524:, Mbawsi, and Amata were looted. Women attacked prisons and released prisoners. But the response of the colonial authority was also decisive. By the time order was restored, about fifty-five women were killed by the colonial troops. The last soldiers left Owerri on the 27 December 1929, and the last patrol in Abak Division withdrew on 9 January 1930. By 10 January 1930, the revolt was regarded as successfully suppressed. Throughout late December 1929 and early January 1930, more than thirty collective punishment inquiries were carried out. It is generally believed, according to Nina Mba, that this event marked the end of the women's activities because the new administration under Governor Donald Cameron took into account some of the women's recommendations in revising the structure of the Native Administration. Thus, the Women's War is seen as the historical dividing point in British colonial administration in Nigeria with far reaching implications. The Women's War was also instrumental in marking the rise of gender ideology, offering women who were not married to the elites the opportunity to engage in social actions.
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women in many
African and Sahelian communities was considered a taboo that indicated the force of power women had to stop the malfeasance. When it came to the Warrant Chiefs, along with singing and dancing around the houses and offices, the women would follow their every move, invading their space and forcing the men to pay attention. The wives of the Warrant Chiefs were often disturbed, and they too put pressure on the Warrants to listen to the demands of the women. This tactic of "sitting on the Warrants," i.e. following them everywhere and anywhere, was very popular with the women in Nigeria, and used to great effect. Through the choice of clothing, the use of body language and choice of song, drew attention to the role and status of women in Nigeria, particularly in protecting the good of the land. Other men in the village rarely came to their rescue and would say that they brought the wrath of women onto themselves.
484:" or "making war on a man" was a long-held tradition used as the women's main weapon when faced with injustices in their society. Scholars like Green (1964), Judith Van Allen (1976), and Monday Effiong Noah (1985) have noted that some methods used by Aba women were: surrounding the home of the man in question, insulting his manhood, and destroying anything that he would characterize as a prized possession. Women would gather at the compound of the man in question and sing and dance while detailing the women's grievances against him. The women would often bang on his hut, demolish it, or plaster it with mud. Actions like mistreating his wife or violating women's market rules were punishable by being "sit on." If necessary, these practices were continued until he repented and changed his ways. During the March of
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techniques that were traditional and specific to their communities, such as sitting on a man and wearing traditional ritual wear. While the men in the community understood what those techniques and tactics meant, the
British did not because they were outsiders. As such, the event appeared to be "crazy acts by hysterical women," thus calling the events riots. Scholars have argued that calling the event "Aba Riots" de-politicizes the "feminist impetus" as well as frame the events through a colonial lens. Since the event was called "Ogu Umunwanyi" in Igbo and "Ekong Iban" in Ibibio by the local women—both of which translates to "women's war"—Some historians have made a push to call it the "Women's War" in order to take the event out of a colonial lens and center it on the women involved.
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have important individual roles. Women also had the privilege of participating in political movements due to the fact that they were married to elites. The colonial authorities saw these practices as "a manifestation of chaos and disorder", and they attempted to create political institutions which commanded authority and monopolized force. While they considered the political institutions headed by Igbo men, they ignored those of the women, effectively shutting them out from political power. The colonial authorities believed that this patriarchal and masculine order would establish a moral order throughout the colony. The women became increasingly dissatisfied with colonial rule because of increased school fees, corruption by native officers, and forced labor.
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many who led the protests. Under her advice, the women protested in song and dance, "sitting" on the
Warrant Chiefs until they surrendered their insignia of office and resigned. As the revolt spread, other groups followed this pattern, making the women's protest a peaceful one. Other groups came to Nwanyeruwa to get in writing the inspirational results of the protests, which, as Nwanyeruwa saw them, were that "women will not pay tax till the world ends Chiefs were not to exist any more." Women of Oloko and elsewhere brought money contributions to Madam Nwanyeruwa for helping them avoid paying taxes. Unfortunately, many women rioted and attacked Chiefs, destroying their homes and causing the revolt to be seen as violent.
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them", she was angry. She replied by saying "Was your widowed mother counted?," meaning "that women don't pay tax in traditional Igbo society." The two exchanged angry words, and
Emeruwa grabbed Nwanyeruwa by the throat. Nwanyeruwa went to the town square to discuss the incident with other women who happened to be holding a meeting to discuss the issue of taxing women. Believing they would be taxed, based on Nwanyeruwa's account, the Oloko women invited other women (by sending leaves of palm-oil trees) from other areas in the Bende District, as well as from
353:, was sent to take over the Bende division temporarily from the serving district officer, a Mr. Weir, until the return of Captain Hill from leave in November. Upon taking over, Cook found the original nominal rolls for taxation purposes inadequate because they did not include details of the number of wives, children, and livestock in each household. He set about revising the nominal roll. This exercise brought the colonial authorities into direct conflict with women in Eastern Nigeria and was the catalyst for fundamental change in the local administration.
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the previous year. Women were already burdened with supporting their families and helping men pay their taxes. Because the women did not have political power within the patriarchal system under colonial rule, they utilized collective action to communicate their dissatisfaction. On
December 2, 1929, more than ten thousand women demonstrated at Oloko, Bende, against the enumeration of men, women, and livestock by the acting district officer. This event at Oloko was to spread to most parts of the Eastern Region within the next four weeks in the
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provisions and objects of the new ordinance to the people throughout the five provinces in the
Eastern Region. This was to prepare the ground for the introduction of direct taxation due to take effect in April 1928. Direct taxation on men was introduced in 1928 without major incidents, thanks to the carefully planned actions during the preceding twelve months. In September 1929, Captain J. Cook, an assistant
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any part of Africa. The rebellion extended over six thousand square miles containing all of Owerri and
Calabar Provinces, home to roughly two million people. Until the end of December 1929, when colonial troops restored order, ten native courts were destroyed, a number of others were damaged, houses of native court personnel were attacked, and European factories at
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The women were able to transform "traditional methods for networking and expressing disapproval" into powerful mechanisms that successfully challenged and disrupted the local colonial administration. The women's protests were carried out on a scale that the colonial authorities had never witnessed in
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was related to taxation, and women in the area were worried about who would tax them, especially during the period of hyperinflation in the late 1920s. The financial crash of 1929 impeded women's ability to trade and produce so they sought assurance from the colonial government that they would not to
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The announcement of Cook's intention to revise the nominal roll was made to a few chiefs in Oloko Native Court and the counting began about
October 14, 1929. The women of Oloko suspected that the enumeration exercise was a prelude to the extension of direct taxation, which had been imposed on the men
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The event that ultimately led to the war was the introduction of direct taxation. In April 1927, the colonial government in
Nigeria took measures to enforce the Native Revenue (Amendment) Ordinance. A colonial resident, W. E. Hunt, was commissioned by the lieutenant governor of Nigeria to explain the
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There was a long history of collective action by women in
Nigeria prior to the revolt. In the 1910s, women in Agbaja stayed away from their homes for a month in protest due to suspicions among them that some men had been secretly killing pregnant women. Their collective absence pushed village elders
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The leaders of the protest in Oloko are known as the Oloko Trio: Ikonnia, Nwannedia and Nwugo. The three were known for their persuasion, intelligence and passion. When protests became tense, it was often these three who were able to deescalate the situation, preventing violence. However, after two
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As a result of the protests, the position of women in society was greatly improved. In some areas, women were able to replace the Warrant Chiefs. Women were also appointed to serve on the Native Courts. After the Women's war, women's movements were very strong in Ngwaland, many events in the 1930s,
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altered the position of various Nigerian women in their societies. Women had been traditionally allowed to participate in the governance of the local region and held a major role in the marketplace as well. Men and women also worked collaboratively in the domestic sphere and were recognized both to
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The event goes by many different names, including (but not limited to) Aba Women's Riots of 1929, Aba Women's War, and The Women's Market Rebellion of 1929. It is usually referred to as the "Aba Women's Riots of 1929" because that was how it was named in British records. The women utilized protest
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the method of sitting on a man was also used when a man got his girlfriend arrested after she put his RDA card into her underwear. Women then invaded the courts and when threatened by police began to dance and take their clothes off: a method used as a powerful form of resistance. The nakedness of
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Madam Mary Okezie (1906–1999) was the first woman from her Igbo clan to gain a Western education and was teaching at the Anglican Mission School in Umuocham Aba in 1929 when the women's revolt broke out. Although she did not participate in the revolt, she was very sympathetic to the women's cause.
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is and still remains the name that comes up when bringing up the history of militancy of women in Nigeria and has been said to be linked to the history of the emergence of African nationalism. Nwanyereuwa played a major role in keeping the protests non-violent. She was advanced in age compared to
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On the morning of November 18, Emereuwa arrived at Nwanyereuwa's house and approached her, since her husband Ojim had already died. He told the widow to "count her goats, sheep and people." Since Nwanyereuwa understood this to mean, "How many of these things do you have so we can tax you based on
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were called and local military and paramilitary forces ordered to break up the protests. During these occasions, at least 50 women were shot dead and 50 more wounded. The women themselves never seriously injured anybody against whom they were protesting, nor any of the forces who broke up those
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She was the only woman who submitted a memo of grievance to the Aba Commission of Inquiry (sent in 1930). Today, the major primary source for studying the revolt is the Report of the Aba Commission of Inquiry. After the revolt, Madam Okezie emerged as founder and leader of the
741:"Sitting on a Man": Colonialism and the Lost Political Institutions of Igbo Women, Author: Judith van Allen, Source: Canadian Journal of African Studies, Vol. 6, No. 2, Special Issue: The Roles of African Women: Past, Present and Future (1972), pp. 165-181 Stable URL:
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Provinces and interviewed 485 witnesses. Of this total number of witnesses, only about 103 were women. The rest consisted of local men and British administrative officials who were either called to explain their role in the revolt or why they could not stop the women.
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Chima J. Korieh, 'Gender and Peasant Resistance: Recasting the Myth of the Invisible Women in Colonial Eastern Nigeria, 1925-1945', in The Foundations of Nigeria: Essays in Honor of Toyin Falola, ed. Andrew C. Okolie (Africa World Press, 2003), 623–46,
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Chima J. Korieh, "Gender and Peasant Resistance: Recasting the Myth of the Invisible Women in Colonial Eastern Nigeria, 1925-1945." in The Foundations of Nigeria: Essays in Honor of Toyin Falola, ed. Andrew C. Okolie (Africa World Press, 2003), 623–46,
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The first commission of enquiry occurred in early January 1930, but was met with little success. The second inquiry, called the Aba commission, met in March 1930. The commission held public sittings for thirty-eight days at various locations in the
303:. In 1930 the colonial government abolished the system of warrant chieftains, and appointed women to the Native Court system. These reforms were built upon by the African women and have been seen as a prelude to the emergence of mass
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Nina Mba, Nigerian Women Mobilized: Women's Political Activity in Southern Nigeria, 1900-1965 (Berkeley: University of California, 1982) and "Heroines of the Women's War," in Nigerian Women in Historical Perspectives ed.
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was what is known as "sitting". Scholars like Glover have noted that men who did not value women, risked the possibility of being shunned and sat on by those who felt normalcy had to be restored within their society.
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40s and 50s were inspired by the Women's War, including the Tax Protests of 1938, the Oil Mill Protests of the 1940s in Owerri and Calabar Provinces and the Tax Revolt in Aba and Onitsha in 1956. On two occasions
950:
Nigeria, Report of the Commission of Inquiry Appointed to Inquire into the Disturbances in the Calabar and Owerri Provinces, December, 1929 (Lagos: printed by the Government Printer, 1930)
299:' by the women. During the events, many Warrant Chiefs were forced to resign, and 16 Native Courts were attacked, most of which were destroyed. It was the first major revolt by women in
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Aba Commission of Inquiry. Notes of Evidence Taken by the Commission of Inquiry Appointed to Inquire into the Disturbances in the Calabar and Owerri Provinces, December, 1929] (
332:. There was also an "elaborate system of women's market networks" which the Igbo and Ibibio women used to communicate information to organize and coordinate during the revolt.
280:, whom they accused of restricting the role of women in the government. The protest encompassed women from six ethnic groups (Igbo, Ibibio, Andoni, Ogoni, Efik, and Ijaw).
921:, Author: Judith van Allen, Source: Canadian Journal of African Studies, Vol. 6, No. 2, Special Issue: The Roles of African Women: Past, Present and Future (1972), pp. 170
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women were killed while blocking roads as a form of protest, the trio was not able to calm the situation there, the police and army were sent to the town.
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be required to pay taxes. Faced with a halt in their political demands, the women settled that they would not pay taxes nor have their property appraised.
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protested a market toll that was imposed by the colonial authorities. In Southwestern Nigeria, there were other female organizations such as the
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Ukeje, Charles. "From Aba to Ugborodo: gender identity and alternative discourse of social protest among women in the oil delta of Nigeria."
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413:. They gathered nearly 10,000 women who protested at the office of Warrant Chief Okugo, demanding his resignation and calling for a trial.
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looted factories and destroyed Native Court buildings and properties along with the property of members of the Native Court.
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388:, who was helping to make a census of the people living in the town controlled by the Warrant, Okugo. Nwanyeruwa was of
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Andrade, Susan Z (1990). "Rewriting history, motherhood, and rebellion: Naming an African women's literary tradition".
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Judith Van Allen, "Aba Riots or the Igbo Women's War?-Ideology, Stratification and the Invisibility of Women."
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Women's Association and working for the rest of her life to support women's rights in Nigeria.
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Replacement of warrant chiefs with clan heads appointed by Nigerians rather than the British
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The Aba Women's War was sparked by a dispute between a woman named
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to take action to address their concerns. In 1924, 3000 women in
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and other places in southeastern Nigeria traveled to the town of
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The Women's War of 1929: Gender and Violence in Colonial Nigeria
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over November 1929. The protests broke out when thousands of
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Matera, Marc; Bastia, Misty; Kingsley Kent, Susan (2011).
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provinces. The modus operandi of the protests involved '
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Women were also appointed to serve on the Native Courts
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34:may lack focus or may be about more than one topic
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813:The Testimony of Nwanyoji, March 14, 1930. In
392:ancestry and had been married in the town of
165:Igbo warrant chiefs and customary authorities
1967:Conscientious objection to military taxation
1109:African Women: A Study of the Ibo of Nigeria
871:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
842:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
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430:Due to her contribution to the Women's War,
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2183:The Cold War and the Income Tax: A Protest
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1972:List of historical acts of tax resistance
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2115:Northern California War Tax Resistance
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364:From November to December, women from
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2350:Revolt of the Comuneros (New Granada)
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1162:Ufahamu: A Journal of African Studies
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623:Ufahamu: A Journal of African Studies
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460:Ihejilemebi Ibe of Umuokirika Village
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2075:Association of Real Estate Taxpayers
2065:All Britain Anti-Poll Tax Federation
832:. Greenwood Publishing. p. 101.
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1977:Tax resistance in the United States
905:M. M. GREEN, op. cit., pp. 196-97;
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465:Means of protest/protest strategies
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2340:No taxation without representation
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1113:Reprint, New York: Praeger, 1965.
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100:Protest against the Warrant Chiefs
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2538:Anti-austerity movement in Greece
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1039:. Oxford University. p. 450.
802:. Oxford University. p. 449.
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2736:Resistance to the British Empire
2548:Edward and Elaine Brown standoff
2517:Women's poll tax repeal movement
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322:Lagos Market Women's Association
283:It was organised and led by the
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240:The Aba Women's Riots of 1929 (
46:, or discuss this issue on the
2598:Potentially dangerous taxpayer
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2140:Women's Tax Resistance League
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2649:history in the United States
256:) was a period of unrest in
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7:
2771:History of women in Nigeria
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2289:Revolt of the papier timbré
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815:The Women's War of 1929
426:The legacy of Nwanyeruwa
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361:or Women's War of 1929.
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2696:Wars involving Igboland
2568:Movimiento Pos Me Salto
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2345:Philadelphia Tea Party
1154:32.4 (2004): 605-617.
981:10.1353/jowh.2010.0247
963:Geiger, Susan (1990).
763:Falola, Toyin (2008).
475:A major tactic in the
330:Abeokuta Women's Union
326:Nigerian Women's Party
2573:Yellow vests protests
2563:Movimento Passe Livre
2543:Anti-Bin Tax Campaign
2365:White Lotus Rebellion
2268:Revolt of the Pitauds
2039:Unreported employment
1983:List of tax resisters
1302:1966 anti-Igbo pogrom
1239:(chronological order)
1171:6.2 (1972): 165-181.
592:10.1002/9781405198073
217:Casualties and losses
2761:Women in revolutions
2751:November 1929 events
2741:Rebellions in Africa
2721:Feminism and history
2706:African women in war
2593:Income tax threshold
2472:Champaran Satyagraha
2162:An Act of Conscience
2095:I Don't Pay Movement
2070:Anti-Poll Tax Unions
1307:Nigerian-Biafran War
1272:Atlantic slave trade
1147:7.3 (1965): 273-282.
895:. Oxford University.
765:A History of Nigeria
2660:Taxation as slavery
2621:Redemption movement
2617:Freeman on the land
2467:Bondelswarts affair
2431:Wallachian uprising
2421:Tancament de Caixes
2396:Hut Tax War of 1898
2258:Croquant rebellions
1449:Anti-Igbo sentiment
909:, op. cit., p. 109.
583:Women's War of 1929
452:Other major figures
305:African nationalism
44:disambiguation page
2603:Render unto Caesar
2457:Bardoli Satyagraha
2452:Bambatha Rebellion
2169:Civil Disobedience
2080:Catalunya Diu Prou
1184:Marissa K. Evans,
1092:. Humanity Press.
2716:Feminist protests
2701:Conflicts in 1929
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2636:Tax noncompliance
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2327:Fries's Rebellion
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1692:Dallas–Fort Worth
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1136:978-0-521-34376-3
1099:978-0-391-00215-9
907:Sylvia Leith-Ross
530:district officers
439:Madam Mary Okezie
432:Madame Nwanyeruwa
336:Events and causes
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2019:Self-sufficiency
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396:. In Oloko, the
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351:District Officer
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2522:Women's War
2462:Beit Sahour
2386:Dog Tax War
2263:Rappenkrieg
2130:Peacemakers
2034:Tax evasion
1846:Enuani Igbo
1636:Igbo people
1292:Women's War
1164:6.1 (1975).
1023:Bolanle Awe
728:(1): 96–97.
625:6.1 (1975).
301:West Africa
285:rural women
139:Resulted in
2731:1929 riots
2680:Categories
2507:Salt March
2202:by century
2055:Addiopizzo
1841:Delta Igbo
1785:(religion)
1763:Literature
1599:Awka-Etiti
1119:B000JECCCQ
706:: 138–148.
558:References
533:protests.
382:Nwanyeruwa
254:Ekong Iban
56:April 2022
2645:arguments
2626:Tax haven
2502:Turra Coo
2426:Tithe War
2307:in Moscow
2305:Salt Riot
2200:Campaigns
2135:Planka.nu
2014:Rebellion
1884:Knowledge
1609:Abakaliki
1584:Ugwu Ọcha
1488:Geography
1321:Subgroups
1262:Igbo-Ukwu
989:145550056
867:cite book
838:cite book
607:8 October
518:Imo River
227:55 killed
185:Nwannedia
95:Caused by
48:talk page
40:splitting
2655:Tax riot
2447:Agbekoya
2301:in Spain
2284:Angelets
1910:Category
1851:Ika Igbo
1834:Dialects
1800:Language
1793:Language
1741:Highlife
1716:Calendar
1653:Dominica
1648:Barbados
1492:Igboland
1442:Politics
1403:Nri-Igbo
1065:New York
546:See also
477:protests
386:Emereuwa
83:Location
2221:Harelle
1992:Methods
1856:Ikwerre
1783:Odinala
1751:Odumodu
1721:Cuisine
1703:Culture
1668:Jamaica
1614:Umuahia
1518:Bayelsa
1513:Anambra
1469:Nigeria
1428:Ukwuani
1423:Onitsha
1363:Ikwerre
1312:Nigeria
1235:History
975:: 229.
511:Results
504:Calabar
407:Umuahia
370:Calabar
318:Calabar
293:Calabar
270:Umuahia
183:Ikonnia
147:Parties
134:Sitting
131:Methods
2335:affair
2333:Gaspee
1999:Barter
1960:Topics
1815:Igboid
1658:Canada
1604:Nsukka
1579:Owèrrè
1569:Énugwú
1543:Rivers
1523:Ebonyi
1501:States
1464:MASSOB
1454:Biafra
1413:Ohafia
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1736:Music
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1673:Japan
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1533:Delta
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1418:Ohuhu
1393:Ndoki
1348:Etche
1252:Lejja
1054:Lagos
985:S2CID
743:JSTOR
696:(PDF)
394:Oloko
376:Oloko
274:Oloko
160:women
116:Goals
2531:21st
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1866:Ngwa
1861:Izzi
1808:Igbo
1731:Jews
1641:list
1589:Awka
1508:Abia
1408:Ogba
1398:Ngwa
1388:Mgbo
1378:Izzi
1368:Ikwo
1353:Ezaa
1338:Edda
1226:Igbo
1131:ISBN
1115:ASIN
1094:ISBN
1011:632.
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769:ISBN
669:ISBN
609:2014
596:ISBN
502:and
446:Ngwa
411:Ngwa
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390:Ngwa
291:and
262:Igbo
242:Igbo
158:Igbo
75:Date
1746:rap
1711:Art
1559:Aba
1538:Imo
1373:Isu
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