR
507:X-ray
358:X-rays
318:nickel
298:convex
282:lenses
76:lenses
72:photon
55:, and
25:X-rays
21:optics
1361:S2CID
1327:arXiv
1265:S2CID
959:. XOS
681:XRISM
544:phase
517:waves
1498:2019
1410:PMID
1353:PMID
1091:ISBN
1029:PMID
990:2015
925:2010
896:ISBN
844:and
691:and
689:gold
651:and
320:and
314:SU-8
181:and
114:and
78:and
70:and
1400:doi
1345:doi
1257:doi
1222:doi
1187:doi
1163:doi
1128:doi
1021:doi
937:doi
888:doi
655:of
308:or
224:keV
126:in
98:at
1511::
1456:.
1446:^
1430:.
1408:.
1398:.
1388:17
1386:.
1382:.
1359:.
1351:.
1343:.
1335:.
1323:36
1321:.
1317:.
1263:.
1255:.
1245:46
1243:.
1220:.
1210:48
1208:.
1161:.
1151:10
1149:.
1126:.
1116:10
1114:.
1062:^
1027:.
1019:.
1009:37
1007:.
980:.
935:.
923:.
919:.
894:.
874:^
858:,
854:,
527:.
492:.
455:.
316:,
138:.
122:,
59:.
51:,
47:,
43:,
39:,
35:,
1500:.
1440:.
1416:.
1402::
1394::
1367:.
1347::
1339::
1329::
1303:.
1284:.
1271:.
1259::
1251::
1228:.
1224::
1216::
1193:.
1189::
1169:.
1165::
1157::
1134:.
1130::
1122::
1099:.
1056:.
1035:.
1023::
1015::
992:.
966:.
945:.
939::
931::
904:.
890::
804:/
796:/
761:4
753:θ
749:λ
745:θ
741:θ
737:λ
733:θ
729:λ
725:R
721:r
717:R
628:.
610:.
599:.
589:.
583:.
445:θ
441:λ
437:θ
433:d
425:d
399:λ
395:θ
391:d
348:)
147:Z
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.