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972:), the ratio of apparent to real depth is the ratio of the refractive indexes of air to that of water. But, as the angle of incidence approaches 90°, the apparent depth approaches zero, albeit reflection increases, which limits observation at high angles of incidence. Conversely, the apparent height approaches infinity as the angle of incidence (from below) increases, but even earlier, as the angle of
936:
water's surface. This is due to the bending of light rays as they move from the water to the air. Once the rays reach the eye, the eye traces them back as straight lines (lines of sight). The lines of sight (shown as dashed lines) intersect at a higher position than where the actual rays originated. This causes the pencil to appear higher and the water to appear shallower than it really is.
1022:. Since the pressure is lower at higher altitudes, the refractive index is also lower, causing light rays to refract towards the earth surface when traveling long distances through the atmosphere. This shifts the apparent positions of stars slightly when they are close to the horizon and makes the sun visible before it geometrically rises above the horizon during a sunrise.
479:, to oscillate. The oscillating electrons emit their own electromagnetic waves which interact with the original light. The resulting "combined" wave has wave packets that pass an observer at a slower rate. The light has effectively been slowed. When light returns to a vacuum and there are no electrons nearby, this slowing effect ends and its speed returns to
541:. When two waves interfere in this way, the resulting "combined" wave may have wave packets that pass an observer at a slower rate. The light has effectively been slowed. When the light leaves the material, this interaction with electrons no longer happens, and therefore the wave packet rate (and therefore its speed) return to normal.
516:
Common explanations for this slowing, based upon the idea of light scattering from, or being absorbed and re-emitted by atoms, are both incorrect. Explanations like these would cause a "blurring" effect in the resulting light, as it would no longer be travelling in just one direction. But this effect
1043:
when hot and cold air is mixed e.g. over a fire, in engine exhaust, or when opening a window on a cold day. This makes objects viewed through the mixed air appear to shimmer or move around randomly as the hot and cold air moves. This effect is also visible from normal variations in air temperature
589:
will change. If the speed is decreased, such as in the figure to the right, the wavelength will also decrease. With an angle between the wave fronts and the interface and change in distance between the wave fronts the angle must change over the interface to keep the wave fronts intact. From these
549:
Consider a wave going from one material to another where its speed is slower as in the figure. If it reaches the interface between the materials at an angle one side of the wave will reach the second material first, and therefore slow down earlier. With one side of the wave going slower the whole
1547:
It results from the boundary conditions which the incoming and the transmitted wave need to fulfill at the boundary between the two media. Essentially, the tangential components of the wave vectors need to be identical, as otherwise the phase difference between the waves at the boundary would be
935:
Refraction occurs when light goes through a water surface since water has a refractive index of 1.33 and air has a refractive index of about 1. Looking at a straight object, such as a pencil in the figure here, which is placed at a slant, partially in the water, the object appears to bend at the
1245:
1244:
1246:
1184:
and also explains why waves on a shoreline tend to strike the shore close to a perpendicular angle. As the waves travel from deep water into shallower water near the shore, they are refracted from their original direction of travel to an angle more normal to the shoreline.
775:
occurs, in which different coloured components of the white light are refracted at different angles, i.e., they bend by different amounts at the interface, so that they become separated. The different colors correspond to different frequencies and different wavelengths.
1243:
345:
504:
is slower in a medium other than vacuum. This slowing applies to any medium such as air, water, or glass, and is responsible for phenomena such as refraction. When light leaves the medium and returns to a vacuum, and ignoring any effects of
1207:
from a region of one sound speed to a region of a different speed. The amount of ray bending is dependent on the amount of difference between sound speeds, that is, the variation in temperature, salinity, and pressure of the water. Similar
1548:
position-dependent, and the wavefronts could not be continuous. As the magnitude of the wave vector depends on the refractive index of the medium, the said condition can in general only be fulfilled with different propagation directions.
1250:
2D simulation: refraction of a quantum particle. The black half of the background is zero potential, the gray half is a higher potential. White blur represents the probability distribution of finding a particle in a given place if
721:
536:
emits electromagnetic waves of its own. The electromagnetic waves emitted by the oscillating electrons interact with the electromagnetic waves that make up the original light, similar to water waves on a pond, a process known as
771:. Glass and water have higher refractive indexes than air. When a beam of white light passes from air into a material having an index of refraction that varies with frequency (and wavelength), a phenomenon known as
1090:. Most commonly, air heated by a hot road on a sunny day deflects light approaching at a shallow angle towards a viewer. This makes the road appear reflecting, giving an illusion of water covering the road.
918:
490:
is slowed before the other. This asymmetrical slowing of the light causes it to change the angle of its travel. Once light is within the new medium with constant properties, it travels in a straight line
554:
when going into a slower material. In the opposite case of a wave reaching a material where the speed is higher, one side of the wave will speed up and the wave will pivot away from that side.
239:
75:
also experience refraction. How much a wave is refracted is determined by the change in wave speed and the initial direction of wave propagation relative to the direction of change in speed.
947:
from the surface because it will make the target fish appear to be in a different place, and the fisher must aim lower to catch the fish. Conversely, an object above the water has a higher
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Another way of understanding the same thing is to consider the change in wavelength at the interface. When the wave goes from one material to another where the wave has a different speed
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to be identical on the two sides of the interface. Since the magnitude of the wave vector depend on the wave speed this requires a change in direction of the wave vector.
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Light slows as it travels through a medium other than vacuum (such as air, glass or water). This is not because of scattering or absorption. Rather it is because, as an
747:
A wave traveling perpendicular to a boundary, i.e. having its wavefronts parallel to the boundary, will not change direction even if the speed of the wave changes.
1220:
in the atmosphere has been known for centuries. Beginning in the early 1970s, widespread analysis of this effect came into vogue through the designing of urban
744:
which can be seen as the truer speed of a wave, but when they differ it is important to use the phase velocity in all calculations relating to refraction.
459:
When a wave moves into a slower medium the wavefronts get compressed. For the wavefronts to stay connected at the boundary the wave must change direction.
847:
1463:
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Water waves are almost parallel to the beach when they hit it because they gradually refract towards land as the water gets shallower.
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1615:
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A pencil part immersed in water looks bent due to refraction: the light waves from X change direction and so seem to originate at Y.
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also oscillate but as they are around 2000 times more massive, their movement and therefore their effect, is far smaller). A moving
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1474:
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524:. Because light is an oscillating electrical/magnetic wave, light traveling in a medium causes the electrically charged
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to another. The redirection can be caused by the wave's change in speed or by a change in the medium. Refraction of
1636:
1342:
1337:
463:
A correct explanation of refraction involves two separate parts, both a result of the wave nature of light.
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Rainbows are formed by dispersion of light, in which the refraction angle depends on the light's frequency.
340:{\displaystyle {\frac {\sin \theta _{1}}{\sin \theta _{2}}}={\frac {v_{1}}{v_{2}}}={\frac {n_{2}}{n_{1}}}}
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wave will pivot towards that side. This is why a wave will bend away from the surface or toward the
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Air temperature variations close to the surface can give rise to other optical phenomena, such as
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The phenomenon of refraction can in a more fundamental way be derived from the 2 or 3-dimensional
1294:
1203:, refraction is the bending or curving of a sound ray that results when the ray passes through a
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The sun appears slightly flattened when close to the horizon due to refraction in the atmosphere.
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A pen partially submerged in a bowl of water appears bent due to refraction at the water surface.
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Refraction of light at the interface between two media of different refractive indices, with
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Temperature variations in the air can also cause refraction of light. This can be seen as a
729:. The boundary condition at the interface will then require the tangential component of the
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of light, and thus the angle of the refraction also varies correspondingly. This is called
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and for the splitting of white light into a rainbow-spectrum as it passes through a glass
8:
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1780:, a simple but thorough discussion of the mathematics behind refraction and reflection.
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1481:, Department of Physics and Astronomy, Georgia State University, accessed on 2014-09-08
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and is often limiting the image quality in these cases. In a similar way, atmospheric
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716:{\displaystyle {\frac {\sin \theta _{1}}{\sin \theta _{2}}}={\frac {v_{1}}{v_{2}}}\,.}
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Dill, Lawrence M. (1977). "Refraction and the spitting behavior of the archerfish (
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is approached, albeit the image also fades from view as this limit is approached.
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travel slower in shallower water. This can be used to demonstrate refraction in
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The depth that the water appears to be when viewed from above is known as the
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when viewed from below the water. The opposite correction must be made by an
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1668:. University of Delaware Center for Applied Coastal Research. Archived from
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are presented to determine which provides the sharpest, clearest vision.
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is refracted and bent by many differing three-dimensional drops of water.
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Navy
Supplement to the DOD Dictionary of Military and Associated Terms
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403:; that is, the ray in the higher-index medium is closer to the normal.
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is the most commonly observed phenomenon, but other waves such as
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When light enters a slower medium at an angle, one side of the
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For small angles of incidence (measured from the normal, when
913:{\displaystyle n_{1}\sin \theta _{1}=n_{2}\sin \theta _{2}\,.}
1303:
436:
349:
64:
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limiting the resolution of terrestrial telescopes not using
844:, therefore, the law of refraction is typically written as
791:
of a material is more often used than the wave phase speed
509:, its speed returns to the usual speed of light in vacuum,
56:
1721:, J. Murray Publishers, (originally by Harvard University)
1232:
effects of bending of sound rays in the lower atmosphere.
369:. Since the phase velocity is lower in the second medium (
1150:
is a medical procedure to treat common vision disorders.
568:
of the wave will stay the same, but the distance between
1731:
Hogan, C. Michael (1973). "Analysis of highway noise".
795:
in the material. They are directly related through the
736:
The relevant wave speed in the discussion above is the
34:, the change in direction of a wave around an obstacle.
1453:
199:
155:
16:
Physical phenomenon relating to the direction of waves
1538:. RP Photonics Consulting GmbH, Dr. Rüdiger Paschotta
850:
809:
641:
242:
123:
91:
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to be prescribed. A series of test lenses in graded
520:
A correct explanation rests on light's nature as an
435:
to divide white light into its constituent spectral
419:. The refractive index of materials varies with the
528:of the material to also oscillate. (The material's
912:
832:
715:
339:
226:
182:
138:
106:
1730:
1559:
1044:during a sunny day when using high magnification
629:in the two materials can be derived. This is the
43:A ray of light being refracted in a plastic block
1791:
1666:"Shoaling, Refraction, and Diffraction of Waves"
1418:. New York, NY: Pergamon Press INC. p. 37.
1010:The refractive index of air depends on the air
1422:
415:use refraction to redirect light, as does the
1505:
1411:
1784:Flash refraction simulation- includes source
1441:Encyclopedia of Laser Physics and Technology
740:of the wave. This is typically close to the
590:considerations the relationship between the
19:For heat tolerant metals and ceramics, see
1778:Reflections and Refractions in Ray Tracing
1616:"The effect of heat haze on image quality"
190:in the two media, or equivalently, to the
1718:On the Connexion of the Physical Sciences
1387:The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica.
1064:or other techniques for overcoming these
943:. This is an important consideration for
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1786:, Explains refraction and Snell's Law.
750:
450:
1032:in the engine exhaust above a diesel
633:or Snell's law and can be written as
1499:
394:is less than the angle of incidence
1566:Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology
1153:
833:{\displaystyle n={\frac {c}{v}}\,.}
763:Refraction is also responsible for
544:
495:
227:{\textstyle {\frac {n_{2}}{n_{1}}}}
183:{\textstyle {\frac {v_{1}}{v_{2}}}}
13:
1491:Why does light slow down in water?
14:
1826:
1771:
1733:Water, Air, & Soil Pollution
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1302:
1293:
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1275:
1266:
1257:
1122:) is a clinical test in which a
1724:
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1510:. Addison-Wesley. p. 101.
1126:may be used by the appropriate
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1524:
1484:
1405:
1380:
1212:effects are also found in the
1056:in the images of astronomical
991:
78:For light, refraction follows
1:
1373:
1343:List of indices of refraction
965:is approximately the same as
139:{\displaystyle {\theta _{2}}}
107:{\displaystyle {\theta _{1}}}
471:, light itself causes other
7:
1320:
922:
469:electromagnetic oscillation
385:), the angle of refraction
10:
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29:
18:
1702:. August 2006. NTRP 1-02.
1536:RP Photonics Encyclopedia
1428:R. Paschotta, article on
1338:Huygens–Fresnel principle
974:total internal reflection
539:constructive interference
146:is equal to the ratio of
1450:, accessed on 2014-09-08
1393:Encyclopaedia Britannica
1188:
1158:
602:, angle of transmission
500:As described above, the
55:is the redirection of a
30:Not to be confused with
1130:to determine the eye's
1066:atmospheric distortions
1014:and thus vary with air
517:is not seen in nature.
1700:Department Of The Navy
1506:Hecht, Eugene (2002).
1459:Carl R. Nave, page on
1412:Born and Wolf (1959).
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1415:Principles of Optics
1216:. The phenomenon of
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1201:underwater acoustics
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807:
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611:and the wave speeds
522:electromagnetic wave
473:electrically charged
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1745:1973WASP....2..387H
1618:. Nikon. 2016-07-10
1578:1977BEcoS...2..169D
1348:Negative refraction
1329:(double refraction)
1218:refraction of sound
751:Dispersion of light
451:General explanation
116:angle of refraction
1810:Geometrical optics
1805:Physical phenomena
1753:10.1007/BF00159677
1586:10.1007/BF00361900
1477:2007-10-28 at the
1466:2014-09-24 at the
1446:2015-08-13 at the
1435:2015-06-29 at the
1363:Seismic refraction
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427:and causes
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32:Diffraction
1800:Refraction
1794:Categories
1676:2009-07-23
1651:2006-05-23
1622:2018-11-04
1542:2018-10-23
1461:Dispersion
1398:2018-10-16
1374:References
1353:Reflection
1116:refraction
1112:orthoptics
1058:telescopes
1050:turbulence
1034:locomotive
799:in vacuum
773:dispersion
574:wavelength
570:wavefronts
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421:wavelength
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25:Refractory
1761:109914430
1251:measured.
1210:acoustics
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1041:heat haze
1030:Heat haze
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1100:medicine
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765:rainbows
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407:Optical
1741:Bibcode
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