3364:
absorption coefficient of silicon at the wavelength of the aluminium Kα line is 50 m/kg, whereas that of iron is 377 m/kg. This means that fluorescent X-rays generated by a given concentration of aluminium in a matrix of iron are absorbed about seven times more (that is 377/50) compared with the fluorescent X-rays generated by the same concentration of aluminium, but in a silicon matrix. That would lead to about one seventh of the count rate, once the X-rays are detected. Fortunately, mass absorption coefficients are well known and can be calculated. However, to calculate the absorption for a multi-element sample, the composition must be known. For analysis of an unknown sample, an iterative procedure is therefore used. To derive the mass absorption accurately, data for the concentration of elements not measured by XRF may be needed, and various strategies are employed to estimate these. As an example, in cement analysis, the concentration of oxygen (which is not measured) is calculated by assuming that all other elements are present as standard oxides.
683:
high-precision analyses can be obtained in under 30 s. Another advantage of this arrangement is that the fixed-geometry monochromators have no continuously moving parts, and so are very reliable. Reliability is important in production environments where instruments are expected to work without interruption for months at a time. Disadvantages of simultaneous spectrometers include relatively high cost for complex analyses, since each channel used is expensive. The number of elements that can be measured is limited to 15–20, because of space limitations on the number of monochromators that can be crowded around the fluorescing sample. The need to accommodate multiple monochromators means that a rather open arrangement around the sample is required, leading to relatively long tube-sample-crystal distances, which leads to lower detected intensities and more scattering. The instrument is inflexible, because if a new element is to be measured, a new measurement channel has to be bought and installed.
3378:
those calculable from theory. When a powder is pressed into a tablet, the finer minerals concentrate at the surface. Spherical grains tend to migrate to the surface more than do angular grains. In machined metals, the softer components of an alloy tend to smear across the surface. Considerable care and ingenuity are required to minimize these effects. Because they are artifacts of the method of sample preparation, these effects can not be compensated by theoretical corrections, and must be "calibrated in". This means that the calibration materials and the unknowns must be compositionally and mechanically similar, and a given calibration is applicable only to a limited range of materials. Glasses most closely approach the ideal of homogeneity and isotropy, and for accurate work, minerals are usually prepared by dissolving them in a borate glass, and casting them into a flat disc or "bead". Prepared in this form, a virtually universal calibration is applicable.
690:
wavelengths, in each case selecting the appropriate X-ray tube power, the appropriate crystal, and the appropriate detector arrangement. The length of the measurement program is essentially unlimited, so this arrangement is very flexible. Because there is only one monochromator, the tube-sample-crystal distances can be kept very short, resulting in minimal loss of detected intensity. The obvious disadvantage is relatively long analysis time, particularly when many elements are being analysed, not only because the elements are measured in sequence, but also because a certain amount of time is taken in readjusting the monochromator geometry between measurements. Furthermore, the frenzied activity of the monochromator during an analysis program is a challenge for mechanical reliability. However, modern sequential instruments can achieve reliability almost as good as that of simultaneous instruments, even in continuous-usage applications.
3287:
long wavelengths (over 5 nm) are to be detected. The argon is ionised by incoming X-ray photons, and the electric field multiplies this charge into a measurable pulse. The methane suppresses the formation of fluorescent photons caused by recombination of the argon ions with stray electrons. The anode wire is typically tungsten or nichrome of 20–60 μm diameter. Since the pulse strength obtained is essentially proportional to the ratio of the detector chamber diameter to the wire diameter, a fine wire is needed, but it must also be strong enough to be maintained under tension so that it remains precisely straight and concentric with the detector. The window needs to be conductive, thin enough to transmit the X-rays effectively, but thick and strong enough to minimize diffusion of the detector gas into the high vacuum of the monochromator chamber. Materials often used are beryllium metal,
700:
tolerances for this placement and for the flatness of the surface must be very tight in order to maintain a repeatable X-ray flux. Ways of obtaining sample discs vary: metals may be machined to shape, minerals may be finely ground and pressed into a tablet, and glasses may be cast to the required shape. A further reason for obtaining a flat and representative sample surface is that the secondary X-rays from lighter elements often only emit from the top few micrometres of the sample. In order to further reduce the effect of surface irregularities, the sample is usually spun at 5–20 rpm. It is necessary to ensure that the sample is sufficiently thick to absorb the entire primary beam. For higher-Z materials, a few millimetres thickness is adequate, but for a light-element matrix such as coal, a thickness of 30–40 mm is needed.
626:
portability. This type of instrument is commonly used for portable quality control screening applications, such as testing toys for lead (Pb) content, sorting scrap metals, and measuring the lead content of residential paint. On the other hand, the low resolution and problems with low count rate and long dead-time makes them inferior for high-precision analysis. They are, however, very effective for high-speed, multi-elemental analysis. Field
Portable XRF analysers currently on the market weigh less than 2 kg, and have limits of detection on the order of 2 parts per million of lead (Pb) in pure sand. Using a Scanning Electron Microscope and using EDX, studies have been broadened to organic based samples such as biological samples and polymers.
495:
for any distance. Because of this, for high-performance analysis, the path from tube to sample to detector is maintained under vacuum (around 10 Pa residual pressure). This means in practice that most of the working parts of the instrument have to be located in a large vacuum chamber. The problems of maintaining moving parts in vacuum, and of rapidly introducing and withdrawing the sample without losing vacuum, pose major challenges for the design of the instrument. For less demanding applications, or when the sample is damaged by a vacuum (e.g. a volatile sample), a helium-swept X-ray chamber can be substituted, with some loss of low-Z (Z =
439:
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atomic number is low. When measuring trace amounts of an element, or when measuring on a variable light matrix, background correction becomes necessary. This is really only feasible on a sequential spectrometer. Line overlap is a common problem, bearing in mind that the spectrum of a complex mineral can contain several hundred measurable lines. Sometimes it can be overcome by measuring a less-intense, but overlap-free line, but in certain instances a correction is inevitable. For instance, the Kα is the only usable line for measuring sodium, and it overlaps the zinc Lβ (L
136:
597:
are, however, typically more drawn out in time (photons did not arrive exactly at the same time) than single photon events and pulse-length discrimination can thus be used to filter most of these out. Even so, a small number of pile-up peaks will remain and pile-up correction should be built into the software in applications that require trace analysis. To make the most efficient use of the detector, the tube current should be reduced to keep multi-photon events (before discrimination) at a reasonable level, e.g. 5–20%.
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voltage proportional to the photon energy. The crystal must be protected with a relatively thick aluminium/beryllium foil window, which limits the use of the detector to wavelengths below 0.25 nm. Scintillation counters are often connected in series with a gas flow proportional counter: the latter is provided with an outlet window opposite the inlet, to which the scintillation counter is attached. This arrangement is particularly used in sequential spectrometers.
923:), RbAP (rubidium hydrogen phthalate) and TlAP (thallium(I) hydrogen phthalate). In addition, there is an increasing use of "layered synthetic microstructures" (LSMs), which are "sandwich" structured materials comprising successive thick layers of low atomic number matrix, and monatomic layers of a heavy element. These can in principle be custom-manufactured to diffract any desired long wavelength, and are used extensively for elements in the range Li to Mg.
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757:(typically 8-fold) with higher resolution (typically 4-fold) and lower background. However, the mechanics of keeping Rowland circle geometry in a variable-angle monochromator is extremely difficult. In the case of fixed-angle monochromators (for use in simultaneous spectrometers), crystals bent to a logarithmic spiral shape give the best focusing performance. The manufacture of curved crystals to acceptable tolerances increases their price considerably.
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28:
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486:) which counts individual photons as they pass through. The counter is a chamber containing a gas that is ionized by X-ray photons. A central electrode is charged at (typically) +1700 V with respect to the conducting chamber walls, and each photon triggers a pulse-like cascade of current across this field. The signal is amplified and transformed into an accumulating digital count. These counts are then processed to obtain analytical data.
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X-ray photon passes through, it causes a swarm of electron-hole pairs to form, and this causes a voltage pulse. To obtain sufficiently low conductivity, the detector must be maintained at low temperature, and liquid-nitrogen cooling must be used for the best resolution. With some loss of resolution, the much more convenient
Peltier cooling can be employed.
466:
the same photon to measure the photon energy correctly (peak length discrimination is used to eliminate events that seem to have been produced by two X-ray photons arriving almost simultaneously). The spectrum is then built up by dividing the energy spectrum into discrete bins and counting the number of pulses registered within each energy bin.
69:
31:
30:
35:
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29:
306:) target are most commonly used, because their output can readily be "tuned" for the application, and because higher power can be deployed relative to other techniques. X-ray generators in the range 20–60 kV are used, which allow excitation of a broad range of atoms. The continuous spectrum consists of "
36:
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consist of effects of inhomogeneities of the sample, and unrepresentative conditions at its surface. Samples are ideally homogeneous and isotropic, but they often deviate from this ideal. Mixtures of multiple crystalline components in mineral powders can result in absorption effects that deviate from
3286:
are used mainly for detection of longer wavelengths. Gas flows through it continuously. Where there are multiple detectors, the gas is passed through them in series, then led to waste. The gas is usually 90% argon, 10% methane ("P10"), although the argon may be replaced with neon or helium where very
3058:
This means, that by intense study of these spectral lines, one can obtain several crucial pieces of information from a sample. Especially, if there are references that have been studied in detail and can be used to make out differences. The information collected from this kind of measurement include:
731:
is a stack of parallel metal plates, spaced a few tenths of a millimeter apart. To improve angular resolution, one must lengthen the collimator, and/or reduce the plate spacing. This arrangement has the advantage of simplicity and relatively low cost, but the collimators reduce intensity and increase
465:
ionizes a large number of detector atoms with the amount of charge produced being proportional to the energy of the incoming photon. The charge is then collected and the process repeats itself for the next photon. Detector speed is obviously critical, as all charge carriers measured have to come from
3381:
Further corrections that are often employed include background correction and line overlap correction. The background signal in an XRF spectrum derives primarily from scattering of primary beam photons by the sample surface. Scattering varies with the sample mass absorption, being greatest when mean
756:
The
Rowland circle geometry ensures that the slits are both in focus, but in order for the Bragg condition to be met at all points, the crystal must first be bent to a radius of 2R (where R is the radius of the Rowland circle), then ground to a radius of R. This arrangement allows higher intensities
494:
The fluorescence process is inefficient, and the secondary radiation is much weaker than the primary beam. Furthermore, the secondary radiation from lighter elements is of relatively low energy (long wavelength) and has low penetrating power, and is severely attenuated if the beam passes through air
3363:
X-rays to some extent. Each element has a characteristic absorption spectrum which consists of a "saw-tooth" succession of fringes, each step-change of which has wavelength close to an emission line of the element. Absorption attenuates the secondary X-rays leaving the sample. For example, the mass
625:
spectrometers in that they are smaller, simpler in design and have fewer engineered parts, however the accuracy and resolution of EDX spectrometers are lower than for WDX. EDX spectrometers can also use miniature X-ray tubes or gamma sources, which makes them cheaper and allows miniaturization and
567:
These consist essentially of a 3–5 mm thick silicon junction type p-i-n diode (same as PIN diode) with a bias of −1000 V across it. The lithium-drifted centre part forms the non-conducting i-layer, where Li compensates the residual acceptors which would otherwise make the layer p-type. When an
689:
have a single variable-geometry monochromator (but usually with an arrangement for selecting from a choice of crystals), a single detector assembly (but usually with more than one detector arranged in tandem), and a single electronic pack. The instrument is programmed to move through a sequence of
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are similar to the gas flow proportional counter, except that the gas does not flow through it. The gas is usually krypton or xenon at a few atmospheres pressure. They are applied usually to wavelengths in the 0.15–0.6 nm range. They are applicable in principle to longer wavelengths, but are
3257:
Detectors used for wavelength dispersive spectrometry need to have high pulse processing speeds in order to cope with the very high photon count rates that can be obtained. In addition, they need sufficient energy resolution to allow filtering-out of background noise and spurious photons from the
605:
Considerable computer power is dedicated to correcting for pulse-pile up and for extraction of data from poorly resolved spectra. These elaborate correction processes tend to be based on empirical relationships that may change with time, so that continuous vigilance is required in order to obtain
596:
amplifiers. It takes time for the amplifier to shape the pulse for optimum resolution, and there is therefore a trade-off between resolution and count-rate: long processing time for good resolution results in "pulse pile-up" in which the pulses from successive photons overlap. Multi-photon events
3305:
consist of a scintillating crystal (typically of sodium iodide doped with thallium) attached to a photomultiplier. The crystal produces a group of scintillations for each photon absorbed, the number being proportional to the photon energy. This translates into a pulse from the photomultiplier of
699:
In order to keep the geometry of the tube-sample-detector assembly constant, the sample is normally prepared as a flat disc, typically of diameter 20–50 mm. This is located at a standardized, small distance from the tube window. Because the X-ray intensity follows an inverse-square law, the
674:
on a single crystal before being detected. Although wavelength dispersive spectrometers are occasionally used to scan a wide range of wavelengths, producing a spectrum plot as in EDS, they are usually set up to make measurements only at the wavelength of the emission lines of the elements of
609:
Digital pulse processors are widely used in high performance nuclear instrumentation. They are able to effectively reduce pile-up and base line shifts, allowing for easier processing. A low pass filter is integrated, improving the signal to noise ratio. The
Digital Pulse Processor requires a
682:
have a number of "channels" dedicated to analysis of a single element, each consisting of a fixed-geometry crystal monochromator, a detector, and processing electronics. This allows a number of elements to be measured simultaneously, and in the case of high-powered instruments, complete
883:
Crystals with simple structures tend to give the best diffraction performance. Crystals containing heavy atoms can diffract well, but also fluoresce more in the higher energy region, causing interference. Crystals that are water-soluble, volatile or organic tend to give poor stability.
3291:
and aluminised polypropylene. Ultra-thin windows (down to 1 μm) for use with low-penetration long wavelengths are very expensive. The pulses are sorted electronically by "pulse height selection" in order to isolate those pulses deriving from the secondary X-ray photons being counted.
3370:
occurs where the secondary X-rays emitted by a heavier element are sufficiently energetic to stimulate additional secondary emission from a lighter element. This phenomenon can also be modelled, and corrections can be made provided that the full matrix composition can be deduced.
926:
In scientific methods that use X-ray/neutron or electron diffraction the before mentioned planes of a diffraction can be doubled to display higher order reflections. The given planes, resulting from Miller indices, can be calculated for a single crystal. The resulting values for
33:
198:
energy. Following removal of an inner electron by an energetic photon provided by a primary radiation source, an electron from an outer shell drops into its place. There are a limited number of ways in which this can happen, as shown in Figure 1. The main transitions are
470:
detector types vary in resolution, speed and the means of cooling (a low number of free charge carriers is critical in the solid state detectors): proportional counters with resolutions of several hundred eV cover the low end of the performance spectrum, followed by
550:
spectrometers (EDX or EDS), the detector allows the determination of the energy of the photon when it is detected. Detectors historically have been based on silicon semiconductors, in the form of lithium-drifted silicon crystals, or high-purity silicon wafers.
343:
analysis, the fluorescent X-rays emitted by the material sample are directed into a solid-state detector which produces a "continuous" distribution of pulses, the voltages of which are proportional to the incoming photon energies. This signal is processed by a
769:. In this model, a given reflection is associated with a set of evenly spaced sheets running through the crystal, usually passing through the centers of the atoms of the crystal lattice. The orientation of a particular set of sheets is identified by its
3581:
Pessanha, Sofia; Queralt, Ignasi; Carvalho, Maria Luísa; Sampaio, Jorge Miguel (1 October 2019). "Determination of gold leaf thickness using X-ray fluorescence spectrometry: Accuracy comparison using analytical methodology and Monte Carlo simulations".
163:
left behind. In falling, energy is released in the form of a photon, the energy of which is equal to the energy difference of the two orbitals involved. Thus, the material emits radiation, which has energy characteristic of the atoms present. The term
935:. So a single crystal can be variable in the way, that many reflection configurations of that crystal can be used to reflect different energy ranges. The Germanium (Ge111) crystal, for example, can also be used as a Ge333, Ge444 and more.
218:, and so on. Each of these transitions yields a fluorescent photon with a characteristic energy equal to the difference in energy of the initial and final orbital. The wavelength of this fluorescent radiation can be calculated from
3323:
A glass "bead" specimen for XRF analysis being cast at around 1100 °C in a Herzog automated fusion machine in a cement plant quality control laboratory. 1 (top): fusing, 2: preheating the mould, 3: pouring the melt, 4: cooling the
1546:
The spectral lines used for elemental analysis of chemicals are selected on the basis of intensity, accessibility by the instrument, and lack of line overlaps. Typical lines used, and their wavelengths, are as follows:
789:. William Lawrence Bragg proposed a model in which the incoming X-rays are scattered specularly (mirror-like) from each plane; from that assumption, X-rays scattered from adjacent planes will combine constructively (
310:" radiation: radiation produced when high-energy electrons passing through the tube are progressively decelerated by the material of the tube anode (the "target"). A typical tube output spectrum is shown in Figure 3.
515:
in 1928. Today, the method is used as a non-destructive analytical technique, and as a process control tool in many extractive and processing industries. In principle, the lightest element that can be analysed is
363:. The diffraction grating used is usually a single crystal. By varying the angle of incidence and take-off on the crystal, a small X-ray wavelength range can be selected. The wavelength obtained is given by
32:
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421:
716:
The common feature of monochromators is the maintenance of a symmetrical geometry between the sample, the crystal and the detector. In this geometry the Bragg diffraction condition is obtained.
3754:
941:
Notice, that the Ge222 configuration is forbidden due to diffraction rules stating, that all allowed reflections must be with all odd or all even Miller indices that, combined, result in
3333:
At first sight, the translation of X-ray photon count-rates into elemental concentrations would appear to be straightforward: WDX separates the X-ray lines efficiently, and the rate of
3460:
X-ray fluorescence imaging is a newer technique that allows control over depth, in addition to horizontal and vertical aiming, for example, when analysing buried layers in a painting.
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analysis). Once sorted, the intensity of each characteristic radiation is directly related to the amount of each element in the material. This is the basis of a powerful technique in
261:
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of the atom. The removal of an electron in this way makes the electronic structure of the atom unstable, and electrons in higher orbitals "fall" into the lower orbital to fill the
4042:
3025:-line spectra and the surrounding chemical environment of the ionized metal atom, measurements of the so-called valence-to-core (V2C) energy region become increasingly viable.
3168:
3312:
can be used in theory, and their applications are increasing as their technology improves, but historically their use for WDX has been restricted by their slow response (see
151:
may take place. Ionization consists of the ejection of one or more electrons from the atom, and may occur if the atom is exposed to radiation with an energy greater than its
3055:-line intensities and energies shift with oxidation state of the metal and with the species of ligand(s). Spin states in a compound tend to affect this kind of measurement.
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scattering, and reduce the area of sample and crystal that can be "seen". The simplicity of the geometry is especially useful for variable-geometry monochromators.
313:
For portable XRF spectrometers, copper target is usually bombared with high energy electrons, that are produced either by impact laser or by pyroelectric crystals.
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is applied to phenomena in which the absorption of radiation of a specific energy results in the re-emission of radiation of a different energy (generally lower).
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facilities, although a number of so-called "in-lab"-spectrometers have been developed and used for pre-beamtime (time at a synchrotron) measurements.
508:
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X-ray diffraction (XRD) is still the most used method for structural analysis of chemical compounds. Yet, with increasing detail on the relation of
320:(such as Cd, Co, Fe, Pu and Am) can be used without the need for an elaborate power supply, allowing for easier use in small, portable instruments.
4817:
4812:
938:
For that reason the corresponding indices used for a particular experimental setup always get noted behind the crystal material(e.g. Ge111, Ge444)
719:
The X-ray emission lines are very narrow (see figure 2), so the angles must be defined with considerable precision. This is achieved in two ways:
520:(Z = 4), but due to instrumental limitations and low X-ray yields for the light elements, it is often difficult to quantify elements lighter than
328:
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Kawai, Jun. "Pyroelectric X-Ray
Emission." X-Ray Spectroscopy for Chemical State Analysis. Singapore: Springer Nature Singapore, 2022. 107-133.
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In order to excite the atoms, a source of radiation is required, with sufficient energy to expel tightly held inner electrons. Conventional
4854:
4827:
3950:(2013). "Chapter 2. Technologies for Detecting Metals in Single Cells. Section 4, Intrinsic X-Ray Fluorescence". In Banci, Lucia (ed.).
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X-ray fluorescence spectrometer which are used to check for metals coating thickness and any of potential contamination of unapproved
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352:
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331:, the X-ray beam can be very small and very intense. As a result, atomic information on the sub-micrometer scale can be obtained.
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3517: – Resonant and recoil-free emission and absorption of gamma radiation by atomic nuclei, resonant fluorescence of gamma rays
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It is also possible to create a characteristic secondary X-ray emission using other incident radiation to excite the sample:
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Structural electronic configuration around the central metal atom (determine intensity, broadening, tailing and piloting of
278:. Figure 2 shows the typical form of the sharp fluorescent spectral lines obtained in the wavelength-dispersive method (see
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A Philips PW1606 X-ray fluorescence spectrometer with automated sample feed in a cement plant quality control laboratory
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In wavelength-dispersive analysis, the single-wavelength radiation produced by the monochromator is passed into a
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3665:"High-energy x-ray production with pyroelectric crystals | Journal of Applied Physics | AIP Publishing"
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More recently, high-purity silicon wafers with low conductivity have become routinely available. Cooled by the
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cooled Si(Li) detector still has the best resolution (i.e. ability to distinguish different photon energies).
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limited by the problem of manufacturing a thin window capable of withstanding the high pressure difference.
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In energy-dispersive analysis, dispersion and detection are a single operation, as already mentioned above.
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3786:"Confocal X-ray Fluorescence Imaging and XRF Tomography for Three-Dimensional Trace Element Microanalysis"
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348:(MCA) which produces an accumulating digital spectrum that can be processed to obtain analytical data.
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A seven-crystal Johann-type hard x-ray spectrometer at the
Stanford Synchrotron Radiation Lightsource
3423:
When radiated by an X-ray beam, the sample also emits other radiations that can be used for analysis:
507:
The use of a primary X-ray beam to excite fluorescent radiation from the sample was first proposed by
185:
Figure 3: Spectrum of a rhodium target tube operated at 60 kV, showing continuous spectrum and K lines
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524:(Z = 11), unless background corrections and very comprehensive inter-element corrections are made.
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of secondary photons is proportional to the element concentration. However, the number of photons
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between the plane and the X-ray results in a path-length difference that is an integer multiple
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3390:) line. Thus zinc, if present, must be analysed in order to properly correct the sodium value.
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155:. X-rays and gamma rays can be energetic enough to expel tightly held electrons from the inner
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detectors, while the Si(Li), Ge(Li) and SDDs occupy the high end of the performance scale.
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The fluorescent radiation can be analysed either by sorting the energies of the photons (
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Other lines are often used, depending on the type of sample and equipment available.
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primary beam or from crystal fluorescence. There are four common types of detector:
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from a material that has been excited by being bombarded with high-energy X-rays or
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used for X-ray fluorescence analysis of individual grains of mineral specimens,
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Multilayers quantitative X-ray fluorescence analysis applied to easel paintings
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SDD) are used. They all share the same detection principle: An incoming X-ray
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A Practical Guide for the
Preparation of Specimens for XRF and XRD Analysis
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analysis, the fluorescent X-rays emitted by the sample are directed into a
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112:
3474:
A 2001 review, addresses the application of portable instrumentation from
16:
Emission of secondary X-rays from a material excited by high-energy X-rays
5090:
5024:
5014:
4172:
3246:
765:
An intuitive understanding of X-ray diffraction can be obtained from the
671:
324:
120:
3612:
3028:
Scientists noted that after ionization of 3d-transition metal atom, the
5171:
5151:
4592:
4587:
4296:
4162:
3954:. Metal Ions in Life Sciences. Vol. 12. Springer. pp. 15–40.
3393:
642:
637:
144:
88:
4532:
3341:
is also affected by the physical properties of the sample: so-called "
3275:
610:
significant amount of energy to run, but it provides precise results.
554:
139:
Figure 1: Physics of X-ray fluorescence in a schematic representation.
52:
5039:
4694:
3711:
3319:
1129:
896:
633:
Figure 6: Schematic arrangement of wavelength dispersive spectrometer
517:
472:
454:
124:
41:
3818:
703:
5141:
4607:
4167:
3858:
Beckhoff, B., Kanngießer, B., Langhoff, N., Wedell, R., Wolff, H.,
3498: – Frequencies of light emitted by atoms or chemical compounds
3427:
3402:
3063:
Oxidation state of the central metal atom in a compound (shifts of
1287:
904:
629:
527:
299:
295:
3715:
Transmission electron microscopy: a textbook for materials science
181:
5095:
4777:
4291:
3482:
perspectives. It provides a guide to the development of a set of
2990:
1427:
900:
430:
is the spacing of atomic layers parallel to the crystal surface.
303:
204:
108:
83:) is the emission of characteristic "secondary" (or fluorescent)
57:
4056:
5115:
4126:
4051:
3771:
X-ray
Crystal Spectrometers and Monochromators in Microanalysis
3643:
521:
462:
84:
19:
3580:
580:, this provides a cheap and convenient detector, although the
4101:
4087:
270:
analysis) or by separating the wavelengths of the radiation (
104:
100:
3102:
Spin states of transition metal complexes (general shape of
851:
The desirable characteristics of a diffraction crystal are:
5100:
3416:
1315:
148:
61:
173:
3412:
1021:
663:
3876:
Principles and
Practice of X-ray Spectrometric Analysis
3500:
Pages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets
3486:
if regulatory compliance guidelines are not available.
3279:
Figure 11: Arrangement of gas flow proportional counter
722:
147:
X-rays or to gamma rays, ionization of their component
4013:
2nd ed.; Marcel Dekker Inc.: New York, 2002; Vol. 29;
3819:"Field portable XRF analysis of environmental samples"
592:
The pulses generated by the detector are processed by
3215:
3179:
3144:
3108:
3069:
3034:
3004:
970:
947:
810:
653:
416:{\displaystyle n\cdot \lambda =2d\cdot \sin(\theta )}
376:
231:
3816:
3525:
Pages displaying wikidata descriptions as a fallback
3394:
Other spectroscopic methods using the same principle
177:
Figure 2: Typical wavelength dispersive XRF spectrum
3454:(AES) normally uses an electron beam as the probe.
531:
Figure 4: Schematic arrangement of EDX spectrometer
3233:
3201:
3162:
3130:
3091:
3047:
3017:
976:
956:
840:
675:interest. This is achieved in two different ways:
415:
255:
3861:Handbook of Practical X-Ray Fluorescence Analysis
535:
5220:
3712:David Bernard Williams; C. Barry Carter (1996).
3546:, Anal Bioanal Chem. 2009 Dec; 395(7): 2015-20.
3328:
4962:Serial block-face scanning electron microscopy
4665:Detectors for transmission electron microscopy
3679:"Radioisotope X-Ray Fluorescence Spectrometry"
739:Figure 8: Flat crystal with Soller collimators
4548:
4072:
3345:". These fall broadly into three categories:
887:Commonly used crystal materials include LiF (
558:Figure 5: Schematic form of a Si(Li) detector
327:or the X-rays are focused by an optic like a
3930:Jenkins, R., R.W. Gould, R. W., Gedcke, D.,
2985:
751:
285:
203:: an L→K transition is traditionally called
111:and building materials, and for research in
3946:
3463:
3440:electron spectroscopy for chemical analysis
1541:
453:or various types of solid-state detectors (
316:Alternatively, gamma ray sources, based on
189:
4555:
4541:
4079:
4065:
3888:Buhrke, V. E., Jenkins, R., Smith, D. K.,
3817:Kalnickya, Dennis J.; Raj Singhvi (2001).
873:Stability in air and on exposure to X-rays
3801:
3783:
3611:
841:{\displaystyle 2d\sin \theta =n\lambda .}
4041:) is being considered for deletion. See
3744:(PDF) June 2016, last checked 20.07.2020
3318:
3274:
2989:
915:-(hydroxymethyl)-methane, also known as
742:
734:
702:
636:
628:
553:
526:
437:
256:{\displaystyle \lambda ={\frac {hc}{E}}}
194:Each element has electronic orbitals of
180:
172:
134:
67:
51:
26:
18:
4562:
3878:, Kluwer Academic / Plenum Publishers,
99:, particularly in the investigation of
5221:
4007:Van Grieken, R. E., Markowicz, A. A.,
3718:. Vol. 2. Springer. p. 559.
3245:These measurements are mostly done at
4536:
4060:
988:Properties of commonly used crystals
785:), and let their spacing be noted by
707:Figure 7: Bragg diffraction condition
694:
606:chemical data of adequate precision.
130:
5201:
3810:
870:Low thermal coefficient of expansion
760:
723:Flat crystal with Söller collimators
542:Energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy
502:
143:When materials are exposed to short-
91:. The phenomenon is widely used for
747:Figure 9: Curved crystal with slits
562:
298:bombardment of a heavy metal (i.e.
13:
3542:De Viguerie L, Sole VA, Walter P,
3505:List of materials analysis methods
801:of the X-ray wavelength λ.(Fig.7)
654:Wavelength dispersive spectrometry
571:
489:
14:
5265:
4598:Timeline of microscope technology
4086:
4045:to help reach a consensus. ›
4024:
2994:Figure 10:K-Beta Mainline and V2C
711:
621:spectrometers are different from
5200:
5189:
5188:
3698:Glocker, R., and Schreiber, H.,
3436:X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy
3099:-mainline in low-spin complexes)
670:), the photons are separated by
442:A portable XRF analyzer using a
4957:Precession electron diffraction
3933:Quantitative X-ray Spectrometry
3904:X-ray Fluorescence Spectrometry
3777:
3762:
3747:
3417:particle induced X-ray emission
867:Absence of interfering elements
214:, an M→L transition is called L
210:, an M→K transition is called K
4010:Handbook of X-Ray Spectrometry
3916:Jenkins, R., De Vries, J. L.,
3823:Journal of Hazardous Materials
3732:
3705:
3692:
3671:
3657:
3648:
3604:10.1016/j.apradiso.2019.06.014
3584:Applied Radiation and Isotopes
3574:
3556:
3536:
3446:The de-excitation also ejects
3284:Gas flow proportional counters
3262:gas flow proportional counters
536:Energy dispersive spectrometry
410:
404:
1:
4030:
3852:
3835:10.1016/S0304-3894(00)00330-7
3774:2001, last checked 20.07.2020
3759:2013, last checked 20.07.2020
3521:X-ray fluorescence holography
3329:Extracting analytical results
3202:{\displaystyle K_{\beta 2,5}}
3131:{\displaystyle K_{\beta 1,3}}
3092:{\displaystyle K_{\beta 1,3}}
893:ammonium dihydrogen phosphate
600:
587:
334:
46:Syndics of the Drapers' Guild
3918:Practical X-ray Spectrometry
3790:Microscopy and Microanalysis
3252:
3234:{\displaystyle K_{\beta ''}}
984:is the order of reflection.
921:potassium hydrogen phthalate
861:Narrow diffracted peak width
680:"Simultaneous" spectrometers
433:
323:When the energy source is a
72:A handheld XRF analyzer gun.
7:
3960:10.1007/978-94-007-5561-1_2
3741:Advanced X-Ray Spectroscopy
3489:
3470:Verification and validation
3452:Auger electron spectroscopy
3163:{\displaystyle K_{\beta '}}
10:
5270:
4942:Immune electron microscopy
4860:Annular dark-field imaging
4675:Everhart–Thornley detector
4351:X-Ray Fluorescence Imaging
4239:Anomalous X-ray scattering
3467:
3375:Sample macroscopic effects
3355:sample macroscopic effects
3048:{\displaystyle K_{\beta }}
3018:{\displaystyle K_{\beta }}
855:High diffraction intensity
767:Bragg model of diffraction
687:"Sequential" spectrometers
539:
5184:
5129:
5096:Hitachi High-Technologies
5078:
4987:
4980:
4847:
4791:
4753:
4710:
4703:
4657:
4606:
4570:
4498:
4430:
4379:
4264:
4257:
4196:
4155:
4094:
3920:, Springer-Verlag, 1973,
3803:10.1017/S1431927605503167
3552:10.1007/s00216-009-2997-0
2986:Structural analysis lines
992:
791:constructive interference
752:Curved crystal with slits
482:(a detector similar to a
286:Primary radiation sources
5121:Thermo Fisher Scientific
4947:Geometric phase analysis
4835:Aberration-Corrected TEM
4178:Synchrotron light source
4043:templates for discussion
3952:Metallomics and the Cell
3686:Technical Reports Series
3530:
3510:Micro-X-ray fluorescence
3464:Instrument qualification
1542:Elemental analysis lines
1015:
1012:
1009:
1006:
1003:
1000:
995:
613:
190:Characteristic radiation
123:and art objects such as
4870:Charge contrast imaging
4680:Field electron emission
4197:Interaction with matter
4156:Sources and instruments
3310:Semiconductor detectors
3271:semiconductor detectors
864:High peak-to-background
58:Helmut Fischer(company)
5060:Thomas Eugene Everhart
4329:Diffraction tomography
3523: – imaging method
3325:
3303:Scintillation counters
3280:
3268:scintillation counters
3235:
3203:
3164:
3132:
3093:
3049:
3019:
2995:
978:
958:
842:
748:
740:
708:
650:
647:U.S. Geological Survey
634:
559:
532:
459:silicon drift detector
446:
444:silicon drift detector
417:
257:
186:
178:
140:
73:
65:
49:
24:
5249:Scientific techniques
5065:Vernon Ellis Cosslett
4885:Dark-field microscopy
4440:X-ray crystallography
4309:Soft x-ray microscopy
4277:Panoramic radiography
4117:Synchrotron radiation
3948:Penner-Hahn, James E.
3702:, 85, (1928), p. 1089
3496:Emission spectroscopy
3468:Further information:
3322:
3278:
3236:
3204:
3165:
3133:
3094:
3050:
3020:
2993:
979:
959:
843:
746:
738:
706:
660:wavelength dispersive
640:
632:
557:
530:
451:Proportional counters
441:
418:
353:wavelength-dispersive
346:multichannel analyzer
272:wavelength-dispersive
258:
184:
176:
138:
71:
55:
39:
22:
5070:Vladimir K. Zworykin
4720:Correlative light EM
4629:Electron diffraction
4209:Photoelectric effect
4142:Characteristic X-ray
3564:"X-Ray Fluorescence"
3432:photoelectric effect
3296:Sealed gas detectors
3265:sealed gas detectors
3213:
3177:
3142:
3106:
3067:
3032:
3002:
968:
945:
808:
771:three Miller indices
374:
318:radioactive isotopes
276:analytical chemistry
229:
40:XRF scanning of the
5035:Manfred von Ardenne
5020:Gerasimos Danilatos
4927:Electron tomography
4922:Electron holography
4865:Cathodoluminescence
4644:Secondary electrons
4634:Electron scattering
4578:Electron microscopy
4564:Electron microscopy
4229:Photodisintegration
4204:Rayleigh scattering
4183:Free-electron laser
3700:Annalen der Physik.
3596:2019AppRI.152....6P
3458:Confocal microscopy
3438:(XPS), also called
3407:electron microprobe
3289:aluminised PET film
989:
641:Chemist operates a
357:diffraction grating
5239:X-ray spectroscopy
5157:Digital Micrograph
4763:Environmental SEM
4685:Field emission gun
4649:X-ray fluorescence
4470:X-ray reflectivity
4249:X-ray fluorescence
4214:Compton scattering
4147:High-energy X-rays
3864:, Springer, 2006,
3784:L. Vincze (2005).
3339:leaving the sample
3326:
3281:
3231:
3199:
3160:
3128:
3089:
3045:
3015:
2996:
1013:thermal expansion
987:
974:
957:{\displaystyle 4n}
954:
876:Ready availability
838:
749:
741:
709:
695:Sample preparation
651:
635:
560:
533:
457:, Si(Li), Ge(Li),
447:
413:
253:
187:
179:
141:
131:Underlying physics
93:elemental analysis
77:X-ray fluorescence
74:
66:
50:
25:
5234:Molecular physics
5216:
5215:
5180:
5179:
5050:Nestor J. Zaluzec
5045:Maximilian Haider
4843:
4842:
4530:
4529:
4526:
4525:
4518:X-ray lithography
4450:Backscatter X-ray
4445:X-ray diffraction
4272:X-ray radiography
4244:X-ray diffraction
4137:Siegbahn notation
3988:978-94-007-5561-1
3969:978-94-007-5560-4
3936:, Marcel Dekker,
3725:978-0-306-45324-3
3352:X-ray enhancement
2980:
2979:
1539:
1538:
977:{\displaystyle n}
909:indium antimonide
793:) when the angle
761:Crystal materials
729:Söller collimator
548:energy-dispersive
503:Chemical analysis
341:energy-dispersive
268:energy-dispersive
251:
153:ionization energy
97:chemical analysis
37:
5261:
5204:
5203:
5192:
5191:
5000:Bodo von Borries
4985:
4984:
4745:Photoemission EM
4708:
4707:
4557:
4550:
4543:
4534:
4533:
4356:X-ray holography
4262:
4261:
4234:Radiation damage
4081:
4074:
4067:
4058:
4057:
3982:electronic-book
3981:
3847:
3846:
3814:
3808:
3807:
3805:
3781:
3775:
3766:
3760:
3751:
3745:
3736:
3730:
3729:
3709:
3703:
3696:
3690:
3689:
3683:
3675:
3669:
3668:
3661:
3655:
3652:
3646:
3641:
3615:
3578:
3572:
3571:
3560:
3554:
3540:
3526:
3515:Mössbauer effect
3501:
3349:X-ray absorption
3240:
3238:
3237:
3232:
3230:
3229:
3228:
3208:
3206:
3205:
3200:
3198:
3197:
3169:
3167:
3166:
3161:
3159:
3158:
3157:
3137:
3135:
3134:
3129:
3127:
3126:
3098:
3096:
3095:
3090:
3088:
3087:
3054:
3052:
3051:
3046:
3044:
3043:
3024:
3022:
3021:
3016:
3014:
3013:
1594:wavelength (nm)
1550:
1549:
990:
986:
983:
981:
980:
975:
963:
961:
960:
955:
931:are then called
889:lithium fluoride
847:
845:
844:
839:
796:
563:Si(Li) detectors
422:
420:
419:
414:
292:X-ray generators
262:
260:
259:
254:
252:
247:
239:
117:forensic science
38:
5269:
5268:
5264:
5263:
5262:
5260:
5259:
5258:
5219:
5218:
5217:
5212:
5176:
5125:
5074:
5055:Ondrej Krivanek
4976:
4839:
4787:
4749:
4735:Liquid-Phase EM
4699:
4658:Instrumentation
4653:
4611:
4602:
4566:
4561:
4531:
4522:
4506:X-ray astronomy
4494:
4426:
4375:
4361:X-ray telescope
4253:
4224:Photoionization
4192:
4188:X-ray nanoprobe
4151:
4107:Absorption edge
4095:Characteristics
4090:
4085:
4046:
4027:
3970:
3892:, Wiley, 1998,
3874:Bertin, E. P.,
3855:
3850:
3829:(1–2): 93–122.
3815:
3811:
3782:
3778:
3767:
3763:
3752:
3748:
3737:
3733:
3726:
3710:
3706:
3697:
3693:
3681:
3677:
3676:
3672:
3663:
3662:
3658:
3653:
3649:
3579:
3575:
3562:
3561:
3557:
3541:
3537:
3533:
3524:
3499:
3492:
3472:
3466:
3448:Auger electrons
3430:ejected by the
3396:
3389:
3385:
3331:
3255:
3221:
3220:
3216:
3214:
3211:
3210:
3184:
3180:
3178:
3175:
3174:
3150:
3149:
3145:
3143:
3140:
3139:
3113:
3109:
3107:
3104:
3103:
3074:
3070:
3068:
3065:
3064:
3039:
3035:
3033:
3030:
3029:
3009:
3005:
3003:
3000:
2999:
2988:
2973:
2959:
2945:
2931:
2917:
2903:
2889:
2875:
2861:
2847:
2833:
2819:
2805:
2791:
2777:
2763:
2749:
2735:
2721:
2707:
2693:
2679:
2665:
2651:
2637:
2623:
2609:
2595:
2581:
2567:
2553:
2539:
2525:
2511:
2497:
2483:
2469:
2455:
2441:
2427:
2413:
2399:
2385:
2371:
2357:
2343:
2329:
2315:
2301:
2287:
2273:
2259:
2245:
2231:
2217:
2203:
2189:
2175:
2161:
2147:
2133:
2119:
2105:
2091:
2077:
2063:
2049:
2035:
2021:
2007:
1993:
1979:
1965:
1951:
1937:
1923:
1909:
1895:
1881:
1856:
1842:
1828:
1803:
1789:
1775:
1750:
1736:
1722:
1697:
1683:
1669:
1644:
1630:
1616:
1583:wavelength (nm)
1572:wavelength (nm)
1561:wavelength (nm)
1544:
1487:
969:
966:
965:
946:
943:
942:
917:pentaerythritol
858:High dispersion
809:
806:
805:
794:
763:
754:
725:
714:
697:
662:spectrometers (
656:
616:
603:
590:
582:liquid nitrogen
574:
572:Wafer detectors
565:
544:
538:
505:
499:) intensities.
492:
490:X-ray intensity
480:photomultiplier
436:
375:
372:
371:
337:
288:
240:
238:
230:
227:
226:
217:
213:
208:
192:
133:
27:
17:
12:
11:
5:
5267:
5257:
5256:
5251:
5246:
5241:
5236:
5231:
5229:Atomic physics
5214:
5213:
5211:
5210:
5198:
5185:
5182:
5181:
5178:
5177:
5175:
5174:
5169:
5164:
5162:Direct methods
5159:
5154:
5149:
5144:
5139:
5133:
5131:
5127:
5126:
5124:
5123:
5118:
5113:
5108:
5103:
5098:
5093:
5088:
5082:
5080:
5076:
5075:
5073:
5072:
5067:
5062:
5057:
5052:
5047:
5042:
5037:
5032:
5027:
5022:
5017:
5012:
5010:Ernst G. Bauer
5007:
5002:
4997:
4991:
4989:
4982:
4978:
4977:
4975:
4974:
4969:
4964:
4959:
4954:
4949:
4944:
4939:
4934:
4929:
4924:
4919:
4914:
4909:
4904:
4903:
4902:
4892:
4887:
4882:
4877:
4872:
4867:
4862:
4857:
4851:
4849:
4845:
4844:
4841:
4840:
4838:
4837:
4832:
4831:
4830:
4820:
4815:
4810:
4809:
4808:
4797:
4795:
4789:
4788:
4786:
4785:
4780:
4775:
4770:
4765:
4759:
4757:
4751:
4750:
4748:
4747:
4742:
4737:
4732:
4727:
4722:
4716:
4714:
4705:
4701:
4700:
4698:
4697:
4692:
4687:
4682:
4677:
4672:
4667:
4661:
4659:
4655:
4654:
4652:
4651:
4646:
4641:
4636:
4631:
4626:
4624:Bremsstrahlung
4621:
4615:
4613:
4604:
4603:
4601:
4600:
4595:
4590:
4585:
4580:
4574:
4572:
4568:
4567:
4560:
4559:
4552:
4545:
4537:
4528:
4527:
4524:
4523:
4521:
4520:
4515:
4514:
4513:
4502:
4500:
4496:
4495:
4493:
4492:
4487:
4482:
4477:
4472:
4467:
4462:
4457:
4452:
4447:
4442:
4436:
4434:
4428:
4427:
4425:
4424:
4419:
4414:
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578:Peltier effect
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540:Main article:
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484:Geiger counter
435:
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287:
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250:
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243:
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215:
211:
206:
196:characteristic
191:
188:
132:
129:
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
5266:
5255:
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5232:
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5224:
5209:
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5199:
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5187:
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5173:
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5168:
5165:
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5160:
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5138:
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5128:
5122:
5119:
5117:
5114:
5112:
5109:
5107:
5104:
5102:
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5097:
5094:
5092:
5089:
5087:
5086:Carl Zeiss AG
5084:
5083:
5081:
5079:Manufacturers
5077:
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5056:
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5038:
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5033:
5031:
5030:James Hillier
5028:
5026:
5023:
5021:
5018:
5016:
5013:
5011:
5008:
5006:
5003:
5001:
4998:
4996:
4993:
4992:
4990:
4986:
4983:
4979:
4973:
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4908:
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4796:
4794:
4790:
4784:
4783:Ultrafast SEM
4781:
4779:
4776:
4774:
4771:
4769:
4766:
4764:
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4760:
4758:
4756:
4752:
4746:
4743:
4741:
4740:Low-energy EM
4738:
4736:
4733:
4731:
4728:
4726:
4723:
4721:
4718:
4717:
4715:
4713:
4709:
4706:
4702:
4696:
4693:
4691:
4690:Magnetic lens
4688:
4686:
4683:
4681:
4678:
4676:
4673:
4671:
4668:
4666:
4663:
4662:
4660:
4656:
4650:
4647:
4645:
4642:
4640:
4639:Kikuchi lines
4637:
4635:
4632:
4630:
4627:
4625:
4622:
4620:
4617:
4616:
4614:
4609:
4605:
4599:
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4497:
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4458:
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4451:
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4438:
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4435:
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4423:
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4415:
4413:
4410:
4408:
4405:
4403:
4400:
4398:
4395:
4393:
4390:
4388:
4385:
4384:
4382:
4378:
4372:
4369:
4367:
4364:
4362:
4359:
4357:
4354:
4352:
4349:
4345:
4342:
4340:
4337:
4335:
4332:
4331:
4330:
4327:
4325:
4322:
4320:
4317:
4315:
4312:
4310:
4307:
4303:
4300:
4298:
4295:
4294:
4293:
4290:
4288:
4285:
4283:
4282:Tomosynthesis
4280:
4278:
4275:
4273:
4270:
4269:
4267:
4263:
4260:
4256:
4250:
4247:
4245:
4242:
4240:
4237:
4235:
4232:
4230:
4227:
4225:
4222:
4220:
4217:
4215:
4212:
4210:
4207:
4205:
4202:
4201:
4199:
4195:
4189:
4186:
4184:
4181:
4179:
4176:
4174:
4171:
4169:
4166:
4164:
4161:
4160:
4158:
4154:
4148:
4145:
4143:
4140:
4138:
4135:
4133:
4130:
4128:
4125:
4123:
4120:
4118:
4115:
4113:
4112:Moseley's law
4110:
4108:
4105:
4103:
4100:
4099:
4097:
4093:
4089:
4088:X-ray science
4082:
4077:
4075:
4070:
4068:
4063:
4062:
4059:
4053:
4049:
4044:
4040:
4039:
4034:
4029:
4028:
4020:
4019:0-8247-0600-5
4016:
4012:
4011:
4006:
4004:
4000:
3996:
3992:
3989:
3985:
3979:
3975:
3971:
3965:
3961:
3957:
3953:
3949:
3945:
3943:
3942:0-8247-9554-7
3939:
3935:
3934:
3929:
3927:
3926:0-387-91029-8
3923:
3919:
3915:
3913:
3912:0-471-29942-1
3909:
3905:
3902:Jenkins, R.,
3901:
3899:
3898:0-471-19458-1
3895:
3891:
3887:
3885:
3884:0-306-30809-6
3881:
3877:
3873:
3871:
3870:3-540-28603-9
3867:
3863:
3862:
3857:
3856:
3844:
3840:
3836:
3832:
3828:
3824:
3820:
3813:
3804:
3799:
3795:
3791:
3787:
3780:
3773:
3772:
3768:D.B. Wittry:
3765:
3758:
3757:
3750:
3743:
3742:
3735:
3727:
3721:
3717:
3716:
3708:
3701:
3695:
3687:
3680:
3674:
3666:
3660:
3651:
3645:
3639:
3635:
3631:
3627:
3623:
3619:
3614:
3609:
3605:
3601:
3597:
3593:
3589:
3585:
3577:
3569:
3565:
3559:
3553:
3549:
3545:
3539:
3535:
3522:
3519:
3516:
3513:
3511:
3508:
3506:
3503:
3497:
3494:
3493:
3487:
3485:
3481:
3477:
3471:
3461:
3459:
3455:
3453:
3449:
3441:
3437:
3433:
3429:
3426:
3425:
3424:
3418:
3414:
3411:
3408:
3404:
3401:
3400:
3399:
3391:
3379:
3376:
3372:
3369:
3365:
3362:
3359:All elements
3354:
3351:
3348:
3347:
3346:
3344:
3340:
3336:
3321:
3317:
3315:
3311:
3307:
3304:
3300:
3297:
3293:
3290:
3285:
3277:
3270:
3267:
3264:
3261:
3260:
3259:
3250:
3248:
3225:
3222:
3217:
3194:
3191:
3188:
3185:
3181:
3172:
3154:
3151:
3146:
3123:
3120:
3117:
3114:
3110:
3101:
3084:
3081:
3078:
3075:
3071:
3062:
3061:
3060:
3056:
3040:
3036:
3026:
3010:
3006:
2992:
2983:
2975:
2969:
2966:
2964:
2961:
2955:
2952:
2950:
2947:
2941:
2938:
2936:
2933:
2927:
2924:
2923:
2919:
2913:
2910:
2908:
2905:
2899:
2896:
2894:
2891:
2885:
2882:
2880:
2877:
2871:
2868:
2867:
2863:
2857:
2854:
2852:
2849:
2843:
2840:
2838:
2835:
2829:
2826:
2824:
2821:
2815:
2812:
2811:
2807:
2801:
2798:
2796:
2793:
2787:
2784:
2782:
2779:
2773:
2770:
2768:
2765:
2759:
2756:
2755:
2751:
2745:
2742:
2740:
2737:
2731:
2728:
2726:
2723:
2717:
2714:
2712:
2709:
2703:
2700:
2699:
2695:
2689:
2686:
2684:
2681:
2675:
2672:
2670:
2667:
2661:
2658:
2656:
2653:
2647:
2644:
2643:
2639:
2633:
2630:
2628:
2625:
2619:
2616:
2614:
2611:
2605:
2602:
2600:
2597:
2591:
2588:
2587:
2583:
2577:
2574:
2572:
2569:
2563:
2560:
2558:
2555:
2549:
2546:
2544:
2541:
2535:
2532:
2531:
2527:
2521:
2518:
2516:
2513:
2507:
2504:
2502:
2499:
2493:
2490:
2488:
2485:
2479:
2476:
2475:
2471:
2465:
2462:
2460:
2457:
2451:
2448:
2446:
2443:
2437:
2434:
2432:
2429:
2423:
2420:
2419:
2415:
2409:
2406:
2404:
2401:
2395:
2392:
2390:
2387:
2381:
2378:
2376:
2373:
2367:
2364:
2363:
2359:
2353:
2350:
2348:
2345:
2339:
2336:
2334:
2331:
2325:
2322:
2320:
2317:
2311:
2308:
2307:
2303:
2297:
2294:
2292:
2289:
2283:
2280:
2278:
2275:
2269:
2266:
2264:
2261:
2255:
2252:
2251:
2247:
2241:
2238:
2236:
2233:
2227:
2224:
2222:
2219:
2213:
2210:
2208:
2205:
2199:
2196:
2195:
2191:
2185:
2182:
2180:
2177:
2171:
2168:
2166:
2163:
2157:
2154:
2152:
2149:
2143:
2140:
2139:
2135:
2129:
2126:
2124:
2121:
2115:
2112:
2110:
2107:
2101:
2098:
2096:
2093:
2087:
2084:
2083:
2079:
2073:
2070:
2068:
2065:
2059:
2056:
2054:
2051:
2045:
2042:
2040:
2037:
2031:
2028:
2027:
2023:
2017:
2014:
2012:
2009:
2003:
2000:
1998:
1995:
1989:
1986:
1984:
1981:
1975:
1972:
1971:
1967:
1961:
1958:
1956:
1953:
1947:
1944:
1942:
1939:
1933:
1930:
1928:
1925:
1919:
1916:
1915:
1911:
1905:
1902:
1900:
1897:
1891:
1888:
1886:
1883:
1877:
1874:
1872:
1869:
1866:
1863:
1862:
1858:
1852:
1849:
1847:
1844:
1838:
1835:
1833:
1830:
1824:
1821:
1819:
1816:
1813:
1810:
1809:
1805:
1799:
1796:
1794:
1791:
1785:
1782:
1780:
1777:
1771:
1768:
1766:
1763:
1760:
1757:
1756:
1752:
1746:
1743:
1741:
1738:
1732:
1729:
1727:
1724:
1718:
1715:
1713:
1710:
1707:
1704:
1703:
1699:
1693:
1690:
1688:
1685:
1679:
1676:
1674:
1671:
1665:
1662:
1660:
1657:
1654:
1651:
1650:
1646:
1640:
1637:
1635:
1632:
1626:
1623:
1621:
1618:
1612:
1609:
1607:
1604:
1601:
1598:
1597:
1593:
1590:
1587:
1585:
1582:
1579:
1576:
1574:
1571:
1568:
1565:
1563:
1560:
1558:
1555:
1552:
1551:
1548:
1534:
1531:
1528:
1525:
1522:
1519:
1516:
1514:6 nm LSM
1513:
1512:
1508:
1505:
1502:
1499:
1496:
1493:
1490:
1488:
1482:
1481:
1477:
1474:
1471:
1468:
1465:
1462:
1459:
1457:
1454:
1453:
1449:
1446:
1443:
1440:
1437:
1434:
1431:
1429:
1426:
1425:
1421:
1418:
1415:
1412:
1409:
1406:
1403:
1401:
1398:
1397:
1393:
1390:
1387:
1384:
1381:
1378:
1375:
1373:
1370:
1369:
1365:
1362:
1359:
1356:
1353:
1350:
1347:
1345:
1342:
1341:
1337:
1334:
1331:
1328:
1325:
1322:
1319:
1317:
1314:
1313:
1309:
1306:
1303:
1300:
1297:
1294:
1291:
1289:
1286:
1285:
1281:
1278:
1275:
1272:
1269:
1266:
1263:
1260:
1259:
1255:
1252:
1249:
1246:
1243:
1240:
1237:
1234:
1233:
1229:
1226:
1223:
1220:
1217:
1214:
1211:
1208:
1207:
1203:
1200:
1197:
1194:
1191:
1188:
1185:
1182:
1181:
1177:
1174:
1171:
1168:
1165:
1162:
1159:
1156:
1155:
1151:
1148:
1145:
1142:
1139:
1136:
1133:
1131:
1128:
1127:
1123:
1120:
1117:
1114:
1111:
1108:
1105:
1103:
1100:
1099:
1095:
1092:
1089:
1086:
1083:
1080:
1077:
1074:
1073:
1069:
1066:
1063:
1060:
1057:
1054:
1051:
1048:
1047:
1043:
1040:
1037:
1034:
1031:
1028:
1025:
1023:
1020:
1019:
998:
991:
985:
971:
951:
948:
939:
936:
934:
930:
924:
922:
918:
914:
910:
906:
902:
898:
894:
890:
885:
878:
875:
872:
869:
866:
863:
860:
857:
854:
853:
852:
835:
832:
829:
826:
823:
820:
817:
814:
811:
804:
803:
802:
800:
792:
788:
784:
780:
776:
772:
768:
758:
745:
737:
733:
730:
720:
717:
705:
701:
688:
685:
681:
678:
677:
676:
673:
669:
665:
661:
648:
644:
639:
631:
627:
624:
620:
611:
607:
598:
595:
594:pulse-shaping
585:
583:
579:
569:
556:
552:
549:
543:
529:
525:
523:
519:
514:
510:
500:
498:
497:atomic number
487:
485:
481:
476:
474:
469:
464:
460:
456:
452:
445:
440:
431:
429:
407:
401:
398:
395:
392:
389:
386:
383:
380:
377:
370:
369:
368:
366:
362:
361:monochromator
358:
354:
349:
347:
342:
332:
330:
329:polycapillary
326:
321:
319:
314:
311:
309:
305:
301:
297:
293:
283:
281:
280:Moseley's law
277:
273:
269:
248:
244:
241:
235:
232:
225:
224:
223:
221:
209:
202:
197:
183:
175:
171:
169:
168:
162:
158:
154:
150:
146:
137:
128:
126:
122:
118:
114:
110:
106:
102:
98:
94:
90:
86:
82:
78:
70:
63:
59:
54:
47:
43:
21:
5254:Fluorescence
5205:
5193:
5147:EM Data Bank
5111:Nion Company
5005:Dennis Gabor
4995:Albert Crewe
4773:Confocal SEM
4670:Electron gun
4648:
4619:Auger effect
4380:Spectroscopy
4324:Ptychography
4258:Applications
4248:
4219:Auger effect
4122:Water window
4048:Spectroscopy
4036:
4009:
3951:
3932:
3917:
3903:
3889:
3875:
3860:
3826:
3822:
3812:
3793:
3789:
3779:
3770:
3764:
3755:
3749:
3740:
3734:
3714:
3707:
3699:
3694:
3685:
3673:
3659:
3650:
3613:10261/206347
3587:
3583:
3576:
3567:
3558:
3538:
3473:
3456:
3445:
3422:
3397:
3380:
3374:
3373:
3367:
3366:
3360:
3358:
3338:
3334:
3332:
3309:
3308:
3302:
3301:
3295:
3294:
3283:
3282:
3256:
3244:
3057:
3027:
2997:
2981:
1545:
940:
937:
933:Laue indices
928:
925:
912:
886:
882:
850:
798:
786:
782:
778:
774:
764:
755:
726:
718:
715:
698:
686:
679:
657:
617:
608:
604:
591:
575:
566:
545:
506:
493:
477:
448:
427:
425:
350:
338:
322:
315:
312:
289:
265:
220:Planck's Law
193:
167:fluorescence
165:
142:
113:geochemistry
80:
76:
75:
5091:FEI Company
5025:Harald Rose
5015:Ernst Ruska
4704:Microscopes
4612:with matter
4610:interaction
4173:Synchrotron
4031:‹ The
3997:electronic-
3753:D.Sokaras:
3738:S. DeBeer:
3368:Enhancement
3247:synchrotron
3170:-mainlines)
1016:durability
1007:max λ (nm)
1004:min λ (nm)
672:diffraction
365:Bragg's law
325:synchrotron
294:, based on
201:given names
121:archaeology
5223:Categories
5172:Multislice
4988:Developers
4848:Techniques
4593:Microscope
4588:Micrograph
4432:Scattering
4297:Helical CT
4163:X-ray tube
3853:References
3335:generation
1010:intensity
929:h, k and l
643:goniometer
601:Processing
588:Amplifiers
335:Dispersion
145:wavelength
89:gamma rays
64:materials
44:-painting
5040:Max Knoll
4695:Stigmator
4003:1868-0402
3995:1559-0836
3906:, Wiley,
3638:189944850
3622:0969-8043
3568:ColourLex
3428:electrons
3253:Detectors
3223:β
3186:β
3152:β
3115:β
3076:β
3041:β
3011:β
1247:forbidden
1244:forbidden
1169:forbidden
1166:forbidden
993:material
897:germanium
833:λ
824:θ
821:
518:beryllium
513:Schreiber
473:PIN diode
455:PIN diode
434:Detection
408:θ
402:
396:⋅
384:λ
381:⋅
233:λ
125:paintings
42:Rembrandt
5195:Category
5142:CrysTBox
5130:Software
4801:Cryo-TEM
4608:Electron
4168:Betatron
4033:template
3978:23595669
3843:11267748
3630:31203095
3590:: 6–10.
3490:See also
3403:electron
3226:″
3155:′
1288:Graphite
964:, where
919:), KAP (
913:tetrakis
907:, InSb (
905:graphite
891:), ADP (
879:Low cost
300:tungsten
296:electron
157:orbitals
109:ceramics
5207:Commons
4855:4D STEM
4828:4D STEM
4806:Cryo-ET
4778:SEM-XRF
4768:CryoSEM
4725:Cryo-EM
4583:History
4511:History
4265:Imaging
4035:below (
3796:: 682.
3592:Bibcode
3419:(PIXE).
3241:-lines)
2976:0.0724
2920:0.0740
2864:0.0756
2808:0.0773
2752:0.0791
2724:0.05357
2696:0.0809
2668:0.05599
2640:0.0828
2612:0.05859
2584:0.0847
2556:0.06136
2528:0.0868
2500:0.06433
2472:0.0888
2444:0.06751
2416:0.0911
2388:0.07094
2360:0.0933
2332:0.07462
2304:0.0956
2276:0.07859
2248:0.0980
2220:0.08288
2192:0.1005
2164:0.08753
2136:0.1031
2108:0.09256
2080:0.1057
2052:0.09801
2024:0.1085
1968:0.1114
1912:0.1144
1859:0.1175
1806:0.1207
1753:0.1241
1700:0.1276
1647:0.1313
1588:element
1577:element
1566:element
1553:element
1509:
1273:0,17839
1270:0,14673
1221:0,16314
1218:0,13625
1195:0,21752
1192:0,17839
1001:d (nm)
911:), PE (
901:silicon
899:), Si (
895:), Ge (
649:, 1958.
509:Glocker
359:-based
304:rhodium
5244:X-rays
5152:EMsoft
5137:CASINO
5116:TESCAN
4981:Others
4880:cryoEM
4571:Basics
4499:Others
4460:GISAXS
4132:L-edge
4127:K-edge
4052:Curlie
4038:Curlie
4017:
4001:
3993:
3986:
3976:
3966:
3940:
3924:
3910:
3896:
3882:
3868:
3841:
3722:
3688:(115).
3644:murals
3636:
3628:
3620:
3450:, but
3442:(ESCA)
3415:beam:
3405:beam:
3361:absorb
3324:"bead"
3209:- and
3138:- and
2962:0.1351
2948:0.3289
2934:0.1789
2906:0.1391
2892:0.3439
2878:0.1936
2850:0.1433
2836:0.3600
2822:0.2102
2794:0.1476
2780:0.3772
2766:0.2290
2738:0.1522
2710:0.2504
2682:0.1570
2654:0.2749
2626:0.1620
2598:0.3032
2570:0.1672
2542:0.3359
2514:0.1727
2486:0.3742
2458:0.1784
2430:0.4193
2402:0.1845
2374:0.4729
2346:0.1909
2318:0.5373
2290:0.1977
2262:0.6158
2234:0.2047
2206:0.7126
2178:0.2121
2122:0.2200
2066:0.2282
2010:0.2370
1996:0.1040
1954:0.2463
1940:0.1105
1898:0.2562
1884:0.1176
1845:0.2666
1831:0.1254
1792:0.2776
1778:0.1340
1739:0.2892
1725:0.1435
1686:0.3016
1672:0.1541
1633:0.3149
1619:0.1658
1526:11.276
1506:
1503:
1500:
1497:
1435:0.3135
1351:0.4371
1323:0.3740
1295:0.3354
1267:0,0894
1241:0,1789
1215:0,0816
1189:0,1088
1163:0,1633
1137:0.3266
1109:0.5320
1081:0.0901
1055:0.1424
1029:0.2014
522:sodium
463:photon
426:where
101:metals
85:X-rays
5106:Leica
4952:PINEM
4818:HRTEM
4813:EFTEM
4490:EDXRD
4412:XANES
4407:EXAFS
4397:ARPES
4344:3DXRD
4102:X-ray
3682:(PDF)
3634:S2CID
3531:Notes
2150:0.834
2094:0.989
2038:1.191
1982:1.461
1926:1.832
1870:2.362
1523:1.566
1494:0.586
1469:2.434
1466:0.338
1463:1.295
1441:0.589
1438:0.082
1413:2.453
1410:0.341
1407:1.305
1385:2.490
1382:0.346
1379:1.325
1363:+++++
1357:0.821
1354:0.114
1329:0.703
1326:0.098
1301:0.630
1298:0.088
1143:0.614
1140:0.085
1115:1.000
1112:0.139
1087:0.169
1084:0.024
1061:0.268
1058:0.037
1038:+++++
1035:0.379
1032:0.053
997:plane
614:Usage
468:EDXRF
149:atoms
105:glass
5167:IUCr
5101:JEOL
4972:WBDF
4967:WDXS
4917:EBIC
4912:EELS
4907:ECCI
4895:EBSD
4875:CBED
4823:STEM
4475:RIXS
4465:WAXS
4455:SAXS
4366:DFXM
4334:XDCT
4319:STXM
4314:XPCI
4302:XACT
4015:ISBN
3999:ISSN
3991:ISSN
3984:ISBN
3974:PMID
3964:ISBN
3938:ISBN
3922:ISBN
3908:ISBN
3894:ISBN
3880:ISBN
3866:ISBN
3839:PMID
3720:ISBN
3642:and
3626:PMID
3618:ISSN
3484:SOPs
1817:3.16
1764:4.47
1711:6.76
1658:11.4
1605:22.8
1591:line
1580:line
1569:line
1557:line
1520:6.00
1460:1010
1456:TlAP
1450:+++
1404:1010
1400:RbAP
1376:1010
1338:+++
1332:++++
1316:InSb
1310:+++
1304:++++
1282:+++
1256:+++
1230:+++
1204:+++
1178:+++
1152:+++
1096:+++
1070:+++
1044:+++
511:and
161:hole
95:and
62:RoHS
4937:FEM
4932:FIB
4900:TKD
4890:EDS
4793:TEM
4755:SEM
4730:EMP
4480:XRS
4422:XFH
4417:EDS
4402:AES
4392:XPS
4387:XAS
4371:DXA
4339:DCT
4287:CDI
4050:at
3956:doi
3831:doi
3798:doi
3608:hdl
3600:doi
3588:152
3548:doi
3413:ion
3316:).
3314:EDX
2650:1,2
2594:1,2
2538:1,2
2482:1,2
2426:1,2
2370:1,2
2314:1,2
2258:1,2
2202:1,2
2146:1,2
2090:1,2
2034:1,2
1978:1,2
1922:1,2
1535:++
1529:+++
1491:400
1478:++
1472:+++
1432:111
1422:++
1394:++
1372:KAP
1360:+++
1348:002
1320:111
1292:001
1276:+++
1264:620
1250:+++
1238:310
1224:+++
1212:444
1198:+++
1186:333
1172:+++
1160:222
1146:+++
1134:111
1124:++
1106:101
1102:ADP
1078:420
1075:LiF
1064:+++
1052:220
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1041:+++
1026:200
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818:sin
668:WDS
666:or
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658:In
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546:In
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2802:Lα
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2326:Kα
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2256:Kα
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2169:Eu
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2141:Al
2130:Lα
2127:Fr
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2018:Lα
2015:At
2004:Lα
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1990:Kα
1987:Br
1976:Kα
1973:Ne
1962:Lα
1959:Po
1948:Lα
1945:Pr
1934:Kα
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1920:Kα
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1800:Lα
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1663:Cu
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1652:Be
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1419:++
1416:++
1391:++
1388:++
1366:+
1344:PE
1261:Ge
1235:Ge
1209:Ge
1183:Ge
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781:,
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1992:1
1964:1
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1917:F
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830:n
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249:E
245:c
242:h
236:=
216:α
212:β
207:α
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48:.
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